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ENCYCLOPEDIA LONDINENSIS
M * ft
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DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTISPIECE ILLUSTRATING
CHEMISTRY.
CHEMISTRY IS REPRESENTED BY A VENERABLE PHILOSOPHER SEATED NEAR A SAND-
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THE SUN,
No. 736.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA LONDINENSIS;
OR, AN
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES, and LITERATURE,
i. ■■■■! i ■ i !■ »
C A U
AU'SA MATRIMO'NII PRAILO'CUTI, in law, a
writ which lies where a woman gives land to a man in
fee Ample, &c. to the intentTie fhould marry her, and he
refufeth to do it in any reafonable time, being thereunto re¬
quired. Rrg. Orig. 66.. If a woman makes a feoffment to
a ftranger, of land in fee, to the intent to infeoff her, and
one who fhall be her hufband; if the marriage fli all not
take effect, (he fhall have the writ of cauja matrimonii pr x-
iocuti againft the ftranger, notwithftanding the deed of feoff¬
ment beabfolute. New. Nat. Br. 4 56. A woman infeoffed
a man upon condition that he fliould take her to wife, and
he had a wife at the time of the feoffment ; and afterwards
the woman, for not performing the condition, entered
again into the land, and her entry was adjudged lawful,
though upon a fecond feoffee. Lib. AJj. 40. Ed. III. The
hufband and wife may fue the writ caufa matrimonii prxlo-
cnti againft another who ought to have married her: but
if a man give lands to a woman to the intent to marry him,
although the woman will not marry him, & c. he fhall not
have his remedy by writ caufa matrimonii pra.locu.ti. New
Nat. Br. 455.
CAU'SABLE, adj. [from caifo, low I.at.] That which
may be caufed, or effected by a caufe. — That may be mi-
rac-u lou fly effected in one, which is naturally caufable in
another. Brown.
CAU'SAL, adj. \_caufalis, low Lat.] Relating to caufes ;
implying or containing caufes. — Caujal proportions are,
where two proportions are joined by caufal particles; as,
houfes were not built, that they might be deitroyed; Re-
hoboam was unhappy, becaufe he followed evil counfel.
Waits.
CAUSA'LITY, adj. [canfalitas, low Lat.] The agency
of a caufe; the quality of caufing. — As God created all
tilings,- fo is he beyond and in them all, in his very elfence,
■as being the foul of their caufalities, and the effential caufe
of their exiffences. Brown.
CAU'SALLY, adv. According to the order or feries of
caufes. — Thusmayit.be more caufally made out, what
Hippocrates affirmeth. Brown.
C AU'SA M NO'BIS SIGNPFICF.S, in law, a writ di¬
rected to a mayor of a town, &c. who was by the king’s
writ commanded to give feifin of lands to the king’s gran¬
tee, on his delaying to do it, requiring him to Jhew caufe
■why he fo delays tire performance of his duty.
CAUS A'TION, f. [from raa/r, low Lat.] The adt or
power of caufing. — Thus doth he fometimes delude us in
the conceits of (tars and meteors, beffdes their allowable
actions, afcribing effects thereunto of independent caufa-
tion. Brown.
VOL. IV. No. 173.
C A U
CAU'SATIVE, adj. [a term in grammar. ] That which
expreffes a cattle or reafon.
CAU'SATOR, f. [from caufo, low Lat.] A caufer;
an authorof any efteCt.
CAUSE, yi Zcaufa> Lat.] That which produces or ef¬
fects any thing; the efficient. — The wile and leirnedp
amongft the very heathens themfelves, have all acknow¬
ledged fome firft caufe , whereupon originally the being of
all things dependeth ; neither have they otherwife fpoken
of that caufe, than as an agent, which, knowing what and
why it workeih, obferveth, in working, a mod exact order
or law. Hooker. — Caufe is a fubftance exerting its power
into a<5t, to make one thing begin to be. Locke. — The rea¬
fon; motive to any thing :
Thus, royal fir ! to fee you landed here.
Was caufe enough. of triumph for a year. Dryden.
Reafon of debate; fubjedt of litigation. — Hear the caufes
between your brethren, and judge rightecully between
every man and his brother, and the ftranger that is with
him. Deuteronomy. — Side; party; ground or principle T
action or oppofition :
Ere to thy caufe and thee my heart inclin’d,
Or love to party had feduc’d my mind. Ticke [.
CAUSE, A among civilians, the fame with, or rather
the caufe of, aCtion. See Action.
CAUSE, A among phyficians, is applied to the caufe
of adifeafe ; which is defined by Galen to be, that during
the prelence of which we are ill, and which being remo¬
ved, the diforder immediately ceafes. The doctrine of
the caufes of difeafes is called Etio loc y. It is often
more difficult to difeover the caufes of diforders, than to
preferibe for their cure when the caufe is known; and it is
by this (kill and fagacity in making fitch difcpveries, that
a phyfician flievvs how much he is above the ordinary prac¬
tice of an apothecary. Great confufion is met with in
moft writers on this fubject ; and indeed it is hard to fay
from vvhofe theory we fhall proceed to an ufeful practice.
One fays that the caufes of difeafes are in the fluids; an¬
other fixes them in the fol ids ; fome proceed from chemi¬
cal, and others from mechanical, principles, See. But
when reafoning a priori is laid afide, when nature is fiudied,
and theory is confirmed only by clinical obfervation,
this fubjeff, fo perplexed, may gradually unfold, and a
theory be formed, which, fo far as it extends, will happily
convert this uncertain fcienceinto an art. It is foRie latr -
fa 61 ion to be able to account for morbid fymptoms, though
the difeafes which give rife to them may. be in their own
2
CAUSE.
nature incurable ; for, where we cannot, relieye, we
ihall be at leti.lt prevented from doing harm, and alfo
enabled to make judicious prognoftics. Difeafes ftiould
he diftingui lhed by their caufes, and not their effects ; for
this method, in many inftances, Boerhaave and Van Swie-
ten are truly admirable. It is owned that men of experi¬
ence may be led from the effects of a difeafe to the know¬
ledge of itscaufe in fome cafes; but then the curative in¬
dications can only be properly taken from the knowledge
of the true caufe.
Molt difeafes have four- caufes, viz. the prcdifpofng,
primary, antecedent, and conjunct. The three halt are called
morbific caufes. The predifpofing caufe , alfo called caufa
proegumina , is that which renders the body more tit to re-,
eeive a morbid imprefiion, when a primary caufe is ap¬
plied; or difpofes the body to fuller in one or other mode
more readily than in any different ones. This kind of caufe
is a fault in the original confutation., or elfe it is induced
in time by fome accident. Of itfelf it neither conftitmes
nor produces a diforder; but, when certain morbid caufes
occur, it favours their effects ; e. g. a long neck and Hat
break difpofe to a confumption ; a lhort neck to an apo¬
plexy; fiendernef's to a pain in the lide; rigid fibres to in¬
flammation and fever; lax fibres to a cachexy and dropfyj .
&c. Some difeafes pave the way for others, as an all lima
for a dropfy; colic for thepalfy ; fmall-pox and mealies
for an inflammation in the eyes and a confumption, &c.
And a part once injured, is more fubjeft to be affeCted in
the fame way again. The primary caufe- ,, called alfo the
active, ejficient, or remote, excites the predifpofing caufe to
action, or thefe caufes applied to the body that is predif-
pofed thereto, excite difeafes; and are generally an error
in one or more of" the non-naturals; as wounds, contu-
fions, compreffions, morbid effluvia, &c. The antecedent
caufic, called alfo the mediate, is ufually in the excreta and
retenta. In mod complaints, the non- naturals firfl difor¬
der fome of the evacuations, this is the primary caufe of
the difeafe; then thefe evacuations affedt the blood and
juices, which is the fecond caufe; the blood and juices thus
affeCted, will not fail todifturb the aCtion of the parts, which
is the lalt and immediate caufe, of difeafe, and in which con-
lilts the nature of ail dileafes. The immediate, called alfo
the proximate, continent, hidden, and internal, are thofe which,
taken all together, immediately contt-itute and continue the
prefent difeafe; the removal of which caufes is the cure ;
as the air in an emphyfema, and the blood in an aneurifm.
A knowledge of the proximate caufe enables 11s to judge
of the nature of the complaint and its remedies, which
may be learnt from, firft, a fore-knowledge of the nature
and powers of the remote caufes; fecondly, from collating
the different fymptoms of the difeafe together, and, by
ftriCf reafoning, to reduce them to one Ample caufe;
thirdly, front the pernicious or falutary effeffls of the reme¬
dies applied during the difeafe; fourthly, .by a careful in-
ipection of dead bodies. In this laft, likewife, much fkill
in the appearances met with in dead bodies is required,
left the effeCts of the caufes fltould be miltaken for the
caufes themfelves. The proximate caufe is often difficult
to be difeovered, fomethr.es irnpoffible ; and. general
caufes are very numerous, hence the difficulty to fix on the
particular one. However, the immediate caufe, wherever
it can, ought to be difco.vered, becaufe upon that, depends
the inode of cure which fhould be adopted, and from
whence we have, every right to expeCt fuccefs in all cunt-,
ble cafes. Upon the whole, if we can find out the nature
of the predifpofing, the primary, and the proximate, caufe,
we (hall be furnithed with every material on which to
found a rational praCtice, whether our endeavours are di¬
rected to prevent, palliate, or cure, difeafe. SeeMEDiciNE.
CAUSES and EFFECTS, as appertaining to judicial
proceedings, the law hath refpedt to the caufe or begin¬
ning of a thing, as the principal part on which all other
things are founded; and herein the next, and not the re¬
mote, caufe, is moftly looked upon, except it be incoviaous
and criminal things ; and therefore that which is not good
at firft will not be fo afterwards; for Inch as is the caufe-,
fuch is the effeiff. Plowd. 208. If an infant or femme-
covert. make a will, and publ.lh. it, and after die of full
age, or lole, the w ill is of no force, by reafon of the origi¬
nal caufe of infancy and coverture. Finch. 12. Where
the caufe ceafeth, t lire effeit or thing will ceafe. Co. Lit. it,.
To CAUSE, v. a. To effect as an agent; to produce _
Never was man whofe apprehenfions are fober, and by a.
p.cniive infpection advifed, but hath found, by an irrelilt-
i ble neceflity, one everlafting being, all for ever caufing, and
all for ev.er fuftaining. Raleigh.
We derive our ideas of caufe and effedt from our obfer-
vation ot the viciffitudes of things, while we perceive fome
qualities or. fubfiances begin to exilt, and that they receive
their exiftence from the application and operation of other
beings. That which produces, we call the caufe ; andi
that which is produced, the effedf.. Ariflotle, and the..
I'choolmen after him, diftinguifhed four kinds of caufes :
the etffcient, the material, the formal, and the final. This -
was only a diftindtion of the various meanings of an ambi¬
guous word : for the efficient, the matter, tl.e form, and the
er.d, have nothing common in their nature by winch they
may be accounted fpecies of the fame genus ; but the
Greek word, which we tranfiate caufe, had thefe four dif¬
ferent meanings in Ariftotls’s days; and we have fince
added other meanings.
With regard to the phenomena of nature, the important
end of knowing their caufes, befides gratifying ourcuri-
ofity, is, that we may know when to expedt them, or how
to bring them about. This is often of real importance in
life; and this purpofe is ferved, by knowing what, in t lie
courfe of nature, goes before them, and is connected wit li¬
the m : this, therefore) is called the caufe of fuch a pheno¬
menon. If a magnet be brought near to a mariner’s cbm-
pafs, the needle, which was before at reft, immediately
begins to move, and bends its courfe towards the magnet,
or perhaps the contrary way. If an unlearned failor is
afked the caufe of this motion of the needle, he is at no
lofs for an anfwer. He fays it is the magnet ; and the
proof is clear; for, remove tire magnet, and the effect
ceafes; bring it near, and the effect is again produced.
It is, therefore, evident to fenfe,- that the magnet is the
caufe- of thiseffedf. A Cartefian philosopher enters more
deeply into the caufe of this phenomenon. He obferves,
that the magnet does not touch the needle, and therefore-
can give it no impulfe. He pities the ignorance of the
failor. The effect is produced, fays he, by magnetic efflu¬
via, or fubtile matter, which puffes from the magnet to tlie^
needle, and forces it from its place. He can even ftiew,
by a figure, where thefe magnetic effluvia iffue from the
magnet, what round they take, and what way they return
home again. Thus he thinks he -comprehends perfectly ,
how, and by what caufe, the motion ot the needle is pro¬
duced. A Newtonian plnlofopher, however, inquires
what proof can be offered of the exiftence of magnetic ef¬
fluvia, and can find none,- He therefore holds it as a fic¬
tion, an hypothefis ; and he has learned that hypothefes
ought to have no place in the philofophy of nature. He
confeffes his ignorance of the real caufe of this motion,
and thinks that his buiinefs as a plnlofopher is only to find
from experiment the laws by which it is regulated in all¬
cafes. Thefe three perfons differ much in their fentunents
with regard to the real caufe of this phenomenon ; and the
man who knows 1110ft is- lie w ho is- fenfible that lie knows-
lead of the matter. Yet all the three f peak the tame lan¬
guage, and acknowledge that the caufe of this motion is
the attractive or repulfrve power of the magnet.
The grandeft’difcovei y ever made in natural philofophy
was that of the law of gravitation and defledbon, winch
opens fo rational a view of our planetary fyflem ; yet thefe-
difeover no real cattle, but only the law or rule according
to which the unknown caufes operate. Natural philofo--.
pliers, therefore, who think accurately, have a precite
meaning to the terms they ufe in the icience; and, when
they pretend to fhevv the caufe of any phenomenon off
nature,
C A U
nature, they mean by the caufe a lawof nature of which that
phenomenon is a neceffary confequence. The whole ob¬
ject of natural philofophy, as Newton exprefsly teaches, is
reducible to thefe two heads: firft, by juft induttion front
experiment and oblervation, to difcover the laws of na¬
ture ; and then to apply thole laws to the folution of the
phenomena of nature. This was all that this great philo¬
sopher attempted, and all that he thought attainable. And
this, indeed, he attained in a great meafure, with regard
to the motions of our planetary f> Item, and with regard to
the rays of light. But fuppofing that all the phenomena
which fall within the reach of our fenfes-were accounted
for from general laws of nature juftly deduced from ex¬
perience; that is, fuppofing natural philofophy brought
to its utmoft perfection; yet it does not difcover the im¬
mediate efficient caufe of any one phenomenon in nature.
The laws of nature are the rules- according to which
the effects are produced ; but there mu ft be a caufe which-
operates according to thefe rules. The rules of naviga¬
tion never navigated a (hip. The rules of architecture
never built a lioufe. Natural philofophers, by great at¬
tention to t he courfe of nature, have difcovered many of
lier laws,. and have very happily applied them to account
for many phenomena : but they have never difcovered the
efficient caufe of any one phenomenon; nor do thofe who
have diftinCt notions of the principles of the fcience nuke
any fuch pretence. Upon the theatre of nature we fee in¬
numerable effedfs which require an agent endowed with
aCtive powers; but the agent is behind the fcene. Whe¬
ther it be the Supreme Caufe alone, or a fubordinate caufe
or cattles ; and, if fubordinate cattfes be employed by t lie
Almighty, what their nature, their number, and their dif¬
ferent offices, may be, are things hid, for wife reafons with¬
out doubt, from the human eye.
Concerning this doCtrine of caufe and cjfcPl, many opi¬
nions have been hazarded by different writers, all of which
tend finally to nearly the fame refults. That every event
is, and muff be, brought about by Joint caufe , is held to be
a- felf-evident truth which no man can deny who under-
ffands the terms in which it is. exprelfed ; but what or
where the agency of the caufe is, we can very feldom, if
ever, know, except when we refer to our own voluntary
a-Ctions. When a change is obferved, we cannot doubt of
its being produced by fomething : either the thing changed
is animated, and has produced the change by its own agen¬
cy, juft as we move our heads or hands by an act of voli¬
tion ; or, if it be inanimated, or of itfelf incapable of agen¬
cy, the change muft be produced by fome adequate ope¬
ration, denominated a caufe. See Metaphysics, Natu--
kai. Philosophy, Ph ysics,.&g.
CAU'SELESS-, adj. Having no caufe; wanting juft
ground or motive :
Alas ! my fears are caufelefs and ungrounded,
Fantaftic.di earns, and melancholy fumes. Denham.
CAU'SELESSLY,. adv. Without caufe; without rea-
fon. — Human laws are not to be broken with fcandal, nor
at all without reafon ; for he that does it caufetefsly is a
defpifer of t he law, and undervalues its authority. Taylor.
CAU'SER, /. He that cattles ; the agent by which an
eJTeft is produced. — Abftinence, the apoftle determines; is
of no other real value in religion, than as a. mini fte rial
caufer of moral effefts.. Rogers .
CAU'SEY, or Causeway., f. fkauffee, Fr. This,
word, by a falfe notion of its etymology, has been lately
written caufe way. Johnfon.~\ A way railed and paved; a
way raifed above the reft of the ground. — To Shuppim
the lot came forth vveftward by the caufey. i Chron. xxvi.
Whofe caifeway parts- .the vale with ffiady rows;
Whole feats the- weary traveller repofe. Pope.
CAUSSA'DE, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Mon—
'eauban: twelve miles porth-eaftof Montauban.
CAUSSIN' (Nicholas), furnamed the Juft, a French
j-efuit, born- at Troyes in-, Champagne, in 1580; and en¬
tered into the Jefnits’ order when he was twenty-fix years
of age. He taught rhetoric in feveral of their colleges,
and afterwards began to preach, by w hich he gained great
reputation. He tncreafed this reputation by publifhing
books, and in time was preferred to be confeftbr to the
king. He died in the Jeluits’ convent at Paris, in 1651.
None of his works did him more honour than that enti¬
tled La Cour Sainte. It has been printed a great many
times; and tranflated into Latin, Italian, Spaniih, Portu-
guefe, German, and Engliffi. He publilhed feveral other
books both in Latin and French.
CAU'STIC, or Caustical, adj. Epithets of medi¬
caments which deftroy the texture of the part to which
they are applied, and eat it away, or burn it into an ef-
char, which they do by extreme minutenefs, afperity,
and quantity of motion, that, like thofe of fire itfelf, de-
ftroy the texture of the folids, and change what t hey
are applied to into a fnbftance like burnt fleffi; which,
in a little time, with a detergent drefiing, falls quite oft,
and leaves a vacuity in the part. Quincy. — If extirpa¬
tion be fafe, the beft way will be by caujtical medicines, or
efcarotics. IVifman.
CAU'STIC, /. [from xa.iu, Gr. to burn.] A burning
application. — It was tender nefs to mankind that introduced
corrofives and caujlics, which are indeed but artificial
fires. Temple. — Cauftics are denominated common or lunar.
The common cauftic is a fixed alkali, deprived of aerial
acid, and raoft of its water. If the lixivium at the foap-
boilers be evaporated to drynefs in a lilver or copper vef-
fel, then fufed in a crucible, poured out into a bafon, and,
when folid, cut into final] pieces, it forms the common
cauftic. This muft be kept in a clofed bottle, to prevent
its deliquefeing. When a piece of this alkali is applied to-
the (kin for the fpace of three quarters ot an hour, it cor¬
rodes it by forming a faponaceous compound with its fat
parts-. It wasfir.ft ufed in making i lilies before that prac¬
tice was laid afide. The lunar cauftic is called lapis inferna •
lis, though improperly. It confifts of the cryltals of lil-
-ver, obta ned by folution in nitrous acid, and afterwards
fufed in a crucible. To make this preparation, very pure
lilver muft be diffolved to faturation in nitrous acid, anil
the cryftals feparated by evaporation and cooling. Thefe
are to be fufed in an earthen crucible, (efficiently large to
admit of the frothing and fwelling that happen at the com¬
mencement of the fulion. The heat muft be gentle, be-
caufe the cryftals are very fufible, and the acid eafily de-
compofed and driven off’. It requires, however, to be.
Ibmewhat raifed after the ebullition lias ceafed. As foon
’as the matter is in quiet fulion, it is to be poured into a.
mould, confiding of five or fix final 1 cylindrical cavities, by
which it acquires the form of 1 mall pencils, and may con¬
veniently be held in a cafe, inftCad of touching it with the
fingers. Lunae cauftic is black, which feemsto a rife from,
part of the acid being driven off, and a portion of the (li¬
ver revived. Its caufticity, or action on animal fubftan- -
ces, appears to depend on the ftrong difpofition of the fil-
ver to recover its metallic ftate, and confcquently is a true
combuftion.
CAUS'TIC CURVE, f in the higher geometry, a
curve formed by the concourfe or coincidence ot the rays
of light reflected from fome other curve.
CAUST l'CITY, J. "I he quality of being cauftic. All
fubftances which have lo ftrong a tendency to combine,
with the principles of organized fubftances as to deftroy
their texture, are faid to be cauftic. The chief of thefe.
are the concentrated acids, pure alkalis, and the metallic,
l’alts.
C AU'TEL, f. [ cautela , Lat.] Caution ;. fcruple : a word,
now mj fed:
Perhaps he loves you now ;
And now no foil of cautel doth befmirch'
The virtue of his will. Shahefpcare.
CAU'TELOUS, adj. [caute/eux, Fr.] Cautious; wary; .
provident ; not in life. — Palladio doth wiffi, like a cauleltms-
ar.iifaEj,-.,
4 C A U
artifan, that the inward walls might bear Come good fliare
in the burden. IVotton. — Wily; cunning; treacherous. —
They are (o caulelous and wily, efpecially being men of
f'mall experience, that you would wonder whence they
borrow fuch fubtilties and 11 y fliifts. Spenfer.
C AU'TELOUSLY, adv. Cunningly; flyly; treache-
roudy; cautioufly; warily: notinuj'e. — The Jews, not re-
lolved of the fciatica (ide of Jacob, do cauteloujly, in their
diet, abftain from both. Brown.
C AUTERIZA'TION, J. The ad of burning flefh with
liot irons or can flic medicaments. They require, after
cauterization, no fuch bandage, as that thereby you need
to fear interception of the fpirits. IVifeman.
To C AU' TERIZE, v. a. [ caulerifer , Fr. ] To burn
w ith the cautery. — Thedelignof the cautery is to prevent
thecanal from doling; but the operators cotifefs, that, in
perfons cauterized, the tears trickle dsvvn ever after. Sharp.
CAU'TERY, f. [from r.aia, uro, to burn.] A fub-
ftance which lias power to burn tlie flefh. — A cautery is ei¬
ther ablual or potential ; the fir It is burning by a hot iron,
and the latter with caultic medicines. The adual cautery
is generally ufed to flop mortification, by burning the dead
parts to the quick; or to flop the eft’ufionof blood by fear¬
ing up the velfels. Quincy . — In heat of fight it will be ne-
ceflary to have your adlual cautery always ready; for that
will (ecure the bleeding arteries in a moment. Wijanan.
CAUTGUN'GE, a town of Hindoofian, in the country
of Bahar, on the north fide of the Ganges, oppolite Bar.
CAU'TION, A- \_caution, Fr. cautio, I,at.] Prudence,
as it refpeds danger; forefight; provident care ; wari-
nefs againl! evil ; lecurity for — Such conditions, and cau¬
tions of the condition, as might allure with as much aflu-
rance as wot Idly matters bear. Sidney. — Provifion orfecu-
rity again!!. — In defpite of all the rules and cautions of go¬
vernment, the raoft dangerous and mortal of vices will
come of!'. L’EJtrange. — Provifionary precept. — Attention
to the forenientioned fymptoms affords the beft cautions
and rules of diet, by way of prevention. Arbuthnot. —
Warning.
To CAU'TION, v. a. To warn; to give notice of a
danger :
How fliall our thought avoid the various fnare?
Or wifdom to our caution'd foul declare
'Flie different fliapes thou pleafeft to employ,
When bent to hurt, and certain to deftroy > Prior.
CAU'TION - MONEY, f. in the univerfities, a fum paid
to the tutor of the college, on the admillion of a fiudent, as
a kind of pledge or lecurity.
CAUTIONARY, adj. Given as a pledge, or in fecu-
ritv. Thus, in 1585, Flufliing and the Brille, with the
caftle of Rammekms, were conligned by the United Pro¬
vinces to Elizabeth as cautionary towns, for a fecurity that
her expeuces in aftifting them Ihould be tefunded at the
conclufion of the war.
I am made the cautionary pledge,
The gage and hofla'ge of your keeping it. Southern.
CAU'TIOUS, adj. [from cautus, Lat.] Wary; watch¬
ful. — Be cautious of him; for he is fometimes an inconflant
lover, becaufe he hath a great advantage. Swift.
CAUTIOUSLY, adv. In an attentive wary manner ;
warily :
They know how fickle common lovers are:
Their oaths and vows are cautmfy believ’d ;
For few there are but have been once deceiv’d. Dryden.
CAUTIOUSNESS, f. Watchfulnefs; vigilance; cir-
cumfpedtion; provident care; prudence with ref pec! to
danger. — I could not but approve their generous conftancy
and Qautioufnefs. King Charles. — We flionld always adl with
great cautioujnefs and circumfpedion, in points wheie it is
not impofiibie that we may be deceived. Addifon.
CAU'I ING-IRON, f. A farrier’s iron to cauterize or
fear the parts of a horfe which require burning.
C A X
CAU'TO, a town of the ifland of Cuba: twenty-five
miles north-eaft of Bayamo.
CAU' I O, a river of the ifland of Cuba, which runs
into the fea, twenty miles north-weft of Bayamo.
CAU'VERY, a principal river of Kindooftan, which
rifes in the. Bednore country, pafles by Seringapatam, Al-
lumbaddy, Trichinopoly, &c. and empties irlelf by two
branches into the Bay of Bengal, one near Devicotta, and
the other near Negapatam.
CAUX, before the revolution, a country of France, in
Normandy, about fifty leagues in circumference, lving be¬
tween theoceanand the Seine, Vexin, Normandy, Picardy,
and the country of Bray. The land is fertile in grain,
hemp, fruits, &c. The coafts abound with fifh, and the
forefts with game. Caudebec is the capital.
CA'VY,/. in zoology. See Cavia.
To CAW, v. n. [taken from the found.] To cry as the
rook, raven, or crow :
The rook, who high amid the boughs,
In early fpring, his airy city builds.
And cealelefs caws. Thomfon.
CAWK,/. A term by which miners diftinguifh the
opake fpecimensof vitriolated ponderous earth, or mar-
mor metallicum.
CAWNPOUR', a town of Hindooftan, in the Subah of
Oude: thirty-feven miles Ibuth-weft of Lucknow, and
ninety-eight north weft of Allahabad.
C A' WOOD, a final 1 town in the weft riding of York-
fliire, 190 miles from London, ten from York, and five
from Selby ; fituate upon the banks of the navigable river
Oufe, over which there is a ferry from the town into the eaft
riding. The town is in general well-built, and has a mar¬
ket on Wednefdays, and two annual fairs, viz. on old May-
day, and the 33d of September. Here are the remains of
a caftle of great antiquity, and winch was the laft refidence
of cardinal Wolfey, being the place he retired to when
difgraced at court.
CAW'STON, a fmall town in the county of Norfolk,
eleven miles from Norwich. It has a market on Wednef¬
days ; fairs, Feb. 1, the laft Wednefday in April, and
the laft Wednefday in Auguft, which is a large fair for
flieep. Two miles from the town is Bickling, the fuperb
feat of the earl of Buckinghamfhire.
CAX'A, f. A coin made of lead mixed with fcoria of
copper, ftruck in China, but current chiefly at Bantam,
in the ifland of Java, and foirte of the neighbouring iflands.
CAX'A TAM'BO, a jurifdidion of South America, in
the country of Peru, and archbifhopric'of Lima.
CAXAMAR'QUA, a jurifdidion of Peru, in South
America, under the bifliop of 1 ruxillo, lying between the
two Cordilleras of the Andes: it produces plenty of all
kinds of grain, fruits, and vegetables; alio cattle, elpeci-
ally hogs. They have here a confiderable trade with
Chincay, Lima, Truxillo, &c. Here the Indians weave
cotton for fhips’ fails, bed-curtains, quilts, hammocks, See.
There are fonie filver mines, but of little confequence.
The town, which gives name to the diftrid, was at one
time a royal city, where t he emperor Atahualapa was put
to death, after having been defeated and imprifoned by
Pizarro: about feventy miles from the Pacific Ocean.
Lat. 8. S. Ion. 55. 20. W. Greenwich.
CAX'TON (William), a mercer of London, eminent
by the works he publifhed, and for being reputed the fit ft
who introduced and pradifed the art of printing in Eng¬
land; for the particulars of which works, and alio the 01 i-
gin of this invaluable art, fee the article Printing.
CAX'TON, a final! town in Cambridgefliire, diftant
fifty miles from London, on t lie old north road to York,
and is one of the oktfeft poll-towns in the kingdom. A
Roman way paftes front Holm to Papworth tii rough this
town. Caxton, reputed the firft printer in England, was
a nauve of this town ; as was alio Matthew Paris, the his¬
torian. Here are two annual fairs, one on St. Thomas-a-
JBecket, the other three days after Michaelmas, for gloves,
x hats,
CAY
hats, clothe, &c. The market was on Tuefdays, but is
now difcontimied. The profpeits every way round Cax-
ton confift of a rich and fertile corn-country, adorned with
■feveral feats of gentlemen; the chief of which is Wim¬
ple-hall, formerly built, at a vaft ex pence, by one of the
earls of Radnor. It was afterwards bought by his grace
John Holies Cavendifh, duke of Newcatlle; in a partition
of whole vaft eftate, it fell to Edward earl of Oxford and
Mortimer, in right of his lady, the only daughter of the
faid duke ; who brought the earl this eftate, and many
others fufficient to denominate her one of the richeft hei-
reffes in Great-Britain; but his lordlhip parted with it, a
little before his death, to the right honourable the then
lord chancellor Hardwicke, whofe fon, the prefent earl of
Hardwicke, now poffeffes it.
CAY, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in the pro¬
vince of Pe-tche-li : 1 25 miles fouth-fouth-weft of Peking.
Lat. 38. 3<'N. Ion. 133. 6 E. Ferro.
CA'YA, a river of Spain, which runs into the Guadi-
ana, near Badajoz.
C A'Y A, a river of Spain in Catalonia, which runs into
tile Mediterranean, near Tamarit.
CAYAHO'GA, a town of North America, in the
country weft of Pennfylvania, on a river of the fame
name: thirty miles fouth of lake Erie. Lat. 41. 20. N.
Ion. 81. 20. W. Greenwich.
CAYAHO'GA, a river of North America, fometimes
called the Great River, which runs in at the fouth bank
of lake Erie, forty miles eaftward of the mouth of Hu¬
ron, having an Indian town of the fame name on its banks.
It is navigable for boats; and its mouth is wide, and deep
enough to receive large (loops from the lake. Near this
are the celebrated impending rocks, which bound the lake.
They are feveral miles io_length, and rife fifty feet per¬
pendicular out of the water. Some parts of them confift
of feveral ftrata, of different colours, lying in a horizontal
direction, and fo exactly parallel, that they refemble the
work of art. The view from the land is grand, but the
water prefents the nioft magnificent profpeCt of this fub-
lime work of nature : it is attended, however, with great
danger; for, if the leaft ftorm arifes, the force of the furf
is fuch, that no velfel can efcape being dallied to pieces
againft the rocks. The 'heathen Indians, when they pafs
this impending danger, offer a facrifice of tobacco to the
water. Part of the boundary line between the United
States and the Indians, begins at the mouth of Cayahoga,
and runs up the fame to the portage between that and the
Titfcawara branch of the Mufkingum. The Cayahoga
nation, confiding of 500 Indians, forty of whom relide in
the United States, the reft in Canada, receive of the date
of New-York an annuity of 2300 dollars, befides fifty dol¬
lars granted to one of their chiefs, as a confideration for
lands fold by them to the date, and 500 dollars from the
United States, agreeably to the treaty of 1794.
CAYAM'BA, a town of South America, in the coun¬
try of Peru, and province of Quito : thirty miles north-
eaft of Quito.
CAYAMBU'RO, a mountain of South America, in the
country of Peru : thirty miles north-eaft of Quito.
CAYBO'BO, a town of the ifland of Ceram, in the eaf-
tern Indian Sea.
CAYEN'NE, a province in South America, belonging
to the French, and the only part of the continent which
theypoifefs; bounded north and eaft by the Atlantic Oce¬
an, fouth by Amazonia, and weft by Guiana or Surinam.
It extends 240 miles along the coaft of Guiana, and nearly
300 miles within land ; lying between the equator and the
fifth degree of north latitude. The coaft is low and mar-
ftiy, and fnbjeCt to inundations, from the multitude of ri¬
vers which rufh down the mountains with great impetuo-
fity. The foil is in many places fertile, producing fugar,
tobacco, Indian corn, fruits, & c. The French have like-
wife poffellion of an illand upon the coaft called alfo Cay¬
enne, which, as well as the whole country, takes its name
from the river that is northward of it.
Vol. IV. No. 173.
CAY ?
CAYEN'NE BAY, a bay on the fouth-weft coaftof the
ifland of St. Vincent: two miles north-weft of Kinefton
Bay. :
CAYEN'NE RIVER, rifes in the mountains near the
lake of Parima, runs through the country of the Galibis, a
nation of Charibbee Indians, and- is 100 leagues long. The
ifland which it environs is eighteen leagues in circuit, good
. and fertile, but unhealthy. In 1752, the exports of the
colony were 260,541 lbs. ofarnotto, 80,3631*03. of(u°-ar,
17,919 lbs. of cotton, 26,881 lbs. of coffee, 91,(716 IbsT of
cocoa, befides timber and planks. The French firft fet¬
tled here in 1625, and built the fort of Ceperou, but were
often forced to quit it, yet returned thither again, as in
1640, 1652, and 1654, and were forced to leave it for want
of reinforcements. The Dutch fettled here in :65s, but
were driven out by M. de la Barre. The Englifh took it
1667, but afterwards refiored it to the French. The Dutch
hud their revenge in 1676, and drove out the French ; but
were themlelves beat out, the year after, by d’Eftrees;
fince which time the French have had peaceable poffeliion
of it.
CAYES (Les), a town of the ifland of St. Domimro,
on the fouth coaft. Lat. 18.13.N. Ion. 73. 45. W. Grf *
C AYET' (Pierre de) author of the celebrated and very
rare Memoirs relative to Henry IV. of France, was a pro",
tefiant minifter at the court of the king of Navarre, and
was much prefled by the count of Soiffons to marry him
to one of the princefles of the houfe of Navarre. He re-
fufed, as not thinking it honourable to be concerned in <nv_
ing the fanclion of religion to a marriage which he knew
to be difagreeable to the royal family of Navarre, and to
which he was fin e they would never give their confent.
The count of Soiflons Hill infifled ; and Cayet refufed with
equal intrepidity. On the count’s threatening to flab hint
it he perfifted in his refufal, lie very fpiritedly replied,
“ Well, then, ycur highnefs may kill me, if you pleafe; I
prefer dying by the hand of a great prince to dying by that
of the hangman.”
CAYEU'X, a town of France, in the department of the
Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Ab¬
beville : three leagues and a half north of Montdidier.
CAYHO'CA, or Keyooca, a town of Spanifli Arne,
rica, in the province of Tabafco : thirty miles weft of
Tabafco.
CAYLAR' (Le), a town of France, in the department
of Heraulf, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriCt of
Lodeve : two leagues and a half north of Lodeve.
CAYLO'MA, a jurifdiction under the biftiop of Are-
quipa, 32 leagues eaft of that city, in South America, in
Peru, famous for the filver mines in the mountains of the
fame name, which are very rich, though they have been
worked for a long time. The country round it is cold
and barren. There is an office here for receiving the
king’s fifihs, and vending quicklilver.
CAY'LUS, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Mon-
tauban : feven leagues north-eaft of Montauban.
CAY'LUS (Count de), Marquis de Sternay, and Baron
de Branfac, born at Paris in 1692. He was the eldeft of
the two Tons of John count de Caylus, lieutenant-general
of the armies of France. The count and counters, his fa¬
ther and' mother, weite very careful of the education of
their fon. His mother was the author of that agreeable
book entitled, the Recollections of Madame de Caylus, of
which Voltaire publiftied an elegant edition. The amiable
qualities of the parents appeared in t lie fon. In his natu¬
ral temper he was gay and (brightly, had a tafte for plea-
fure, a firong paftion for independence, and an invincible
aveifion to the fervitude of a court. He was only twelve
years of age when his father died at Bruffelsin 1704. Af¬
ter finifliing his academical exercifes, he entered into the
army ; and in his firft campaign, in 1709, he diftinguiflied
hitnfelf by his valour in fuch a manner, that Louis XIV.
commended him before all the court. In 1711 he com¬
manded a regiment of dragoons, which was called by his
C own
6 CAY
own name; and he fignalized himfelf at the head of it in
Catalonia. In 1713 he was at the (iege of Fribourg,
where he was expofed to imminent danger in the bloody
attack of the covered way. The peace of Raftadt having
left him in a Hate of inadlivity ill Tinted to his natural tem¬
per, his vivacity foon carried him to travel into Italy ; and
his curiofity was greatly excited by the wonders of that
country, where antiquity is Hill fruitful, and produces fo
many objects to improve tafte and to excite admiration.
After a year’s abfence, he returned to Paris with fo tirong
a paflion for travelling, and for antiquities, that he was
induced to quit the army. He now fet out for the Levant.
W hen he arrived at Smyrna, he vilited the ruins of Ephe-
fus. From the Levant he was recalled in Feb. 1717, by
the tendernefs of his mother. From that time he left not
France, but to make two excuriions to. London. The
academy of painting and fculpture adopted him an hono¬
rary member in 1731 ; and the count fpared neither his
labour nor his fortune to in ft met, affilt, and animate, the
artifts. He wrote the lives of the mod celebrated painters
and engravers that have done honour to this illuflripus
academy; and, in order to extend the limits of the art,
which feemed to him to move in too narrow a circle, lie
collected, in three different works, new fubjects for the
painter, which he had met with in the works of the an¬
cients, A fortunate accident alfo furnifhed him with the
means of (hewing us the compofition and the colouring
of the pictures of ancient Rome. The coloured draw¬
ings which the famous Pietro Sante Bartoli had taken
there from antique pictures, fell into his hands. He had
them engraved, ar.d, before he enriched the king of
France’s cabinet with them, he gave an edition of them at
liis own expence. It is, perhaps, the moll extraordinary
work of its kind that ever will appear. The whole is
pain'ed with a purity and precifion that are inimitable:
we lee the livelinefs and the frefh nefs of the colouring
that charmed the Caefars. There w ere only thirty copies
pnblilhed, and there is no reafon to expedt that there will
hereafter be any more.
In 1742, count Caylus was admitted honorary member
of the academy of belies lettres ; and then it was that he
feemed to have found the place for which nature defigned
him. The (tudy of literature now became his ruling paf-
lion; he confecrated to it his time and his fortune; he
even renounced his pleafures to give himfelf wholly up to
that of making ufeful improvements. But amidft the
fruits of his relearch and invention, nothing feemed more
flattering fo him than his difeovery of encauftic painting.
A defeription of Pliny’s, but too conciie an one to give him
a clear view of the matter, firft fuggefted the idea. He
availed himfelf of the friendfhip and fkill of M. Maga.ult,
a phyfician in Paris, and an excellent chemifl ; and, by re¬
peated experiments, found cut the fecret of incorporating
wax with divers tints and colours, and of making it obedi¬
ent to the pencil. Pliny has made mention of two kinds of
encauftic painting, pradtifed by the- ancients ; one of
which was performed with wax, the other upon ivorv,
with hot punches of iron. It was the former Chat count
Caylus had the merit of reviving; and M. Muntz after¬
wards made many experiments to carry it to perfection.
Thus, in the hands of count Caylus, literature and tire arts
lent each other a mutual aid. He publifhed above forty
diflertations in the Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Let¬
tres. The artifts he was particularly attentive to; and to
prevent their falling into miftakes from an ignorance of cof-
tume, w hich the ableft of them have fometimes done, lie
founded a prize of 500 livres, the objedt of which is to
explain, by means of authors and monuments, the ufages
of ancient nations. In order that he might enjoy, witli
the whole world, thetreafures lie had colledted, he caufed
them to be engraved, and gave a learned defeription of
them in-a work which he embellifhed with 800 copper¬
plates. The ftrength of his conftitution feemed to give
him hopes of a long life ; but a humour fettling in one of
his legs, which entirely delhoyedhis health, he expired on
C E A
the 3th ot September, 1765, and by his death his family is
extindl.
CAY'MANS, three final 1 iflands, 55 leagues north-
north-weft of the illancl of Jamaica and the Weft-Indies;
the mod foutherly of which is called the Great Caymans,
which is inhabited by a people who are the defendants of
the old buccaniers. It has no harbour for ftiips of burden,
only a tolerable anchoring place on the fonth-weft. The
climate and foil are Angularly falubrious, and the people
are Vigorous, and commonly live to a great age. They
ra'fe all kinds of produce for their own life and to fpare.
Their chief employment is to pilot vefiels to the adjacent
iflands, and to fifh for turtle; with which they liipply
Port Royal and other places in great quantities. Great
Caymans lies in lat. 19.20. N. Ion. 81.40.W. Greenwich.
CAY'MITE GRANDE, an i (land on the north fide of
the fouth peninfula of the ifland of St. Domingo, two
leagues long and one broad : thirty-fix miles weft of Cape
Donna Maria.
CAYNE, a river of Wales, which runs into the Severn
four miles weft from Newtown, in Merionethlhire.
C A'YO (El), a town of the ifland of Cuba: fixty miles
eaft of Spirito Santo.
CAYON'NE, a river of the ifland of St. Chriftopher, in
the Weft-Indies, which runs into the fea half a mile fouth-
eaftof Madan’s Point.
CAY'RES, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of
Puy-en-Velay : eight miles louth-fouth-weft of Le Puy.
CAY'STER, a rapid river of Alia, rifing in Lydia, and
after a meandering courfe, falling into the Higean Sea near
Ephefus. According to tire poets, the banks and neigh¬
bourhood of this river were generally frequented by fwans.
C AZ AI., a town of Arabia : eighty miles north-eaft of
Medina.
GAZAL'LA. See Cacalla.
C AZAL'S, a town of France, in the department of the
Lor, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of Gour-
don: three leagues fouth-weft of Gourdon.
C AZAU'BON, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers: fix leagues weft of Condom.
CAZENCFVIA, a new and thriving torvn of the Ame¬
rican States, in Herkemer county, province of New-York:
forty miles w'eftward of Whiteftovvn.
CAZE'RES, a town of France in the department of the
Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt
of Rieux; two leagues fouth-weft of Rieux.
CAZE'RES, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Pyrenees : four leagues weft of Nogaro.
CA'ZES DE MONDENAR'D, a town of France, in
the department of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of Lauzerte : three miles S. E. Lauzerte.
CAZI'QUE, f. A title given by the Spaniards to the
petty kings and chiefs of the feveral countries of America,
excepting thofe of Peru, which are called cufatas. The
French call them cafqucs, a denomination which they al¬
ways give to the Tartarian hordes. Mexico comprehends
a great number of provinces and iflands, which were go¬
verned by lords called caziqucs, dependent on, and tribu¬
tary to, the emperor. Thirty of thefe vaflals are faicl to
have been fo powerful, that they were able, each of them,
to bring an army of 100,000 men into the field.
C AZOU'LS, a town of France, in the department of the
Heiault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of Be¬
ziers: five miles north-weft of Beziers.
CAZ'Z A, afmall ifland in the Adriatic. Lat. 43. 6 N.
Ion. 34. 25. E. Ferro.
CAZZO'LA, a I'm all ifland in the Adriatic, near the
coaft of Dalmatia. Lat. 43. 8. N. Ion. 34. 30. F. Ferro.
CE'A, a town of Portugal, in t lie province of Beira:
feven leagues fouth-fouth-eaft of Vifeu.
CEAN AMH AR'RA, a hill in the ifland of Tiree, near
the weft coaft of Scotland, remarkable for a great number
of caves, to which flea-fowl, eagles, and ravens, refort;
florae of thefe caves are upwards of fifty yards deep.
CEANO'THUS,
CEANOTHUS,
CE ANO'THUS, f. [K saraiOo; of Theophraflus.] New
Jersey Tea; in botany; a genus of the clafspentandria,
order monogynia, natural order dumofae. The generic
characters are — Calyx: periantlnim one-leafed, turbinate ;
border five-parted, acute, clofe-converging, permanent.
Corolla: petals five, equal, roundifli, of an arched faccu-
lar (hape, com nrelfed, very obtufe, fpreading, fmaller than
the calyx, feated on claws the length of the petal, growing
from the interlaces of the calyx. Stamina: filaments five,
tubulate, erect, oppofite to the petals, the length of the
corolla; anthers roundifli. Piftillum: germ fuperior,
triangular; llyle cylindric, femitrifid, the length of the
ftamens; fligma obtufe, Perianthium: berry dry, three¬
grained, three-celled, obtufe, retufe, fet with tubercles.
Seeds: folitary, ovate. — FJfential Char after. Petals five,
laccular, vaulted : berry dry, three-celled, three-feeded.
Species, i. Ceanothus Americanos, or American cea-
nothus, or New jerfey tea: leaves three-nerved. fn
England this flirub feldom rifes more than three or four
feet high, fending out branches on every fide from the
ground upwards. The branches are very (lender; and, as
it is pretty late in the fpt'ing before they begin to (hoot,
they keep growing very late ; therefore, unlefs theautumn
proves dry and mild, the"tender (hoots are often killed
down very low by the early frofts ; but, in favourable fea-
f'ons, the extreme parts of the (hoots only are injured by
the cold. Thefe branches are garniflied with oval pointed
leaves, having three longitudinal veins running from the
foot-flalk to the point, and diverging in the broad part of
the leaves from each other: the leaves are placed oppo¬
fite, are deciduous, and of a light green colour. At the
extremity of each (hoot the flowers are produced in clofe
thick fpikes, which are compofed of five fmall petals, of a
clear white. Thefe appear in July, and make a pretty ap-
pearanceduringtheircontinuar.ee; for, as every (hoot is
terminated by one of thefe fpikes, the whole (limb is co¬
vered over with flowers, the branches commonly growing
very clofe to each other; and, when the autumn proves
mild, thefe (hrubs often flower again in October. The
fruit, according to Gaertner, is a corticated, three or four-
grained, capfule. The rind, before it is ripe, is foft and
flefliy, but afterwards dries into a thin (kin, forming fpongy
tubercles and very narrow crcfls on the head and back of
the grains. Thefe are cartilaginous, thin, extremely
linooth within, opening elaftically by the internal future,
and receding from each other fpontaneoufly when ripe.
The feeds are ovate rounded, convex on one fide, very ob-
(cm ely angular on the other, of a Alining bay colour. Na¬
tive of rhoft parts of North America, as Canada, New
England, Pennfylvania, Virginia, and Carolina : it is there
known by the name of New Jerfey Tea: the leaves being
dried for the fame purpofe as tea. The Canadians ufe the
root in venereal cafes; and the cattle, browzing upon the
(hrub, keep it very low. It dies wool a fine flrong Nan¬
kin cinnamon colour. This flirub was cultivated before
1713 by bifliop Compton, in the epifcopal garden at Ful¬
ham, and in Mr. Derby’s gar-den at Hoxton. For feveral
years after it was loft in England, but has (ince been reco¬
vered from America, fo as to be now pretty common in
mod of our curious gardens and nurferies.
2. Ceanothus Afiaticus, or Afiatic ceanothus : leaves
ovate, nervelefs. Native of Ceylon and Japan. Intro-
troduced in 1781 .
3. Ceanothus Africanus, or African evergreen Ceano¬
thus: leaves lanceolate, nervelefs; ftipules roundifli. The
third fort grows naturally at the Cape of Good Hope, from
whence it was originally brought to Holland, and lias been
many years prel'erved there; and lince has been communi¬
cated to mod of the curious gardens in Europe, where it
has been long known by the title of alaternoides, &&;. It
rifes to the height of ten or twelve feet, with a woody
dem, covered with a rough dark-coloured bark, and fends
out many weak branches, which hang downwards : thefe,
while young, are green, but afterwards change to a purplilh
colour. They are garniflied with oblong pointed leaves,
7
of a lucid green,- fmootli, and flightly ferrate on their edges.
The flowers are fmall, of an herbaceous colour, comnm out
from the fide of the branches: thefe fometimes appear in
July, but are not fucceeded by feeds in this country, nor do
the plants often produce flowers; fo that they are pre-
ferved only for the beauty of their (hitting evergreen
leaves, which make a- variety in the green-houfe during
the winter feafon. It was cultivated here in 1712.
4.. Ceanothus reclinatus : leaves ovate, entire, many-
nerved ; branches hanging down. Native of Jamaica.
5. Ceanothus circumfcillus : leaves obcordate, oppofite,
in two rows; prickles folitary, recurved, oppofite to the
leaves. Native of the Eaft-Indies, Ceylon, and Mauri¬
tius. This fpecies is a connecting link between ceanothus
and rhamnus; but, having a dry fruit, opening by prefi,
Aire into three regular valves, it feems to approach nearer
to the former, and therefore we have followed Grertner
in placing it here.
6. Ceanothus capfulai is : leaves ovate-cordate, acumi¬
nate, ferrate; capfules tiiree-valved, gaping. Native of
Ofaheite.
Propagation and Culture. T. This (limb is belt propa¬
gated by feeds, which fliould be fown in autumn, in fmall
pots, and plunged into an old hot-bed, where they may
remain during the winter, expoling them in mild weather
to the open air, but in froft they mud be protefted from-
cold. In March, the pots Ibould be plunged into a mo¬
derate hot-bed to bring up the plants, which (hould be
inured to bear the open air by degrees ; and, as foon as
they have obtained a little (Irength, they fliould be ex-
pofed in a (heltered fftuation till autumn, when they mu ft
be placed under a hot-bed frame, to fcreen them from
fevere froft in winter; in mild weather they fliould be fully
expofed to the open air; but, while the plants are younv-,
they will not endure the cold of the winter. In the fol¬
lowing fpring, before the plants begin to flioot, they
fliould be tranfplanted ; fome of them may be put into
feparate pots, and the others into a nurfery-bed, in a
warm (ituation, where they may remain a year or two,
to get (Irength ; after which time they may be removed
to the places where they are defigned to remain : they
fliould have a moderately dry foil and a flieltered fitu-
ation, where they will thrive and flower extremely wel 1 ;
but in (lift, cold, land, they are always very late in the
fpring before they come out, fo that their young (hoofs
are full of Cap in the autumn, and the find froft generally
kills their tops, which frequently caufes them to die great
part of their length. It may alfo be propagated by lay¬
ing down the young branches, which, in a light foil, will
put out ropts in a year’s time ; but thefe layers (hould not
be much watered; for, as the (hoots' are tender, moiftu re
will olten occafion their rotting,- when it is given in quan¬
tities, or too often repeated ; therefore, the bell method is
to cover the furface of the ground in diy weather, all
round the layers, either with mulch or rotten tan, which
will prefervea fufticient moifture in the ground, provided
the feafon is not extremely dry ; in which cafe they fliould
have a little water once in eight or ten days, which will be
fufficient. The bed time for laying down thefe branches
is in autumn ; and if, after this is performed, the furface
of the ground is covered over with Come old tan, taken
from a decayed hot-bed, it will prevent the froft from pe¬
netrating the ground, which will fecure them from injury;
and the fame covering will prevent the winds from dryino-
the ground in the fpring, and thereby promote their plot¬
ting out roots. Thefe layers, when rooted, may be taken
up the following fpring, and treated in the fame manner as
tliofe raifed from feeds.
The fecond may be increafed by layers or cuttings, and
muft have the protection. of the bark-ftove.
The third may be propagated in the fame ways, but that
by cuttings, being mod fure and expeditious, is generally
preferred. They fliould be planted in fpring in potsfillei
with good kitchen-garden earth, and plunged into a very
moderate hot-bed, obferving to (hade them in the heat of
4 the
3 C E C
the day, and now and then to refrefii them with water.
In two months, or lei's* they will have taken foot, when
they mult be gradually inured to the open air, placing
them in a (lieltered fituation till they have obtained
ftrength, when they may befeparated, and eacli planted in
a fmall pot filled with light earth, placing them in the (hade
till they have taken frefii root; then they may be remo¬
ved, and treated like other exotics. See Serratula.
CE AP'Gl LDE,yi [from ceap, pccus, Sax. cattle, and
g’ld, i. e. folutio, Lat.] Hence it is folutio pec.udis : from this
Saxon word gild, it is very probable we have our Englifh
word yield ; as yield, or pay. Cozvel.
To CEASE, v. n. \_cejfer, Fr. ccJJ'o, Lat.] To leave off;
to flop ; to give over ; to defiff : with from before a noun:
The lives of all, who ceafe from combat, fpare ;
My brother’s be your mod peculiar care. Dryden.
To fail; to be extin6l; to pafs away. — The poor man
fliall never ceafe out .of the land. Deuteronomy. — The foul
being removed, the faculties and operations of life, fenfe,
and intelledlion, ceafe from that moles corporea, and are no
longer in it. Hale. — To be at an end ; to rell. — The mini-
tiers of Chrift have ceafed from their labours, Spratt.
To CEASE, v. a. To put a (lop to ; to put an end to :
The difcord is complete, nor can they ceafe
The dire debate, nor yet command the peace. Dryden.
CEASE, f. Extinction; failure: perhaps for deceafe.
The ceafe of majefiy
Dies not alone, but like a gulph, withdraws
What’s near it with it, Shakefpeare.
CE'A'SELESS, adj. Inceffant ; perpetual; continual;
without paule ; without (top; without end :
Like an oak
That (lands fe.cure, though all the winds employ
Their ceafelefs roar ; and only fheds its leaves,
Or malt, which the revolving fpring reflores. Philips.
CEAUX, a town of France, in the department of
Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diltridt of Lou-
dun : two leagues ea(t of London.
CE'BA (Anfaldo), a politician, hiftorian, ora’or, and
poet, of Genoa, at the beginning of the feventeenth cen¬
tury, publifhed feveral traits in each of tliefe departments.
The Italians attach fome value to his treatife on epic poe¬
try: but h,e acquired reputation chiefly by his tragedies;
the mod efteemed of which are hi.s Twins .of Capua, and
his Alcippus. The marquis Maffei has pronounced them
deferring of being inferted in the collection of the bed
Italian tragedies, printed at Verona in 1723, 3 vols, 8vo.
<This poet died in 1623, at the age of fifty-eight.
CEBAS'SAT, a town of France, in the department of
Puy-de-Dome, and chief place of a canton, in the didridt
of Clermont Ferrand : three miles north of Clermont.
CE'BES, a Theban philofopher, one of the difciples of
Socrates, B.C. 405. He attended his learned preceptor
in his laft moments, and didinguidied himfelf by three
dialogues that he wrote; but more particularly by his
tables, which contain a beautiful and affedling picture of
human life, delineated with accuracy of judgment, and
great fplendor of fentiment. The bed editions of Cebes,
are thofe of Gronovius, Svo. 1689, and Glafgow, 121110.
1 74-7-
CE'CIL (William), lord Burleigh, treafurer of England
in the re gn of queen Elizabeth., was the fon of Richard
Cecil, mafter of the robes to Henry VI 1 1. He was born
in the houfe of his grandfather, at Bourn, in L'incol.nfhire,
in 1520; and received the rudiments of his education in
(lie grammar-fchool at Grantham. From thence he was
removed to Stamford ; and afterwards entered of St.John’s
college, Cambridge. Here he began his dudies with a
degree of eivhufiaflic application very uncommon in young
gentlemen of family. In 1341 he became a member of the
focieiy of Gray’s-Inn, with an intention to .(Indy the law;
but he had not been long in that fituation, before an ac-
C E C
■cident introduced him to king Henry, who commanded
his father to find a place for him. He accordingly re¬
queued the reverfion of the cufios brevium, which Mr. Ce¬
cil afterwards poffeffed. About tins time he married the
filler of Sir John Cheke, by whom lie was recommended
to the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Someilet and
proteClor. Soon after king Edward’s accefiion, Mr. Cecil
came into the polfedion of his office of cujlos brevium. His
fird lady dying in 1543, he married the daughter of Sir
Anthony Cook, director of the king’s dudies. In 1547,
he was appointed by the protestor, rnader of requeds ;
and loon after, attended his noble patron on his expedi¬
tion againd the Scots, and was prelent at the battle of
Mu (Tel burgh; In this battle, which was fought on the
xoth of September 1547, Mr. Cecil’s life was miraculoully
preferved by a friend, who, in puffing him out of the
level of a cannon, had his arm (battered to pieces. The
fight and judgment of his friend inud have been as extra¬
ordinary as his friendffip, to perceive the precile direc¬
tion of a cannon (hot ; unlefs we fuppofe, that the ball
was almoft fpent ; in which cafe the thing is not impodi |
ble. The (tory is told in his life by a domedic. In 1548,
Mr. Cecil was made fecretary of date ; but, in the follow¬
ing year, the dtike of Northumberland’s faftion prevail¬
ing, he differed in the difgrace of the prote&or Somerfet,
and was fent prifoner to the Tower. After three months
confinement lie was releafed ; in 1551 redored to his office;
and foon after knighted, and fworn of the privy council.
On the death of Edward VI. Mr. Cecil refufed to have
any concern in Northumberland’s attempt in favour of the
unfortunate lady Jane Grey ; and when queen Mary af-
cended the throne, he was gracioufiy received at court ;
but, not choofing to change his religion, was difmiffed
from his employments. During this reign, he was twice
eledled knight of the (hire for the county of Lincoln ; and
often fpoke in the houfe of commons, with great freedom
and firmnefs. Queen Elizabeth’s accefiion in 1558, dif-
pelled the cloud which had obfeured his fortunes and mi-
niderial capacity. On the day of her accefiion, he pre¬
heated her with a paper containing twelve articles necelfary
for her immediate difpatch ; and, in a few days after, was
fworn of the privy-council, and made fecretary of (late.
His firft advice to the queen, was to call a parliament ;
and the firfi bufinefs he propofed after it was affembled,
was the eftabliffment of a national church. A plan of
reformation was accordingly drawn up under his imme¬
diate infpeclion, and the legal eftabliffment of the church
of England was the confequence. Sir William Cecil’s
next important concern, was to refiore the value of the
coin, which had in the preceding reigns been confiderably
debafed. In 1561, he was appointed mafter of the wards;
and, in 1571, created baron of Burleigh, as a reward fur
his fervices. The following year he was honoured with
the garter, and railed to the office of lord high treafurer
of England. From this period we find him the primum
mobile of every material tranfadlion during the glorious
reign of queen Elizabeth. Having filled the higheft and
mod important offices of the (late for forty years, and
guided the helm of government during the ntoft glorious
period of Englilh hiftory, he departed this life on the 4th
of Auguft 1598, in the 78th year of his age. His body
was removed to Stamford, and there depolited in the fa¬
mily-vault, where a magnificent tomb was erefled to his
memory. Notwithftanding his long enjoyment of fuch
lucrative employments, lie left only an eftate of 4000I.
per annum, n,oool. in money, and effects worth about
14, cool. He lived, indeed, in a manner fuitable to his
high rank and importance. He had four places of refi-
dence, viz. his lodgings at court, his houfe in the Strand,
his feat at Burleigh Park near Stamford, and his feat at
Theobalds. The laft of thefe was his favourite place of
retirement, where he frequently entertained the queen at
a vaft expence. Lord Burleigh was doubtlefs a man of
lingular abilities and prudence; amiable in bis private
character, and one ol the molt able, upright, and indefati.
gable,
C E C
gable, miniflcrs, ever recorded in the annals of this king*
dom. As to his writings, he is reckoned. by Hollingfhed
amongft t l\e lviflorians of the Englifii nation. Be wrote
two poems in Latin, on the death of Margaret Novi!, lady
of the bed-chamber to queen Catharine. They were
printed among the Carolina SuffoTc. fratnim, 1552, 4to.
A Latin poem in memory of Thomas Chaloner, knight.
A preface to queen Catharine’s book, entitled, Lamenta¬
tion of a Sinner, 1548, 1 2 in o . Precepts or Diiedfions for
the Well-ordering and Carriage of a Man’s Life, 1637.
Harl. Cat. vol. ii. p. 755. Meditations on the Death of
his Lady. A Meditation on the State of England during
the Reign of Queen Elizabeth. He wrote anl'wers to
many libels againlt the queen and government, fome of
which are faid to be extant in print, and more in manu-
fcript. He drew up alf'o a great number of pedigrees,
fome of which are preferved in the library at Lambeth,
particularly the genealogies of tlie kings of England, from
William the Conqueror to Edward IV. of queen Anne
Boleyn, and of feveral princely lioufes in Germany. A
collection of his (late papers was publifhed by Haynes,
1740; and a continuation of them by Murdin, 1760.
CE'CIL, a townfliip in the American United States, in
Wafhington county, Pennfylvania.
CECI'LIA (St.), the patronefsof mtific, has been I10-
noured as a martyr ever (ince the fifth century. Her (lory,
as delivered by the notaries of the Roman chinch, and
from them tranfcribed into the Golden Legend and other
books of the like kind, fays, that the was a Roman lady
born of noble parents, about the year 225. That, not-
withftanding (lie had been converted to Chrifiianity, her
parents married her to a young pagan* nobleman named
Valerianus, who, with his brother Tiburtius, (lie quickly
found means to convert. Both the brothers were in con-
fequence beheaded ; and Cecilia was offered her life, upon
condition that flie would facrifice to the deities of the Ro¬
mans ; but (lie refit fed : upon which (he was thrown into
a caldron of boiling water, and fcaldcd to death. Others
fay, that (lie was (tided in a dry-bath, i. e. an inclofure,
from whence the air was excluded, having a How fire un¬
derneath it ; which kind of death was fometimes inflidted
by the Romans on women of quality who were criminals.
Upon the fpot where her houfe (food, a church is faid to
have been built by pope Urban I. who adminifiered bap-
tifm to her hu (band and his brother: it is the church of
St. Cecilia at Trafievere ; within it is a curious painting
of the faint, and a (lately monument, with a ftatue of her
with her face downwards. There is a tradition of St. Ce¬
cilia, that (lie excelled in mtific ; and that an angel was
enamoured of her, drawn from the celeftial regions by the
charms of her melody : this has been deemed authority
fufiicient for making her the patronefs of malic and mu(i-
cians. The legend of St. Cecilia has given frequent occa-
fion to painters and fculptors to exercife their genius in
reprefentations of her, playing on the organ, and fome¬
times on the harp. Raphael has painted her fingingwith
a regal in her hands ; and Domenichino and Mignard,
finging and playing on the harp.
CECIN'NA (A.), a Roman knight in the intereft of
Pompev, who ufed to breed up young fvvallows, and fend
them to carry news to his friends as meffengers. He was
a particular friend of Cicero, with whom he correfponded.
Some of his letters are (till extant in Cicero.
CE'CITY,/. [ cadtas , Lat.] Blindr.efs; privation of
fight. — They are not blind, nor yet diftindfly fee ; there
is in them no cecity , yet more than a cecutiency ; they have
fight enough to difcern the light, though not perhaps to
diftinguifh obiedts or colours. Brecon,
CECRO'PIA, the original name of Athens, in honour
of Cecrops, its firft founder. The ancients often life this
word for Attica, a>nd the Athenians are often called Ce-
cropidte.
CECRO'PIA,/. The Trumpet-tree ; in botany, a
genus of the clafs dioecia, order diandria, natural order
fcabridae. The generic characters are-— I, Male. Calyx:
Vol. IV. No. 173.
C E C 9
fpathe ovate, burrting, caducous ; aments very many, faf.
ciculate, columnar, imbricate with feales ; the fcales (re¬
ceptacles) copious, turbinate, compreHed-quadrangular,
obtufe, with a double perforation. Corolla: none, unlefs
the feales be called nedtaries. Stamina: filaments two,
capillary, very (bort, front the perforations of the feales ;
antherae oblong, quadrangular. II. Female. Calyx :
fpathe; aments four, columnar, imbricate with germs.
Corolla: none. Piffilluni : germs many, imbricate, cani-
prefled-quadrangular, obtufe; ftyles (olitary, very (hort;
ftigmas fomewhat headed, lacerated. Pericarpium: berry
the form of the germ, one-celled, one-leeded. Seed ob¬
long, comprelfed. — EJJential Character. Male. Sputhe ca¬
ducous ; ament imbricate with turbinate feales, com-
preffed-quadrangular ; corolla none. Female as in tlie
male; germs imbricate; ltyle one; Itigma lacerated;
berry one feeded.
There is only one fpecies, called cecropia peltata, trum¬
pet-tree, or fnake-wood. It rife's commonly to a confider-
able height, being feldoin under thirty-five or forty feet
in tlie moll perfect (fate. The trunk and branches are
hollow every where, and (lopped from (pace to (pace with
membranous feptas, anfwering to fo many light annular
marks in the furface ; leaves few, alternate, large, at the
ends of tlie branches ; they are peltate, divided into many
lobes like thofe of carica papaya, downy-white under¬
neath, petioled ; lobes entire, (harp, rugged on the up¬
per furface, the nerves obliquely tranfverfe, and the veins
very much fo. There are Hi pules between the leaves, as
in the fig, opening on the tide oppolite to tlie leaf, obvo-.
lute or imbricate 011 the edge, Coon falling off. The fruits
rife four, five, or more, from the very top of a common
peduncle, and (hoot into fo many oblong cylindrical ber¬
ries, compofed of a row of little acini, fomething like our
rafpberry, which they refemble in flavour when ripe, and
are agreeable to mod European palates on that account.
The wood of this tree, when dry, is very apt to take fire
by attrition. The native Indians have taken the hint,
and always kindle their fires in the woods by rubbing a
piece of it againft fome harder wood. The bark is (Iron g
and fibrous, and is frequently ufed for all forts of cordage.
The trunk is very light, and for that reafon much ufed
for bark-logs and fifliing-floats. Tlie fnvaller brandies,,
when cleared of the feptums, ferve for wind inftruments.
Both trunk and branches yield a great quantity of fixed
fait, which is much ufed among the French, todefpumate
and granulate their fugars. The fruit is much fed upon
by pigeons and other birds, and thus the tree is much
fpread and propagated. Native of South America, and
tlie Weft- India i (lands. Miller received fpecimens of this
tree from Dr. Houlton, who found it growing naturally at
Vera Cruz in New Spain ; it does not appear however
that he ever cultivated it. In the catalogue of the royal
botanic garden at Kevv, it is faid to have been introduced
in 1778, by Thomas Clark, M.D.
Propagation and Culture. It may be propagated by feeds,
procured from the places of natural growth. They fhould
be brought over in fand, for, if they are put up moift in
papers, they will be apt to grow mouldy. They fliould
be (own in ("mail pots, filled w ith light earth, and plunged
into a moderate hot-bed of tanner’s-bark, obferving to
water the pots duly, and to admit frefh air whenever the
weather is favourable. When the plants come up and are
fit to tranfplant, they fliould be carefully taken up, and
each planted in a feparate (mail pot, filled with the like
light earth, and plunged into tlie hot-bed again, being
careful to water them to fettle the earth to their roots,
and alfo to fereen them from the fun till they have taken
new root : after which they fliould be conftantly kept
plunged into the bark-bed in the (love, and treated in the
lame manner as other plants from the lame country.
CE'CROPS, a native of Sais, in Egypt, who led a co¬
lony to Attica about 1556 years before the Chriftian era,
and reigned over part of the country which was called
from him Cecropia. He foftened and poliflied the rude
D and
so
C E D
and uncultivated manners of the inhabitants, and drew
them from the country to inhabit twelve fmall villages
which he had founded. He gave them laws and regula¬
tions, and introduced among them the worfliip of thof'e
deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. He mar¬
ried the daughter of Aftceus, a Grecian prince, and was
deemed the firft founder of Athens. He taught his (ob¬
jects to cultivate the olive, and inftrudted them to look
upon Minerva as the watchful patronefs of their city. It
is laid that he was the firft who railed an altar to Jupiter
in Greece, and offered him lacrifices. After a reign of
fifty years, fpent in regulating his newly-formed kingdom,
and in polifhing the minds of his fubjedts, Cecrops died,
leaving three daughters, Aglauros, Herle, and Pandrolos.
He was fucceeded by Cranatts, a native of the country.
Some time after, Thefeus, one of his fucceffors, formed
the twelve villages w hich he had eftabliflied, into one city,
to which the name of Athens v as given. See Athens.
Some authors have deferibed Cecrops as a monfter, half
a man and half a ferpent ; and this fable is explained by
the recolledfion that lie was mailer of two languages, the
Greek and Egyptian; or that he had the command over
two countries, Egypt and Greece. Others explain it by
an allufton to the regulations which Cecrops made amongft
the inhabitants concerning marriage and the union of the
two fexes.
CECU'TIENCY, f. [cizcutio, Lat.] Tendency to blind-
nefs; cloudinefs of fight.
CE'DAR, an ifland of United America, on the coaft of
Virginia. Lat. 37. 37. N. Ion. 76. 40. W. Greenwich.
CE'DAR, a river of Canada, which runs into Lake
Michigan. Lat. 47. 30. N. Ion. 86. 50. W. Greenwich.
CE'DAR, a lake of North America. Lat. 53. 8. N.
Ion. 100. 5. W. Greenwich.
CE'DAR, BARB ADOES, f. in botany ; fee Cedrela.
CEDAR, BERMUDAS and CAROLINA ; fee Junipe-
rus. CEDAR, JAMAICA ; fee Theobroma. CE¬
DAR, LIBANUS or LEBANON ; fee Pinus Cedrus.
CEDAR, LYC1AN, PHENICI AN, and VIRGINIAN;
fee Juniperus. CEDAR, VIRGINIAN and WHITE ;
fee Cupressus. No modern botanifts find any of the
cedar- trees that agree with the feripture account of their
loftinefs ; but rather with that account of them which the
plalmift gives, when he fays, the flouriftiing ftate of a
people is, that they fpread their branches like the cedar-
tree. Maundrell, in his travels, fays, he meafured the
trunks of fomeold cedar-trees, and found one to be twelve
yards in circumference, and thirty-feven yards in the fpread
of its boughs-; but the altitude he does not mention as re¬
markable, nor correfpondent either to the feripture ac¬
count, or to that in the following paflage ;
I niuft yield my body to the earth :
Thus yields the cedar to the axe’s edge,
Whole arms gave flielter to the princely eagle ;
Under whofe (hade the ramping lion flept ;
Whofe top branch overpeer’d Jove’s fpreading tree.
And kept low fiirubs from winter’s povv’rful wind. Shakf.
CE'DAR POINT, a port of entry in Charles county,
Maryland, on the eaft fide of Pa to tv mac liver, about twelve
miles below Port Tobacco, and ninety-fix fouth by weft of
Baltimore, in the American States. Its exports are chiefly
tobacco and Indian corn, and in 1794, amounted in value
to 18,593 dollars.
CEDEY'RA, a town of Spain, in the province of Ga¬
licia : five leagues north of Ferrol.
CED'MA, f. [from y.i^au, Gr. to difperfe.] A de¬
fluxion, or rheumatic aftedtion fcattered over the parts
about the hips.
CEDOG'NA, a town of I taly, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Principato Ultra, the fee of a bifhop,
fuffragan of Conza, at the foot of the Apennines ; in a ftate
of decay : twelve miles north-weft of Melfi.
CEDR.ET.A, f. Bar bad.ojss Base Cedar ; in botany,
3 genus of the clafs pentandria, order monogynia, natural
C E D
order mifcellaneae. The generic characlers are — Calyx :
perianthium monophyllous, campanulas, very fmall, five,
toothed, withering. Corolla: funnel-form, pentapeta-
lous, the tube bellied below ; petals linear-oblong, ob-
tufe, eredf, adjoined to the receptacle at one-third beneath.
Stamina : filaments five, fubulate, feated on the receptacle,
ftiorter than the corolla ; antherae oblong, bent outwards
at the tip. Piftillum : receptacle proper five-cornered ;
germ globular; ftyle cylindric, length of the corolla;
ftigma headed, deprrfled. Pericarpinm : capfule fuperior,
woody, roundifti, five-celled, five-valved ; valves decidu¬
ous. Seeds numerous, flefhy, imbricate downwards, ter¬
minated by a membranaceous wing. Receptacle woodv,
five-angled, tree. — EJJential Character . Calyx withering;
corolla five-petalled, funnel-form, faftened by the bafe to
the receptacle to one-third of its length ; capfule woody,
five-celled, five-valved; feeds imbricate downwards, with
a membranaceous wing.
Only one fpecie% called cedrela odorata : flowers pani-
cled. This tree riles with a ftraight ftem to the height of
feventy or eighty feet: while young the bark is fmooth,
and of an afh-colour ; but, as it advances, the bark becomes
rough and of a darker colour. Towards the top it (hoots
out many fide branches, garniftied with winged leaves,
compofed of fixteen or eighteen pair of leaflets, fo that
they are fometimes near three feet long ; the leaflets are
broad at their bafe, and are near two inches long, blunt
at their ends, and of a pale colour ; thefe emit a very rank
odour in the fummer feafon, fo as to be very offenfive.
The fruit is oval, about the fize of a partridge’s egg,
fmooth, of a very dark colour, and opens in five parts,
having a five-cornered column (landing in the middle, be¬
tween the angles of which the winged feeds are rlofely
placed, lapping over each other like the feales of filh.
The trunk is covered with a rough bark, marked with lon¬
gitudinal fiflitres. This, as well as the berries and leaves,
has a fmell like aflafoetida, when frefh. The timber how¬
ever has a pleafant fmell. This is commonly known un¬
der the name of cedar in the Britxfh Weft-India tllands.
The trunk is fo large as to be hollowed out into canoes
and periaguas, for which purpofe it is extremely, well
adapted, the wood being foft, it may be cut out with great
facility, and, being light, it will carry a great weight on
the water. There are canoes in the Weft-Indies, which
have been formed out of thefe trunks, forty feet long and
fix broad ; the wood is of a brown colour, and has a fra¬
grant odour, whence the title of cedar has been given to
it : it is frequently cut into fhingles for covering houfes,
and is found very durable ; but, as the worms are apt to
eat this wood, it is not proper for building (hips, though
it is often ufed for that purpofe, as alfo for (heathing of
(hips. It is often ufed for wainfeoting of rooms, and to
make chefts, becaufe vermin do not fo frequently breed in
it, as in many other forts of wood, this having a very bitter
tafte, which is communicated to whatever is put into the
chefts, efpecially when the wood is frefti ; for which realon
it is never made into calks, becaufe fpirituous liquors will
dilfolve part of the refill, and thereby acqure a bitter tafte.
Dampier mentions fome of thefe trees in the ifland of St.
Andreas near the ifle of Providence, tire bodies of which
were forty or fifty, and many fixty or (eventy, feet long.
Loureiro has another fpecies, to which he has given the
name of cedrela rofmarinus. It is a ftirub, about four feet
high, with linear leaves, and axillary one-flowered pe¬
duncles; the feeds are not winged. It grows wild in Co-
chinchina and about Macao in China. It yields a fine
elfential oil, and a fpirit not inferior to that which is drawn
from rofemary.
Propagation and Culture. It is propagated by feeds, which
may be ealily procured from the Weft-Indies. They mud
be lown upon a hot-bed in the fpring, and the plants treated
in the fame manner as the mahogany. See S-wietenia.
They are of much quicker growth, for in four years the
plants will be upwards of ten feet high.
CEDRE'NUS (George), a Grecian monk, who lived
in
C E I
in the nth age, and wrote Annals, or an Abridged Hif-
tory, from the Beginning of the World to the Reign of
Ifaac Comnenus emperor of Conftantinople, who fueceed-
cd Michael IV. in 1057. This work is no more than an
ex-trail: from feveral hiftorians. There is an edition of it,
printed at Paris in 1647, with the Latin verfion of Xylan-
der, and the notes of father Goar, a Dominican.
CE'DRINB, adj. [ccdrinus, Lat. ] Of, or belonging to,
the cedar-tree.
CE'DRp,yi in botany. See Cedrela.
CEDRONEL'LA,yi in botany. SeeDRACOCEPHALUM.
CEDRO'TA,yi in botany, a genus of the clafs otftan-
dria, order monogynia. The generic characters are —
Calyx : perianthium one-leaved, fix-parted; parts ovate,
obtnfe, concave. Corolla: none. Stamina: filaments
eight, fliort ; antherae roundilh. Piftillum : germ fupe-
rior, roundilh, furrounded by a gland; flyle fhort ; ftigma
obtufe. — EJJ'ential CkaraElcr. Calyx fix-parted ; corolla
none ; germ fnperior, furrounded by a gland ; flyle fhort.
There is but one fpecies, called cedrota guianenlis. It is
a- tree forty feet in height,' and two feet in diameter, with
a thick, unequal, wrinkled, bark, full of clefts, and a
yellow, heavy, aromatic, wood, which however becomes
light when dry. It has a great number of large branches
at top, fome ftraight, other's inclined, and fpreading every
way. Thefe are loaded with twigs, having leaves either
oppofite, or in whorls of three or five together: they are
fmooth, thin, entire, oblong, oval, acuminate, on a fhort
petiole channelled above. Flowers very frnall, loofely
racemed, on a long, weak, axillary, peduncle. It grows
in the great forefls of Guiana, flowering in May. The
inhabitants call it bois de cedre, and ufe it for making their
pirogues-, they fay that it is alfo fit for malls.
CE'DRUS,/] in botany. See Cedrela, Cliffortia,
Juniperus, Pinus, and Swietenia.
CEES'TER, a. town of Germany, in- the duchy of Hol-
flein : eleven miles weft of Pinnenberg.
CEES'TER MU'HE, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Holftein : thirteen miles weft of Pinnenberg.
CEFALU', a fea-port of Sicily, in the valley of De-
mona, on the north coaft of the ifland, the fee of a bilhop,
fuffragan of Meflina. The harbour will not contain above
thirty or forty veffiels. The number of inhabitants is about
5000 : fourteen miles eaft of Termini. Lat. 38. 5. N. Ion.
31. 51. E. Ferro.
CEGI'NUS, the name of a fixed ftar of the third mag¬
nitude, in the Left fhoulder of Bootes ; marked y by Bayer.
CE'GLI A, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Bari : five miles fonth-fouth-eaft of Bari.
CEI'BAjyi in botany. See Bombax.
To CEIL, v.a. \_calo , Lat.] To overlay, or cover, the
inner roof of a building, — And the greater houfe he ceiled
with fir-tree, which lie overlaid with fine gold. 2 Chron .
CEIL'ING,yi The inner roof of a building :
And now the thicken’d Iky
Like a dark ceiling flood ; down rufh’d the rain
Impetuous. * Milton.
For the conftru&ion of ceilings, fee Architecture,
vol. ii. p. io8- and the article Plastering.
CEIME'LI A,yi [from Gr. to be laid up.] Choice
or precious furniture or ornaments, referved for extraor¬
dinary ufes j in which fenfe, facred garments, veftels, &c.
are the ceimelia of a church. Medals, antiques, manu-
feripts, records, &c. are the ceimelia of men of letters.
CEIMELI AR'CHUM, J. The repofitory or place
where ceimelia are preferved.
CEIMELIO'PHYLAX, [from xeipvihiov, and Ov^arloj,
Gr. to keep.] The keeper or curator of a collection of
ceimelia ; fometimes denominated ceime/iarcha. The cei-
Sneliarcha, or ceimeliophylax, was an officer in the ancient
churches or monafteries, anfwering to what was otlierw'ife
denominated chartophylax , and cujlos axchivorum.
CEl'RA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira ;
one league fouth-eaft of Coimbra*.
CEE JrjT;
CEl'RA, a river of Portugal, which runs into the
Mondego, about a league fouth-eaft of Coimbra.
CEL/E'NAI, in the ancient geography, a city of Phry¬
gia, of which it was once the capital. Cyrus the younger
had a palace there, with a park filled with wild beads,
where he exercifed himfelf in hunting. The Maeander
arofe in this park. Xerxes built a famous citadel there
after his defeat in Greece. The inhabitants of Celtente
were carried by Antioclms Soter to people Apamea when
newly founded. Strabo.
CE'LANDINE, J. in botany. See Chei.odin u m.
CELA'NO, a town ot Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Abruzzo Ultra, near a lake of the fame
name: fixteen miles weft of Solmona.
CELA'NO, a river of Italy, which runs into the Gulf of
Tarento, three miles from Roifano.
CE'LARENT, f. among logicians, a mode of fyllogifm
wherein the major and concluiion are univerfal negative
propofitions, and the minor an univerfal affirmative • e. g.
cE None whofe underftanding is limited can be omni:-
feient.
IA Every man’s underftanding is limited.
rEnt Therefore no man is ommfcient.
CELAS'TRUS, f. [from r-riha., a dart or pole, which
it reprefents. Blanchard derives it from y.r^ac, a week,
becatife it is flow in bringing its fruit to maturity.] The
Staff-tree; in botany, a genus of the clafs pentandria,.
order monogynia, natural order dumolte. The generic
characters are — Calyx : perianthium one-leaved, half five-
cleft, flat, frnall; divifions obtufe, unequal. Corolla:
petals five, ovate, fpreading, fellile, equal, reflected. at the
borders. Stamina: filaments five, Tubulate, length of the
corolla; anthers very fmali. Piftillum: germ very frnall,.
immerfed in a large flat receptacle, which is marked with
ten (Leaks; flyle Tubulate, ftiorter than theftamens; ftig-
ma obtufe, trifid. Perianthium: capfule coloured, ovate,
obtufely triangular, gibbous, tri locular, tri valvular. Seeds:
few, ovate, coloured, fmooth, half involved in an unequal
coloured aurillus, with a four-cleft mouth. — Ejfential Cha-
r aider. Corolla five-petalled,- fpreading j. . capfule trian¬
gular, trilocular; feeds calyptrated.
Species. 1. Celaftrus bullatus : unarmed; leaves ovate,
quite entire. It rifes to the height of eight or ten' feet ;
but in England there are few of thefe ftirubs much mors
than half that height. It generally puts out two or three
ftems from the Toot, which divide upwards into feveral
branches, covered with a brown bark, garnifhed with
leaves near three inches long, and two broad, placed alter¬
nately on the branches ; the flowers come out in looie
fpikes at the ends of the branches, and are white; the
capfule is of a fcarlet colour, fet full of frnall protube¬
rances; it opens into three cells, each containing a hard
oval feed, covered with a thin red pulp. This fltrub
flowers in July, but rarely produces good feeds in Eng¬
land. Grows naturally in many parts of North America.
2. Celaflrus feandens, or climbing ftafF-tree: unarmed ;
ftem twining. This fort fends out feveral woody ftaiks,
which are flexible, and twift themfelves round trees and
flmibs, or round each other, to the height of twelve or
fourteen feet, or more, girding trees fo clofely as in a few
years todeftroy them. The leaves are about three inches
long, and nearly two broad, ferrate, alternate, of a lively
green above, but paler on the under fide, having feveral
tranfverfe nerves. The flowers are produced in fmali.
bunches towards the ends of the branches ; they are of an
heibaceotis colour, and are fucceeded by roundilh three-
cornered capfules, which are red when ripe, and fpread
open their three cells, difclofing their lleds in the lame
manner as our common fpindle-tree. It flowers in the be¬
ginning of June, and the feeds ripen in autumn. Native
of North America and Japan.
3. Celaftrus myrtifolius, or myrtle-leaved ftaft-tree;
unarmed ; leaves ovate, finely ferrate.; flowers racemed;.
flem ereCt, Native of North America.
4, Celaftrus*
C E L A S T R V S.
SS'2
4. Celaftrus procumbens, or procumbent daft-tree: un¬
armed, procumbent; leaves ovate, ferrate ; flowers axil¬
lary, tub folit ary.. 5. Celaftrus .filiforniis, or filiform-
branched ftaff-tree : unarmed; leaves lanceolate, entire;
branches filiform; peduncles axillary, one-flowered. 6.
Celaftrus acuminatus, or acuminate-leaved ftaff-tree :
unarmed; leaves ovate, acuminate, ferrate; peduncles
axillary, one-flowered; ftem eredt, lax. 7. Celaftrus
microphyllus : unarmed; leaves ovate, obtufe, emire;
cymes terminal, dichotomous. All found at the Cape of
Good Hope by Thunberg.
3. Celaftrus articulatus: unarmed; leaves rounded,
acuminate, ferrate ; peduncles axillary, fubtrifid. 9. Ce¬
laftrus dilatatus: leaves obovate, cufped, ferrate at the
tip, and fmooth; ftem unarmed. 10. Celaftrus ftriatus :
Unarmed; branchlets erect, tlriated ; leaves ovate, acumi¬
nate, ferrate; peduncles fcattered, one-flowered, n. Ce¬
laftrus alatus, or wing-branched ftaff-tree: unarmed;
branches winged. This and the three foregoing fpecies
were firft oblerved by Thunberg in Japan. The laft is a
handfome fhrub, lingular for its winged branches. It is
frequently cultivated by the Japaaefe in their gardens :
and fhe young men hang bunches of the flowers before the
doors of a lioufe., to fignify tlieir defire to pay addreires to
a young woman within.
12. Celaftrus buxifolius, or box-leaved ftaff-tree: fpines
leafy ; branches angular ; leaves dbtule. This rifes with
a (lender woody ftalk to the height of ten or twelve feet,
covet ed with a light afti-coloured bark, and full of joints,
armed with long fpines, upon which grow many fmall
leaves; the branches are flender, armed alfo with fpines
at every joint ; but the whole plant is fo weak as to re¬
quite lame fupport. The leaves come out in clufters,
without any order, are fhaped fomewhat like thofe of the
narrow-leaved box-tree, but longer and of a loofe texture.
They are obovate and acutely ferrate. Both brandies and
branchlets are angular. The flowers are on peduncled
■cymes from the axils. The fruit is globular; in the next
fpecies it is triquetrous. Native of the Cape of Good
Hope, and flowers in May and June.
13. Celaftrus pyracantlius, or pyracantha-leaved ftaff-
tree: fpines naked ; branches round ; leaves acute. This
rifes with an irregular (talk, three or four feet high, fend¬
ing out feveral fide branches, covered with brown bark.
Leaves about two inches long, and more than half an inch
broad, Come pointed and others obtule ; they are ftiff, of a
lucid green, come out irregularly fiom the branches, and
continue green through the year. The flowers are pro¬
duced from the Tides of the branches in loofe tufts, many
from one point, on long peduncles, and of an herbaceous
white colour. The fruit is of a fine red colour, and opens
into three cells, containing one oblong hard feed ; two of
the cells being generally empty. It is a native of the Cape
of Good Hope, whence the feeds were firft brought to the
gardens in Holland, and thence communicated to ntoft of
the curious gardens in Europe. Flowers moft part of the
futnmer.
14. Celaftrus lucidus, or Ihining ftaff-tree, or fmall
Hottentot cherry : leaves oval, fhining, quite entire, mar¬
gined. An upright fhrub, w>ith brown hard branches.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope ; flowers from April to
September.
1 5. Celaftrus linearis, or linear-leaved ftaff-tree : fpines
leafy ; leaves linear, entire. 16. Celaftrus integrifolius, or
entire-leaved ftaff-tree : fpines leafy; leaves ovate, obtufe,
quite entire ; cymes lateral. Found at the Cape of Good
Hope by Thunberg.
17. Celaftrus crenatus, or notch-leaved ftaff-tree: un¬
armed ; leaves ovate, crenulate ; cymes axillary. Native
of the Marquefas iflands in the South Seas.
18. Celaftrus corniculatus : leaves oval, quite entire,
perennial; capfule three-horned. It has the appearance
ofeuclea, and is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
19. Celaftrus callinoides, or crenated ftaff-tree: un¬
armed ; leaves evatc, acute both ways, loofely toothed,
perennial ; flowers axillary. Native of the Canary Iflands }
florversiti Auguft and September.
20. Celaftrus phyllacanthus : thorns leafy; leaves lan¬
ceolate, ferrate, perennial ; flowers lateral. Found in Se¬
negal by Adanfbn. Xt flowered in the Paris garden, but
has not borne fruit.
21. Celaftrus oftogonus, or angular-leaved ftaff-tree:
unarmed; leaves elliptic, angular, almoft nervelefs, pe¬
rennial ; capfules bivalve, one-feeded. Found in Peru by
Dombey. There are other fpecies from Peru and Chili,
which have a bivalve capfule. It flowers in Oftober.
22. Celaftrus undiilauis, or wave-leaved ftaff-tree: tin-
armed ; leaves nearly oppofite, lanceolate, waved; cap-
files bivalve, many feeded. Commerfon found it in the ille
of Bourbon, where they call it bois de joli caur, and life it
as an antiliphylitic.
Propagation and Culture. The firft fpecies is propagated
here by layers, which will take root in one year ; the young
branches only are proper for this purpofe, fo that, where
there are not any of thele near the ground, the main (talks
thould be drawn down, and fattened with pegs to prevent
their riling, and the young fhoots from them thou'.d be laid.
'Fhe belt time for doing this is in autumn, when they be¬
gin to call their leaves, and by that time twelvemonths
they will be fufnciently rooted, when they ftiould be cut
off from the old plant, and planted in a mirlery for two
or three years, to get ftrength ; after which they mull be
removed to the places where they are to remain. This
flirub grows naturally in moift places, and will not thrive
well in a dry foil. It is very hardy, and bears the cold of
out winters very well. It is alio propagated by feeds,
which are frequently brought from America; but, as thefe
rarely arrive here time enough to (ow before the fpring,
the plants never come up the firft year; therefore the feeds
may be town either in pots, or in a bed of loamy earth,
keeping them clean from weeds during the fummer; and.
thofe in the pots ftiould be placed in the (hade till the au¬
tumn, when the pots ftiould be either plunged into the
ground in a warm fituation, or placed under a common
frame, to prevent the frti ft from penetrating through the
tides of t he pots; and, if the furface of thofe which are
plunged into the ground, and alfo the bed where the feeds
are fown, are lightiy covered with fomeold tan from a de¬
cayed hot-bed, it will fecurethe feeds from being hurt by
fevere frofts. In the fpring, when the plants come up,
they mull be kept clear from weeds ; and, if the feafon
prove dry, they ftiould have water now and then, which
v ill greatly forward their growth. If the plants make
good progrefs the firft fummer, they may be tranfplanted
into a nurfery in autumn ; otherwife they tliould remain in
the feed-bed till the fecond year, when they may be treated
in the fame manner as the layers.
The feeds of the fecond fort generally ripen well in
England, and this may be propagated from thefe or by
layers, as the former. It delights in a ftrong loamy foil,
rather moift than dry, and will grow in woods, among other
trees and tlirubs; where, when the fruit is ripe, it makes
a pretty appearance. It is extremely hardy.
The Cape forts may be propagated by cuttings, which is.
more expeditious than raifing them from feeds, becaufe
thefe rarely come up the fame year. The cuttings may
be planted any part of the fummer; but thofe which are
planted early will have more time to get ftrength before
winter. Put them in fmall pots filled with good kitchen-
garden earth, four together: plunge them into a mode¬
rate hot-bed, (hade them from the fun, and gently refreth
them with water now and then. When they have taken
root, expofe them gradually to the open air, and then
place them in a theltered fituation till they have obtained
ftrength. Plant each in a fmall pot filled with the fame
earth ; place them in the thade till they have taken freth
root; fet them with other exotic plants in a fiieltered fitu¬
ation till autumn ; then houfe them with other hardy
green-houfe plants. See Cass'I.ne, Ceanothus, and
Euonymvs.
CE'LATURE,
CEL
CE'LATURE, y. [_c<tlatura, Lat.] The art of engrav.
ing, or cutting in figures.
CE'LEBES, an ifland in the Eaftern Indian Ocean,
about 500 miles long, and 200 broad. It is fituated under
the equator, between the i II and of Bormeo and the Spice
lflands. The heat, which would otherwife be exceflive,
is moderated by the abundant rains which fall, as they
fay, regularly fome days before and after the full moon.
The vapours which rife from the mines of gold and copper,
and thofe which are caufed by the alternate rain and heat,
would render the air very unwholefome if the north winds
did not frequently purify it : thcfe winds produce terrible
tempefts and thunder. In the centre of the ifland are
mountains, almoft inacceffible, in which are found quarries
of excellent ftone and marble, mines of gold, copper, and
tin. Some of the provinces are covered with trees, ebony,
fandal.and other woods, tifed for dying; carpenters’ wood
16 very common, and bamboos of a fize fit for boats. The
trees are always green, fruits and flowers in all feafons,
jafmines, rofes, carnations, and other beautiful flowers,
grow without culture ; orange-trees and citrons fhade the
plains, with mangoes, bananas, and other fruits; cotton-
trees cover the extenfive plains. It produces no fpice ex¬
cept pepper ; the inhabitants raife a great number of cat¬
tle ; the oxen are larger than thofe of Europe. In the fo-
refts are large herds of deer, wild hogs, and a great vari¬
ety of monkies, large and ferocious ; fome with tails and
fome without; fome walking upon their four legs, others
upon two ; the largeft and moil dangerous are the white,
especially to women, whom they feize and carry away.
The chief enemies of the monkies are ferpents, which are
continually in purfuit of them, the larger Swallowing them
whole ; the fmaller employ art and cunning to enfnare
them: perched upon a tree, they make a hilling noife,
which draws the curious apes to find the caufe, when the
ferpent fuddenly feizes on his prey, and drinks 'his blood.
Anciently, the inhabitants conlidered the fun and the moon
as their gods ; at prelent, they pretend to be Mahome¬
tans. No place is furnifhed with a greater variety of poi-
fons ; and the natives, it is faid, fhtdy which will have the
moft fpeedy operation. Their darts, which are dipped in
poifon, give inftant death. Travellers fay, that, even if a
limb be cut off immediately after the wound is received,
it will not lave the patient’s life. The Dutch firfl fettled
and fortified this ifland, as a barrier again!! all nations.
The principal articles jvhich the Dutch obtain from this
colony are rice, gold, ivory, deals, and fandal wood ; cot¬
ton, camphor, ginger, long pepper, and pearls. They
carry thither Scarlet cloth, gold and filver fluffs, linens of
Cambray, tin, copper, iron, foap, and affafoetida. This
ifland isalfocalled Macalfar, from a town of that name in
the fouthern part of the ifland. Lat. 1 . 20. N. to 5. 40. S.
Ion. 1 18. 40. to 1 24. 15. E. Greenwich.
To CE'LEBRATE, v. a. [ cclebro , Lat.] To praife: to
commend; to give praife to; to make famous. — The fongs
of Sion were pfaltns and pieces of poetry that adored or
celebrated the Supreme Being.- Addifon. To diftinguifh by
folemn rites; to perform folemnly. — He flew all them
that were gone to celebrate the fabbath. 2 Maccabees. To
mention in a let or folemn manner, whether of joy or
forrow :
This paufe of pow’r ’tis Ireland’s hour to mourn,
While England celebrates your fafe return. Dryden.
CELEBRATION, /. Solemn performance; folemn
remembrance. — He laboured to drive forrow from her,
and to haften the celebration of their marriage. Sidney. —
Praife ; renown, memorial. No more fhall be added in
this place, his memory deferving a particular celebration ,
than that his learning, piety, and virtue, have been at¬
tained by few. Clarenddn.
CELE'BRIOUS, adj. [ celcber , Lat.] Famous; noted;
renowned. — The Jews, Jerufalem, and the temple, having
been always fo celebrious-, yet when, after their captivities,
they were defpoiled of their glory, even then the Afly-
‘Vol. IV, No. 174,
CEL 13
rians, Greeks, and Romans, honoured with facrifices the
Mof! High God, whom that nation worfhipped. Grew.
CELE'BRIOUSLY, adv. In a famous manner.
CELE'BR IOUSNESS, f. Renown; fame.
CELE'BRITY, J. \_celebritas, Lat.] Public and fplen-
did tranfadlion. — The manner of her receiving, and the
celebrity of the marriage, were performed with great mag¬
nificence. Bacon.
CELEN'ZA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Abruzzo Citra: twelve miles eafl
of Civita Borello.
CE'LERES, in Roman antiquity, the body-guard be¬
longing to the Roman kings, eftablifhed by Ronmlus, and
compofed of 300 young men, chofen out of the mof! illuf-
trious Roman families. They alvyays attended near the
king’s perfon, to be ready to carry his orders, and to exe¬
cute them. In war they made the van-guard in the en ¬
gagement, which they always began firft'; in retreats they
made the rear-guard. Though they were a body of horfe,
yet they ufually difmounted, and fought on foot; then-
commander was called tribune, or prefect of the Celeres.
They were divided into three troops of 100 each, com¬
manded by a captain called centurio. Their tribune was
the fecond perfon in the kingdom.
CE'LERI, or Celery, f. in botany. See Apium.
CELE'RITY, f. \_celeritas, Lat.] Swiftnefs; fpeed ;
velocity. — Whatever increafeth the denfity of the blood,
even without increafing its celerity , heats, becattfe a denfer
body is hotter than a rarer. Arbuthnot. — In mechanics, it
denotes that affedtion of motion by which any moveable
body runs through a given fpace in a given time.
CELESTIAL, adj. [ celejlis , Lat.] Heavenly; relating
to the fuperior regions:
There flay, until the twelve cclejlial figns
Have brought about their annual reckoning. Shakefp.
Heavenly ; relating to the blefled ftate :
Play that fad note
I nam’d my knell, whilfi I fit meditating
On that celejlial harmony I go to. Shakefpeare.
Heavenly, with refpedt to excellence :
Telemachus, his blooming face,
Glowing celejlial fweet, with godlike grace. Pope.
CELESTIAL, f. An inhabitant of heaven :
Thus affable and mild the prince precedes,
And to the dome th’ unknown celejlial leads. Pope.
CELESTIALLY, adv. In a heavenly manner.
To CELES'TIFY, v. a. [from celejlis, Lat.] To give
fomething of heavenly nature to any thing. Not ujed. —
We fliould affirm, that all things were in all things, that
heaven were but earth terreftrified, and earth but heaven
celejlified, or that each part above had influence upon its af¬
finity below. Brown.
CELES'TINS, a religious order, fo called from their
founder, Peter de Meuron, afterwards raifed to the ponti¬
ficate under the name of Celeflin V. Meuron, who was
born at Ifernia, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1 215, retired,
while very young, to a folitary mountain, in order to dedi¬
cate himfelf wholly to prayer and mortification. The
fame'of his piety brought feveral to fee him; fome of
whom, charmed with his virtues, renounced the world to
accompany him in folitude. With thefe he formed a kind
of community, which was approved by Pope Urban IF. in
1264, and eredted into a diftindl order, called the hermits
of St. Damien. Peter de Meuron governed this or der
till 1 286, when his love of folitude and retirement induced
him to quit the charge. In July, 1 294; 1 he great reputa¬
tion of Iris fandlity raifed him to the pontificate. He then
took tire name of Celeflin V. and his order that of Celel-
tins. By his bull he approved their conftitutions, and
confirmed all their monafleries. After his death, which
happened in 1296, his order made great progrefs, and ef-
tabliihed convents all over Europe.
E CELET'TE,
£4 CEL
CELET'TE, a town of France, in the department of
the Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the
difirift of Blois: four miles fouth of Bloisl
CELEU'MA, f in antiquity, the (liout or cry of the
feamen, whereby they animated each other in their woik
of rowing. The word is formed from j'.eAeueii/, to call, to
give the fignal. Celeuma was alfo a kind of fong or for.
mula, rehearfed or played by the matter or others, to di-
redl the tlrokes and movements of the mariners, as well
as to encourage them to labour.
CE'LEUS, a king of Eleufis, father to Triptolemus by
Metanira. He gave a kind reception to Ceres, who
taught liis fon the cultivation of the earth. His rultic
drefs became proverbial. Virgil.
CELEUS'TES, f. in ancient navigation, the boatfwain
or officer appointed to give the rowers tho fignal when they
were to ptdl, and when to flop. He was alfo denominated
epopeus, and by the Romans portfculus ; fometimes Amply
hortator.
CE'LIAC, adj. [from x#iAia, Gr. the belly.] Relating
to the lower belly. — The blood moving (lowly through
the celiac and mefenteric arteries, produces complaints.
Arbulhnot..
CE'LIB ACY, f. [from Calebs, Lat.] Single life; un¬
married (late. — I can attribute their numbers to nothing
but their frequent marriages, for they look on celibacy as
an accurfed (late, and generally are married before twenty.
SpcBator. — The ancient Romans ufed all means imagina¬
ble to difcourage celibacy. Nothing was more ufual than
for the cenfors to impofe a fine on bachelors. Dionylius
Halicarnaflenfis mentions an an-cient conflitution, whereby
all perfons of full age were obliged to marry. But the
firlt law of that kind, of which we have any certainty, is
that under Any u Hus, called lex Julia de maritandis ordini-
bus. It was afterwards denominated Papia Poppcr.a, and
more ufual ly Julia Papia, in regard of fome new (auction
and amendments made to it under the confuls Papius and
Popieus. By this law, divers prerogatives were given to
perfons who had many children; penalties iinpofed on
thofe who lived a fingle life, as that they fiiould be inca¬
pable of receiving legacies, and not exceeding a certain
proportion.
CE'LIBATE, f. [ ccelibatus , Lat.] Single life. — The
males oblige themfelves to celibate, and then multiplication
is hindered. Graunt. — This word is chiefly ufed in fpeak-
ing of the fingle life of the Romifli clergy, or the obliga¬
tion they are under to abltain from marriage. The church
of Rome impofes an. univerfal celibacy on ail its clergy,
from the pope to the lowed deacon and fubdeacon. The
advocates for this ufage pretend, that a vow of perpetual
celibacy was required in the ancient church as a condition
of ordination, even from the earlied apodolic ages. But
the contrary is evident, from numerous examples of
biihops and archbifhops who lived in a date of matrimony,
without any prejudice to their ordination or their function.
It is generally agreed, that mod of t he apodles were mar¬
ried. Some fav ail of them, except St. Paul and St.John.
Others fay Sr. Paul himfelf was married, becaufe he writes
to his yoke- fellow, whom fome interpret his wife. In the
next ages. after the apodles, we have accounts of divers
married biihops, piefbyters, and deacons, without any re¬
proof or mark of dilhonour fet upon them. The reply
which the Romaoids give to this is, that alt married per¬
fons, when they came to be ordained, promifed to live le-
parate from their wives by confent, which anfwered the
vow of celibacy in other perfons. There feems, indeed,
to have been, in fome cafes, a tendency towards the intro¬
duction of fucli a law; for Eufebius obferves, t hat Piny-
tus, bi (hop of Gnoffus in Crete, was for laying the law of
celibacy upon his brethren ; but Dionyfms, bifliop of Co¬
rinth, wrote to him that he (honld coniider the weuknefs of
men, and not impofe that heavy burden on them. In the
.council of Nice, anno 325, the motion was renewed for a
law to oblige the clergy to abdain from ail conjugal fociety
with their wives, whom they had married before their or.
CEL
dination • but Paphnutius, a famous Egyptian bifliop, and
one who himfelf never' was married, vigorouily declaimed
agamd it, upon which it was unanimouily rejected. So
Socrates and Sndomen tell the dory ; to which all that Va-
ledus, after Bellarmin, has to fay, is, that he fufpedts the
truth of it. The council in Trullo, held in 692, made a
difference in tins rdpect between biffiops and preffiyters
allowing pi elbyters, deacons, and all t lie inferior orders, to
cohabit with their wives after ordination ; and giving the
Roman church a rebuke for the contrary prohibition ; but
at the fame time laying an injunction upon biffiops to live
leparate from their wives, and appointing the wives to be¬
take themfelves to a monadic life, or become deaconefles
in tiie church. And thus was a total celibate edabliffied
in the Greek church as to biihops, but not any others. Jn
the Latin church the like eftabiifhment was alfo made, but
bv (low deps, in many places. For in Africa even biffiops
themfelves cohabited with their wives, at the time of the
council of Trullo. The celibacy of the clergy, however
appears of an ancient danding, if not of command and ne-
ceffity, yet as of counfel and choice. But, as it is dearly
neither ot divine nor apodolical inditution, it is hard to con¬
ceive from what motive the court of Rome perfided fo
very obdinately to impofe this inditution on the cler^v.
But vve are to obferve, that this was a leading dep to the
execution of the project formed of making the clergy in¬
dependent of princes, and rendering them a feparate°body
to be governed by their own laws. In effeiT, while prieds
had children, it was very difficult to prevent their depend¬
ence on princes, whole favours have fuch an influence on
private men; but, having no family, they were'more at
liberty to adhere to the pope.
After all, it feems an inditution highly repugnant to
reafon, and to the defign of Providence. For the preva¬
lence of a notion fo pernicious, and literally dedrudliveto
the human fpecies, during a period of grols ignorance, we
may eatily account ; but, when the world began to be en¬
lightened by the revival of learning and philofophy, it
might have been expected, that an opinion fo palpably con¬
tradictory to tiie fird law of nature, with every abfurd prac¬
tice to which it had given birth, would indantly difappear.
To the no (mall diferedit, however, of the reformers of the
world, the fame opinion, even through ages of increafino-
knovvledge, lias (iill remained; or, periiaps, it mi°ht
more judly be faid, that the practice arifing from it has
exided long after the parent notion has in reality been dead.
Not only have the whole body of the Romifh priedhood
been kept in the unnatural date of celibacy, but a consi¬
derable body of the protedant clergy , in conformity to the
ancient Romiffi inllitutions, have been obliged, in order to
poifefs certain academical honours and emoluments in our
univerfities, to deny themfelves tiie enjoyment of domedic
comforts. It is impoflible that a redaction of fo ferious a
nature ffiould not tong have been lamented as a grievous
burden ; yet fo difficult is it to alter ancient edabliffiments,
that this grievance remains even up to the clofe of the
eighteenth century !
CELIDOGRA'PHIA, f. The description of the fpots
whicli appear on the furfaces of the fun and planets.
CE'LIS, J. [y.ri At?, from to burn.] A fpot or ble-
mifh upon tiie (kin, particularly that which is occafioned
by a burn. N
CELL,y. [cella, Lat.] A fmal! cavity or hollow place :
The brain contains ten thoufand cells;
In each fome aClive fancy dwells. Prior.
The cave or little habitation of a religious perfon :
Then did religion in a lazy cell.
In empty, airy, contemplations dwell. Denham.
A fin al 1 and ctofe apartment in aprifon; any fmall place
of reildence ; a cottage :
In cottages and lowly cells
True piety neglected dwells;
Till call’d to lieav’n, its native feat,
Where the good man alone is great. Somerville.
Little
C£L
Little bags or bladders, where fluids, or matter of different
forts, are lodged ; common in the (trudture both of ani¬
mals and plants. Quincy.
CEL'LAR,/. [cclla, Lat.] A place under ground, where
ftores and liquors are repofited. — If this fellow had lived in
the time of Cato, hevwould, for his punifhment, have been
confined to the bottom of a cellar during his life. Pcacham.
CEL'LARAGE, f. The part of t lie building which
makes the cellars. — A good afeent makes a houfe whole-
fome, and gives opportunity for cellarage. Mortimer.
CEL'LARER, f. [from cellerarius , Lat.] An officer in
monafteries, to whom belonged the care and procurement of
provifions for the convent. The denomination is (aid to
be borrowed from the Roman law, where cellarius denotes
an examiner of accounts and expences. The cellarius was
one of the four great officers of monafteries : under his or¬
dering was'the prijlinum, or bakehoufe, and the bracinum,
or brewhoufe. In the richer houfes there were particu¬
lar lands fet apart for the maintenance of his office, called,
in ancient writings, ad cibum monachorum . The cellerarius
was a great man in the convent. His whole office, in an¬
cient times, had a refp.efl to that origin ; he was to fee his
lord's corn got in, and laid up in granaries ; and his ap¬
pointment confided in a certain proportion thereof, ufualiy
a thirteenth part of the whole, together with a furred
gown. The office of cellarer then only differed in name
from thofe of bailiff and minftrel ; excepting that the cel¬
larer had the receipt of his lord’s rents through the whole
extent of his jurildi&ion. Cellarer was alfo an officer in
chapters, to whom belonged the care of the temporals, and
particularly the diftribufmg of bread, wine, and money, to
canons, on account of their attendance in the •choir. In
Lome places he was called cellarer , in others burfer, and in
others currier.
CELLA'RIUS (Chrifiopher), a learned voluminous
writer, born in 163S, at Smalcalde, in Franconia. His fa¬
ther was minifterof the town, and his mother was daugh¬
ter of the famous divine Joachim Zehners. He began his
Studies in the college of Smalcalde, and at eighteen was re¬
moved to Jena, to finiflt his education in that univerfity.
He (laid three years in this place, where he applied to claf-
(ical learning under Bofuis, to philofophy under Bechman,
to the oriental languages under Frifchmuth, and to mathe¬
matics under Weigelius. He took his doctor's degree in
1666. The year following he was made profefforof He¬
brew and moral philofophy at Weiffenfels, and he filled
this charge for feven years. In 1673 he was called to
Weymar, to be rector of the college there. He kept this
employment three years, and quitted it for another of the
fame kind at Zeits. After two years, the college of Merf-
bourg was offered to him, which he accepted. His learn¬
ing, his abilities, and his diligence, foon rendered this col¬
lege famous, and drew a great number of (Indents ; and the
place was fo agreeable to him, that he determined to end
his days there. But Providence difpofed of him other-
wife ; for, th.e king of Pruffia having founded an univer¬
fity at Halle in 1693, he prevailed upon him to be profeffor
of eloquence and hiftory in it. Here he compofed a great
part of his works. His great application fhortened his
days, and haftened on the infirmities of old age. He was
a longtime afflidted, but could-never be perfuaded to feek
affiftance from medicine. He died in 1707, in his fixty-
ninth year. He publifhed good editions of above twenty
Latin and Greek authors; and, although he was a very
voluminous writer, yet he publifhed nothing in haffe ; no¬
thing but what was quite corretl and finiflied, and what
was likewife of great utility. His works relate chiefly to
grammar, geography, hillory, and the oriental languages.
His works in geography are well known, as excellent helps
to the underdanding of ancient authors.
CEL'LE, or Marien Celle, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of Lower Stiria, on the confines of Audria, with
a celebrated abbey, to which the emprefs Maria Therefa
prefented *a (ilver image of the Virgin, after the birth of
the emperor Jofeph II. twelve miles north of Pruck.
CEL'LE, a town of France, in the department of the
Two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the diftmet’of
Melle : ten miles fouth-eaft of Niort.
CEL'LE SUR THIERS, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Pny-de-Dome : two leagues E. Thiers.
CELLEFROU'I N, a town of France, in the department
of the Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the didrffik
of La Rochefoucauld : nine miles north of La Rochefou¬
cauld.
CELLI'NI (Benvenuto), a celebrated Sculptor and en¬
graver of Florence, born in 1500, and intended to be trained
to the profeilion of ntufic ; bur, at fifteen years of age, h'e
bound himfelf, contrary to his father’s inclinations, to a
jeweller and goldfmith, under whom he made fuel) a pro¬
gress, as presently to rival the moil fkilfu! in the pro-
lellion. He alfo dilcovered an early taffe for drawing and
defigning, which he afterwards cultivated. Nor did he
negledt mufic ; tor, allifting at a concern before Clefnetir
VII. that pope took him into hisfervice, in the double ca¬
pacity of goldfmith and mufician. Heapplied himfelf alfo
to fcal. engraving, learned to make curious damafkeemngs
of (feel and filvor on Turkifh daggers, &c. and was very
ingenious in medals and rings. But Cellini excelled in
arms, as vveli as in arts; and Clement VII. valued him as
much for h:s bravery, as for his (kill in his profeilion.
When the duke of Bourbon laid liege to Rome, and the*,
city w as taken and plundered, the pope committed the
caflle of St. Angelo to Cellini, who«defended it like a ntau
bred to arms, and did not differ it to furrender but by ca¬
pitulation. Cellini, however, was one of thofe great wits
who may truly be faid to have bordered upon madnefs; he
was of a delultory, capricious, unequal, humour ; and this
involved him perpetually in adventures, which were often
near being fatal to his interefis. He travelled among the
cities of Ralv, but chiefly redded at Rome, where he was
fometimes in favour with the great, and fometimes not.
He conforted with all the fir(t artilts in their feveral ways,
with Michael Angelo, Julio Romano, See. Finding hitrt-
leif at length upon ill terms in Italy, he formed a refoltt-
tion of going to France ; and, palling front Rome through
Florence, Bologna, and Venice, lie arrived at Padua, where
lie was kindly received by the famous Pietro Bentbo.
From Padua he travelled through Swilferland, vifited Ge¬
neva in his way to Lyons, and, after reding a few days in
this lad city, he arrived at Paris. He met with a graci¬
ous reception from Francis I. who would have taken him
into his fervice ; but, conceiving a didike to France, from
a hidden illnefs lie fell into there, he returned to Italy.
He was fcarcely arrived, when, being accufed of having
robbed the caftle of St. Angelo of a great treafure at the
time that Rome was facked by the Spaniards, he was ar-
reded and lent toprifon. Being fet at liberty, after many
harddiips and difficulties, he was fent for by the French
king, and he fet out with the cardinal Ferrara for Paris;
where, when they arrived, being difguded at the cardinal’s
propoftng what he thought an inconsiderable Salary, he let
off abruptly upon a pilgrimage to Jernfalem. He was,
however, purlued, and brought back to the king, who fet¬
tled a handl’ome (alary upon him, adigned him a houle to
live in at Paris, and granted hi m naturalization. But
here, getting into (crapes and quarrels, and particularly
having offended Madame d’Edainpes, the king’s midrefs,
he was expofedto endlefs troubles and persecutions ; with
which at length being wearied out, he obtained the king’s
permiffion to return to Italy, and went to Florence, where
he was kindly received by Cofmo de Medici, the grand
duke, and he engaged himfelf in hisfervice. Here again
difguded with Some of the duke’s Servants, he went to Ve¬
nice, where he was careffed by Titian, Sanfovino, and
other ingenious artids; but, after a ffiort day, he returned
to Florence, and refumed his bufinefs. He died in 1570.
His life, written in theTufcan language, was not publidted
till 1730, in one volume 4to. as abounding, we prefume,
with perfonal anecdotes and driiftures, which would not
Suffer its appearance Sooner : and it was tranflated into
Englilli,
i6 C E h
Englifh, in 1771, by Dr. Nugent, and publifned in two
vols. 8V0.
CELLI'NO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Abruzzo Ultra : feven miles E.Teramo.
CEL'LULAR, ad j. \_cellula , Lat.jj Confiding of little
cells or cavities. — The urine, infinuating itfelf amongd the
neighbouring mufcles, and cellular membranes, dedroyed
four. Sharp.
CEL'ME, a town of Spain, in the province of Gallicia,
on the river Lima : fix leagues fouth of Montefura.
CELON'ZA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Capitanata : five miles north-well of Vol-
turara.
CEI.ORI'CO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira, which contains three churches, and about 1100 in¬
habitants : three leagues north-wed of Guarda.
CELO'SIA,y. The Coc k’s-comb ; in botany, a genus
of the clafs pentandria, order monogynia, natural order
mifcellaneae. The generic characters are — Calyx : peri-
anthium three-leaved ; leaflets lanceolate, dry, acute, per¬
manent, fimilar to the corolla. Corolla: petals five, lan¬
ceolate, acuminate, eredt, permanent, didifli, calyciform ;
neClary a margin lurrounding the germ, very frnall, five-
cleft. Stamina: filaments five, fubulate, conjoined at the
bafe to the plaited nedtary, length of the corolla; antherae
verfatile. Pidillum : germ globular; dyle fubulate,
draight, length of the flamens ; fligma fimple. Pericar-
pium; capfule globular, furrounded by the corolla, one-
celled, circumcifed. Seeds: few, roundidi, emarginate.
— EJ/ential CkaraEler. Calyx three-leaved, leaflets fimilar
to thofe of the five-petalled corolla; flamina conjoined at
the bafe to the plaited nedtary ; capfule gaping horizon¬
tally.
Species. 1. Celofia argentea, or filvery-fpiked celofia :
leaves lanceolate; dipules fubfalcated ; peduncles angu¬
lar; fpikes fcariofe. Native of the Ead-Indies, China,
Cochinchina, and Japan. Introduced in 1714, by the
duchefsof Beaufort. It flowers from June to September.
2. Celofia margaritacea : leaves ovate; dipules fal¬
cated ; peduncles angular; fpikes fcariofe. This, fays
Linnaeus, bears fo much fimilitude to the foregoing fort,
as to be almod a variety ; there can, indeed, be little doubt
of its being quite fo. The leaves are rather ovate, and
the damina purple. Miller defcribes his margaritacea as
rifing with an upright dalk about two feet high, garnifhed
with oval leaves ending in points, of a pale colour; thofe
on the lower part being four or five inches long, and one
and a half broad in the middle, but they diminifli gradu¬
ally in their fize upwards. Towards the upper part of the
daik, there are a few fide branches fent out, which dand
eredt, each terminated by a (lender fpike of flowers, and
the principal dalk is terminated by one which is much
larger ; this is two or three incheslong, and about as thick
as a man’s middle finger, the whole fpike being of a filvery
colour. But there is a variety of this with (lender pyrami¬
dal fpikes, intermixed with red towards the top. It is
different from that which was figured by Marty n in his
Decades of rare Plants. The fpike of this is much thicker
than that of Linnaeus's, and of equal fize the whole length ;
whereas his diminifhes almod to a point at the top, and
the colours of both tire very different. He fays that it
grows naturally in America.; and that he has frequently
received the feeds from thence.
3. Celofia criftata, or creded amaranth, or cock’s-comb :
leaves oblong-ovate ; peduncles round, fubftriated ; fpikes
oblong. This is well known by the common appellation
of cock’s-comb, which was given it from the form of its
creded head of flowers, refembling the comb of a cock.
There are many varieties, differing in form, magnitude,
and colour, from the fame feed. The principal colours
of their heads are red, purple, yellow, and white; but
fome are variegated with two or three colours. Linnaeus
remarks, that it varies with narrow and broad leaves. It
is a native of Afia. Thunberg informs us, that the creds
©r heads of the flowers ate frequently a foot in length and
CEL
breadth in Japan, and extremely beautiful, but that they
degenerate in other countries. It was cultivated here
in 1570.
4. Celofia paniculata, or panicled celofia : leaves ovate-
oblong ; dem rifing, panicled; fpikes alternate, termi¬
nal, remote. Miller fays, that the dems are near four
feet in length; and that the dender fpikes are of a pale
yellow, fhining with a glofs like filk ; that it grows natu¬
rally in mod of the fugar iflands ; and that the feeds were
fent him from Jamaica by Dr. Houdoun.
5. Celofia coccinea, or fcarlet celofia, or Chinefe cock’s-
comb : leaves ovate, diff, earlefs: dem grooved; fpikes
manifold, creded. This has a furrowed dalk, rifing three
or four feet high, and terminated by feveral lpikes of flow¬
ers varioufly formed, fome being creded, others plumed
like feathers, of a bright fcarlet colour, and making a good
appearance. The feeds, even when carefully faved, are
apt to degenerate. According to Linnaeus, it differs from
the third fort, in having leaves three times as thick, and
brittle ; t.he flowers wholly .purple, not red, with a purple
keel ; and the damina fhorter indead of longer than the
corolla. It is a native of China, whence Mr. Miller re¬
ceived the feeds ; but it was cultivated long before by Ge-
rarde, in 1597.
6. Celofia cadrenfis, or branched celofia, or cock’s-
comb: leaves lanceolate-ovate,. marked with lines, very
much acuminated ; dipules falcated : fpikes creded. This
is of humbler growth. The branches proceed from the
axils of the leaves almod the length of the dalk, and are
terminated by dender fpikes of flowers of no great beauty.
The plant, therefore, is only preferved in botanic gardens.
The dem, according to Loureiro, is a foot and a half in
height, red, driated, and thick, with fimple rifing branches.
Leave* quite entire, fmooth, fcattered, marked underneath
with red lines running obliquely, on Ihort petioles. Lin¬
naeus adds, that they often grow by threes. Flowers
blood-red, in terminating fpikes, which are creded and
large, and in axillary ones, which are oblong and frnall.
The capfules have, many flatted, black, Alining, feeds.
Native of the Ead-Indies. Cultivated generally in China
and Cochinchina; here by Miller in 1739.
7. Celofia trigyna, or oval-leaved celofia : leaves ovate-
oblong; raceme lax; pidil trifid. Native of Senegal. In¬
troduced in 1777, by Monf.Thouin.
8. Celofia lanata, or woolly celofia : leaves lanceolate,
tomentofe,obtufe; fpikes crowded ; damina woolly. This
rifes with a white woolly dalk, from two to three feet high.
From the upper part come out two or three llender fide-
branches, which, as alfo the principal dalk, are terminated
by woolly fpikes of flowers; the corollas are fo clofely
wrapt up in their woolly calyxes as to be fcarcely vifible
to the naked eye ; fo that they make no great appearance :
the extreme whitenefs, however, of the dalk, leaves, and
fpikes, makes a pretty variety. It is a native of the ifland
of Ceylon.
9. Celofia guaphaloides : fhrubby, woolly; leaves op-
pofite, ovate, white beneath ; head globular, peduncled.
Was found in Brafil, on monte Video, by Thouin.
10. Celofia nodiflora, or knotted celofia : leaves wedge-
form, fomewhat acute ; fpikes globular, lateral. Stems
angular, grooved, even ; leaves like thofe of purflane,
obovate, obtufe with a point, quite entire, fmooth, fub-
petioled. It varies, 1. with obiong leaves and peduncled
heads ; 2. with diort roundidi leaves, ending in a point,
and fellile heads : the fird from Sumatra, and the fecond
from Malabar. It was introduced herein 1780; and flow¬
ers in J uly and Augud.
11. Celofia procumbens, or procumbent celofia: dems
decumbent ; peduncles very long, leaflefs ; fpikes ovate,
approximating; capfules compreffed, creded- winged.
Stems two feet high, proflrate, round, little branched.
Native of St. Domingo; introduced in 1784, by Monf.
Thouin.
12. Celofia monfonix, or downy celofia: fpikes compact,
cylindric; branches biachiate; leaves fubulate. Stems
prodrate,
CEL
proftrate, branching, ending in mord elongated branches,
a Ipan long, and hoary. Native of the Ea(t-lndies.
1 3 . Celcfia polygonoides : leaves cordate ; ftemhifpid;
raceme fpiked, loofe ; flowers three-ftyled. 14. Celofia
baccata: flowers three-ftyled; fruits berried. Found in
the Eaft-Indies by Koenig.
Propagation and Culture. In order to have large fine
amaranths, great care fhould be taken in the choice of the
feeds; for, if they are not carefully collected, the whole
expence and trouble of raffing them will be loft. The
feeds mu ft be fown on a hot-bed, which fhould have been
prepared'a few days before, that the violent heat may be
abated, about the beginning of March ; and in about a
fortnight’s time, if the bed is in good temper, the plants
will rife; but, as they are tender when they firfl appear,
they require great care for a few days till they get ftrength;
firth, in giving them a due proportion of air, to prevent
their drawing up weak ; and next, to keep them from too
great a mol ft 11 re, for a fmall (hare of moifture will caufe
their tender ftems to rot : in flowing the feeds, there fhould
be care taken not to put them too clofe; for, when the
plants come up in clufterf , they frequently fpoil each other
for want of room to grow: in a fortnight or three weeks
time the plants will be fit to remove, when you mud pre¬
pare another hot-bed, covered with a good, rich, fight,
earth, about four inches thick, which fhould be made a few
days, that it may have a proper temperature of heat : then
r-aife up the young plants with ycur finger, lo as not to
break off the tender roots, and prick them into the new hot¬
bed, about four inches diftance every way, giving them a
gentle watering to fettle the earth to their roots; but in
doing this, be very cautious not to bear the young plants
down to the ground by lnifty watering. After the plants
are thus planted, they muft be fcreen-ed from the fun till
they have taken frefli root ; but, as there is generally a
great (team riling from the fermentation of the dung,
which condenfes againft the glades, and, dropping upon
the plants, very frequently deftroys them ; the glalfles
fhould, therefore, be frequently turned in the day-time,
whenever the weather will permit; but, if the weather
happen to prove bad, it will be of great fervice to your
plants to wipe offall the moifture two or three times a-day
with a woollen cloth, to prevent its dropping upon the
plants. When your plants are firmly rooted, and begin
to grow, you muft obferve to give them air every day,
(more or lefs as the weather is cold or hot,) to prevent
their drawing up too faff, which greatly weakens their
ftems. In about a month or five weeks, thefe plants will
have grown fo as to meet; therefore another hot-bed
fhould be prepared of a moderate temper, and covered
with the fame rich earth about fix inches thick, in which
they fhould be planted (obferving to rake them up with
as much earth about their roots as po(Iible) at feven or
eight inches diftance every way, giving them fome water
to fettle the earth about their roots; but be very careful
not to water them heavily, fo as to bear down the plants;
and keep them (haded in the heat of the day, until they
have taken frefh root ; and be fine to refrelh them often,
but gently, with water, and give them air in proportion to
the heat of the weather, covering the glades with mats
every night, left the cold chill your beds, and flop the
growth of the plants. In the middle of May you muft
provide another hot-bed, which fhould be covered with a
deep frame, that your plants may have room to grow :
upon this hot-bed you muft fet as many three-penny pots
as can (land within the compafs of die frame ; thefe pots
Tnuft be filled with good rich earth, and the cavities be¬
tween each pot filled up with any common earth, to prevent
the heat of the bed from evaporating, and filling the frame
-with noxious fleams; then with a trowel take up your
plants with as much earth as poflible to the roots, and
-place each (ingle plant in the middle of one of the pots,
■filling the pot up with the earth before deferibed, and let-
tie it clofe to the root of the plant with your hands ; water
Vo l. IV. No. 174.
them gently, as before, and (hade them, in the heat of the
day, from the violence of the fun, by covering the glades
with mats; refrelh them often with water, and give them
a good quantify of air in the day-time. In about three
weeks more, thefe plants will have grown to a confidet-
able (ize and ftrength, fo that you muft now raife the
glaftes very much in the day time; and, when the air is
foft, and the fun is clouded, draw' off the glalfles, and ex-
pofe them to the open air, and repeat this as often as the
weather will permit, which will harden them by degrees
to be removed abroad into the places where they are to re¬
main the whole feafon ; but it is not advifeable to fet thefe
plants out until a week in July, obferving to do it when
the air i3 perfectly foft, and, if poflible, in a gentle fhower
of rain. Let them at firfl be fet near the fhelter of a hedge
for two or three days, where they may be fereened from
the violence of the fun and ftrong winds, to which they
muft be inured by degrees : thefe plants, w hen grow n to a
good ftature, perfpire very freely, and muft be every day
refreflied with water, if the weather be hot and dry ; other-
wife they will (hint, and never produce their plumes fo
fine as they would do if taken caTe of. This is the pro¬
per management in order to have fine amaranths; which,
if rightly followed, and the kinds are good, in a favourable
feafon will produce wonderful large fine heads, and are the
greateft ornament to a good garden for upwards of two
months: by this method, plants will grow to five or fix
feet high, with crefts nearly 4 foot in breadth ; and, per¬
haps, much larger, if the kind be good, and there be no
want of dung or conveniencies. By the middle or latter
end of September, the amaranths will have perfefted their
feeds, fo that you nnffi make choice of the Iargeft, mod
beautiful, and lead: branching, plants, of each kind, for
feed, which you fhould remove under fhelter, efpecially
if the weather prove wet, or the nights frofty, that the
feeds may be perfeflly ripened ; be litre never to take any
feeds from fide-branches, nor from the neck of the plume,
but only fuch as are produced in the middle thereof,
which, in many plants, perhaps, may be but a fmall quan¬
tity ; but thefe only cap be depended on to produce good
kinds the fucceeding year. See Iresine.
CELO'TOMY, f. [ celotomia , Lat. from xnt-n, a tumor
or hernia, and to cut.] The operation of cutting a
hernia, or of caftration.
CBL'SA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Principato Citra: twenty-five mile fouth-
weft of Cangiano.
CEL'SIA,/ [the name was given to this plant by Lin¬
naeus, in honour of Olaus Cdfus, D.D. profeffor of the
Greek language, and afterwards of theology, in the uni-
verfity of Upfal.] In botany, a genus of the clafs didyna-
mia, order angiolperma, natural order luridae. The ge¬
neric charadters are — Calyx : perianthiunt five-parted ;
drvifions lanceolate, obtufe, length of the corolla, perma¬
nent. Corolla : monopetalous, rotated ; tube extremely
fliort ; border flat, half-five-cleft, unequal ; divifions
roundifh, of which the two fuperior ones are fmaller, the
inferior one larger. Stamina : filaments four, capillary,
inclined towards the ftnalleft divifions of the corolla; of
which the two longer ones are fhorter than the corolla,
and are outwardly woolly ; antherre roundifh, fmall. Pif-
tillum: germ roundifh ; ftyle filiform, length of the fla¬
me ns ; ftigma obtufe. Pericarpium : capfule roundiih,
compreffled at the tip, acuminate, fitting on the calyx,
bilocular. Seeds : very many, fmall, angular. Recep¬
tacles folifary, hemifpherical. — EJfaitial Character. Calyx
five-parted ; corolla rotated ; filaments bearded j capfule
two-celled.
Species. 1 . Celfia Orientalis, or Oriental celfia : leaves
bipinnate. Leaves oblong, finely divided almoft to the
midrib on both lides, lying flat on tl;e ground : from the
centre of thefe a round herbaceous ftaik rifes near two
feet high, with leaves of the fame fhape the whole -length,
but gradually dimhiilhing in Cue to the top ; they are
F placed
iS C E L
placed alternately, and at the foot-lialk of each come out
the flowers, more than half the length of the (talk; they
are of an iron colour on the out fide, but pale yellow with¬
in, fpreading open like thole of common mullein, but not
fb regular, it flowers in June, and the feeds ripen in
September. Native of the Levant. Tournefort fent the
feeds from Armenia to the royal garden at Pal is, whence
this plant has been communicated to mod parts of Europe.
It is annual ; but in England it will rarely ripen its feeds,
nniefs the plants come upjn the autumn, and live through
tire winter. It was cultivated in 1739, 'n Chelfea garden.
2. Celfia ardlurus, or fool lop-leaved cellia : radical
leaves lyrate-pinna'e ; peduncles longer than the flower.
Native of Crete; biennial; cultivated about 1780.
3. Celfia creticu, or great-flowered celfia : radical leaves
lyrate; Item leaves fubeordat^e, embracing ; flowers fub-
feflile. Native of the Eaft-Indies ; introduced in 1776, by
M. Thouin ; it flowers in-July ; biennial.
4. Celfia linearis : leaves tern, linear, toothletted. This
is an elegant, evergreen, finooth, flirub. 1 he trunk is
woody, but weak, the thicknels of a quill, ftriated, pale
brown, three feet high, putting out numerous fpreading
branches its whole-length; tlte younger ones green,
grooved, aed very leafy. Leaves growing three together,
fpreading much, the larged two inch.es long. Profeflor
Jacquin received it from Ortega of Madrid. It was found
in Peru by Dombey ; and was introduced here from France
by Mr. Williams.
Propagation and Culture. If the feeds are fown on a warm
dry border as foon as they are ripe, the plants will often
come up and live through the winter, if the foil be poor :
in rich ground they are apt to grow rank, and then they
are generally tieftroyed by the early frofts, or w ill rot with
much wet; but, if the plants fhould not rife -the fame
autumn, there will be little hazard of their growing the
following fpring. They require no other care but to keep
them clean from weeds, and thin them if they are too.
clofe ; for they do not bear removing well, and fhould
therefore be fown where they are intended to remain.
Sometimes, when the feafoti proves warm, the plants fown
in the fpring produce ripe feeds, but thefe cannot be de¬
pended on. The fecond and third fpecies require the pro¬
tection of the green-hou fe. The fourth may be propa¬
gated botli by feeds and cuttings. It fucceeds belt in a
moderate dove, but will bear to be treated as a tender
green-houfe plant.
CEL'SITUDE, /. \_cdfitudo, Lat.] Height.
CEL'SUS, a celebrated philofopher of the Epicurean
feit, fiouriflied in the fecond century under Adrian and
Antoninus Pius, and is the fame with him to whom Lu¬
cian has dedicated his Pfeudamantis. He wrote a famous
work againft the Chriftian religion, under the title of “ A
True Difcourfe,” which was anfvvercd by Origen in as
famous a work, confiding of eight books. His “True
Difcourfe” is lod ; blit Iris objections againft Chridianity
may be known from the extracts which are preferved of
rt in Origen’s anfwer. It is agreed on all hands, that he
was a mod fubtle adverfary, perfectly verfed in all the arts
of controvei fy, and as learned as he was ingenious : fc that
it is no wonder if the primitive Chriffians thought nothing
lefs than fuch a champion as Origen a match for him.
CEL'SUS (Aurelius Cornelius), a.philo(opher and phy-
fician, who flciiridied under the reign of Auguffus and
Tiberius. We know but little of him ; that he lived at
Rome, and fpent the greated part of his days there, we
have forne reafon to think; but whether he was born in.
that city, or ever made free of it, mud remain for ever
uncertain. He wrore upon feveral fubjeCfs, as we learn
'from Quintilian : upon rhetoric, for which, he is often
quoted and commended by this great maffer ; upon the art
military; upon agriculture; and. we have dill extant of
his, eight books de Medicina, which are written in very
pure Latin. There is a palfage in one of thefe books, which
deferves to be quoted, becanfe it fhews a generous and eu-
fcutged mind j becaufe, too, it is applicable to more pro-
C E L
fe (lions than one, and may help to cure that obdinacy ami-
bigotry which are fo natural to the pride of the human
heart. Hippocrates, knowing and (kilful as he was, once
midook a fraChire of the flaill for the natural future, and
was afterwards fo ingenuous as to confefs his midake, and
even to leave it upon record. “ This,” fays Cel (us, “ was
aCting like a truly great man. Little geniufes, con feious
to themfelves that they have nothing to (pare, cannot
bear the lead diminution of their prerogative, nor differ
themfelves to depart from any opinion which they liave-
once embraced, how falfe and pernicious foever that opi¬
nion may he ; while the man of reaL ability is always ready
to make a frank acknowledgement of his errors, and efpe-
cially in a profellion where it is of importance to poderity
to record the truth. ^ Boerhaave tells us, that Celfus is
one of the bed authors of antiquity, for letting us into the
true meaning of Hippocrates ; and, that without him, the
writings of this father in phyfic would he often unintelligi¬
ble, often mifonderdood by us. Dr. Mead alfo fpeaks of
him in the higheff terms; fays, that he endeavours to
imitate not only his fenfe, but, as often as he can, his
language too ; andwifhes that he could have done it of-
tener. The books de Medicina have been often printed :
the bed edition is fuppoleu to be that of Leyden, 1730, in
two vols. 8vo.
CEL'TAE, or Celjes, an ancient nation, by which
mod of the countries of Europe are thought to have been
peopled. The compilers of the Univerfal Hidory are of
opinion t hat they are defeended from Gomer the elded fon
of Japhef, the fon of Noah. They think that Gomer fet¬
tled in the province of Phrygia in Ada :• Afhkenaz his
etdell fon, or Togarmah his younged, or both, in Arme¬
nia; and Riphath the fecond fon in Cappadocia. When
they fpread themfelves wider, they feemed to have moved
regularly in columns without interfering with, or diffurb-
ing, their neighbours. The defeendants of Gomer, or
the Celts, took the left hand, infallibly fpreading them-
felves wefiward, towards Poland, Hungary, Germany,
France, and Spain ; while the defeendants ot Magog, Co¬
mer’s brother, moving ealtward, peopled Taitary. In
this large European tra'iff, the Celtes began to appear a-
powerful nation under a regular monarchy, or rather un¬
der feveral confiderable kingdoms. Mention is made of
them indeed in fo many parts of Europe, by ancient geo¬
graphers and hidorians, that Ortelius- took Celtica to be ;t
general name for the continent of Europe, and made a.
map of it bearing this title. I11 thofe parts of Afia which
they polfeffed, as well as in the different parts of Europe,
the Celtes went by various names. In Leffer Afia they
were known by the names of Titans and Sacks-, in the-
northern parts of Europe,, by thofe of Cymmcrians, Cymbri —
ans, 8c c. and in the fouthern parts they were called Celtes,
Gauls, or Galatians. In after-times the name Celta came to-
be more particularly applied to that part of the Gauls,
whole country, called Gallia Celtica, wasfituate between the
rivers Sequana and Carumna, inodernly called' the Seine
and the Garonne. Mr. Bryant feems to (hew, that the
Celtaa-.Iprung from Celtus, the fon of Polyphemus; and
hence that they were of Cyclopian original, and of the
Anakim race. The promontory which bore the name of
Celticum, is now called Cape Finijhrre.
With refpedt to the government of the Celtes, we are
entirely in the dark. All we know is, that the curates,,
and afterwards. druids and hards, were the interpr. ters'of
their laws; judged all cattles, whether criminal or civil ;
and their fentence was reckoned fo facred, that whoever
refilled to abide by. it; was by them excluded from afliit-
ing at their facred rites ; after which no, man dared con-
verfe with him ; fo that this puniffiment was reckoned
feverer than death itfelf. They neither reared temples
nor ftatues to the Deity, but deffroyed them wherever
they could find them, planting- in their ffead large fpa-
cious groves, which, being open on the top and (ides,
W'ere, in their opinion, more acceptable to the Divine Be¬
ing, who is absolutely uncofifined.. In this their religion
Items
CEL
Teems to Have refemblcd that of the Perfces and difciples
of Zoroafier. Tlie Celtes only differed from them in
making the oak infleadof the fir the emblem of the Deity;
in choofing this tree above all others to plant their groves
with, and attributing feveral fupernatural virtues both to
its wood, leaves, fruit, and mifsletoe ; all which were made
life of in their Sacrifices and other parts of their worfhip.
But after they had adopted the idolatrous fuperflition of
the Romans and other nations, and the apotheolis of their
.heroes and princes, they came to worfliip them much
in the fame manner; as Jupiter under the name of Taran,
which in the Celtic (ignifies thunder ; Mercury, whom fonie
authors cal! Heus or He/us, probably from the Celtic huadhr
which fignifies a dog, and might be the Anubis latiatn of
the Eg\ptians. But Mars was held in the greateft vene¬
ration by the warlike, and Mercury by the trading part of
the nation. The care of religion was immediately under
their curates, fince known by the name of druids, and
bards. Thefe were, as Cjefar tells us, the performers of
lacrifices and all religious rites, and expounders of religion
to the people; for an account of whom fee Druid ; and
for the hifiory of the different Celtic nations, fee the ar¬
ticle Gaul, &c.
CEL'TES, f. Ancient inflruments of a wedge-like
form, which have been dug up in different parts of Grea,t-
Britain. Antiquarians have generally attributed them to
die Celtae ; but, not agreeing as to their ufe, they diftin-
guifhed them by the above appellation. Mr. Whitaker
makes it probable that they were Britifii battle-axes.
CEL'TES (Conrad), a Latin poet, of Sweinfurt near
Wertzburg, born in 1549, died at Vienna in 1508, at the
age of forty-feven, after having gained the poetic laurel.
He has left, 1. Odes, Strafburg, 1513, 8vo. z. Epigrams,
and a Poem on the Manners of the Germans, i6do, 8vo.
3. An hiftqrical Account of the City of Nuremburg, Straf-
bourg, 1 513, 4to. He was not deficient in the (allies of
imagination, though not exempt from the defedts of tlie
age in w hich he wrote. He is cenfurable for'negligencies
in point of flyle, and with choofing his fentiments- more
for their brilliancy than their folidity. He wrote alfo four
books in elegiac verfe, on the fame number of tniftrefles
lie boafls to have had. They appeared at Nuremberg in
1302, 4to. This volume is fcarce. The emperor Maxi¬
milian made him his librarian, and granted him tlie privi¬
lege of conferring the poetic crown on whonafoever he
Judged worthy of it.
CELTIBE'RIA, in the ancient geography, a. country
of rtte Hither Spain, along the right or fouth-wefi fide of
the Tiver Iberus ; though fometimes the greatelt par t of
Spain was called by the name of Celtiberia. The people
were denominated Celliberi , or the Celtce feated on the Ibe-
rus. Tliey were very brave and warlike, and hiade (ftotig
head againfi the Romans and Carthaginians when they in¬
vaded their country.
CEL'TIS, f. [a celfitate, Lat. from its height.] The
Tote or Nettle-tree; in botany, a genus of the clafs
pclygatnia, order liionoecia, natural order of fcabridae. The
generic characters arc — T. Hermaphrodite flowers folitary,
fuperior. Calyx: periantlnum one- leafed, five-parted;
divifions ovate, patulous, withering. Corolla: none.
Stamina : filaments five, very fliort, concealed ar fiift by
the antherse, but, after the fhedding of tlie pollen, growing
longer; antheras oblong, thicki.lh, quadrangular, fonr-
furrowed. P.ftillum: germ ovate, acuminate, length of
thecalvx; flylestwo, fpreading, varioufly inflected, fubu-
l.ite, pubefeent on every fide, very long; ftigmas fi tuple.
Pericarpium: drupe globular, one-celled. Seed: nut
roundifh. II. Male flowers on the fame plant, inferior.
Calyx: perianthium fix-parted; the reft as in the herma¬
phrodites. Corolla: none. Stamina: fix; the reft as in
the hermaphrodites. — EJJ'ential Character . Hermaphrodite.
Calyx five-parted; corolla none; (lamina five; fly les
two; drupe one-feeded. Male. Calyx fix-parted; co¬
rolla none ; (lamina fix.
Species. 1. Celtis auftralis, or European nettle-tree:
CEL i9
leaves ovate-lanceolate. The European nettle-tree, or
lote-tree with a black fruit, riles with an upright fiem to
tlie height of forty or fifty-feet, with many (lender branches
which have a fmooth dark-coloured bark, with fome grey
fpots. Leaves alternate, near four inches long and about
two broad in the middle. Flowersaxillary all along the
branches; being compofed of a green calyx without any
corolla, they make no appearance ; they come out in the
fpring, at the fame time with the leaves, and generally
decay before thefe are arrived at half their fize. The
fruit is the lize of a pea, and black. According to Pallas,
it is ’the fize of a fma 11 cherry, firfl yellow,, then livid, on
a long peduncle. It grows naturally in the fottth of Eu¬
rope, where it is one of the larged trees. D’Alfo men¬
tions fome of a prodigious height and girth in Spain ; and
Pallas fays, that they attain tlie fize of tlie elm in the-
Cherfonefus Taurica. It is not fo common in England as
tlie fecond. The wood of this tree is one of the hardefi
we are acquainted with. Evelyn fays that it was anciently,
tiled for flutes apd other nmfical inflruments, and that
Hafts for knives and tools were made of tlie root. When.
it arrives at any fize, its hardnefs, toughnefs, and flexibi¬
lity, mud entitle it to more important fcrvices. Its fine
regular fpreading head, of a cheerful green colour, ren¬
ders this ttee extremely proper for clumps in parks,
groves, fingle trees, or avenues. Of the branches are
made hoops for cafks, and fifhing-rods. The berries are
eaten by birds, and alio by the children in tlie Couth of
Europe.
2. Celtis occidental^, or American nettle-tree : leaves
obliquely-ovate, ferrate, acuminate. The American net¬
tle-tree rifes with a firaight fiem, which, in young trees, is,
fmooth and of a dark- colour ; but, as they advance, it be¬
comes rougher and of a lighter green. The branches
fpread very much; tlie leaves are alternate, and on pretty
long foot- (talks ; the flowers, come out oppolite to the
leaves upon long peduncles. The fruit is fmaller than,
that of.the firfl fort, and, when ripe, of a dark purple co¬
lour. It is very nearly related to the foregoing fpecies:
but the leaves are much broader and fhorter. It grows
naturally in North America, and in a moift rich foil be¬
comes a very large tree. Evelyn fays, that John Tradel-
cant, jun.- firfl brought it from Virginia, it flowers in.
May, and the feeds ripen in October. There are many
large trees of this fort in the Englifh gardens, fome of
which produce great quantities of fruit annually, which,
in favourable feafons, come to maturity; and there are
few years in which the fruit is not lent from America.
This tree conies out late in the fpring, but it is the latelf
in fading of any deciduous tree; nor do tlie leaves alter
their colour long before they fall, blit continue in full
verdure till within a few days of their dropping off ; fb
that tlie litter oecafioned by the falling leaves may be foon
cleaned away. There is little beauty in the flower or fruit;
but tlie branches being well clothed with leaves of a fine
green colour, tlie trees, when mixed with others in plan¬
tations, make, a pleating variety during the fummer tea-
foil. The wood of this tree,, being tough and pliable, is
efteemed by eoachmakers for the frames of their carriages.
3. Celtis orientals, or oriental nettle-tree: leaves ob¬
liquely Cordate, let rate, viilofe underneath. This tree
rifes with a fiem abuut ten or twelve feet high, dividing,
into many brandies) which fpread horizontally on eve. y .
fide, and have a fmooth greenifh batk. The leaves are
about an inch and a half long, and near an inch broad,
inclining to a heart fhape, but oblique,, one tide of the
bafe being fmaller and lower tiian the other ; they are of
a thicker texture than tliofe of the common forts, and of
a paler green, alternate as they are, anci on fliort foot-fialks.
Linnaeus adds, that tliey are very finely ferrate, and the
nerves underneath fmooth; the peduncles are axillary,
very fliort, and branching. The fruit is oval and yellow ;
when fully ripe, it turns to a darker colour. The wood
of this tree is very white. It is a native of the Levant, ,
and. was di (.covered by Tournefot t in Armenia, whence lie
%o CEL
lent the fruit to the royal garden at Paris. The trees
there ra' fcd produced fruit, and from them the other gar¬
dens in Europe have been furnifbed. Mr. Miller culti¬
vated it in 17+8. It yields gum like the cherry-tree; and
lias been found to be a native of tbe Eaft-Indies, Japan,
and the Society Ifles.
4-. Celt is Americana: leaves oblong-ovate, nerved, ob-
tnfe, fmootlt above, golden beneath. This rifes with a
ftraight trunk near twenty feet high, covered with a grey
■bark, and dividing at top into many branches. Leaves
near' four inches long, and two and a half broad, rounded
at their extremity, of a thick texture, very fmootlt on
their upper Airfare, and on their under of a lucid gold
colour. Tile fruit is round and red. It was firft difeo-
v-ered by father Plunder in the French Weft- India iftands ;
and it was found in Jamaica by Dr. jHouItoun, who lent the
deeds to England.
5. Celtis micrantha, or Jamaica nettle-tree : leavesob-
liquely cordate, ovate-lanceolate, ferrulate, fomew'hat rug¬
ged on the upper lurface. This fhrubby tree feldorn riles
above ten or twelve feet, and throws out a great number
of loofe branches. It is a native of Jamaica. Introduced
in 1788, by Mr. Gilbert Alexander. It flowers in Aitguft
and September.
6. Celtis aculeata : leaves cordate-ovate, blunt at the
tip, almoft entire, very fmootii ; branches prickly. This
is an inelegant little tree ; the branches are pliant, very
long, fcarctly divided, reclining, and have frequently al¬
ternate diftich branchlets their whole length, the upper
ones gradually (horter. Native of theCaribbee iflands,
and the neighbouring continent.
7. Celtis lima : leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, ob¬
liquely cordate, ferrate, very rugged above. Height fif¬
teen feet; trunk ftraight, with a fmooth reddiffi or light
brow n bark, and feveral branches fpreading towurrds the
top. Leaves alternate, half an inch diftant from each
-other, two inches long, and half as broad near the bale,
dark green, petioled; flowers axillary, fmall, greenift) ;
Fruit orange-coloured, no bigger than a pin's head, oval,
iiifipid, having an orange-coloured pulp, and one fmall
•black round done or feed within. Native of the Wed-
indies.
Propagation and Cultvrc. Thefe trees are all propagated
by feeds, which Ihould be Town boon after they are ripe,
when they can be procured at that feafon, for thefe fre¬
quently come up tire following fpring : whereas thofe
which are (own in the fpring will not come up till a tv\ elve-
month after ; therefore it is the bed way to fow them m
pots or tubs, that they may be eaiilv removed, for thofe
which are fown in the fprpig fbouid be placed in a diady
Situation in fummer, and conftantly kept clean from weeds;
but in autumn they fliould be placed in a warm fituation,
plunging the pots into the ground; and, if they ate co¬
vered over with a little tan from a decayed hot-bed, it
will prevent the frod from penetrating the earth to injure
the feeds; and, if thefe pots are placed on a gentle hot¬
bed in the fpring, it will greatly forward the vegetation of
’the feeds, whereby the plants will have more time to get
ftrength before the winter ; but, when the plants appear
above ground, they mud have a large fhareof air admitted
to them, otherwife they will draw up weak ; and, as foon
as the weather is warm, they mud be expofed to the open
air, and in filmmer they mud be condantly kept clean from
weeds; if the feafon proves dry, they will require water
two or three times a week. In autumn it will be proper
to remove the pots, and place them under a hot- bed frame,
to (helter them in winter from fevere froft ; or, where
there is not that conveniency, the pots Ihould be plunged
into the ground near a wall or hedge ; and, as the plants,
when young, are full of fap, and tender, the early frods in
autumn frequently kill the upper part of the (hoots; there¬
fore the plants diould be either covered with mats, or a
little draw or peafe-haulm laid over them to protect them.
■In the following fpring the plants fliould be taken out of
■the feed -pots, and planted in the full ground : this ihould
C E M
be done about fhe middle or latter end of March, whe*
the danger of the froft is over : therefore a bed or tw..
diould be prepared, according to the number of plants
raided, in a flickered lituation, and, if poflible, in a gentle
loamy foil. The ground nuid be well trenched, and
cleared from the roots of bad weeds, and, when levelled,
fliould be maiked out in lines at one foot diftar.ee; then
the plants fliould be carefully turned out of the pots, and
feparated, fo as not to tear their roots, and planted in the
lines at fix inches afunder, .prefling the earth dow n clofe to
the roots. If the ground is very dry w hen they are plant¬
ed, and there is no appearance of rain foon, it will be pro¬
per to water the beds, to fettle the ground to the roots of
the plants; and after this, if the furface of the ground is
covered with fome old tan or rotten dung, it will keep it
inoifl, and prevent the drying winds from penetrating to
-the roots of the plants. The following fummer the ne-
celfary care nuid be, to keep them condantly clean from
w'eeds ; but, after the plants are pretty well edablilhed in
the ground, they will not require any water, efpecially
towards the latter end of the fummer, for that will occa-
don their late growth, whereby they will be in great dan*-
ger of fuffeiing by the autumn frods; for the more any of
thefe young trees are flopped in their growth by drought
towards autumn, the firmer will be their texture, fo better
able to bear the cold. The plants may remain in thefe
nurfery-beds two years, by which time they will have ob¬
tained diffident ftrength to be tranfplanted where they are
defigned to remain for good, becau-fe thefe plants extend
their roots wide every way ; fo that, if they ftand long in
the nurfery, their roots will be cut in removing, which
will be a great prejudice to their future growth. Thefe
forts are hardy enough to thrive in the open air in Eng¬
land, after they are become ftrong; but, for the two firft
winters after they come up from feeds, they require a lit¬
tle protection, efpecially tire third fort, which is tenderer
than either of the farmer. The young plants of this fort
frequently have variegated leaves, but thofe are more im¬
patient of cold than the plain leaved.
Mr. Boutcher recommends to fow the feeds of the com¬
mon nettle-tree in fpring-, foon after they are ripe, which
■is in January, in pots or boxes, a foot deep, with holes in
the bottom, covered with oyfler-fhells, or tile-lhreds, and
three or four inches thick of rough gravel over them, to
drain the moifture; then to fill them within an inch of the
top with rich loofe compoft mould ; fow the feeds, and
d ft over them half an inch more of the fame earth. Thefe
pots or boxes ought not to be funk into the earth, but to
be railed (ix or eight inches by (tones or logs of wood, and
placed where they may receive the morning fun only, till
autumn, when they diould be removed under a Couth wall,
and in fevere weather be put under a covered frame, the
covering being taken off in mild weather. About the be¬
ginning of April remove them to their firft fituation, loofen
the earth gently, and (1 ft on a little frefh mould. The end
of April moft of the plants will appear, when they nmft be
frequently but moderately watered, kept clean in fummer,
and protected, as before, in fevere w eather. If -you would
propagate them by layers, let them be layed as foon as the
leaves begin to tarniffi at the end of September, or begin¬
ning of October. The wood being extremely hard, they
will not root diffidently till the fecond year, unlefs the
feafon is wet, or you affift them with plentiful waterings.
Take them up the end of March, or beginning of April,
and plant them in rows at two feet and a half diftance, and
a foot afunder, giving them frequent waterings; keep the
ground clean, and let them remain here two years. They
may then be planted out for good, or removed again ro
greater diftances, to ftand three years more. This tree
will do in any ordinary land, but fucceeds beft in a deep
moift foil, where it will foon become a ftately tree.
CEM'BR A, f. in botany. See Pinus.
CEMENT', yi [ ccementum , Latin.] The matter with
which two bodies are made to cohere, as mortar or glue. —
You may fee divers pebbles, and a cruft of cement between
them.
21
C E M
tlism, as hard as the pebbles themfelves. Bacon. ~~ Bond of
union in frienddfip. — Look over t he whole creation, and
5011 (ball fee, that the band or cement that holds together
all the parts of this glorious fabric, is gratitude. South.
The cements tiled for holding together broken glailes,
china, and earthen ware, are of many kinds. For this
purpofe the juice of garlic is recommended as exceedingly
proper, being very drong, and, if the operation is per¬
formed with care, it leaves little or no mark. Quicklime
and the white of an egg, mixed together, and expeditioufly
ufed, anfwer well for this purpofe. Dr. Lewis recom¬
mends a mixture of quicklime and cheefe in the following
manner: fweet cheefe, (liaved thin and (Hired in boiling
•water, changes into a tenacious (lime wh'ch does not min¬
gle with the water. Worked With fredi parcels of hot
water, and then mixed upon a hot (lone with a proper
.quantity of unlinked lime, into the confidence of a palle,
it proves a ftrong and durable cement for wood, (lone,
earthen-ware, and glafs. When thoroughly dry, which
will be iu two or three days, it is not in the lead aided
upon by water or damps. A compolition of the drying
oil of linfeed and white-lead is alfo ufed for the fame pur-
,pofes, but is inferior. For the preparation of cements
ufed in building, fee Mortar.
A cheap and valuable cement has lately been invented
by the ingenious French chemift M. Chaptal, which lie
ufed as a fubfiitute for (heet-lead, in lining rooms for his
alum works, and which lie found to anfwer his purpofe in
jdl refpects equal to that metal; not being acted upon by
the ftrong vapour of acids; neither by water or damps ;
nor by any degree of heat under 144 of Fahrenheit. This
cement is compofed of equal parts of rofin, turpentine,
and wax. Thefe three fubflances are melted together in
a pot ; and, when all the volatile oil which caufes the mix-
tm-e to rife is dilTi paled, it is to be applied, boiling hot,
witli a brufh. The number of valuable ufeS to which this
cement may be applied is very great : it may be employed
to line the calks ufed on-board (hips ; the water or viduals
kept in them would not be fo fubjedt to become putrid;
even the (hips themfelves might be coated with it. This
cement is found preferable to tar in many refpedts ; it is
not fo fubjed to crack, it is lefs (ticky, is more fimple,
and leaves a fmoother furface. A board fix feet long, and,
eighteen inches wide, covered with this cement, was kept
in water for nineteen months ; in all which time it had nei¬
ther imbibed any water, nor was the coating at all cracked
or damaged. If, in any cafe, it be necellary to render this
cement more confident, it may be done by the addition of
powdered bricks.
The cement prepared by Mr. John Worth, of Difs, in
Norfolk, and vended under the fandtion of letters patent,
for preferving fhips and veffels from worms, and for coat¬
ing over out-buildings, &c. is obvioufly derived from the
fame fource. His compofition is as follows : Take of rofin
fourteen pounds ; fund, fifted and clean waflied, twenty-
eight pounds; red lead three pounds and a half; oil one
pound and three quarters. Melt the rofin over a gentle
fire; put the fand and lead in by degrees, and ladly the
dil; birring them conftantly till cold, to reduce the mafs
to an uniform confidence. Whenever this cement is ufed
it mud be made hot, with the addition of half a pound of
what the painters call fat oil, which mud be well dirred
in; then it may be applied with a brufh, in the fame man¬
ner as common paint. This cement is' of a red colour ;
but, if it be wanted white or green, then, indead of the
red lead, ufe the fame quantity of cerufe, or verdegris.
The following cement will be found extremely valua¬
ble for filling up cracks and fhfures in iron velfels, which
by this means become as found and as ufeful as ever: Take
fix parts of yellow potters’ clay, one part of the filings of
iron, ana as much linfeed oil as will be nccedary to mould
it up into a did' mixture, of nearly the fame confidence as
putty. In this date of it, fill up the holes or cracks as
clofe and hard as poflible, rubbing the outer and inner
Surfaces fmooth and even; and in a few days the cement
Vol. IV. No. 174.
C E N
will adhere fo completely to the broken fides of the iron,
as to (top the leak, and obliterate the blermfh.
A cement which quickly hardens in water . — This is delcribed
in the podhumous works of Mr. Hooke, and is recom¬
mended for gilding live cray-filh, carps, &c. without in¬
juring the fi(h. The cement for this purpofe is prepared
by putting fonie Burgundy pitch into a new earthen pot,
and warming the veliel till it receives fo much of the pitch
as will dick round it ; then drawing dime finely-powdered
amber over the pitch when growing cold, adding a mix-
true of three pounds of linfeed oil, and one of oil of tur¬
pentine, covering the veiled and boiling them for an hour
over a gentle fire, and grinding the mixture as it is wanted,
with as much pumice-done in fine powder as will reduce
it to the confidence of paint. The fifh being wiped dry,
the mixture is (pread upon it; and the gold leaf being
then ! aid on, the iilh may be immediately put into water
again, without any danger of the gold coming oft’, for the
matter quickly grows hard in the water.
To CLMEN'T, v. a. To unite, by means of fometliing
interpofed :
Love with white lead cements his wings;
White lead was Cent us to repair
Two brighted, brittle!!, earthly things,
A lady’s face, and china ware. Swift.
To CEMENT', v. n. To come into conjunction ; to
cohere. — When a wound is recent, and the parts of it are
divided by a (harp indrument, they will, if held in clofe
contact for Come time, reunite by inofculatton, and cement
like one branch of a tree ingrafted on another. Sharp.
CE'MENT COP'PER, f. Copper precipitated from
vitriolic waters by iron. The name is laid to be derived
from a vitriolic water in Hungary, called Ziment.
CEMENTA'TION, f. The ad of cementing, or uni¬
ting with cement. I11 chemidry, it is a procefs which coniids
in (urrouudinga body in the lolid (tute with the powder of
Come other bodies, and expofing the whole, for a time, iu
a clofed vedel, to a degree of heat not fufticient to fufe the
contents. Thus iron is converted into (teel by cementa¬
tion w ith charcoal ; green bottle glafs is converted into
porcelain by cementation with fand, & c. The effects of
cementation appear to be chiefly produced by one or more
of the bodies being converted into vapour, and aiding
upon the others. The change in t lie lolid is chiefly at¬
tended to. The powder is called by the name of a cement.
CEMEN'TER, /. A perfon or thing that unites, in
fociety. — God, having defigned man for a fociable crea¬
ture, furnidied him with language, w hich was to be the
great indrument and cementer of fociety. Locke.
CE'METERY, f. [y-oipccrnpiov, from y.oepacj, to fieep.J
A place fet apart or confecrated for the burial of the dead.
Among the primitive Chridians, cemeteries were held in
great veneration. It even appears from Eufebius and
Tertullian, that, in the early ages they aflembled for di¬
vine wordiip in them. Valerian feems to have confifcated
cemeteries, with the other places of divine wordiip, but
they were redored again by Gallienus. As the martyrs
were buried in thefe places, flip Chridians chole them for
building churches on, when Condantine edablilhed their
religion; and lienee fome derive the rule, which dill ob¬
tains in the church of Rome, never to confecrate an altar
without putting under it the relics of fome faint.
CF.N, and C1N, denote kinsfolk : fo Cianulph is a help to
his kindred; Cinehelm, a protector of Iris kinsfolk ; Cinburgy
the defence of his kindred ; Cinric, powerful in kindred.
Gibfon.
CENAPATAM', a town of Hindoodan, in the Myfore
country: thirty-four miles north-ead of Seringapatam,
and twenty-eight fouth-wed of Bangalore.
CE'NATORY, [from ceno, Lat. to fup.] Relating
to (upper. — The Romans wafhed, were anointed, and wore
a cenatory or fupper garment. Brown.
CENCHRAMI'DIA, /. in botany. See Clusia and
Theobroma.
G CEN'CHRUS,
22 C £ N
CEN'CHRUS, f. [*e yxg°$, Gr.] In botany, Hedge¬
hog Grass; a genils of the clafs polygamia, order 1110-
noecia, nataral order of grades. The generic characters
are — Calyx : involucres many, laciniate, ecliinate, ga¬
thered into a head, each fefT.ie, including three calyxes,
biflorous ; perianthium a bivalve glume, lanceolate, con¬
cave, acuminate, biflorous, fhorter than the corolla. Co¬
rolla : one male, the other hermaphrodite ; proper, each
bivalve ; valves lanceolate, acuminate, concave, awnlefs;
the interior one fmaller. Stamina: to eacli three fila¬
ments, capillary, length of the corolla ; antherae fagittate.
Piftillum : germ of the hermaphrodite round fit; (fyle fili¬
form, length of the ftamens ; ftigmas two, oblong, hairy,
fpreading. Pericarpium : none. Seed: roundilh. — F.JJ'ential
CharaEler. Involucre, laciniate, ecliinate, two-flowered ;
calyx, glume two-flowered, one male, the other herma¬
phrodite. Hermaphrodite: corolla, glume awnlefs ; (lamina
three; feed one. Male : corolla, glume awnlefs ; (lamina
three.
Species, i. Cenchrus racemofus, or branching cenchrtis:
panicle (piked; glumes muricated with ciliary bridles.
Native of the fouthern parts of Europe, on the coalt of
Egypt, and the Ead Indies; dowering in July and Augud.
2. Cenchrus lappaceus, or bur cenchrus : brandies of
the panicle very fimple, corollas hfpid, backward; ca¬
lyxes three- valved, two-flowered. 3. Cenchrus murica-
tu(s : fpike muricated, fcales various, mucronated. Na¬
tives of the Ead Indies.
4. Cenchrus capitatus, or oval fpiked cenchrus : fpike
ovate, fimple. Culm three or four inches high, with
only one joint. Native of the South of France and Italy.
5. Cenchrus echinatus, or rough-fpiked cenchrus : fpike
oblong, conglomerate. This is one of the mod common
forts of grafs in the open paftures of Jamaica, and is looked
upon both as a wholefome and pleafant food for all forts
of cattle. Native of the Wed Indies and Society Ides ;
cultivated in 1691 by Mr. Doody.
6. Cenchrus trlbuloides: fpike glomerate, female glumes
globular, muricate, fpiny, hirfute. Culms many, trailing,
round, yellowifh, crooked, a foot and half long, the joints
an inch and half didant ; leaves two or three inches long.
Native of Virginia and Jamaica.
7. Cenchrus ciliaris, or ciliated cenchrus: fpike with
fetaceous, ciliated, four- flowered, involucels. Culm af-
ccnding, glolfy, the thicknefs of a thread, a fliort (pan in
length, with infletfled joints. Found at the Cape by Koenig.
8. Cenchrus granular ds : racemes double, fruits globu¬
lar, wrinkle-netted. Native of the Ead Indies. Retzius
fays, that lie has it both from Sumatra and Malabar;
both have the leaves and dieatlis clothed with longidt
white hairs.
9. Cenchrus frutefceus : heads lateral, feflile; leaves
mucronated, dem (lirubby. Found by Tournefort in
Armenia.
10. Cenchrus fetofus: fpike linear, oblong; involucres
bridly.; bridles unarmed, the interior ones villofe at the
bafe, hairs ciliate, glumes even. Native of the Wed Indies.
11. Cenchrus purpurafeens : raceme fpiked, dmple;
florets furrounded with very long awns, culms ereCt, two
feet high ; leaves longer than the culm ; raceme loofe, a
fpan long, with peduncles the length of the florets, fpread¬
ing in a double row ; awns purple, lix times the length
of the florets. Native of Japan.
CENEAN'GIA, f. [from •/ivac-a, to empty, and
a veil'd. J An emptinefs of the vetfels, particularly thofe
of the body, on account of abftinence, or refraining from
food. By feme it is thought to mean primarily, a fpon-
taneous evacuation of blood from the veffels; and con-
fequently that which is artificial may be meant in fome
authors by this term.
CENE'DA, a town of Italy, in the Trevifano, belong¬
ing to the date of Venice, the fee of a biftiop, fuffragan
et Udina; this town was deftroyed by the Huns and the
Goths : twenty miles north of Trevigno.
CE'NEGILD, f. [from cinnc, Sax. i. e. cognatio, rela¬
tion, and gild, folv.no, payment- J In the Saxon law, an
C E N
expiatory mulct, paid by one who had killed a man, to
the kindred of the deceafed.
CENGOT'TO, a final 1 ifland in the Mediterranean :
twenty-four miles north-north-wed of Candid. Lat. 36. x.
N. Ion. 41.0. E. Greenwich.
CE'NIA, a river of Spain, which runs into the Medi¬
terranean, eight miles north-ead of Pegriifcola. It fepa-
rates the provinces of Catalonia and Valencia in its courfe.
CE'NIS (Mount), a part of the Alps, which feparates
the marquilate of Sula from Morienne.
CE'NO, or Zeno, a river of Italy, which runs into
the Taro, eight miles fouth-fouth-wed of Parma.
CE'NOBITE, f. [from communis ; and (3t&y
vita, life.] A religious perfon who lives in a convent, or
in community, under a certain rule ; in oppofition to an¬
chorite, or hermit, who lives in folitude. Canian makes
this difference between a convent and a monajlery , that the
latter may be applied to the reddence of a (ingle religious
perfon; whereas the convent implies cenobites, or numbers
of religious perfons living in common. F'leury fpeaks of
three kinds of monks in Egypt; anchorites, who live in fo-
li t tide ; cenobites, who live in community ; and farabaites ,
who are a kind of monks-errant, that droll from place to
place. He refers the inditution of cenobites to the times
of the apodles, and makes it a kind of imitation of the or¬
dinary lives of the faithful at Jerufalem. St. Puchomius
is ordinarily owned the inditutor of the cenobite life; as
being the fir ft who gave a rule to any community.
CENOBI'TICAL, adj. [zow©-' and (3r©-, Gr.] Living
in community. — They have multitudes of religious or¬
ders, black and grey, eremitical and cenobitical, and nuns.
Stilling fleet.
CE'NOTAPH, y. and t atp&, Gr.] A monu¬
ment raifed to the memory of one buried elfevvhere. —
The Athenians, when they loft any men at fea, raifed a
cenotaph, or empty monument :
Priam, to whom tire dory was unknown.
As dead deplor’d his metamorphos’d fun ;
A cenotaph his name and title kept,
And HeCtor round the tomb with all his brothers wept.
Dry den.
CENSE, f. \_cevfus, Lat.] Public rate. — We Tee what
floods of treafure have flowed into Europe by that adtion ;
fo that the cenfe, or rates of Chridendom, are raifed lince
ten times, yea twenty times told. Bacon.
To CENSE, v. a. [ cncenfer , Fr.] To perfume with
odours ; contracted from incenfe :
The Salii dng, and cenfe his altars round
With Saban fmoke, their heads with poplar bound. Dryd.
CEN'SER., f. [ encenfoir , Fr.] The pan or veflel in
which incenfe is burned :
Of incenfe clouds,
Fuming from golden cenfers, hid the mount. Milton,
A pan in which aijy thing is burned ; a fire-pan .-
Here’s fnip, and nip, and cut, and flifli, and (lafh,
Like to a cenfcr in a barber’s fliop. Skakefpeare.
The term cenfer is chiefly ufed in fpeakingof the Jewifh
worihip.. Among the Greeks and Romans it is more fre¬
quently called thi/ribulum, AiSaxaTic, and acccra. The Jewifh
center was a final l fort of chafling-didi, with a dome cover
fufpended by a chain ; and the Roman catholics dill life
them for their incenfe in particular maflfes. Jofeplms tells
us, that Solomon made twenty thoufand golden cenfers
for t he temple of Jerufalem, to offer perfumes in, and
fifty thoufand others, in which to carry fire.
CEN'SION, f. \_cenfo, Lat.] A rate, an adefTment.
CEN'SOR, f. [from ce'nfere, Lat. to fee or perceive. }
An officer of Rome, who had the power of correcting
manners. One who is. given to cenfure and exprobation :
Ill-natur’d cenfors of the prefent age,
And fond of all the follies' of the pad. Rofcommon.
The bufinefs of the Roman cenfors was to number the
people, eftiraate the pofleffions of every citizen, reform
and
C E N
and watch over the manners of the people, and regulate
the taxes. Their power was alfo extended over private
families; they puniflied irregularity, and infpefted the
management and education of tire Roman youth. They
could inquire into the expencesof every citizen, and even
degrade a fenator from all his privileges and honours, if
guilty of any extravagance. This punifliment was gene¬
rally executed in pafling over the offender’s name in call¬
ing the lilt of the fenators. The office of public cenfor
was originally exercifed by the kings. Servius Tullius,
the fixth king of Rome, firfl edablifhed a cenfus, by which
every man was obliged to come to be regiftered, and give
in writing the place of his refidence, his name, his quali¬
ty, the number of his children, of his tenants, eflates, and
doineltics, &c. The ends of the cenfus were very falutary
to the Roman republic. They knew their own ftrength,
their ability to fupport a war, or to make a levy of troops,
or raile a tribute. It was required that every knight
ffiould be poll'd fed of 400,000 federces, to enjoy the rights
and privileges of his order; and a fenator was entitled to
(it in the fenate, if he was really worth 800,000 federces.
This laborious talk of numbering and reviewing the peo¬
ple, was, after the expulfion of the Tarquins, one of the
duties and privileges of the confuls. But when the re¬
public was become more powerful, and when the number
of its citizens was increafed, the confuls were found unable
to make the cenfusr on account of the multiplicity of bn -
finefs. After it had been neglected for fixteen years, two
new magiftrates called ccnfors, were eleiSIed. They re¬
mained in office for five years, and every fifth year they
made a cenfus of all the citizens, in the campus martins,
and offered a folemn facrific.e, and made a ludration in the
name of all the Roman people. This fpace of time was
called a lujlrum, and ten or twenty years were commonly
expreffed by two or four ludra. After the office of the
cenfors had remained for fome time unaltered, the Ro¬
mans, jealous of their power, abridged the time of their
exillence, and a law was made, A. U. C. 420, by Ma-
mercus yErmlius, to limit the time of the cenforlhip to
eighteen months. After the fecond Punic war, they
were always chofen from fitch perfons as had been con¬
fuls ; their office was more honourable, though lei's pow¬
erful, than that of the confuls ; the badges of their office
were the fame, but the cenfors were not allowed to have
Jiftors to walk before them as the confuls. When one of
the cenfors died, no one was deeded in his room till the
five years were expired, and his colleague immediately re-
figned. This circum fiance originated from the death of a
cenfor before the lacking of Rome by Brennus, and was ever
after deemed an unfortunate event to the republic. The
emperors abolilhed the cenfors, and took upon themfelves
to execute their office. The republic of Venice have al¬
ways had a cenfor of the manners of their people, whofe
office has condantly been rellrained to only fix months.
CEN'SORS of Books, were a fociety of learned per¬
fons, edablilhed in divers countries, to examine all books
before they were lent to the prefs, to fee that they con¬
tained nothing contrary to faith and good manners. The
faculty of theology claimed this privilege in Paris; and
in England we had formerly an officer of this kind, under
the tit le of licenfer of the prefs: but, lince the revolu¬
tion, our prefs has been laid under no Inch redraint ;
which conditutes what is termed the liberty of the prefs. _
CENSO'RIAN, adj. Relating to the cenfor. — As the
chancery had the pretorian power for equity, fo the dar-
cliatnber had the cenforian power for offences under the
degree of capital. Bacon.
CENSORI'NUS, a celebrated critic, chronologiff, an¬
tiquarian, and grammarian, for fuch Prifcian calls him in
his book upon grammar, flourifiied at Rome in the time
of Alexander Seyerus. This part of his character mud,
however, arife from his book Concerning Accents, fre¬
quently cited by Sidonius Apollinaris, and other things,
which are loll; and not from Ills De Die Natali, which is
tiie only piece remaining of him. This treatife was writ¬
ten about the year 2^8, and dedicated to Quintus Cerel-
lius, a man of the equedrian order, of whom he fpeaks
very highly in his 15th chapter. Voffius calls this “ a lit¬
tle book of gold;” and declares it to be “a molt learned
work, and of the higheft life and importance to chronolo-
gers, fince it connedts and determines with great exact-nets
fome principal aeras in hiltory.” It is, however, a work
of a mifcellaneous nature, and treats of antiquities as well
as chronology. It was printed with the notes of Linden-
brokius at Cambridge, in 1695. The bed edition now
extant is by Haverkamp, Lug. B it. 1767.
CENSO'RIOUS, adj. Addicted to cenfure ; fevere ;
full of invedtives. — Do not too many believe no religion to
be pure, but what is intemperately rigid ? no zeal to be
fpiritual, but what is cenforious? Spratt. Sometimes it
has of before the objedt of reproach. — A dogmatical fpi-
rit inclines a man to be cenforious of his neighbours. IVatts.
Sometimes on. — He treated all his inferiors of the ciergy
witli a mod landHfied pride; was rigorotifiy and univer-
fally cenforious upon all his brethren of the gown. Swift.
CENSO'RIOUSLY, adv. In a fevere and reflecting
manner.
CENSO'RIOUSNESS,/ Difpofltion to reproach ; ha¬
bit of reproaching. — Sournefs of difpofltion, and rudenefs
of behaviour, cenforioufnefs and fmider interpretation of
things, all crofs and didafteful humours, render the con-
verfation of men grievous and uneafy to one another.
Tillotfon.
CEN'SORSH IP, f. The office of a cenfor; the time
in which the office of cenfor is borne. — It was brought to
Rome in the cenforfiip of Claudius. Brown.'
CENSUA'LES, a fpecies or clafs of the oblati, or vo¬
luntary Oaves of churches or monaOeries, i. e. thofe who,
to procure the protection of the church, formerly bound
themfelves to pay an annual tax or quit-rent out of their
edates to a church or monadery. Befides this, they fome-
times engaged to perform certain fervices.
CENSU'RABLE, adj. Worthy of cenfure ; blame-
able; culpable. — A finall midake may leave upon the
mind the lading memory of having been taunted for fome-
thing cenfurable. Locke.
CEN'SURABLENESS, f. Blameablenefs ; fitnefs to
be cenfured.
CEN'SURE, f. [ cenfura , Lat.] Blame ; reprimand ;
reproach :
Enough for half the greated of thefe days,
To ’(cape my cenfure , not expedt my praife. Pope.
Judgment ; opinion :
Madam, and you, my fider, will you go
To give your cenfurcs in this weighty buiinefs ? S/iakfp .
Judicial fentence. A fpiritual punifliment inflicted by
fome ecclefiadical judge. — Upon the unluccefsfulnefs of
milder medicaments, ufe that ftronger phyfic the cenfaes
of the church. Hammond.
To CEN'SURE, v. a. [from cenfurer, Fr.j To blame;
to brand publicly. The like cenfurings and defpifings
have embittered the fpirits, and whetted both the tongues
and pens of learned men one againd another. Sandcifon. —
To condemn by a judicial fentence.
CEN'SURER,/ He that blames ; he that reproaches,
— A datefman, w ho is polled of real merit, (honld look
upon his political cenfurers with the fame negledt that a
good writer regards his critics.
CEN'SUS, f. [from cenfeo, Lat. to value.] The num¬
bering of the people at Rome, performed by the cenfors.
A cenfus, fimilar to that of the Romans, was taken by
order of congrefs, in the United States of America, in
1790, when it was found that their population amounted
to near four millions of people, and enabled them to re¬
gulate their government upon a firm bads.
CENT,/. [ centum , Lat.] A hundred ; as, five per cent ,
that is, five in the hundred.
CENTAL'LO, a town of Italy, in the principality of
Piedmont : four miles north of Coni.
CEN'LAUR, / [ centaurus , Lat.] A poetical being,
fuppofed to be compounded of a man and a liorfe. — Down
from
CENTAURE A.
H
from the u aifl they are centaurs, though women all above.
Shakefpeare. — The idea of a centaur has no more falfehood
in it 'than the name centaur. Locke.-. — See Centauri, p, 28.
The archer in the zodiac :
The chearlefs empire of the dry
To Capricorn the centaur archer yields. Thomfon.
CENTAURE'A, f. [from K a Centaur ; ftip-
pofed to be fo named from Chiron, who cured Hercules’s
foot with it, which had been wounded by a poifoned ar¬
row'.] In botany, Cen taury, Blue-bottle, Knap¬
weed, Sic. a genus of the clafs fyngenefia, order poly-
garnia fmftranea, natural order of compound flowers.
T he generic characters are— Calyx : common imbricate,
round ifh ; fcales often varioufly terminated. Corolla :
compound flofcnlous, difform ; corollules hermaphrodite,
very many in the dilk; females fewer, larger, lax, in the
ray. Proper. of the hermaphrodite monopetalous ; tube
filiform; border ventricofe, oblong, eredt, terminated by
five divifiotvs which are linear, eredt. Of the females
monopetalous, funnel-form; tube (lender, gradually en¬
larged, recurved ; border oblong, oblique, unequally di¬
vided. Stamina: in the hermaphrodites, filaments five,
capillary, very fhort ; antheras cylindric, tubular, length
of the corollule. Piftillum: in the hermaphrodites, germ
final 1 ; ftyle filiform, length of the ftantens ; ftigma yery
obtufe, projedting in a point which in many is bifid : in
the females, germ very fmall ; fiyle fcarce any ; ftigma
none. Pericarpium: none; calyx unchanged, converging.
Seeds : in the hermaphrodites folitary ; down or egret in
rt.ioft plumofe or pilofe ; in the females none. Recep-
tacnlum : briftly. — EJ'ential CharaBer. Receptaculum
brillly; down Ample; corolla of the ray funnel-form,
longer, irregular.
Species. 1. Jaceas: calyxes even, unarmed. 1. Cen¬
taurea crupina, black-feeded centaury, or bearded creeper:
Rales lanceolate; leaves pinnate, ferrate, lubciliate. Stem
ftriated, three feet high, almoft quite Ample. Native of
the South of France, Piedmont, Tufeany, and the Le¬
vant; annual ; cultivated in 1640.
i. Centaurea mofehata, or purple fweet centaury, or
fweet fultan : calyxes round! (h, fmooth ; fcales ovate ;
leaves lyrate-toothed. This fort is annual, and has been
many years propagated in the Englifli gardens, under the
title of fultan flower, or fweet fultan. It was brought
from the Levant, where it grows naturally in arable land
among the corn. This fends up a round channelled ftalk
near three feet high, which divides into many branches,
with jagged leaves, of a pale green, fmooth, and clofe to
the branches. From the fide of the branches come out
iong naked peduncles, each fuftaining a fingle head of
flowers, which have a very ftrong odour, fo as to be otfen-
five to many people, but to others very grateful ; they
are purple, white, or flefli, colour. There is alfo a va¬
riety with Aftular flowers, and another with fringed flow¬
ers ; but tliefe degenerate in a few years, however care¬
fully the feeds may be faved. Native of Perfia, and cul¬
tivated in 1-629. It came to us firft from Conftantinople.
3. Centaurea crucifolia : fcales lanceolate ; leaves lan¬
ceolate, fomewhat toothed. Root annual ; item a foot
high, furrowed, rough with hairs ; branches eredf, many,
from top to bottom.
4. Centaurea Lippii, or Egyptian centaury : fcales mu-
cronate ; leaves lubdecurrent, lyrate-toothed. This, ac¬
cording to Linnaeus, bears fome refemblance to the blue¬
bottle, No. 15. Native of Egypt, between Alexandria
and Rofetta. Cultivated in 1759 by Mr. Miller, who
received the feeds from Juflieu, and he had them from
Dr. Lippi at Grand Cairo.
5. Centaurea Alnina, or Alpine centanry : fcales ovate-
obtufe; leaves pinnated, fmooth, quite entire, the odd
leaflet ferrated. Root perennial, (Hiking deep into the
ground, and fending out a great number of long, fmooth,
pinnate leaves, of a glaucous hue ; ftems near four feet
high, dividing at top into many branches, having (mall
leaves on them of the fame form with the lower ; each
flem is terminated by a fingle head of yellow flowers,
which come out in June and July, and in dry (eafons per.
fed! their feeds in autumn. It grows naturally upon the
Alps in Italy ; and was cultivated in 1640.
6. Centaurea centaurium, or great centaury : fcaleS
ovate; leaves pinnated ; leaflets ferrated, dectirrent. This
has a ftrong perennial root like the foregoing fort ; and a
great number of long pinnate leaves, of a lucid green,
ipreading wide on every fide, proceed from it. The pe¬
duncles are (lender, but very (tiff, and divide at top into
many (mailer peduncles; tliefe, together with the ftalks,
rile five or fix feet high, having at each joint one fmall
pinnate leaf of the fame form with the others ; each of
the peduncles is terminated by a fingle head of purple
flowers, conliderably longer than the calyx. They come
out in July, and in very warm feafons produce ripe feeds
in England. It grows naturally on the mountains of. Italy,
Spain, and Tartary; and was cultivated in 1596 by Ge-
rarde. This is fuppofed to be the triftia centaurea of
Lucretius, and the graveolentia centaurea of Virgil, re¬
commended by the latter in diforders of the bees.
II. Cyani : with the fcales of the calyx ferrate-ciliated.
7. Centaurea Phrygia, or Auftrian centaury : calyxes
recurvc-plumofe ; leaves undivided, oblong, fcabrous.
Stem fomewhat (lirubby, upright, from eight or ten inches
to a cubit in height; at the end of the flem and each
branch a fingle large flower, with a fmall leaf or two at
the bafe. Native of Germany, Auftria, and Swjflerland.
Haller has two varieties, one loftier in Germany, and the
other about eighteen inches high, in the Swifs alps ; cul¬
tivated in 1727 by Mr. Miller.
8. Centaurea capillata, or feathered centaury : calyxes
recurve-plumofe ; bottom leaves pinnated, toothed, up¬
per lanceolate. Stem four or five feet high, angular,
hard , branching ; root-leaves with four or five pairs of
pinnas ; flem-leaves (imply pinnate; uppermoft tongue-
(haped, Ample. Native of Spain and Siberia.
9. Centaurea uniflora, or one-flowered centaury : calyxes
recurve-plumofe; leaves lanceolate, fomewhat toothed,
tomentofe ; a palm or foot in height. Native of the South
of Europe.
10. Centaurea linifolia, or flax-leaved centaury: calyxes
recurve-plumole ; leaves linear, (battered. Stem a palm
in height, often decumbent, branching from the bottom,
furrowed angular, rough with ft iff hairs ; leaves entire,
rugged, much crowded, near two inches in length, a line
or a line and halt in breadth, ending in a very (harp point ;
thofe next the root dilated at tl.e bafe, and half ftem-
clafping ; flower protected with from three to fix leaves,
twice its length. It varies with fhorter thickilh leaves,
fcarcely ciliate, and an almoft fimple eredtifh ftem. Na¬
tive of Spain and Italy; perennial.
11. Centaurea pettinata : calyxes recurve-plumofe;
leaves lyrate, toothletted ; branch-leaves lanceolate, quite
entire. Native of Spain, South of-France, and Silefia.
12. Centaurea nigra, or black centaury, or knapweed :
calyxes ciliate, with the little fcale ovate; cilias capillary,
eredt ; leaves lyrate, angular; flowers flofcular. Stem
from two to three feet io height, angular, fcored, (lightly
downy, often tinged with purple. Dillenius obfervesa
that Parkinfon’s figure only agrees with our Englifli plant.
It has many provincial names, as knap-weed, kp.op-vveed,
knob-weed, horfe-knops, all from knob or nob , a head ;
alfo hard-heads, hard-irons, and matfellon ; in Scotland,
horfe-knot. It is found in Germany, Auftria, France, &c.
With 11s in England it is a bad weed in meadows and paf-
tures; being a harfh ftubborn plant, feldom touched by
cattle either green or in hay, and being with difficulty ex¬
tirpated. Linnams marks it as biennial/but our plant is
perennial, and increafes muclvby the. root.
13. Centaurea pullata : calyxes ciliate, vertical, leafy;
leaves lyrate, toothed, obtufe. It is a low plant ; native
of the South of France, Spain, and the Levant. Miller
fays the feeds were Cent him from Portugal by Robert
Moore, Elq. and that it is biennial ; flowers in June and
July, and tiie feeds ripen in the autumn.
14. Centaurea
1
C E N
14. Centaurea montana, mountain centaury, or peren¬
nial blue-bottle-: calyxes ferrate, leaves lanceolate, de¬
current; (tern quite fimple. Scopoli, who mentions {'eve-
mi varieties, defcribes the common fort as being a foot
and half in height; leaves on the Hem as far as (ixteen,
With one flower at the end; it is alfo found with two
flowers on a Hem, and as far as nineteen florets .in the ray.
Native of the South of Europe. Ray obferved it about
Spa, and on mount Jura, not far from Geneva; but it is
common on many parts of the continent. It was culti¬
vated in 1596 by Gerarde, and flowers in M^ty and June;
it is commonly called perennial blue-bottle, and by fonie
batchelor’s buttons.
13. tCentaurea cyanus, or corn centaury, annual blue¬
bottle : calyxes ferrate ; leaves linear, quite entire, the
lowed toothed. Stem one to two feet high, angular,
(lightly tomentofe, branched at top. It is a common weed
among corn, flowering from June to Augufl:; the wild
flower is ufually blue, but fometimes white or purple.
Our old Engltfli writers, befides blue-bottle, which has
commonly obtained, have the names of blue-ball , blue-blow,
corn-flower, and hart-flckle. In the Booke of Hufbandrye
aferibed to Fitzherbert, it feems to be called hadods or
haudod. Some modern agriculturifts fpeak of it under the
name of huddle , which is evidently nothing more than a
corruption of bottle. Dr. Stokes informs us, that it is
called batchelor's buttons in Yorklhire and Derbyfhire; but
this is a name given to many other flowers. In Scotland
it is called blue bonnets ; in German, Dutch, Swedifh, and
Danifh, korn-blume-, in French, bluet ; in Italian and Por-
tuguefe, ciano\ in Spanifh, aciano, azuleio. The exprelfed
juice of the neutral florets makes a good ink ; it alfo ftains
linen of a beautiful blue, but the colour is not permanent
in any mode hitherto ufed. Mr. Boyle fays, that the
juice of the central florets, with the addition of a very
fmall quantity of alum, makes a lading tranfparent blue,
not inferior to ultramarine.
16. Centaurea paniculata, or panicled centaury : calyxes
eiliate, feales flat; leaves bipinnate, branch-leaves pin¬
natifid, linear; ftem panicled, almoft woody, ftiff, ftriated,
or angular, whitifh, branched, from a foot to eighteen
inches and two feet in height. Native of the South of
France, Swiflerland, Germany, Auflria, Carniola, Italy,
and Spain. Annual; cultivated in 1640. There is a va¬
riety with larger flowers; leaves hoary, and differing
fomewhat in appearance.
17. Centaurea fpinofa, or prickly-branched centaury :
calyxes fubciliate, branches fpinous. The whole plant is
tomentofe ; the fmall branches terminate in ftiff' thorns,
and the calyx is very (lightly eiliate. Native of the ill and
of Candia.
18. Centaurea Ragufina, or Cretan centaury : calyxes
eiliate ; leaves tomentofe, pinnatifid ; leaflets obtufe, ovate,
quite entire, the outer ones larger. Leaves white, as it
were pappous, pinnated with rounded lobes ; flower foli-
tary, pecluncled. It feldom rifes more than three feet
high in this country, with a perennial flalk dividing into
many branches. The flowers, which are produced from
tlvefe, on fhort peduncles, are of a bright yellow. They
appear in June and July, but the feeds feldom ripen in
England. As this plant retains its leaves, which are ex¬
tremely, white, all the year, it makes a pretty variety in
a garden. Native of the itland of Candia, and of feveral
places on the coaffs of the Mediterranean, botli in Europe
and Africa; cultivated in 1714 by theduchefsof Beaufort.
19. Centaurea cineraria, or white-leaved mountain cen¬
taury : calyxes eiliate, terminal, feflile ; leaves tomentofe,
bipinnatifid; lobes acute. Stems near three feet high,
branching, from a perennial root ; leaves white, as it
were pappous ; flower purple, with white ftyles. Tljefe
come out in June, and in favourable feafons the feeds are
perfected in autumn ; it retains its leaves all the year.
It grows naturally in Italy, on the borders of the fields.
20. Centaurea argentea, or filvery centaury : calyxes
ferrate; leaves tomentofe, root-leaves pinnatifid, leaflets
Vol, IV. No. 175.
A U R E A.
25
earlefs. Flowers yellow ; leaves white, as in the lad
fpecies. Native of Candia or Crete; perennial, flower¬
ing in July.
21. Centaurea Sibirica, or Siberian centaury : calyxes
eiliate ; leaves tomentofe, undivided and pinnatifid, quite
entire; flem declined. Found in Siberia by Gmelin; in¬
troduced in 1782 by Mr. John Buffi.
22. Centaurea fempervirens, or evergreen centaury:
calyxes eiliate ; leaves lanceolate, ferrate, fubflipuled at
the lowed tooth ; lower leaves haflate. It is a perennial
plant, and the leaves continue in verdure through the
year, for which it is chiefly valued, for the flower has
little more beauty than the common knap-weed ; flowers
in June and July, and in warm feafons the feeds ripen in
September. It grows naturally in Spain and Portugal;
and was cultivated in 1683 by Mr. James Sutherland.
23. Centaurea fcabiofa, or fcabious centaury, or great
knap-weed; calyxes eiliate; leaves pinnatifid; pinnas
lanceolate. It varies frequently with white flowers.
Haller mentions feveral other variations in the colour, as
flefh-coloured variegated with that and white, pale yel¬
low, and full yellow. Native of mod countries of Eu¬
rope, except t he very fouthern parts, in meadows, on the
borders of corn-fields, among corn, and by road tides;
perennial, flowering in July and Augtift ; called, in York-
fhirer great horfe-knobs.
24. Centaurea Tatarica, or Tartarian centaury : calyxes
eiliate ; leaves pinnate ; pinnas lanceolate, undivided.
Native of Siberia ; perennial.
25. Centaurea Stoebe : calyxes eiliate, oblong ; leaves
pinnatifid, linear, quite entire. Stems near three feet high,
branched, with a fingle leaf at each joint. Flowers appear
in June; feeds ripen in Augufl.
26. Centaurea acaulis, or flemlefs centaury : calyxes
eiliate; leaves lyrate; flem fcarcely any. The flower is
yellow ; cilias of the feales white ; root fweet and efctilent.
III. Rhapontica : with the feales of the calyx dry and
fcariofe. 27. Centaurea orientalis, or oriental centaury :
calyxes fcariofe-ciliate ; leaves pinnatifid ; pinnas lanceo¬
late. The Items rife near five feet high, dividing at top
into many fmaller branches. Flowers yellow ; they come
out from June to Augufl, and the feeds ripen in autumn.
Native of Siberia; cultivated in 1759 by Mr. Miller, to
whom the feeds were fent from Petertburgh.
28. Centaurea Behen : calyxes fcariofe ; radical leaves
lyrate; lobes oppofite ; dem-leaves embracing. I, eaves
large, like thole of docks, fharp, and flift, like pear-
leaves, with two pair of fmaller ones at the bale, which
make them lyrate. Stems eighteen inches high ; flowers
oblong, yellow. Grows at the foot of Mount Libanus*
in fliady watery places.
29. Centaurea repens, or creeping centaury : calyxes
fcariofe ; leaves lanceolate, fubpetioled, toothed ; pedun¬
cles filiform, leaflefs. Native of the Levant ; perennial.
30. Centaurea jacea, or common centaury, or knap¬
weed ; calyxes fcariofe, lacerate; leaves lanceolate, ra¬
dical leaves finuate-toothed ; branches angular. Stem
from two to eighteen inches in height, (fometimes, ac¬
cording to others, attaining the human ftature,) little
branched, with a large flower terminating each branch.
It often varies, tike many other of the fpecies, with a
white flower. Native of the North of Europe, and of
the South of France, &c. .Perennial.
31. Centaurea amara, or bitter centaury : calyxes fca¬
riofe ; leaves lanceolate, quite entire ; fienrs decumbent.
32. Centaurea alba, or white-flowered centaury : calyxes
fcariofe, entire, mucronated ; leaves pinnate, toothed;
fiem-leaves linear, toothed at the bale. Natives ot Spain
and Swilferland.
33. Centaurea fplendens, or fliining centaury : calyxes
fcariofe, obtufe; radical leaves bipinnatifid ; dem-leaves
pinnated, teeth lanceolate. Stems three feet high, angu¬
lar, hard, fniooth, branched, many-flowered ; flowers pur¬
ple, with a beautiful filvery calyx. Biennial, flowering
in July; the feeds ripen in September. Found in tranf-
H alpine
C E N T A U R E A.
2 6
alpine S wilTe rland, Spain, and Siberia. Cultivated in
1597. by Gerarde.
34. Centaurea Rliapontica, or Swifs centaury: calyxes
fcariofe; leaves ovate-oblong, toothletted, entire, petioled,
tomentofe beneath. This is a liandfome plant ; the root
is thick, round, black, wrinkled, and irregular, (trikes
deep in the ground, and when dry is aromatic; flem eigh¬
teen inches high. Found in Swiflerland and about Ve¬
rona, whence Miller received the feeds. Cultivated in
1636, by Mr. John Tradefcant, jun. It flowers in July.
The roots of this, and feveral of the fpecies allied to it,
are bitter and aftringent, and formerly were much given
in cafes wherein we now give Jefuits’ bark. The plants
alfo will dye yellow.
33. Centaurea Babylonica, or Babylonian centaury: ca¬
lyxes fcariofe; leaves fubtomentofe, decurrent, undivided;
radical leaves lyrate. Native of the Levant; perennial.
36. Centaurea glaftifolia, or woad-leaved centaury; ca-
lv\.es fcariofe; leaves undivided, quite entire, decurrent.
Root perennial, ftriking deep into the ground ; from this
fprings a great tuft of long entire leaves, fhaped like thofe
of woad, growing upright, with many upright (talks, near
five feet high, having a (ingle leaf at each joint, of the
fame (hape, but fmaller and decurrent, and dividing at
top into two or three brandies, each terminated' by a
(ingle head of yellow flowers, in a filvery calyx. The
leayes have veins prominent on both their Tides. Native
of the Levant and Siberia ; flowering from June to Au-
guft, but rarely producing good feqds in England.
37. Centaurea conifera, or cone centaury: calyxes fca-
rioie ; leaves tomentofe, next the root lanceolate, on the
(tern pinnatifid ; (fern limple ; root perennial, Angle, lend¬
ing out in the fpring feveral entire leaves, and afterwards
a (Ingle (talk, more than a foot high, having one divided
hoary leaf at eacli joint; at the top comes out a Angle,
large, fcaly, head, fhaped like a pine cone, very taper at
the top, where it clofely furrounds the florets, which juft
emerge from the calyx, are of a bright purple colour, and
appear in June. Native of the South of Europe ; culti¬
vated by Mr. Miller, wljo received the feeds from Verona.
IV. Stoebte : with the (pines of the calyx palmated.
38. Centaurea fonchifolia, or fowthiftle-leaved centaury:
.calyxes palmate-fpiny ; leaves fubdecurrent, fpinulous,
repand-toothed. Found on the coaft of the Mediterra¬
nean: introduced about 1780 bv M. Thouin.
39. Centaurea feridis : calyxes palmate-fpiny; leaves
decurrent, tomentofe, oblong, the lowed finuate-toothed.
This is a tomentofe plant, hardly a foot high, with the
items branching a little. Native of Spain ; perennial.
40. Centaurea Romana : calyxes palmate-fpiny; leaves
decurrent, unarmed; radical leaves pinnatifid, the end
lobe largeft. Root biennial; (terns three feet in height ;
flowers large, red, the calyxes ftrongly armed with fpines.
It flowers in July, and the feeds ripen in September. It
is a native of the Campania of Rome.
41. Centaurea fphaerucephala : calyxes palmate-fpiny ;
leaves ovate-lanceolate, petioled, toothed ; root annual ;
the flem rifes two feet high, dividing at top into three or
four branches, which are terminated by pretty large heads
of flowers, with woolly calyxes ftrongly armed with fpines.
It fl owers in July, and in warm feafons fometimes ripens
the feeds in September. Native of Spain and Barbary.
This, .and the foregoing fort, were cultivated by Mr.
Miller in 1768.
42. Centaurea Ifnardi : calyxes palmate-fpiny; leaves
lyrate-toothed, hifpid, almoft flem clafping; flowers feflile,
terminal ; root perennial ; Hems feveral, afeending, about
a foot in length, commonly fqtiare, hairy, furrowed ;
flowers purple, folitary, and appear in June and July;
they are compofed of from forty to forty-five regular flo¬
rets in the dilk, and fifteen to eighteen neuter florets in
the ray, comprifed in a conic calyx ; cultivated in 1717, in
the royal garden at Paris ; the feeds came from Holland.
43. Centaurea napifolia, or turnip-leaved centaury:
-calyxes palmate-fpiny ; leaves decucrent, finuate, fpiiju-
lou?, radical leaves lyrate. Root annual ; flem branch¬
ing, three feet high ; lower leaves not much unlike thole
of the turnip, rounded at the end, and the bale cut into
many fegments, diminifliing gradually to the top of the
flem, and winged. Native of the Archipelago ; cultiva¬
ted in 1759 by Mr. Miller.
4-3. Centaurea afpera, or rough centaury : calyxes pal¬
mate, three-fpined ; leaves lanceolate-tcothed. The wing¬
ed ferns, dark-coloured though villole leaves, and buflty
habit of the plant, diftinguiffi this from all others. Grows
about Montpellier, in Ttifcany, and Portugal.
V. Calcitrapae : with the fpines of the calyx compound,
45. Centaurea benedidfa, or blefled thiftle : calyxes dou¬
ble, fpiny, woolly, involucred ; leaves femidecurrent,
toolhletted, fpiny. Root annual; fern erect, roundifti,
channelled, rough, from one to two feet high, often
branched towards the top ; leaves long, elliptical, rough,
bright green above, underneath whitifh, and reticulated.
Native of Spain and the Levant; flowering from June to
September; cultivated in 1597, as appears from Gerarde.
This plant obtained the appellation of benediEtus from its
being fnppofed to poflefs extraordinary medical powers;
for, exclufive of tbofe qualities ufually aferibed to bitters,
it was thought to be a powerful alexipharmic, and capa¬
ble of curing the plague, and other malignant febrile dif-
orders. It was alfo reputed to be good againft worms, as
well as againft all forts of poifon. Simon Paulli declares
that it has no equal in confolidating putrid and ftubborn
ulcers, and even cancers. He relates the cafe of a woman
whole breads were wafted by a cancer to the very ribs,
and yet was cured by waftiing them with the diftilled wa¬
ter of this plant, and fprinkling them with the powder of
its leaves; and Arnoldusde Villa Nova relates, that he
faw the putrid and hollow ulcers of a man, who had all
the flefli of his legs con fumed to the very bone, and who
had tried all other medicines in vain, cured by the fol
lowing recipe: Take the bruifed leaves of this plant, and
boil them with fome generous wine, then add fome melted
hog’s lard ; let them boil a. little more, and then putin
fome wheat flour, furring it about all the while with a
fpatula, till it comes to the confidence of an ointment ;
lay this warm on the ulcers twice a-day. In fpite how¬
ever of all thefe high commendations, we do not find this
plantconfideredasof any great importance in the modern
materia medica. In lofs of appetite however, where the
ftomach has been injured by irregularities, it is allowed
that the good effects of the infufion of carduus benedidlus
have been often experienced ; the decodtion of it alfo in
water or pofiet-drink (till maintains its popular reputation
as a gentle vomit, for which purpofe it is to be drunk in
pretty large quantities.
46. Centaurea eriophora, or woolly-headed centaury ;
calyxes double-fpiny, woolly ; leaves femidecurrent, en¬
tire, and finuate ; Item proliferous. Native of Portugal;
flowering in July ; cultivated in 1768 by Mr. Miller.
47. Centaurea yEgyptiaca : calyxes double-fpiny, fome-
what woolly ; leaves feflile, lanceolate, entire, and toothed;
Item proliferous, a foot high. Native of Egypt; annual.
48. Centaurea calcitrapa, or fiar-thiftle : calyxes fub-
double, fpiny, feflile; leaves pinnatifid, linear, toothed ;
fern hairy. Root annual ; fiem from a foot to eighteen
inches and two feet in height, hairy, light green, very
much branched, with thorns or prickles ; branches alter¬
nate, fpreading. Native of England, Swiflerland, and
the fouthern parts of Europe. Linnaeus affirms that it
grows abundantly about London, and in the very city u-
felf. It is extremely common about Cambridge, and is
find to haye been ufed by the brewers inftead of hops.
The plant and root are both very bitter, and are fome¬
times adminiftered abroad in agues, & c.
49. Centaurea calcitrapoides, or Phoenician centaury:
calyxes fubdouble, fpiny; leaves ftem-clafping, lanceo¬
late, undivided, ferrate. Linnaeus calls it the daughter
of the foregoing, but with undivided leaves. Found near
Nifmes, and in Paleftine.
50. Centaurea
CENT,
50. Centaurea folrtitiaVis.; or St. Barnaby’s thiftle : ca¬
lyxes double, fpiny, folitary ; branch-leaves decurrent,
unarmed, lanceolate; radical leaves lyrate, pinnatifid.
Annual; native of the South of Europe; difcovered by
Mr. Crowe, in a graffy field at Arminghall, two miles
from Norwich.
51. Oentaurea melitenfis, or clurter-headed centaury :
calyxes double, fpiny, crowded, terminal : leaves decur¬
rent, lanceolate, finuous, unarmed. Grows about Mont¬
pellier, and in the ille of Malta ; annual. What we com¬
monly call the folflitialis is this fort.
52. Centaurea ficula : calyxes cilia te, fpiny, terminal;
leaves decurrent, lyrate, unarmed, hoary. Native of Si¬
cily ; perennial.
53. Centaurea centauroides : calyxes ciliate, fpiny;
leaves lyrate, pinnate, quite entire, the end divifion
larged. Native of Italy, Spain, and Montpellier.
54. Centaurea collina : calyxes ciliate, unarmed, fpiny;
radical leaves bipinnatifid ; dem acute, angled. Scopoli
mentions feveral varieties. D’AfTo obferves, that the di-
vifions of the leaves end in a harmlefs fpine ; and that the
neuter florets in the ray are quadrifid. Native of Mont¬
pellier, Spain, Carniola, Italy, and Medina ; perennial.
55. Centaurea rupertris, or rock centaury : calyxes
ciliate, fpiny ; leaves bipinnate, linear. This is allied to
the foregoing fpecies, in having the fcales of the calyx
brown ciliate, territinated by a w eak Ample fpine, diorter
than the fcale itfelf ; but the inmofl fcales are fcariofe.
The dem is little branched, and fcarcely angular; aimed
all the leaves are bipinnate, linear, and except about the
edge even, but by no means lanceolate, with the pinnas
branched like a dag’s horn. Narive of Italy ; perennial.
VI. Crocodiloidea : fpines fimple. 56. Centaurea veru-
tum, or dwarf centaury : calyxes mod Amply fpiny ; teeth
two, oppofite ; leaves lanceolate, entire, decurrent; root
annual ; dem ere£t, eighteen inches high and upwards.
Native of Paledine.
57. Centaurea lalmantica, or lyre-leaved centaury : ca¬
lyxes fmooth, with a fubf'piny fetule danding out ; leaves
lyrate, runcinate, ferrate. Native of the South of Eu¬
rope; perennial; cultivated in 1596 by Gerarde.
58. Centaurea eichoracea, or fuccory-leaved centaury:
calyxes fetaceous, fpiny; leaves decurrent, undivided,
ferrate, fpiny. Radical leaves a Abort fpan in length, three
or four inches over in the wided part, entire, with only a
few irregular toothlets. or fmall fpines; deni-leaves fmaller,
narrower, with toothlets or diort fpinules round the edge,
acuminate. Stem clothed to the top with leaves, and
terminated by a fmall head, the fcales of which finifh in
oblong recurved fpinules. Native of Italy, in Adontc
Argentario.
59. Centaurea muricata : calyxes very Amply fpiny;
lower leaves pinnatifid, upper lanceolate ; peduncles very
long; denis tender, dividing into many branches, with
very fmall leaves on them. Native of Spain ? annual.
60. Centaurea perigrina : calyxes fetaceous, fpiny ; leaves
lanceolate, petioled, toothed at bottom. The Items rife
near three feet high, with entire leaves at each joint ;
they are terminated by fingle large heads of flowers, of a
gold colour, inclofed in a prickly calyx ; appearing in
July and Augnfl, but never .producing feeds in this coun¬
try. Grow’s naturally in Aurtria and Hungary, from both
winch countries Miller received the feeds before 1759.
61. Centaurea radiata, or rayed centaury : calyxes al-
mod unarmed and awned, radiate; leaves pinnatifid. Na¬
tive of Siberia.
62. Centaurea nudicaulis, or naked-dalked centaury:
calyxes fetaceous, fpiny ; leaves undivided, the upper
ones a little toothed ; dem almort naked, one-flowered,
fimple. Native of Provence, Spain, and Italy; perennial.
63. Centaurea crocodilinm, or blufli centaury : calyxes
fcariofe, very (imply fpiny; leaves pinnatifid, quite entire,
the outmofi divifion larger toothed. Native of Syria;
annual.
64. Centaurea purnila, or dwarf centaury : calyxes very
1 U R E A. 27
fimply fpiny; leaves tooth-pinnate, villofe ; dem none.
Found in Egypt by Hadelquid.
63. Centaurea Tingitana, or Tangier centaury : calyxes
fpiny at the edge ; leaves lanceolate, undivided, ferrate,
fifb fpiny. Native of Tangier ; perennial.
66. Centaurea galaflites, or white- veined centaury :
calyxes fetaceous, fpiny; leaves decurrent, donate, fpiny,
tomentofe beneath. This has the appearance of a thidle,
but the neuter florets determine it to be a centaurea.
Obferved by Ray in Sicily, Malta, and about Montpellier.
VII. New fpecies. 67. Centaurea triumfetti : calyxes
ferrate, with white cilias ; leaves deeply pinnatifid, with
two pinnas for the mod part, decurrent. It differs fro 111
No. 14, not only in having the leaves condantly laciniate,
but the cilias of the fcales white; however it may be no¬
thing more than a remarkable variety. Found about
Mont Cenis, &c. perennial.
68. Centaurea kartfehiana : calyxes ciliate, fpiny; leaves
pinnate; pinnas fertile, lanceolate, decurrent, ending in a
point. Itdirters from No. 23, in its habit, and other marks.
69. Centaurea alata, or upright wing-rtallced centauiy :
calyxes ciliate; fcales flat, appreffed, ciliate at the end;
deni-leaves oblong, decurrent. Stems four feet high,
fmooth, a little angular, and branched at top. The flowers
are of a fine yellow, and grow in a fort of panicle at top;
the calyx lntooth, green. Native of Tartary, as fuppofed.
Cultivated many years in the Paris garden, and introduced
in 1781 into the royal garden at Kew.
70. Centaurea intybacea, or fuccory-Veaved centaury :
calyxes ciliate; fcales flat, obtufe, ciliate at the end;
leaves pinnatifid ; difk equal to the ray. Stem two feet
high, upright, hard, driated, branched ; flowers purple,
fletb-coloured, or white. This fort is perennial, and na¬
tive of the South of Europe, on the borders of fields and
in dry padures. It was .introduced here in 1778.
71. Centaurea diluta, or pale-flowered centaury : calyxes
ciliate; fcales acuminate, fomewhat thorny; leaves ob¬
long and pinnatifid; flofcules of the pay longer than the
difk. Introduced in 178?. This alfo is a native of the
South of Europe: thefe, with the 69th, were introduce^
by Monf. Thouin.
72. Centaurea tlrobilacea : calyxes fcariofe, fpiny, fer¬
rate, ciliated ; leaves dotted beneath, pinnated ; pinnas
lanceolate, falcated, eredh The flowers are pale yellow ;
the plant has no fmell : the fade is bitten fli ; perennial.
73. Centaurea hybrida : calyxes ciliated, ending in a
fpine; leaves pinnated, branch-leaves linear, lanceolate^
undivided, decurrent. This teems to be a mule between
No. 50 and No. 16. It has the habit of the latter, and the
fame height; the leaves are pinnated like that, but the
branch-leaves are linear, lanceolate, undivided, and decur¬
rent. This fpecies perfects its feeds. Gl ows on the hills
about Turin; biennial.
74. Centaurea nicaeenfis: calyxes ciliate, fpiny; the
leaves ovate, rough; radical leaves petioled, toothed;
dem-leavfes embracing, decurrent. Stems rtriate, angular,
eighteen inches high, alternately branched ; the whole
plant is dark green, and rpughith. Found about Nice;
biennial.
75. Centaurea caefpitofa : calyxes palmate, fpiny; leaves
finuate-toothed, the lower ones petioled, the upper ones
half rtem-clafping. Roots perennial, woody, dry, perpt ■-
dicujar, black on the outfide ; (terns dividing from the
very bottom into numerous procumbent branches ; they
are thickifh, round, from a foot to two feet in length ; the
flowers have a drong difagreeable fmell, Native of 'Italy,
on.the fea-diore near Naples, forming very thick tufts in
the land.
76. Centaurea elegans : dem fimple; leaves undivided,
linear; axillas one-flowered, and one terminal flower.
Height eighteen inches ; (tem round ; axillary flowers on
a peduncle diorter than the leaf; flower blue; annual'.
Found in the vineyards of Unelia, by Dana.
77. Centaurea aurea, or great golden centaurv : calyxes
mod fimply thorned, thorns fpreading; flofcules equal'.
5 leaves
28 C "E N
leaves hiifute, the lower pifmatifid. Native of the fonth
of Europe. There are more fpecies of tills extenfive genus
in Vahi and other authors.
Propagation and Culture. The numerous fpecies of this
genus may be increafed without great difficulty ; thofe
which are annual by feeds, and fucli as are perennial both
tliat way and by parting the roots. The feeds of the
greater part may be fown either in fpring or autumn in a
bed of light earth, either to remain where they are, and
in that cafe only to be thinned and kept clean from weeds,
or to be pricked out, when of a prope.r fize, into a bed of
frefh earth about fix inches afunder, there to remain till
autumn, when they ftiotild be planted where they are to
continue. Mod of the fpecies are hardy, and none of
them are very tender; fome however require a little pro-
tefiion in this climate.
The feeds of fvveet fultan are commonly fown upon a
hot-bed in the fpring, to bring the plants forward, and
in May they are tranfplanted into the borders of the flower
garden ; but if the feeds are fown in a warm border in
autumn, they will live through the winter; and thofe
plants may be removed in the fpring into the flower-gar¬
den, and will ue ftronger, and come earlier to flower, than
thofe which are railed in the fpring. The feeds may alfo
be fown in the fpring on a common warm border, where
the plants will rife very well, but thefe will be later in
flowering than either of the other: the autumnal plants
will begin to flow'er in the middle of June, and will con¬
tinue flowering till September; and the fpring plants will
flower a month later, and continue till the froft flops them.
Their feeds ripen in autumn.
Great centaury may be propagated by parting the roots.
As it requires much room, it is not proper for fmall
gardens ; but in large open borders, or on the verges of
plantations, with other tall-growing plants, it makes a
good figure.
Perennial blue-bottle is now become a common plant in
large gardens, from the facility with which it is increafed.
The roots indeed creep fo much, that it is apt to become
troublefome. It will grow in any foil and fituation.
There are great varieties of colours in the flowers of the
common annual blue-bottle, and fome of them are finely
variegated. The feeds are fold under the name of bottles
of all colours. They will rife in any common border,
and require no other care but to be kept clean from weeds,
and thinned where they are too clofe, for they do not
thrive well when they are tranfplanted. If the feeds be
fown in autumn, they will fucceed better, and the plants
will flower ftronger than thofe which are fown in fpring.
The fureft method of cultivating the carduus benCdidtus
is to fow the feeds in autumn ; and, when the plants come
up, to hoe the ground, to cut up the weeds, and thin the
plants; and in the following fpring to hoe it a fecond
time, leaving the plants a foot afunder ; they will ripen
their feeds in autumn, and foon after decay. See Cnic us,
and STiEHEUNA.
CENTAU'RI,y. in fabulous hiftory, a people of Tlief-
faly, half men and half horfes. They were the offspring
of Centaurus, fon of Apollo, by Stilbia, daughter of tire
Peneus. According to fome, the Centaurs were the fruit
cf Ixion’s adventure with the cloud in the fhape of Juno,
or, as others aflert, of the union of Centaurus with the
mares of Magnefia. This fable of the exiftence of t he
Centaurs, monflers fupported upon the four legs of a
horfe, is faid to have arifen from the ancient people of
Thelfaly having firft tamed horfes, and having appeared
to their neighbours mounted on horfeback, a fight very
uncommon at that time, and which, when at a diftance,
feemsonlyonebody, and confequently one creature. Some
derive the name airo tov kehteiv ravgov?, goading bulls , be-
caufe they went on horfeback after their bulls which had
ftrayed, or becaufe they hunted wild bulls with horfes.
Some of the ancients have maintained, that monflers like
the Centaurs can have exifted in the natural courfe of
things. Plutarch in Sympof. mentions one feen by Perian-
C E N
der tyrant of Corinth; and Pliny 7, c. 3, fays, that h€
faw one embalmed in honey, which had been brought to
Rome from Egypt in the reign of Claudius. The battle
of the Centaurs with the Lapithae is famous in hiftory.
Ovid lias elegantly deferibed it, and it has alfo employed
the pen of Hefiod, Valerius Flaccus, &c. and Paufanias in
Eliac. fays, it was reprefented in the temple of Jupiter at
Olympia, and alfo at Athens by Phidias and Parrhafius ac¬
cording to Pliny 36, c. £. The origin of this battle was a
quarrel at the marriage of Hippodamia with Pirithous,
where the Centaurs, intoxicated with wine, behaved with
rudenefs, and even ottered violence to the women that
were prefeut. Such an infult irritated Hercules, Thefeus{
and the reft of the Lapithae, who defended the women,
wounded and defeated the Centaurs, and obliged them to
leave their country, and retire to Arcadia. Here their in-
folence was a fecond time puniffied by Hercules, who,
when he was going to hunt the boar of Ery manthus, was
kindly entertained by the Centaur Pholus, who gave him
wine which belonged to the reft of the Centaurs, but had
been given them on condition of their treating Hercules
with it, whenever lie patted through their territory. They
refented the liberty which Hercules took witli their wine,
and attacked him with uncommon fury. Tiie hero de¬
fended himfelf with his arrows, and defeated his adverfa-
ries, who fled forfafety to the Centaur Chiron. Chiron
had been the preceptor of Hercules^ and therefore they
hoped that he would defift in his prefence. Hercules,
though awed at the fight of Chiron, did not dettft, but,
in the midft of the engagement, he wounded hjs precep¬
tor in the knee, who, in the exceflive pain he flittered,
exchanged immortality for death. The death of Chiron
irritated Hercules the more, and the Centaurs that were
prefent, were all extirpated by his hand. Diod. Hefiod \
Homer, Ovid, &c.
CENTAU'RIUM, f. in botany; fee Aceratum,
Centaurea, Chironia, Cnicus, Eranthemum,
Serratula. CENTAURIUM LUTEUM; feeCHLO-
ra, Thesium. CENTAURIUM MINUS; fee Achy-
raxthes, Cheronia, Gentiana, Eranthemum,
Exacum, and Sarothra.
CENTAU'RUS, in aftronomy, the Centaur, one of
the forty-eight old confteliations, being a fouthern one, in
forrri half man and half horfe; from the Greek fajtte of
Chiron the Centaur, who was the tutor of Achilles and
Efculapius. The ftars of this conftellation are, in Ptolo-
my’s catalogue 37, in Tycho’s 4, and in the Britannic ca¬
talogue, with Sharp’s appendix, 35.
CENT AU'RUS,/! a Till p in the fleet of Aineas, which
had the figure of a Centaur. Virgil. But, according to
others, the fhi p was fo named, from its fimilitude to the
ark, which, Mr. Bryant fays, was fometimes called cen¬
taurus-, from v hence many of the Arkites were called
centauri, and were reputed of the Nepheiine race. The
fame learned author obferves, that (hips feem of old to
have been denominated from the ark centauri, and bucen -
tauri; and that the Venetians at this day call their princi¬
pal galley bucentaur.
CEN'T AURY, /. inbotany; fee Chlora, Gentiana,
CENTEL'LA,yi in botany; fee Hydrocotyle.
CENTENA'RIUS, f. An officer who had the govern¬
ment or command, with the adminillration of juftice, in
a village. The centeiiarii as well as vicarii were under the
jurifdidlion and command of the court. We find them
among the Franks, Germans, Lombards, Got hs, &c. Cen-
tenarius was alfo ufed for an officer who had the command
of one hundred men, moil frequently called a Centurion.
CEN'TEN ARY,y. \_centcnarius, Lat.] The number of
a hundred. In every centenary of years from the creation,
fome fmall abatement ftiottld have been made. Hakezoill.
CENTE'NIUM O'VUM,/. with naturalifts, a fort of
hen’s egg much fmaller than ordinary, vulgarly called a
cock's egg-, from which it has been fabuloufly held that the
cockatrice or bafilifk is produced. The name is taken
from an opinion, sjiat thefe are the laft eggs which hens
la/s
C E N
lay, having laid one hundred before ; whence centenhium,
the hundredth egg. Theft eggs have no yolk, but in
other refpe&s differ not from common ones, having the
albumen, chalazes, membranes, &c. in common with
others. In the place of the yolk is found a little fubftance
like a ferpent coiled up, which doubtlefs gave rife to the
fable of the bafilifk’s origin from thence. The caufe is
afcribed by HervCy to this, that the yolks in the vitellary
of the hen are exhanfted before the albumina.
CENTENARY,/. [ centenarius , Lat. ] The number of
a hundred — fn every centenary of years from the creation,
fome fmall abatement fliould have been made. Hakcwill.
CEN'TER,/ See Centre.
CENTE'SIMA USU'RA, that wherein the intereft in
an hundred months became equal to the principal, i. e.
where the money is laid out at one per cent, per month :
anfwe'ring to what in our fly le would be called 1.2 per cent,
for the Romans reckoned their intereft not by the year,
but by the month.
CENTE'SIMAL,/. [centefmus, Lat.] Hundredth ; the
next ftep of progreffion after decimal in the arithmetic of
fractions. — The neglect of a few centefimals in the fide of
the cube, would bring it to an equality with the cube of
a foot. Arbuthnot.
CENTESIM A'TlON,/.a milder kind of military punifh-
ment, in cafes of defertion, mutiny, See. when only every
hundredth man is executed.
CENTIFO'LIOUS, adj. [from centum and folium, Lat.]
Having an hundred leaves.
CENTILO'QyiUM, f a collection of a hundred fen-
tences, opinions, orfayings. The centiloquium of Hermes
contains a hundred aphorifms, or altrological fentences,
fuppofed to have been written by fome Arab, but'fathered
on Hermes Trifmegiftus. It is only extant in Latin, in
which it has feveral times been printed. The centiloquium
of Ptolemy is a famous aftrological piece, frequently con¬
founded with the former, confiding likewife of a hundred
fentences or detrines, divided into ftiort aphorifms, inti-
tled in Greek as being the fruit or refult of the
former writings of that celebrated aftronomer, viz. his
quadripartitum and almagefum ; of rather, becaufe that
herein is fhewn the ufe of aftrological calculations.
CEN TIPES, in entomology. See Scolopendra.
CENTLI'VRE (Su(anna), a celebrated comic writer,
born at Holbeach in Lincolnlhire. Lofing her mother,
her father, whole name was Freeman, married a fecond
wife, who treated Sufanna with fuch feverity, that, on a
company of (trolling comedians coming to Stamford, die
joined them, and took a final leave of her father’s houfe.
She acquired fome merit on the country ftage ; but, having
a greater inclination to wear the breeches than the petti¬
coats, file ftruck chiefly into the men’s parts. Several gay
adventures are related of this lady in her youth ; one of
which was, that fhe fpent a confiderable time in Cam¬
bridge, at the chambers of a gentleman of fortune, dif-
guifed under a man’s habit ; fo that, it feems, file had,
what the generality of her fex have not, the benefit of an
univerfity education. Afterwards fhe went to. London,
where fhe took care to improve the charms of her perfon
and her genius. She learned French, and read a great
deal of poetry ; for which (lie was fo particularly turned,
that, as her biographers tell us, fhe compofed a long be¬
fore fhe was feven years old. She is the author of 15
plays, and feveral little poems, for fome of which fhe is
laid to have received confiderable prefents from v.ery great
perfonages : from prince Eugene a very handfcme.and
weighty gold f'nuff-box ; and from the duke d’Aumont
the French ambafiador another, for a mafquerade which
fine addrefled to him. Her talent was comedy, particu¬
larly the contrivance of plots and incidents. Steele in one
of the Tatlers, fpeaking of her “Bufy Body,” recom¬
mends it in tbefe terms: “ The plotand incidents of the
play are laid with that fubtlety and fpirit, which is peculiar
to females of wit ; and is feldom well performed by thole
of the other fex, in whom craft in love is an adt of inven-
V O.L. IV. No. 175.
C E N 29
tion, and not, as with women, the efredt of nature and
inflindt. She died December 1, 1723, after being thrice
married ; and has fince been mentioned by Pope in the
Dunciad, for having written, as his commentator fays, a
ballad againfthis Homer, before he began it. She kept
for many years a conftant correfpondence with mafiy gen¬
tlemen of eminence and wit; particularly with Steele,
Rowe, Budgell, Sewell, See. She had a fmall wen on her
left. eye-lid, which gave her a mafculine air. She died in
Spring-gardens, at the houfe of her hufband jofeph Cent-
livre, who had been one of queen Anne’s cooks, and
had fallen in love with her at Windfor, about 1706, where
file adted the part of Alexander the Great.
CENT'NER, /. with afiayers, a weight divided into a
hundred parts. See Balance, vol. ii. p. 64.2; and the
article Weight.
CEN'TO, /. [cento, Lat.] A compoftion formed by
joining feraps or extracts from other author?.— It was
quilted, as it were, out of fiweds of divers poets, fuch as
fcholars call a cento. Camden.
CLN'TO POZ'ZI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Bari : three miles north of Matera.
CENTOR'BI, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demo¬
ns, at the foot of Mount HItna, near which is found a
ftone which diflolves in v.'ater like foap : nineteen miles
weft-north-weft of Jaci.
CENTO'RIO (Afcanius), of an illuftrious family of
Milan, bore arms in the fixteenth century, in which he
was as much the philofopher as the foldier. He took ad¬
vantage of the leifure afforded him by the peace, for re¬
ducing to order the military and hiftorical memoirs he had
collected during the tumult of war. They are very much
efteemed in Italy, not lefs for their excellence than their
rarity. They appeared at Venice in 1565 and 1569, in
2 vols. 4-to. The former, in fix books, treats of the wars
of Tranfilvania, and the other of thqfe of bis own lime ;
in eight books.
CE'NTRAL, adj. [from centre.'] Relating to the cen¬
tre; containing the centre ; placed in the centre, or mid¬
dle. Thus we fay central echpfe, central forces, central
rule, See.
CENTRAL ECLIPSE, is when the centres of the lu¬
minaries exactly coincide, and come in aline with the eye.
See Astronomy, vol. ii.. p. 398.
CENTRAL FORCES, are forces having- a tendency
diredtly towards or from fome point or centre; or forces
which caufe a moving body to tend towards, or recede
from, the centre-of motion.' See Mechanics.
CENTRAL RULE, is a rule or method difeovered by
Mr. Thomas Baker, reft or of Nympton, in Devonlbire,
which he publifhed in his Geometrical Key, in 1684, for
determining the centre of a circle which fhall cut a given
parabola in as many points as a given equation, to be.con-
ftruted, has real roots ; and this he has applied with good
fuccefs in the conftruftion of all equations as far as the
fourth power inclufive. The central rule is chiefly found¬
ed on this property of the parabola ; that, if a line be in¬
fer ibed in the curve perpendicular to any diameter, the
reftangle of the fegments of this line is equal to the rec¬
tangle of the intercepted part of the diameter and the pa¬
rameter of the axis. The central rule has the advantage
over the methods of conftruCtirtg equations by Des Cartes
and De Latteres, which are liable to the trouble of pre¬
paring the equations by taking away the fecond tenn^
whereas Baker’s method effects the lame thing without
any previous preparation whatever. See alfo Pliilof. Tranf.
No. 157.
CENTRALLY, adv. [from central ] With regard to
the centre. — Though one of the feet molt commonly bears
the weight, j et the whole weight relts centrally upon it.
Dry den.
CEN'TRE, /. [-centrum, Lat. from Gr. a point.]
The middle ; that which is equally diftant f;„om all extre¬
mities. This is a word of very extenfive application. In
chemiftry, it is the refidence or foundation of matter.
I Ik
3o C E N
In medicine, it is the point in which its virtue refides. In'
anatomy, the middle point of fome parts is fo named, as
centrum nerveum , the middle or tendinous part of the
diaphragm, See.
The heav-ns themfelves, the planets, and this centre,
Obferve degree, priority, and place. Sbakefpeare.
CEN'TRE, f, with builders, the frame of wood or
timber on which the brick or Hone of arches are turned,
and from which they receive their form and curvature.
See Architecture, vol. ii. p. 86, 133, See.
To CEN'TRE, v. a. To place on a centre ; to fix as on
a centre.
One foot he centred, and the other turn’d
Round through the vaft profundity obfeure. Milton.
To collect to a point.
By thy each look, and thought, and care, ’tis fhown.
Thy joys are centred all in me alone. Pope.
To CEN'TRE, v. n. To reft on ; to repofe on ; as bo¬
dies when they gain an equilibrium. — Where there is no
vifible truth wherein to centre, error is as wide as men’s
fancies, and may wander to eternity. Decay of Piety To
be placed in the midlt or centre :
As God in heav’n
Is centre, yet extends to all ; fo thou.
Centring, receiv’ft from all thofe orbs. Milton.
To be collefted to a point :
What hopes you had in Diomede, lay down ;
Our hopes muft centre on ourfelves alone. . Dryden.
CEN'TRE of Attraction, or Gravitation, is
the point to which bodies tend by gravity; or that point
to which a revolving planet or comet is impelled or at¬
tracted, by the force or impetus of gravity.
CEN'TRE of a Bastion, is a point* in the middle of
the gorge, where the capital line commences-, and which
is ufually at the angle of the inner polygon of the figure.
Or it is the point where the two adjacent curtains produced
interfeCl each other.
CEN'TRE of a Circle, is the point in the middle of
a circle, or circular figure, from which all lines drawn to
the circumference are equal.
CEN'TRE of a Conic Section, is the middle point
of any diameter, or the point in which all the diameters
interfect and hi left one another. In the ellipfe the centre
is within the figure ; but in the hyperbola it is without,
or between the conjugate hyperbolas ; and in the parabola
it is at an infinite diftance from the vertex. See Conic
Sections.
CEN'TRE of a Curve, of the higher kind, is the
point where two diameters meet. When all the diame¬
ters meet in the fame point, it is called, by Sirlfaac New¬
ton, the general centre.
CEN'TRE of an Ellipse, is the middle of any diame¬
ter, or the point where all the diameters interfeft.
CENTRE of Friction, is that point in the bafe of a
body on which it revolves, into which if the whole furface
of the bafe and the mafs of the body were colle&ed, and
made to revolve about the centre of the bafe of the given
body, the angular velocity deftroyed by its fri&ion would
be equal to the angular velocity deftroyed in the given
body by its friftion in the fame time. See Friction.
CEN'TRE of Gravity, is that point about which all
the parts of a body do in any fituation exactly balance
each other. Hence, by means of this property, if the bo¬
dy be fupported or fufpended by this point, the body will
reft in any petition into which it is put ; as alio that, if a
plane pafs through the fame point, the fegments on each
tide will be equiponderate, neither of them being able to
move the other. SeeGRAViTY.
CEN'TRE of Gv ration, is that point in which if the
whole mafs be collected, the fame angular velocity will
, c E N
be generated in the fame time, by a given force afting at
any place, as in the body or fyftem itfelf. This point dif¬
fers from the centre of ofcillation, in as much as hr this
latter cafe the motion of the body is produced by the gra¬
vity of its own particles, but in the cafe of the centre of
gyration the body is put in motion by fome other force act¬
ing at one place only.
CEN'TRE of an Hyperbola, is the middle of the
axis, or of any other diameter, being the point without
the figure in which all the diameters interfeft one another;
and it is common to all the four conjugate hyperbolas.
CEN'TRE of Magnitude, is thepointwhich is equal¬
ly diftant from all the fimilar external parts of a body.
This is the fame as the centre of gravity in homogeneal
bodies that can be cut into like and equal parts according
to their length, as in a cylinder, or any other prifm.
CEN'TRE of Motion, is the point about which any
body, or fyftem of bodies, moves, in a revolving motion.
CEN'TRE of Oscillation, is that point in the axis
or line of fufpenlion of a vibrating body, or fyftem of bo¬
dies, in which, if the whole matter or weight be collefted,
the vibrations will ftill be performed in the fame time,
and with the fame angular velocity, as before. Hence,
in a compound pendulum, its diftance from the point of
fufpenfion is equal to the length of a fimple pendulum
whofe ofcillations are ifochronai with thole of the com¬
pound one. See Mechanics.
CEN'TRE of Percussion, in a moving body, is that
point where the perculfion or ftroke is the greateft, in.
which the whole percutient force of the body is fuppofed
to he colle&ed ; or about which the impetus of the parts
is balanced on every fide, fo that it may be ftopt by an im¬
moveable obftacle at this point, and reft on it, without
afting on the centre of fufpenfion.
CEN'TRE of a Parallelogram, the point in which
its diagonals interfeft.
CEN'TRE of Pressure, of a fluid againft a plane, is
that point againft which a force being applied equal and
contrary to the whole prefibre, it; will juft fuftain it, fo as
that the body prefied on will not incline to either fide.
This is the fame as the centre of perculfion, fuppofing the
axis of motion to be at the interfeftion of this plane with
the furface of the fluid : and the centre of preflure upon
a plane parallel to the horizon, or upon any plane where
the preflure is uniform, is the fame as the centre of gravity
of that plane.
CEN'TRE of a Regular Polygon, or Regular
Body, is the fame as that of the inferibed, or circum-
Icribed circle or fphere.
CEN'TRE of a Sphere, is the fame as that of its ge¬
nerating femicircle, or the middle point of the fphere,
from whence all right lines drawn to the luperficies are
equal.
CENTREVIL'LE, the chief town of Queen Anne’s
county, in North America, fituate on the ealt fide of Che-
fapeak-bay in Maryland. It lies between the forks of
Corfica-creek, which runs into Chefter-river, and has been
but lately laid out. It is eighteen miles fouth of Chefter,
thirty-four fouth-eaft by ealt of Baltimore, and ninety-five
fouth -weft by fouth of Philadelphia. Lat. 39. 6. N.
CENTRIC, aTj. Placed in the centre :
Some, that have deeper digg’d in mine than I,
Say where his centric happinefs doth lieT Donne.
CENTRI’FUGAL, adj. [from centrum and/bgA, Lat.]
Having the quality acquired by bodies in motion, of re¬
ceding from the centre.
CENTRI'PETAL, adj. [from centrum and peto, Lat.]
Having a tendency to the centre ; having gravity. Hence,
in mechanics, centrifugal force, is that by which a body
revolving about a centre, or about another body, endea¬
vours to recede from it. And centripetal force, is that by
which a moving body is perpetually urged towards a cen¬
tre, and made to revolve in a curve, inftead of a right
line. Therefore, when a body revolves in a circle, thefe
two
.1
CENTRISCrS, and CEP OLA .
C E N
two forces, viz. the centrifugal and centripetal, are equal
and contrary to each other, fince neither of them gains up¬
on the other, the body being in a manner equally balanced
by them. But when, in revolving, the body recedes far¬
ther from the centre, then the centrifugal exceeds the
centripetal force 5 as in a body revolving from the lower
to the higher apfis, in an ellipfe, and refpe&ing the focus
as the centre. And when the revolving body approaches
nearer to the centre, the centrifugal is lefs than the cen¬
tripetal force ; as while the body moves from the farther
to the nearer extremity of the tranfverfe axis of the el¬
lipfe : the two forces being equal to each other only at the
very extremities of that axis. It is one of the eftablifhed
laws of nature, that all motion is of itfelf rectilinear,
and that the moving body never recedes from its firft right
line, til! lome new impulfe be fuperadded in a different
direftion : after that new impuife the motion becomes
compounded, bur it is Hill rectilinear, though not in the
lame line or direction as before See Mechanics.
CENTRIS'CUS,/. the Trumpet Fish, in ichthyolo¬
gy, a genus belonging to the order of amphibia nantes.
The generic chara&ers are, the body is laterally compreff-
ed, and the head terminated like the beak of a fnipe.
Some are covered with bony plates like armour, others
with fcales. There are no teeth in the mouth ; and the
lower jaw is the loygeft. They live principally onworms,
and are not above fix or feven inches long; ; and chiefly
abound in the Mediterranean and Eaft- Indian feas. There
are only two fpecies known,
1. Centrifcus icolopax, the trumpet or bellows filh.
The fcales on the body form the fpecific character : they
are hard, flia'rp, and, (landing pretty thick, make the fifh
rough if rubbed againlt the grain. There are four rays
in the membrane of the gills, lixteen in the peftoial
fin, five in the ventral, eighteen in the anal, nine in the
tail, four in the firft dorfal, feventeen in the fecond. The
body is fhort and broad, laterally compreffed, and very
much refembles a pair of bellows in fhape ; it is of a pale-
red colour. The head, which is broadifh above, ends in
a bent cylinder below ; and the aperture of the mouth,
which is final], is at the end of the long beak ; the aper¬
ture is clofed by the lower jaw, which flints into the up¬
per like the lid of a fnuff-box. The noftrils are double,
and lie near the eyes ; the eyes are large, with a black
pupil and a pale-red iris. The gill-covert is fingle ; the
aperture is large, and covers the membrane which lies
underneath. This fifh can hide its fmall ventral fins in a
bony furrow which lies behind them ; all the fins are of a
grey colour. This fifh haunts the Mediterranean fea ; it
is tender, well-tafted, and eafy of digeftion ; but, being-
very thin, it is generally fold with other fmall fifh qt a low
price. As the fins are very final 1 in proportion to the
other parts, fo that it cannot fwim faft enough to avoid its
enemies, Providence has given it a moveable fpine for its
defence.
2. Centrifcus fcutatus, the armed fnipe or trumpet fifh.
The finooth armour with which this fifh is covered dif-
tinguifh it fpecifically from the preceding. The offeous
plates are fo joined, that they look like one piece, and
give the fifh the appearance of the folen fxliqua, or knife-
handle :and it may be regarded as forming the connecting
link between fhell and other fifh. There are eleven rays
in the pedoral fin, five in the ventral, thirteen in the anal,
twelve in the tail, three in the firft dorfal, and eleven in
the fecond. The head is long, terminating in a cylindri¬
cal fnout or beak, turned up at the end ; the mouth is
fmall, and the under jaw is the longeft. The eye has a
black pupil, in a yellowifh-w bite iris, and covered with
a pellicle or membrane ; the noftrils are double, and are
near the eyes. The gill-covert is fmooth, and tranfparent
like horn ; the aperture is large, ancl placed at the fide.
There is a .(harp fpine, which is a continuation of the
back, and runs out beyond the tail ; it is probably a wea¬
pon of defence. The back is of a brownifn colour ; the
iides are brown mixed with a little filver, and reddifh to-
C E N 3.1
wards thebelly ; fome white lines are formed by the join¬
ings in the armour. The filh is very thin, and the fides
end (harp at top. When held up to the light, one part
near the back is tranfparent. The (hell every where fiiir.es
like gold. The under furface, which is brown, confifts
ufually of ten or twelve plates ; at the lower edge is a thin
fkin which reaches from the fnout to the anal fin ; and
near this f-kin the pieces are feparated, and the anus lies
between them. The iltuation of thefinsis remarkable in
this fifh ; the peCloral fin is very far from the aperture of
the gills, and the dorfal fins lie under the fhell, clofe to
the tail-fin. The peftoral, ventral, and dorfal, fins, are
yellowifh ; the others brown. This fifh is found in the
Eaft Indies, and grows fix or eight inches long ; it mud
be nourifhed by luftion, as no tongue can be perceived ;
it feeds only on dime and fome fmall aquatic animals-.
When the armour or fhell is taken off from the belly, the
flefli underneath is fo thin as to weigh hut a few grains ;
it is of a fliining white colour. The ftomach is fmall,
long, and round ; and little crabs are often found therein.
CENTRON, a village of Savoy, in the Tarantaife,
formerly a capital town of a people called Centrones : three
miles eaft-north-eaft of Monftier.
CENTRO'NIA, a name by which the echini marine
have been claffed by Dr. Hill.
CEN'TRY or Sentry,/. See Sentinel.
The thoughtlefs wits (hall frequent forfeits pay.
Who ’gainft the centry's boxdilcharge their tea. Gay*
CENTUMCEL'LAi, in the ancient geography, Tra¬
jan’s villa in Tufcany, on the coaft, three miles from
Algae ; with an excellent port, called Trajanv.s Porting
now Ci-vita Vecchia.
CEN TUM'VIRI, the members of a court of juftice at
Rome. They were originally chofen, three from the 35
tribes of the people, and though 105 they were always
called Centumvirs. They -were afterwards encreafed to
the number, of 180, and ftiil kept their original name.
Thepretor fent to their tribunal caufes of the greateft im¬
portance, as their knowledge of the law was extenfive.
They were generally fummoned by the Decemviri, who
feemed to be the chiefeft among them ; and they affembled
in the Bafilica, or public court, and had their tribunal
diftinguifhed by a fpear with an iron head, whence a de¬
cree of their court was called hafta judicium : their fen-
tences were very impartial, and without appeal. Cicero.
CENTUN'CULUS, f. [the name of a plant in Pliny.]
In botany, a genus of the clafs tetrandria, order mono-
gynia, natural order of rotaceas. The generic characters
are — Calyx : perianthium four-cleft, fpreading, permanent;
divifions acute, lanceolate, longer than the corolla. Co¬
rolla : monopetalous, rotated Tube fubglobular ; border
four-cleft, flat ; divifions fubovate. Stamina : filaments
four, almoft the length of the corolla. Anthers Ample,
Piftillum : germ roundifh, within the tube of the corolla.
Style filiform, length of the corolla, permanent. Stigma
Ample. Pericarpium : capfule globular, unilocular, open¬
ing horizontally. Seeds : very many, very fmall — EJJential
Character. Calyx : four-cleft ; corolla four-cleft, fpread¬
ing ; (lamina fhort ; caplule one-celled, opening hori¬
zontally.
There is but one fpecies, called centunculus minimus,
or bailard pimpernel. Root annual. Stem from half of.
an inch to an inch in height or more, Ample or branched
at bottom, rather upright, round and fmooth. Leaves al¬
ternate, feflile, ovate, pointed,, entire, fmooth, fomewhat
flefhy, fpreading ; iometimvs onpofite towards the bottom ,
pellucid at the edge, brownifh underneath. Flowers very mi¬
nute, folitary, axillary, feflile. Calyxdivided fometimes into
four, but generally into five, narrow fegments to thebafe.
The whole corolla is only one line in diameter, and hyaline
or of a clearwater 01-glafs colour : the fegments equal and
much pointed, very thin and tranfparent. 1 he yellow
anthers clofe the mouth of the tube ; and the border does
not expand, unlefs the fun fliines itrongly on. it. The
globular.
32v CEO
globular capfules are like fmall coriander feeds, and feffile
in the axils ; they open into two hemifpheres, and contain
feven or eig-ht feeds attached to a receptacle. Thefecap-
fules contribute moll to difcovering this minute plant,
found in Italy, France, Germany, Britain, Denmark, Sca¬
nia; in Tandy and gravelly places, that are a little mold,
With us on Hour.llow-heath, Alhford-common, near
Idampton-court, Chifiehurd, &c. Flowers from June to
Augud. See Cerastium.
CEN/TCJPLE, adj. [centuplex, Lat,] An hundred fold.
To CENTU'PLICATE, rv. a. [ ccntuplicatiun , of centum
and plico, Lat.] To make a hundred fold ; to repeat a
hundred times.
CENTU'RI, a fmall fea port of the ifiand of Corfica.
To CENTQ'RIATE, <v. a. [ centurio , Lat.] To divide
into hundreds.
CENTURIA'TOR, /. A name given to hiftorians,
who diitinguifh times by centuries ; which is generally
the method of ecclefiaflical hiftoiy. — Elie centuriators of
Magdeburg were the firll that difcovered this grand im-
pofture. Ayliffe.
CENTU'RION, f. [centurio, Latin.] A military officer
among the Romans, who commanded an hundred men.
See Rome .
CENTURI'PiE, Centoripa, or Centuripe, an
ancient town in the fouthweft territory of Etna, on the
river Cyamaforus : now Centorbi. It was a democratical
city, which, like Syracufe, received its liberty from Ti-
moleon. Its inhabitants cultivated the fine arts, particu¬
larly fculpture and engraving. The fituation of the place
is romantic : it is built on the fummit of a vaft group of
rocks, which was probably cliofen as the mod difficult of
accefs, and confequently the prOpered in times of civil
commotion. The remains dill exiding of its ancient bridge
are a proof of its having been a confiderable city. Cicero
ippaks of it as fuch. It was taken by the Romans, plun¬
dered and oppreffied by Verres, destroyed by.Pompey, and
redored by Oflavius, who made it the refidence of a Ro¬
man colony.
CEN'TURY, f. [ centuria , Lat ] A hundred : ufuallv
employed to (pecify time ; as, the fecond century.— The
nature of eternity is l’uch, that, though our joys, after
fome centuries of years, may feem to have grown older by
having been enjoyed fo many ages, yet will they really
continue new. Boyle. — It is fometimes ufed fimply for a
hundred.— Romulus,. as you may read, did divide the Ro¬
mans into tribes, and the tribes into centuries or hundreds.
Spenjer.
CEN'TURIES of Magdeburg, a famous ectlefiafti-
cal hidory, ranged into thirteen centuries, carried down
to the year 17,98, compiled by feveral hundred protedants
of Magdeburg, the chief of whom was Flacius Illyricus.
CENTUS'SIS,/ in Roman antiquity, a coin containing
one hundred affes,
CE'OL, an initial in the names of men, which fignifies
a fliip or vefiel, fuch as thofe that the Saxons landed in.
Gibfon.
CEOR'LES,/ The name of one of the daffies or orders
into which the people were diltinguiffiied among the An¬
glo-Saxons. The ceorles, who were perfons completely
free, and defcended from a long race of freemen, condi-
tuted a middle clafs between the labourers and mechanics
on the one hand, and the nobility on the other.' They
feem ingeneral to have been a kind of gentlemen farmers ;
and if any one profpered fo far as to acquire the property
of five hydes of land, ttpon which he had a church, a
kitchen, a bell-houfe, and great gate, and obtained a feat
and office in the king’s court, he was edeemed a noble¬
man or thane. If aceorl applied himfelf to learning, and
attained to pried's. orders, he was alio confidered as a
thane ; and his tedimony had the fame weight in a court
of judice. When he applied to commerce, and made three
voyages in a fliip of his own, and with a cargo belonging
to himfelf, he was alfo advanced to the dignity of a thane.
But if a ceorl had a greater propenfity to arms than to
CEP
learning, trade, or agriculture, he then became the fitli-
cunman, or military retainer, to fome potent and warlike
earl, and was called the hufcarle of fuch nobleman. If
one of thefe bufcarles acquitted himfelf fo well as to obtain
fiom his patron either five hydes of land, or a gilt fword,
helmet, and breajl-plate, as a reward of his valour, he
was then a thane. Thus the temple of honour flood open
to the ceorls, whether they applied themfifives to agricul¬
ture, commerce, letters, or arms, which were the only
profeffions edeemed worthy of a freeman.
CE'OS, Cea, Cia, or Cos, in the ancient geography,
cne of the Cyclades, oppofite to the promontory of Achaia,
called Sunium. This ifiand is commended by the ancients
for its fertility and richnefs of padure. The fird fiik duffc,
if Pliny and Solinus are to be credited, were wrought
here, 'Ceos was particularly famous for the excellent figs
it produced. It was fird peopled by Aridseus, the fon of
Apollo and Cyrene, who being grieved for the death of
his fon A6laeon, retired from Thebes, at the perfuafion
of his mother, and went over with fome Thebans to Ceos,
or Cos, at that time uninhabited. The ifiand foon
become fo populous, that a law prevailed, commanding
all perfons upwards of lixty to be poifoned, that others
might be able to fubfift ; fo that thofe above fixty were
obliged either to fubmit to the law, or abandon the coun¬
try. Ceos had, in former times, four cities, viz. Julis,
Carthasa, Coreffus, and Praeeffa. The two latter .were,
according to Pliny, fvvallawed up by the earthquake; the
other two fiourilhed in Strabo’s time. C: rthsea dood on
a riling ground, at the end of a valley, about three miles
from the fea. The lituation of it agrees with thht of the
prefent town of Zea. The ruins both of Carthsea and
Julis are dill remaining ; thofe of the latter take up a whole
mountain, and are called by the modern inhabitants Polis,
the city. Near this place are the ruins of a dately temple,
with many pieces of broken pillars, and ftdtues of moil ex-
quilite workmanfliip. The city walls were of marble, and
fome pieces are dill remaining above twelve feet in length.
Julis was, according to Strabo, the birth-place of Simo¬
nides, Bacchylides, Erafidratus, and Arilto. Ceos was,
with the other Greek ifiands, lubdued by, the Romans.
The ifiand is now called Zea.
CE'PA, f. in botany. See Allium and Pancra¬
tium.
CEPCE'A, f. in botany. SeeSEDUM.
CEPHZE'LIS, f. in botany. See Colloocca.
CEPHALFE'A, /. [from Gr. the head.] The
flelh of the head which covers the Ikull. Alro a long con¬
tinued pain of the cerebrum and its membranes.
CEPHALA'GIA, or Cephalalgia,/, [from »s-f>ax>i,
the head, and aXyo?, pain.] The Head-Ach. By fome it
is ufed to fignify a dull pain of the head, which is of a
fhort duration. But mod frequently it is ufed as expref-
five of pain in the head in general, without regard to cir-
cumdances. For the caufes and cure, fee Medici n e.
CEPHALAN'THUS,/ [Ks^aXo; and av9oc,head-fiower.]
Button-wood, Button-tree, Pond-Dogwood,
&c. in botany, a genus of the clafs tetrandria, order mo-
nogynia, natural order of aggregatae. The generic cha-
radlersare — Calyx : perianthium common none, but the re¬
ceptacle colledling many flofcules into a globofe head. Pe¬
rianthium proper one-leafed, funnel-form, angular, border
quadrifid. Corolla : universal equal. Proper monopeta-
lous, funnel-form, acute, quadrifid. Stamina : filaments
four, inferted into the corolla ; Ihorter than the border.
.Anthers globofe. Piftillum : germ, inferior. Style longer
than the corolla. Stigma globofe. Pericarpium : none.
Seeds : folitary, long, attenuated at the Gale, pyramidal
and lanuginous. Receptacle : common globular, villofe.
— EJfential Character. Calyx common none ; proper fu-
perior, funnel-form ; receptacle globular, naked ; feed
one, lanuginous.
Species. 1. Cephalanthus occidentalis, or American
button-wood : leaves in pairs or in threes. Tim lln ub
feldom rifes higher than leven feet in this country. The
branches
CEP
branches come out by pairs, oppofite at each joint. The
leaves are either in pairs oopotite, or there are three at the
lame joint, Handing round the branch ; thefe are near
three inches long, and one and a quarter broad, having a
ftrong vein running longitudinally through the middle,
and iome fmall tranfverfe veins from that to the borders;
they are of a light green, and their foot-ftalks change to a
reddifh colour next the branches ; the ends of the branches
are terminated by loofefpikes of (pherical heads, about the
fize of a marble, each of which is compofed of many
fmall flowers, of a whitifh-yellow colour, faftened to an
axis in the middle ; thefe appear in July, and, in warm
feafons, are fucceeded by feeds, w hich have fometimes ri¬
pened in England. Gaertner defcribes the fruit as an in¬
ferior capfule, crowned with the permanent calyx, inverfely
pyramidal, fmootli, coriaceous, recklifh-ftraw or brick
colour, four-celled, and divifible into four parts, two of the
cells commonly abortive, but all valvelefs and never open¬
ing fpontaneoufly. Seeds four or two, one iti each cell,
oblong, flattiih or angular on one fide, convex on the
other, thicker at top and terminated by a callous epiphy-
fi's, acuminate at bottom, and of a ferruginous red colour.
Linneus fays that the feeds are lanuginofe ; and Miller af¬
firms that the capfules are globular and villofe ; whereas
thofe which he fentto Gasrtner himfelf were quite fmooth,
and agreed with the figure defcribed above. Introduced
3735, by Peter Collin Con, Efq.
2. Cephalanthus anguftifolius : leaves lanceolate-linear
oppofite. This is a middle-fized tree, with afcending
branches. Leaves quite entire. Flowers pale, in fmall
terminating heads : common receptacle, colledling the
florets into a ball : the fruit a fmall compound berry.
3. Cephalanthus procumbens : Item procumbent, leaves
ovate-lanceolate alternate. A thick flirub, with many long
funicular branches. Leaves large, quite entire, tomentofe,
petioled. Flowers violet-coloured, dioecous, in long in¬
terrupted terminating racemes.
4. Cephalanthus montanus : leaves ovate crenate alter-
. nate. A large tree, with a hempen bark, and fpreading
branches. Flowers green, on folitary axillary peduncles,
forming roundilh heads, on a naked globular receptacle :
the females have no corollax.
5. Cephalanthus ftej^atus : leaves llellate, lanceolate-
linear. This is a middle-fized tree with afcending
branches. Leaves by threes, quite entire, fmooth. Florets
white, terminating, collected into a ball ; with a fmall
ovate receptacle, and no common perianthium : the proper
one is inferior, with four fubulate legmen ts. Corolla fu-
perior, with a four-cleft reflex border, four fubjeffile an¬
thers, a long ftyle, and one naked feed. Father Loureiro
examined the living plants of all the fpeciesin their native
foil ; the fit ft and fourth in China, the others in Cochin-
china ; and found them to differ very much, both from
each other and Linnaeus’s generic character.
Propagation and Culture. The firft fort is propagated
chiefly by feeds, (though feme have been raifed from cut¬
tings and layers;) thefe fitould be fovvn in pots, for the
greater convtniency of removing them either into a fhady
fituation, or where they may have fhelter. If the feeds
can be procured fo early as to fow them before Chrifimas,
the plants will come up the following fummer ; but, if they
are fi.wn in the fpring, they generally remain a year in the
ground ; therefore, in fuch cafe, the pots fitould be placed
in the (hade 'that fummer, and in the autumn following
removed under a common frame to fhelter them from frolt,
and the fpring following the plants will come up. The
firft year, it will be neceflary to fhade the plants in hot, dry
weather, while they are young, at w'hich time they are
often deftroyed by being too much expofed ; nor fitould the
watering be negleAed ; for thefe plants naturally grow on
inotft ground The next autumn, when the leaves begin
to drop, the young plants may be trarifplanted into nurfe-
ry beds, which fitould be a little defended from the cold
winds ; and, if the foil be moift, they will fucceed much
better than in dry ground. In thefe nurlery-beds the
Vol. IV. No. 175. 3
CEP 33
plants .may remain- a year or two, according to the progrefs
they may have made, or the difiance at which they were
planted ; then they may be taken up in October, andtranf-
planted where they 'are to remain. It may alfo be per¬
formed in the fpring, efpecially if the ground he moift into
which they ate removed, or that the plants be duly wa¬
tered, if the fpring fitould prove dry, otherwife there will
be more hazard of their growing when removed at this
feafott. Thefe plants make a pretty variety among other
hardy trees and fit rubs, being extremely hardy in refpeff to
cold ; but they delight in a moift light foil, where they
will grow very faft, and their leaves will he larger than in
dry land. The other forts are not at prefeutkiiown in Eu¬
rope. See Nauclea.
CEPHALE'NlA, in the ancient geography, an ifland
of the Ionian fea between ■ Ithaca and Zacynthus, whole
inhabitants went with Ulyfies to the Trojan war, and was
known in Homer’s time by the names of Samos and Epi¬
rus Melsena. It had anciently four cities, the names of
which, according to Thucydides, were Same, Prone, Cra-
nii,'and Pala;. It is now called Cephalonia.
CEPHA'LIC, adj. That is medicinal to the
head. — Cephalic medicines are all -fuch as attenuate the
blood, fo as to make it circulate eafily through the capillary
veflels of the brain. Arbuthnot on Aliment. — I drefled him
up with foft folded linen, dipped in a cephalic balfam.
Wifeman.
CEPHALPTIS, f. [from ne<pu\v, Gr. the head.] A
phrenfy, or inflammation of the parts within the head.
CE'PHALON, a Greek of Ionia, who wrote an liiftory
of Troy, befides an epitome of univerfal hiftory from the
time of Ninus to Alexander, which he divided into nine
books, inferibed with the name of the nine mufes. He af¬
fected not to know the place of his birth, expeCting it
would be difputed like Homer’s. He lived in the reign of
Adrian.
CEPHALO'NIA, a confiderable ifland in the Mediter¬
ranean, nearthecoaftofLivadia to thenerth-eaft ; and near
the coaft of Morea to the fouth-eaft ; oppofite to the
Gulf of Lepanto ; about forty miles in length, and from
ten to twenty in breadth. It was anciently called Samos
and Epirus Melauna. It has been fubjeCt to the Venetians
from the year 1449. The chief articles of commerce are
oil, mufeadine wine, and a fpecies of grape called currants.
The air is very warm, the trees are covered with flowers
all the winter, and bear ripe fruit twice a year, in April
and November ; but thofe which grow in the latter month
are final ler than the others. Corn isfown in the winter,
and reaped in June. Lat. 38. 20. to 38. 50. N . Ion. 38. 1 5.
to 39. E. Ferro.
CEPHALO'NIA, the capital of the ifland fo called ; the
fee of a bilhop, united to Zant. This town was much
damaged by an earthquake in 1766. Lat. 38. 30. N. Ion,
38. 35. E. Ferro.
CEPHALONO'SUS,/ [from Gr. the head, and
vso-cc, a difeafe.] A difeafe of the head. It is ufually ap¬
plied to thatdiforder called the Hungarian fever, in which
the head is principally aftefted.
CEPHALO'TUS,/. in botany. See Thymus.
CE'PH ALUS, in fabulous hiftory, fon of Peionius, king
of Theflaly, by Diomede, daughter of Xuthus, married
Procris, daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens. Au¬
rora fell in love with him, and carried him away ; but he
refufed to liften to her addrefles, and was impatient to re¬
turn to Procris. The goddefs fent him back ; and, to try
the fidelity of his wife, fhe made him put on a different
form, and he arrived at the houfe of Procris in the habit of
a merchant. Procris for a time refilled ; but at length
differed herfelf to be feduced by the gold of this ftranger,
who difeovered himfelf the very moment that Procris had
yielded up her virtue. This circumltance fo afhamed Pro¬
cris, that file fled from her hufband, and devoted herfelf
to hunting in the ifland of Euboea, where fhe w'as admitted
among the attendants of Diana, who prefented her with a
dog always fure of hi? prey, and a dart which never miffed
K its
34- CEP
its aim, and always returned to the hands o-f its miftrefs of
its own accord. Some fay that the dog was a prefent front
Vunos, becaufe Procris had cured his wounds. After this,
Procris returned in difguife to Cephalus, who was willing
to di/grace himfelf by fotne unnatural conceflions toobtain
the dog and the dart of Procris. Procris difeovered her-
felf at the moment that Cephalus thewed himfelf faithlefs,
and a reconciliation waseafily made between them. They
loved one another with more tendernefs than before, and
Cephalus received front his wife the prefents of Diana.
As he was particularly fond of hunting, he ever}' morning
early repaired to the woods, and after much toil and fa¬
tigue laid himfelf down in the cool thade, and earneftly
called for Aura, or the refrething breeze. This ambiguous
word was miftaken for the name of a ntiftrefs ; and forne
informer reported to the jealous Procris, that Cephalus
daily paid a vifit to a ntiftrefs, wbofe name was Aura.
Procris too readily believed the information, and fecretly
followed her hutband into the woods. According to his
daily cuftom, Cephalus retired to the cool, and called after
Aura. At the name of Aura, Procris eagerly lifted up
her head to fee her expected rival. Her motion occafioned
a ruffling- among theleavesof the bufn that concealed her;
and, as Cephalus liftened, he thought it to be a wild beaft,
and he let fly his unerring dart. Procris was ftruck to
the heart, and inftantly expired in the arms of her hufband,
confefling that ill-grounded jealoufy was the caufe of her
death. According to Apollodorus, there were two per-
fons of the name of Cephalus ; one, fon of Mercury and
Herfe, carried away by Aurora, with whom he dwelt in
Syria, and by whom lie had a fon called Tithonus. The
other married Procris, as mentioned above'. Ovid.
CE PHF.US, a king of /Ethiopia, father of Androme¬
da, by Calliope. He was or.e of the Argonauts, "and was
changed into a confteliati on- after his death. Ovid. — Apol¬
lodorus mentions one, fon of Aleus, and another, fon of
Belus. The former he makes king of Tegea, and father
of Sterope ; and fays, that he, with his twelve fons, af-
fifted Hercules in a war againft Hippocoon, where they
were killed. The latter he calls king of ./Ethiopia, and
father of Andromeda.
CE'PHEUS, f. a conftellation of the northern hemif-
phere, being one of the forty-eight old afterifms. The
fears of this conftellation, in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 13,
in Tycho's j i, in Hevelius’s 51, and in the Britannic ca¬
talogue 35.
CEPHTSUS and Cephissus, a celebrated river of
Greece, that' rifes at Lilae in Phocis, and after palling at
the north of Delphi and mount Parnaffus, enters Boeotia,
where it flows into the lake Copais. The Graces were
fabled asbeingparticularly fondof this river, whence they
are called the goddefles of the Cephifus. There was a
river of the fame name in Attica, and another in Argolis.
Strabo.
CE'PI COR'PUS, inlaw, a return made by the fheriff
upon a capias, or other procefs to the like purpofe, that he
hath taken the body of the party.
CE'PIC, a town oflllria : four miles fouth of Pedena.
CEPOLA, yi in icthyology. the Ribbo n-Fish ; agenus
belonging to the order of tfioracire. The generic cha-
rafiers are — Body long, narrow, and thin, like a ribbon.
Linnaeus in the 12th edition of his Syft. Nat. has made
a feparate genus of the cepola, which, in his earlier edi¬
tions, he had claffed under the ferpent-fhaped Allies,
ttpb-dium. That eminent baturalift deferibes but one fpe-
cies, ccpola tenia ; in which the bluntnefs of the head forms
the fpecific chara/ier. There are fix rays in the membrane
of the gills, fifteen in the pectoral fin, fix in the ventral,
fixty in the anal, ten in the tail, and tixty-fix in the dorfal
The head is broadeft at top ; the mouth large, opening
obliquely ; the under jaw is the longeit, and both are
armed with (harp teeth ; the tongue is thin, broad, and
rough. The eyes aie large, ftanding at the top <5f the
head ; the pupil is black, the iris iilver mixed with blue ;
there is a round hole in the inner edge of each eye. The
e e r
aperture of the gills is wide ; the covert Angle ; before the
aperture are five minute holes, and feveral of the fame
kind near the eye ; they probably fecrete a vifeous orflimy
matter. This fifh has an extremely {lender and tapering
fltape; the body being twelve inches in length, andfcarce-
ly one in thicknefs: it is of a filvery colour, and femi-tranf-
parent, fo that the vertebrae of the back appear, and canea-
fily be numbered. The cepola has no fcales; the fides are
adorned with lineal rows of filvery fpots. The peftoral
fins are final!-, and their rays fo (lender, that they are al-
moft imperceptible. About an inch behind the head, rifes
the dorfal fin, which is produced till it joins the tail, where
it meets the anal fin, which begins fo near the throat, that
the anus is fituated almoft immediately below the angle of
the lower jaw. The fins 'difplay a great brilliancy of co¬
lour, being of a moft beautiful red, with five fpots of a
deeper or brighter caft, placed on each fide of the body.
This fifh is fold in the markets of Rome; but its flefh,
according to Rondeletius, is of a very indifferent qua-
!ity.
CER-AM', an ifland in the Eaftern Indian Sea, about
fifty leagues long, and twenty broad It is fuppofedto
contain 30,000 fighting men ; but the internal parts are
little known. Along the coafts, the Dutch have had in¬
fluence and power enough to deftroy the clove trees of the
ifland, more effedlually to fecure the clove-trade to them-
felves. Lat. 4. S. Ion. 127. to 131. E. Greenwich.
CERAM' LAOUT, an ifland of the Eaftern Indian Sea,
near the ifland of Ceram, above five miles long, and
hardly three wide ; mountainous and uninhabited. It has
a bay on the north coaft.
CERAM'BYX, f. in entomology, a genus of infects
belonging to the order of cole'opotera ; and of which Lin¬
naeus enumerates no lefs than eighty-three fpecies. Their
antennae are formed of articulations or joints, gradually
diminifhing in iize from the bafe to their extremity. The
thorax is either armed with fnines, or gibbous, made un¬
even by final! elevations. The elytra are narrow, and
throughout of equal breadth ; and the lpecies admit of the
following fubdivifions : 1. With the thorax on each fide
■armed with moveable fpines. 2. With the thorax mar¬
gined, and the fides armed with fpines. 3. With the tho¬
rax round, and armed with fixed fpines. 4. With the
thorax nearly cylindrical, and unarmed, the fpines want¬
ing. 5. With the thorax of a roundifh form, and de-
prefied on the upper fide The mulk-beetle, or goat-
chaffer, frequently found in the willow, is a carambyx.
The larvae of thefe infers moftly fubfift on the inner bark
of trees, and in which fituation they moftly undergo their
transformations.
In the annexed plate are given five remarkable fpecies of
cerambyx ; fome of which, in warm countries, grow to an
enormous fize. Fig. r, is the cerambyx giganteus, men¬
tioned in Fabricius 8, p. j6j. The prdent 'figure was
taken of its natural fize from the real infect, by Mr. Dru¬
ry ; it meafured fix inches and three-quarters in length,
and was brought from Cayenne, in South America. The
head and thorax are black ; all the reft of the infeft is a
rich chefnut-brown, fomewhat mealy in front ; the jaws
are placed in an horizontal pofition, with the extremities
bending inward, or towards each other. The eyes are
black, and fo fituated as to difeern objefts both above and
below at the fame time ; the antennae are thickeft at their
bafe, and are about half the length of the infect, gradually
diminifhing in fize to their extremities. The thorax i*
frnooth, and convex at top, the middle appearing bke po-
li fhed fteel ; the fides are rough, like fliagreen, and are
armed with two fhort or pointed fpines like horns ; it is
alfo margined. The fcutellum, or efcutcheon, is final!,
and fhaped like a bell ; the elytra are deeply margined on
their fides and future, and have five longitudinal ribs, with
theirfurfaces rough like fifh-fkin. The under fides of the
abdomen are covered with a dark brown pile, exactly like
velvet. The legs are terminated with Itrong articulations
and forked fpines, which aflift it in its paflage over fmooth
furfaces^
CEHA.MBIX.
C E R
Jurfaces, and in feizing and fecuring its prey. The habits
and economy of this gigantic infeft are not known.
Fig 2, is the cerambyx bajalus ; and fig. 3, the meri-
dianus, two fpecies belonging to England. Fig. 4, is the
cerambyx puftuiatus, from Jamaica; and fig 5, cerambyx
verrucofis, a very beautiful fpecies, native of Barbadoes.
CER AN'THUa,/. in botany. See Ch'ionanthus.
CERA'SA,/. in botany. See Con dia and Prunus.
CERAftSO AFF1NIS, f. in botany. See Cordia,
EBRETiA,and Prunus.
CERASTES, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of viper. .See Coi.uber.
CERAS/TIUM,/'[kep«t(ov, a little born ; the capfules
being generally long, and fomewhat in that fhape ]
Mouse-f.ar, or Mouse-ear Chickweed ; in botany, a
genus of theclafs decandria, order pentagynia, natural or¬
der of caryophillei. The generic characters are — Calyx :
perianthium five-leaved ; leaflets ovate-lanceolate, acute,
fpreading, permanent. Corolla : petals five, bifid, obtufe,
ere£t-expanding, length of the calyx. Stamina : filaments
ten, filiform, thorter than the corolla, the alternate ones
fhorter. Anthers roundifh. Piftillum : germ ovate.
Styles five, capillary, ereCt, length of the ftamens. Stig¬
mas obtufe. Pericarpium : capfule ovate-cylindric, or
globular, obtufe, unilocular, gaping with a rive-toothed
tip. Seeds : very many, roundilh. — EJfential Character .
Calyx five-leaved ; petals bifid ; capfule unilocular, gap¬
ing at the tip.
Species. I. With oblong capfules. 1. Ceraftium
perfoliatum, or perfoliate moule-ear : leaves connate.
None of the moufe-ear duckweeds make much ap¬
pearance, and therefore they are only cultivated in botanic
gardens. Some of them are common weeds in molt
parts of Europe : the fmootlier forts however are not dif-
agreeable to cattle, and the feeds are ufeful to the (mull
-birds. The firlt fort was difeovered by Tournefort in the
Levant, from whence he fent the feeds to the royal garden
at Paris : this is an annual plant, which rifes with an up¬
right ltalk a foot high ; the low'erleaves have fo much re-
femblance to thofe of Lobel’s catchfiy, that, when the
plants are young, it is not eafy to diftinguilh them. The
Item-leaves are of the fame lliape, but finaller, placed by
pairs, and embracing the ftalks. The flowers come out at
the top of the ftalks, and alfo from the wings of the leaves,
cn the upper part of the ftalks ; they are white, and fliaped
like thole of chickweed : appear in May and June, and
are fucceeded by beaked capfules, containing many round-
ifii feeds. Linnaeus obfei ves that the piltils are Ihorter
than in the other forts. Native of Greece. Cultivated in
1731, by Mr. Miller.
2. Ceraftium vulgatum, or common or narrow- leaved
moufe-ear : leaves ovate ; petals equal to the calyx ; Heins
diffufed. This fpecies may be diftinguifhed from the
third and fourth by the following circumltances : It is
perennial, and is a larger, more fpreading plant, and more
common. Sometimes it is but thinly covered with hairs,
and has been found quite fmooth. It varies in height
from an inch to two feet, alfo in the breadth of its leaves,
and the lize of its corolla. The ftronger the plant the
finaller the petals, and vice verfa, than in C. < v fcofum ; the
leaves lefs lanceolate and more ovate (the reverie is gene¬
rally obfervable with us). The peduncles are not vifcid.
Stems more copious, more decumbent, flowering later,
continuing longer. The outer leaflets of the calyx not
membranous at the edge. Linnaeus mai ks it as annual, in
which he is followed by Hudfon and Liglufoot : others
make it perennial. It flowers during the whole fummer
from May, on walls, byroad tides, among rubbith, and in
meadows.
3. Ceraftium vifeofum, clammy or broad -leaved
moufe-ear: ereft villofe-vifcous. This is annual. It is
diftinguifiied by its upright growth, its broad hoary leaves,
the narrowneis of its petals, and the crouded or cluttered
appearance of its flowers before they blow ; its leaves alfo
are in general paler. Stem branched at bottom, covered
with hairs, each of which is terminated by a gland exuding
C E R 35
a vifcid juice. In meadows, on walls, dry banks and
ant-hills, varying in fize from three inches to a foot ;
flowering in April and May.
+• Ceraftium femidecandrum, or lead moufe-ear :
flowers five-ttamened, petals emarginate. Stamens fome-
times only five, according to Haller. Linnaeus fays there
are always ten ftamens. Petals ftiorter than the calyx,
acutely cut in at top, and frequently irregularly jagged or
gnawed, much broader than in the foregoing. Calyx
thickly covered with hairs, having glands at their extre¬
mities; membrane terminating the leaflets remarkably
long. Stems from two to fix inches high, purplifh, co¬
vered with glandulous hairs. Annual. Grows on walls
and heaths ; flowering early, and foon di (appearing.
5. Ceraftium pentandrum, or five-ftamened moufe-ear :
flowers five-ftamened, petals entire. Very fmall, refem-
bling the foregoing ; from which it differs in the colour
being green not hoary, in having only five fertile ftamens
without any barren ones, five ftyles, the petals much fhor-
ter than the calyx, lanceolate and acute, not acutely
emarginate. Native of Spain.
6. Ceraftium arvenfe, or corn moufe-ear: leaves linear-
lanceolate or obtufe fmooth, corolla larger than the calyx.
Root perennial, creeping; Hems numerous, four or five
inches high ; the whole plant is often very hairy. Flow¬
ers from May and June to September, in corn-fields, dry
paftures and heaths, banks, &c. Found near Croydon in
Surry, about Newmarket, Bury, and Norwich ; in Cam-
bridgefhire frequent.
7. Ceraftium dichotomum, or forked moufe-ear : leaves
lanceolate; Item dichotomous very much branched, .cap¬
fule eredl. Stems about lix inches high, dichotomous ;
the flowers come cut in the middle of the divifions, and
are fliaped like thofe of chickweed. The v. hole plant is
clammy. It grows on arable land in Spain, is annual,
flowers in May, and the feeds ripen in July.
8. Ceraftium alpinum, or Alpine moufe-ear: leaves
ovate-lanceolate ; Item divided ; capfules oblong. Stems
many, fix or eight inches high, fomewhat hairy ; flowers
in a terminal umbel, fix or eight together ; peduncles
ereft, fomewhat hairy, as is the calyx. Found on high
mountains in many parts of Europe; Snowden, and
others parts of Wales.
II. With roundifh capfules. 9. Ceraftium repens,
creeping moufe-ear, or fea-pink : leaves lanceolate ; pe¬
duncles branching'; capfules roundifh. This lends out
many weak ftalks which trail upon the ground, and put
out roots at their joints ; the leaves are about two inches
long, and little more than half an inch broad, very hoary;
thofe next the root are much finaller than the upper ones.
The flowers come out from the fide of the ftalks upon
flender peduncles, which branch out into ieveral finaller,
each fuppoi ting a white flower. The petals are often qua-
drifid or qumquefid. It grows naturally in France and
Italy, and was formerly cultivated in the Englifh gardens,
under the name of fea-pink, as an edging tor hol ders ; for
which ufe it was by 110 means fit on account of its creeping.
It is luppofed to increafe the milk of kine and Iheep veiy
much ; whence the Neapolitans call it erba lattaria , milk¬
weed. Cultivated 1759, by Mr. Miller;
10. Ceraftium ftridtum: leaves linear acuminate fmooth ;
peduncles one-flowered fubtomentole ; capfules giobular.
This fpecies is a native of the mountains of Switzei land,
Auftria, the Vaudois, Mont Cenis, &c. Perennial.
11. Ceraftium fuffruticofum ; item perennial procum¬
bent; leaves linear-lanceolate fubhirfute. In the fouthern
countries of Europe.
12. Ceraftium maximum! leaves lanceolate fcabrous ;
petals crenated ; capfules globular. Found in Siberia,
near the river Jenifa ; by Gmelin. Annual.
13 Ceraftium aquaticum, or water moufe-ear: leaves
cordate feflile; flowers folitary ; fruits pendulous. Root
perennial. Stems from one to two feet high, weak, round
or 1'carce perceptibly ancipital, fmooth, jointed. Grows
in moift places and banks of ditches and rivers ; flowering
in July and Augult. 14. Ceral-
3 5 C E R
i^. Ceraftium latifcTium, or brpad-leaved moufe-ear:
loaves ovate fubto.mentofe ; branches one-flowered ; cap-
fai.’s "lobular. The whole plant, except the petals and
capfules, is covered, with long, foft, fhining, hairs. The
lower leaves ovate; the upper ovatc-lanceolate. Branches
terminated by one or two flpwers; flowers large. Accor¬
ding to Haller, the Items are fcnrcely ever more than three
inches high. Found on the high mountains of the Valais,
next the glaciers ; and on the higheit rocks in Wales and
Scotland ; flowering in May and June. Perennial.
1 5. Cerattiuni tornentofum, or woolly moufe-ear : leaves
oblong tqmentpfe ; peduncles branching ; capfules globu-
1 ir. The whole plant white with a thick down. Steins in
a thickly matted tuft, dichotomous, with fometimes a
Angle flower on a long peduncle from the divifion ; the
divifions branched but fpreading,. each branch bearing a
fort of umbel. Native of Granada, Iltria, France, Swif-
ferland, Ripton-woqd in Huntingclonlhire, Flowers in
May and June. Perennial. It varies with broader and
narrower leaves.
16. Ceraftium manticum : frnooth ; Item ftriated ;
leaves lanceolate ; peduncles very long ; capfules globu¬
lar. Root, fl sh.der, annual; Item upright, round, half a
foot high, commonly Angle, but fometimes branched. It
is an annual plant, native of the neighbourhood of Verona,
and the Grifons.
1 7. Ceraftium refradlum : leaves lanceolate fmooth ;
petioles broken. Stems many, a finger’s length, fmooth
or fomewhat hairy, two-flowered. Native of the higher
Alps, and mont St. Bernard.
i3. Ceraftium dioicum, or Spanilh moufe-ear: liirt
vifeid ; leaves lanceolate ; flowers dioecous, petals three
times larger than the calyx. Native of Spain ; perennial.
Cultivated 1766, in the botanic garden at Oxford.
Propagation and Culture. If the feeds of the annual
forts be fown in autumn, they will more certainly grow
than thofe which are fown in the fpring; or, if tire feeds
be permitted to fcatter, the plants will come up and live
through the winter, and will require no other care but to
keep them clean from weeds. The other perennial forts
may eafily be increafed by parting the plants, which put
out roots at the joints of the branches, and run fo much,
as to overpower mod other weak vegetables : they Ihould
be introduced therefore with caution, unlefs where it is
wifhed to have a bank, wall, or heap of ftones entirely
covered.
CERA STRUM UMBELLATUM, f. in botany. See
Holosteum.
CE'RASUS,/. in botany. See Cassine, Malpighia,
and Prunus.
CE'RATE, f [<xr«, Lat wax.] A medicine for heal¬
ing wounds. Cerates chiefly differ from plafters in con-
fiftence, being a folter kind of plafter, or harder kind of
ointment. This property of its confiftence is very con¬
venient: when mercury is made up in plafters, a fufticient
quantity is not abforbed from them to produce any valua¬
ble effect ; but in a cerate it powerfully refolves and dif-
cufles, and when thus applied to venereal tophs and nodes,
they often yield to it. See Pharmacy.
CEhRATED, adj. [ ceratus , Lat.] Waxed; covered
with wax.
CERA'TIA,/. in botany. See Cersis, Dentaria,
and Erythrina.
CERAT1VE AFFI'NIS, /. in botany. See Mimosa.
CERA'FION,/. a name given by the ancients to the
finall feeds of ceratonia, ufed by the Arabian phyficians
as a weight to adj.uft -their dofes of medicines ; as the grain
weight with us took its ii,e from a grain of barley. Ce-
ration was alfo a filver roin, equal te one third of an obolas.
CERATO'CAR'PUS,; J. [from itspa? and G.r.
liornedt-fruit.] In botany, a genus of the clefs monoecia,
ordet : mandria, natural or !er of holoraceee. The ge¬
ne: atter-s are — I. -Male flowers. Calyx : perianthium
one-leafed, tubular, wider at top, thin, coloured, bifid :
C £ R
the upper fegments fiiarp, the lower emarginate. Corolla f
none. Stamina : filaments Angle, Capillary, fc. iree- longer
than the calyx, inferted into the receptacle. Anther
twin, oval, upright. II. Female flowers on the fame plant.
Calyx : perianth one-leafed, obovate, compreffed, keeled
on both fides, permanent, two horned •. horns ftraight,
fubulate divaricate. Corolla : none. Piftillum : germ ob¬
long, fuperior. Styles two, capillary. Stigmas fnnple,
Handing out between the horns of the calyx. Pericar-
pium none: but the .calyx grown larger. Seed : oblong,
attenuated at bottom, comprefl'ed. — EJfential -CkaraSler.
Male. Calyx : one-leafed, "bifid, (two-leaved, G.) Co¬
rolla, none. Female. Calyx: one-leafed, keeled, per¬
manent, two-horned. Styles two. Seeds : Angle, com¬
preffed, inclofed in and covered by the calyx.
Only one fpecies, ceratocarpus arenarius. It is an an¬
nual branching plant, with very narrow, (harp, grafly,'
leaves. Three male flowers feffile in each divifion of the
Item ; females folitary, feffile in each axilla of the leaves.
It has no proper pericarp, but the calyx when ripe becomes
a fort of oblortg-triangular compreffed flieatli, with a ridge
on each fide, and two innocuous fpines diverging almoft
horizontally at the end. Witliin this is a Angle obovate
feed, comprefl'ed, and at bottom very fliarp-pointed,
which does not drop from its covering. It is a native, of
the rude deferts of Tartary.
CERATOCEPHALOI'DES, /. See Bidens, Core,
opsis, Cotula, Ceratoceph alus, and Spilanthus.
CERAffOrDES, f. See Axyris, Ceratocarpus,
and Diotis.
CERATO'NIA, f [from Jtsp^riov, Gv. a horn or pod.]
The Carob-tree, or St. John’s Bread ; In botany, a
genus of the clafs polygamia, order trioecia, natural order
of lomentaceas. The generic characters are — I. Male.
Calyx : perianthium five-parted, very large. Corolla none.
Stamina : filaments five, fubulate, very long, fpreading.
Anthers large twin. II. Female. Dill. Calyx : perianthium
one-leafed, divided by five tubercles. Corolla none.
Piftillum : germ lying concealed within a flefhy receptacle.
Style long, filiform. Stigma headed. Pericarpium : le¬
gume very large, oblufe, compreffed, coriaceous, with
a great many tranfverfe part tions, the interftices filled
with pulp. Seed : folitary, roundifh, compreffed, hard,
glofly. Hermaphrodite flowers on a diftinft tree — Ejfential
Char alder. Hermaphrodite. Calyx: five- parted ; corolla
none; ftamens five; flyle filiform; legume coriaceous,
many fieeded. Dioecous: male and female feparate.
Of this there is but one fpecies, known by the name
of Ceratonia filiqna, or carob tree. This tree fometimes
grows to a considerable iize. Leaves pinnate ; leiflets
roundifh, entire, thick, rigid, nerved, dark green above,
paler beneath, three inches in breadth and fomewhat more
in length. Legume four inches or more in lengih, very
little bent, comprefl’ed, becoming four-cornered when dry,
of a dufky ferruginous colour, fmooth, flefhy, many-cel-
led, valvelefs ; cells eight or more, each invefted with a
papery lamina, and containing one obovate, (welling, lens-
fliaped, fmooth, feed of a ferruginous cheftnut colour.
The hermaphrodite flowers havea one-leafed perianthium,
deeply five-cleft, coloured ; the fegments unequal and
blunt. Corolla one petalled, wheel-fhaped, entire, waved
about the edge, coriaceous, permanent. Filaments five,
fixed to the margin of the corolla, and fcarcely longer than
it. Anthers large. Piftillum in the middle of the corolla,
pedicelled : germ linear, comprefl'ed, fomewhat flckle-
fhaped : ftyle none : ftigma feffile, orbicular, flat, marked
with a groove from the middle running into the germ.
The male flowers have alfo a one-leafed perianthium deeply
fix-cleft ; the fegments unequal, ovate, concave. Corolla
waved or obfeurely crenate, in other refpefts like that of
the hermaphrodite. Filaments fix, three times as long as
the corolla, fpreading, fixed to the angles of the notches
under the margin of the corolla : anthers large, four-cel¬
led. Piftii none, but a mere rudiment. Native of Syria,
Paleltine,
C £ R
Falefline, Egypt, Cyprus, Candia, Sicily, Apulia, Spain,
See. Cultivated i 570. Ignorance-of caftern manners and
natural hiftory, induced tome perfons to fancy that the
loculls on which John the baptift fed, were the tender
{hoots of plants, and that the wild honey was the pulp in
tlie pod of the carob, whence it had the name of St.
John's bread: there is better reafon to fuppofe tliat the
ihells of the carob pod might be the hulks w'hich the pro¬
digal fon defied to partake of with the fwine.
Propagation and Culture. This tree is propagated from
feeds, which, when brought over frdh in the pods, will
grow very well, if they are fown in the fpring upon a mo¬
derate hot-bed; and when the plants are come up they
ihould be carefully tranfplanted each into a feparate final!
pot filled with light rich earth, and plunged into another
moderate hot-bed, obferving to water and (hade them
until they have taken root; after which you mult let them
have air, in proportion to the heat of the weather. In
June you muft: inure them to the open air by degrees ; and
in July they Ihould be removed out of the hot-bed, and
placed in a warm fituation, where they may remain until
the beginning of October, when they fliould be removed
into the greenhoufe, placing them where they may have
free air in mild weather ; for they are pretty hardy, and
require only to be fheltered from hard frofts. When the
plants have remained in the pots three or four years, and
have gotten ftrength, fome of them may be turned out of
the pots in the fpring, and planted into the full ground,
in a warm fituation, near a fouth wall, where they will
endure the cold of our ordinary winters very well,, but
muft have fome {belter in very hard weather. The leaves
always continue green, and, being different in fhape from
thole of moll other plants, afford an agreeable variety
when intermixed with oranges, myrtles, & c. in the green¬
houfe. See Mimosa.
CERATOPHYL'LUM,^. [idpa? and <fa>x*o!>, Gr. horned
leaf.] In botany, a genus of the clafs monoecia, order po-
lyandria, natural order inundatae. The generic charafters
are — I. Male flowers. Calyx : perianthium many-parted ;
divifions fubulate, equal. Corolla none. Stamina : fila¬
ments double the number of divifions of the calyx (fix-
teen to twenty), hardly conlpicuous. Anthers oblong,
ereft, longer than the calyx. II. Female flowers, on the
fame plant with the males. Calyx : perianthium many-part¬
ed ; divifions fubulate, equal. Corolla none. Piftillum:
germ ovate, comprefled ; ftyle none ; ftigma obtule, ob¬
lique. Pericarpium none. Seed: nut ovate, unilocular
acuminate. — EJj'ential Character. Male. Calyx: many-
parted ; corollanone; ftamina fixteen to twenty. Female.
Calyx : many-parted ; corolla none : piftillum one : ftyle
none; feed one, naked.
Species. 1 . Ceratophyllum demerfum, or prickly-feeded
liornwort : leaves two-fold dichotomous ; fruits three-
thorned. Root perennial, ftriking deep in the mud ; Item
much bl anched ; leaves in whorls, about eight in a whorl,
the lower whorls about half an inch diftant, but clofer
upwards, and extremely crow'ded tow'ards the top; flow¬
ers few', in the bofoms of the leaves ; feed-veflel with one
long thorn at the extremity, and two fliorter on the oppo-
fite fides near the bafe. Grow's in ditches and flow ftreams,
flowering in Auguft and September, in Europe ; alfo in
Japan ; common in Jamaica, called there morafs-weed,
and ufed to cover fifli, See. when carried to any diftance.
2. Ceratophyllum fubmerfum, or finooth-feeded horn-
wort : leaves three-fold dichotomus ; fruits thornlefs.
Linnaeus allows this to be fi> nearly allied to the foregoing,
as to be little elfe than a variety. Villars fays, that it Is
thicker than the other, that it feems to creep wholly at the
bottom of the water, and that it is whiter by means of a
varnifh of mud that covers it. Found in the ditches on the
fide of the road from Chichefter to. the 5 fie of Selfey.
Propagation and Culture. Thefe plants can be cultivated
ingardens, no other way than by fowing the feeds or
planting them in ponds, muddy ftreams, pots or boxes,
with earth at bottom and filled with water.
VOL, IV. No. 176.
C E R 37
CERAU'NIA, [from xegawoc, Gr. thunder.] The
thunder-ftone ; fo called becaufeit w'asfuppofed to be pro¬
duced by thunder. See Thunder-bolt.
CER'BERA, f. [from Cerberus ; fo named on account
of its poifonous qualities.] In botany, a genus of the
clafs pentandria, order monogj-nia, natural order of con¬
torts;. The generic characters are — Calyx: perianthium,
five-leaved, acuminate, fpreading; leaflets ovate-lanceolate.
Corolla: monopetalous, funnel form. Tube clavated ;
border large, five-parted ; divifions oblique, obtufe, more
gibbous on one fide than the other; mouth of the tube
pentagonal, five-toothed, converging in the form of a
itar. Stamina : filaments five, fubulate in the middle of
the tube. Anthers ereCt, converging. Piftillum : germ
roundifh ; ftyle filiform, fnort ; ftigma headed, bilobate.
Pericarpium : drupe very large, roundifh, flelhy ; exca¬
vated on the fide by a longitudinal furrow', and with two
fpecks or points. Seed : nut two-celled, four-valved, rev-
tufe. — EJfential Character. Contorted; drupe one-feeded.
Species. 1. Cerbera ahouai, or cval-leaved cerbera :
leaves ovaPe. The firft fort grows naturally in the Brazils,
and alfo in the Spanifh Welt Indies in plenty ; and there
are fome of the trees growing in the Britifh Wand's of Ame¬
rica ; this rifes with an irregular Item to the height of eight
or ten feet, fending out many crooked diffufed branches,
which toward their tops have thick fucculent leaves about
three inches long, and near two broad, of a lucid green,
fmooth, and very full of a milky juice, as is every part
of the fhrub. The flowers come out in loofe bunches at
the end of the branches ; they are of a cream colour,
having long narrow tubes cut into five obtule fegments,
which feem twilled, fo as to ftand oblique to the tube ;
thefe when they fpread open have the appearance of the
flowers of oleander. It flowers in July and Auguft, but
never produces fruit in England. The wood of this tree
ftinks molt abominably, and the kernels of the nuts are a
moll deadiy poifon : the Indians are not acquainted with
any antidote to it; nor will they ufe the wood for fuel.
They put fmall Hones into the empty nuts, firing them,
and fallen them about their legs when they dance. Culti¬
vated 1739, by Mr. Miller.
2. Cerbera manghas : leaves lanceolate, nerves tranf-
verfe. A milky tree. Leaves alternate, fcattered at the
tops of the branches, broad-lanceolate, petioled, fmooth
quite entire, afoot in length; flowers in terminal, branch¬
ed, unequal racemes. Seeds refembling large cheftnuts,
poifonous and vomiting. According to Miller, it rifes
to the height of twenty feet, fending out many branches
towards thetop. Native of the Eall Indies, fome parts o?
the SpanifliwM Indies, and of the Society Iflands.
3 . Cerbera thevetia, or linear-leaved cerbera : leaves
linear, very long, crowded. This is an elegant fhrub or
fmall tree, about twelve feet in height ; the Item is round,
unarmed, abounding in a poifonous milky juice, dividing
at top into many weak branches, which are generally Am¬
ple, loofe, round, fmooth, covered with fears from the
leaves which have dropped, and covered with a green
fmooth bark, which as they grow older becomes rough,
and changes to a grey or afti-colour. Leaves on very fliort
petioles, fcattered at the ends of the branclilets. Native
of the Weft Indies, in woods or coppices near the coaft.
Miller fays, that he received it from our iflands there by
the name of French phyfic-nut; that it flowers here in
July and Auguft, but never produces fruit in England.
It was introduced in 1735, by Mr. Robert Millar.
cl. Cerbera parviflora: leaves ftellate obovate. Native
of the Friendly Iflands, and Savage Ifland, in the South
Seas.
5. Cerbera falutaria : leaves and fruits oval. This is a.
middle-fized tree, with a milky juice, and fpreading bran¬
ches. Flowers white, inodorous. Seed not poifonous.
Native of Cochin-China, near the coaft.
Propagation and Culture. Thefe plants may be propa¬
gated from their nuts, which muft be procured from the
countries where they grow naturally; thefe fliould be put
L into
38 C E R
into fmall pots filled with light earth, and plunged into a
hot-bed of tanners bark in the f'pring, and treated in the
fame manner as other tender exotic feeds, giving them
now and then a little water to promote their vegetation.
When the plants are come up about two inches high, they
fliould be tranfplanted each into a feparate'pot, filled with
light firndy earth, and plunged again in a hot-bed of tanners
barkjobferving toihade the glafiesin the heat ofthe day, until
the plants have taken new root ; they mull alfo be frequent¬
ly refrefhed with water, but it mull not be given in too
large quantities. As the fummer advances, thefe plants
Ihould have air admitted to them in proportion to the
warmth of the feafon ; and, when they have filled thefe
fmall pots with their roots, they Ihould be turned out and
tranfplanted into other pots of a larger fize, but they mull
not be too large ; for the roots of thefe plants fliould be
confined, nor ihould the earth in which they are planted
be rich, but a light fandy foil is bell for them ; after they
are new potted they fliould be plunged into the hot-bed
again, obferving to water them now and then, as alfo to
admit air under the glades every day in proportion to the
warmth of the feafon. When the plants are grown about
a foot high, they fhould have a larger lhare of air in order
to harden them before the winter, but they fliould not be
wholly expofed to the open air. In the winter thefe plants .
fliould be placed in a warm Hove, ar.d during that feafon
they fliould have very little water given to them, efpeci-
nlly in cold weather, left it fliould rot their roots. In the
following fp ring thefe plants fhould be (biffed again into
other pots, at which time you fhould take away as much
as you conveniently can of the old earth from their roots,
and afterwards cut oft' the decayed fibres ; then put them
into pots filled with the fame light fandy earth, and plunge
them into the bark-bed again, for thefe plants. will not
thrive well unlefs they are conftantly kept in tan : and, as
they abound with milky juice, they fliould be fparingly
watered, for they are impatient of moifture, efpecially
during the winter feafon. When by any accident the tops
of thefe plants are injured, they frequently put out (hoots
from their roots, which, if carefully taken up and potted,
will make good plants.
CER'BERUS, f. one of the new conftellations formed
by Hevelius out of the unformed ftai s, and added to the
forty-eight old afterifms. It contains only four liars, which
are enumerated under Hercules, in the Britannic cata¬
logue.
CERBERUS, in fabulous hiftory, a three-headed maf-
tiff, born of Typhon and Echidna, and placed to guard
the gates of hell. He fawmed upon thofe who entered, but
devoured all who attempted to get back. He was, how¬
ever, mallered by Hercules, who dragged him up to the
earth, where in ftruggling a foam dropped from his mouth,
which produced the poifonous herb called aconite, or
* wolf’s bane. Some have fuppofed that Cerberus is the fym-
bol of the earth, or of all-devouring time : and that its
three mouths reprefent the prelent, paft, and future. The
vidlory obtained by Hercules over this monfter, denotes
the conqueft which this hero is faid to have acquired over
his paflions. Mr. Bryant fuppofes that the notion both of
Cerberus and Hades being fubterraneous deities, took its
rife from the temples of old being fituated near vaft ca¬
verns, which were efteemed pafthges to the realms below.
Enfebius from Plutarch fays, that Cerberus was the Sun;
but it was. properly Kir-Abor, the place of the Sun, the
parent of light. The fame temple had different names
from the diversity of the god’s titles, who was there wor¬
shipped. It was called Tor-Caph-El, which the Greeks
changed to Tpixs^aXcc : it was alfo called Tor-Keren, Turris
Regia, which they exprefied Tputapwc ; and hence arofe
the fi£lion that Calien-Ades, or Cerberus, was a triple-
headed monfter.
CER/BOLI, a fmall i (land, or rock, in the Mediterra¬
nean, near the coaft of Tufcany, a little to the north of
the., ill and of Elva.
C £ R
CER'CA, a town of Italy, in the Vercnefe, belonging
to the (late of Venice : four miles weft Legnano.
CER'CF.LE, f. a crofs or device in armorial bearings ;
for which See Heraldry.
CERCENAS/CO, a town of Piedmont, in the marqui-
fateofSaluzzo : twenty-one miles fouth-fouth-weft of Turin.
CERCHA'RO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Calabria Citra : fix miles north-
north-eaft of Caflaro.
CERCHIAIRT, a river of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, which runs into the Gulf of Tarento, nine miles
eaft-north-eaft of Cafiano.
CERCHN A'LEUM, [from Gr. to make a noife.]
A wheezing, or bubbling noife made by the trachea in
breathing.
CER'C1S,_/1 fpatbula, a name of Theophraf-
tus’s.J The Judas-tree; in botany, a genus of the
clafs decandi ia, order moiiogynia, natural order of lomen-
tacese. The generic characters are — Calyx : perianthium
one-leafed, very fhort, bell-(liaped, gibbous below, melli¬
ferous ; mouth five-toothed, ere£t, obtufe. Corolla: pen-
tapetalous, inferted into the calyx, refembling a papilio¬
naceous corolla. Wings : petals two, bent upwards, af¬
fixed by long claws. Standard : petal one, ioundilh,
clawed beneath the wings, and (hotter than the wings*
Keel: petals two, converging into a cordate figure, inclu¬
ding the organs of generation, affixed by claws. Nedlary,
a ftyie-fliaped gland, below the germ. Stamina: filaments
ten, diftindl, (ubulate, bent downwards, of w'hich four
are longer than the reft, covered. Anthers : oblong, in¬
cumbent, rifing upwards. Piftillum : germ linear-lanceo¬
late, pedicelled. Style of the length and fituation of the
ftamens. Stigma : obtufe, afeending. Pericarpium : le¬
gume oblong, obliquely acuminate, unilocular. Seeds :
lomeVoundiffi, connected to the fuperior future. — EJfential
CharaSler — Calyx: five-toothed, gibbous below. Corol¬
la: papilionaceous, Standard: (hort, beneath the wings.
Legume.
Species, i. Cercis filiquaftrum, or common judas-trees
leaves cordate-orbicular fmooth. This fpecies is by the
Spaniards and Portuguefe called the tree of love : it rifes
with an upright trunk to the height of twenty feet, cover¬
ed with a dark brown bark, dividing upwards into many
irregular branches, with leaves placed irregularly on the
branches, on long foot-ftalks ; they are of a pale green on
their upper, and of a greyiffi colour on their under, fide*
and fall off in autumn. The flowers come out on every
fide the branches, and many times from the ftem of the
tree in large clufters, ariling from the fame point, on ffiort
peduncles ; they are of a very bright purple colour, and
make a fine appearance, efpecially when the branches are
covered pretty thick with them : they come out in the
fpring with the leaves, and are in full beauty before the
leaves have attained half their fize. The flower is papili¬
onaceous, and having an agreeable poignancy, is frequent-
ly eaten in (alads. When the flowers fall off, the germ be¬
comes a long flat pod, containing one rovt' of roundifti
feeds, a little comprefled ; but thefe do not often fucceed
the flowers in this country upon ftandard trees, for the
birds pick off the flowers when fully open ; but, where they
have been planted againft good a(pe£led walls, the pods,
in warm feafons, have ripened very well. Thefe trees are
ufually planted with other flowering trees and ftrubs for
ornaments to pleafure-gardens, and, for their Angular
beaut}', deferve a place as well as mod other forts; for,
wdien they are arrived to a good fize, they are produftive
of flowers, fo as that the branches aie often clofely cover¬
ed with them ; and the Angular fhape of their leaves makes
a very pretty variety in the fummer, and they are feldom
damaged by infefts. This tree flowers in May, wdien
planted in the full air, but againll warm walls it is a fort¬
night or three weeks earlier. The wood of this tree is very
beautifully veined with black and green, and taking a (ins
poliflx may be converted to many ufes. There are two va¬
rieties
C E R
rleties of this tree, one with a white, and the other hath
a flefh-coloured, flower; but thefe have not half the beauty
of the firft. Native. of the Levant, Spain, South of F ranee,
Italy near Rome, and on the Apennines, Japan, &c. Cul¬
tivated in 1596, by Gerard.
2. Cercis canadenfls, or Canada judas-tree, or red bud-
tree : leaves cordate pubefeent,. ovate, acute. This fort
grows naturally in moll parts of North America, where it
is called red-bud, from the red flower-buds appearing in the
fpring before the leaves come out ; it grows to a middling
failure in the places where it is a native, but in England
rarely riles with a item more than twelve feet high, but
branches out near ti e root. The branches of this are
weaker than thofe of the firft fort; the leaves are downy,
and terminate in points ; whereas thofe of the firft are
fmootli, and round at the end, where they are indented.
The flowers of .th s are alfo fmaller, and do not make fio
fine an appearance as thofe of the firft ; but the trees are
equally hardy, and will thrive in the open air very well.
The flowers of t ;s fort are frequently put into falads by
the inhabitants of America; and the French in Canada
pickle the flowers, but thefe have little flavour. I he vvood^
of this tree is of the fame colour and texture as that of
the firft. Tiie young branches die wool of a very fine
nankin colour. Cultivated 173°-
Propagation and Culture. Thefe plants may be propa¬
gated by fowing' their feeds upon a bed of light earth, to¬
wards the latter end of March, or the beginning of April,
(and, if you put a little hot dung under the bed, it will
greatly facilitate the growth of the feeds ;) when the feeds
are fown, fift the earth over them about half an inch thick;
and, if the feafon prove wet, it will be proper to cover the
bed with mats, to preferve it from great rains, which will
fometimes burft the feeds, and caufe them to rot ; the feeds
will often remain till the fpring following before they come
up, fo the ground mull not be difturbed till you are con¬
vinced that the plants are all come up ; for lome few may
rife the firft year, and a greater number the fecond. When
the plants are come up they fliould be carefully cleared
from weeds, and in very dry weather muft be now and then
refrefhed with water, which will greatly promote their
growth. The winter following, if the weather is very
cold, it will be proper to (belter the plants, by covering
them either with mats or dry ftraw in hard frofts, but
they fhould conftantly be opened in mild weather, other-
wife they will grow mouldy and decay. About the begin¬
ning of April, you fliould prepare a fpot of good frefh
ground, to tranfplant thefe out, (for the beft feafon to re¬
move them is juft before they begin to (hoot ;) then you
fliould carefully take up the plants, being careful not to
break their roots, and plant them as floon as poflible, be-
caufe,if their roots are dried by the air, it will greatly pre¬
judice them. The diftance thefe fhould be planted, muft
be proportionable to the time they are to remain before
they are again tranfplanted ; but commonly they are plant¬
ed two feet row from row, and a foot afunder in the rows,
which is full room enough for them to grow two or three
years, by which time they fhould be tranfplanted where
they are defigned to remain ; for, if they are too old when
removed, they feldom lucceed fo well as younger
plants.
The ground between the plants fliould be carefully kept
clean from weeds in fummer, and in the fpring fliould be
well dug to loofen the earth, that their roots may extend
themfelves every way ; at that feafon prune off all ftrong
fide branches, (efpecially if you intend to train them up
for ftandard trees,) that their top branches may not be
checked by their fide (hoots, which often attract the great-
ell part of the nourifliment from the roots ; and, if their
flems are crooked, you muft place a ftrong flake down by
the. fide of each plant, and fallen the Item to it in feveral
places, fo as to bring it llraight, which direction it will
foontake as it grows larger, and thereby the plants will be
rendered beautiful. When they have remained in this
nurfery two or three years, they fhould be tranfplanted in
C E R 39
the fpring where they are defigned to remain, which may be
in wildernefs quarters among other flowering trees, ob-
ferving to place them with trees of the fame growth, foas
they may not be overhung, which is a great prejudice to
molt plants.
CERCO'DIA, f. in botany. See Haloragis.
CERCOPI'THECI, f the name given by Ray to mon¬
kies, or the clr.fs of apes with long tails. See Simia.
CERCO'SIS, [from Hifjto?, Gr. a tail.] A difeafe of the
clitoris, when it is enlarged, and hangs from the vagina
like a tail.
CER CY LA TOUR, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment ot the Nyevre, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltrift of Decile: eight miles E.N E. of Decife.
CER'CYON, a king of Eleniis, fon of Neptune, or,
according to others, of Vulcan. He obliged all ftrangers
to wreltie with him ; and, as he was a dexterous wreftler,
they were eafily conquered and put to death. After many
cruelties, he challenged Theleus in wreftling, and he was
conquered and put to death by his antagonifl. His
daughter, Alope, was loved by Neptune, by whom fire had
a child. Cercyon expofed the child, called Hippothoon ;
but he was prelerved, and placed upon his grandfather’s
throne by Theleus. Ovid. — On this paflage Mr. Bryant
obferves, that Cercyon originally meant a temple wherein
human facrifices were offered, and that the Cercyonians
were the prieils deputed to this cruel office ; moll of whom
he fuppofes were perfons of great llrength and ftature, and
of the race ot Anak. Enemies and ftrangers who were
taken or feized, appear to have been compelled to fight
with thefe prieils, either with the ceitus, or by wreltling;
and this was looked upon as a more fpecious kind of facri-
fice. Ancient hiftory affords numberlefs inftances of this
ungenerous and cruel treatment of ftrangers ; and the laws
of liofpitality were evaded under the fanilion of afacrifice
to the gods. Thefe attributes of wreftling and boxing have
been conferred upon many of the chief divinities. Hercules
and Pollux (thofe imaginary beings) were of that num¬
ber ; yet they are reprefented upon earth as flurdy champi¬
ons, a kind of honourable banditti, who righted fome, and
wronged many ; who would fuller nobody to do any mif-
chief but themlelves. From thefe cultoms were derived the
Nemean, Pythic, Olympic, and Delian, games.
CERT) A (John Lewis), aSpanifh jefuit, native of To¬
ledo. He diltinguilhed himfelf by feveral productions,
and the fame of his learning was fo great, that Urban VIII.
is faid to have had his picture in his cabinet ; and, when
that pope fent his nephew cardinal Barberini ambaflador
into Spain, it was part of his bufinefs to pay Cerda a vilit,
and to allure him of the pope’s elteem. Cerda’s Commen¬
taries upon Virgil, have been much efteemed, and ufu-
al!y read by critics and perfons of talle in the belles letti es.
There is alfo of Cerda’s a volume of “ Adverfa Sacra,”
which was printed in folio at Lyons, 1626. He died in
1643, aged upwards of 80.
CERDA'GNE (La), a country on the Pyrenees, situ¬
ated partly in Spain, in the province of Catalonia ; and
partly in France, in what was formerly called RoujjiUon ;
Puycerda is the capital of the former, as Mont Louis was
of the latter.
CER'DON, a town of France, in the department of the
Ain : four leagues fouth-eaft of Bourg en Brefle.
CERDO NIANS, ancient heretics, who maintained
m oft of the errors of Simon Magus, Saturninus, and the
Manichees. They took their name from their leader Cer-
don, a Syrian, who went to Rome in the time of pope Hy-
ginus, and there abjured his errors ; but in appearance
only ; for he was afterwards conviCled of perfifting in them,
and expelled the church. Cerdon afierted two principles,
the one good, the other evil : this laft, according to him,
was the creator of the world, and the god that appeared
under the old law. The firft, whom he called unknown ,
was the father of Chrill ; who, he taught, was incarnate
only in appearance, and was not born ot a virgin ; nor did
lie luffer death but in appearance. He denied the refurrec-
40 C E R
tion, and rejefted all the books of the Old Teftament, as
coming from an evil principle. Marcion, his difciple, fuc-
ceeded him in his errors.
To CERE, <v.a. [from cera, Lat. wax.] To wax. — Sew
up the wound with a needle, and ftrorjg brown thread
cere'd, about half an inch from the edges of the lips. Wife-
man.
CEREA'LTA, feftivals in honor cf Ceres; firft inftituted
at Rome by Memmius the edile, and celebrated on the 19th
of April. Perfons in mourning were not permitted to ap¬
pear at the celebration ; therefore they were not obferved
after the battle of Canute. They are the fame as the Thef-
■ lnophoria of the Greeks.
CEREBEL'LUM,yl [dim. of cerebrum.'] Thatportion of
the brain which is fituated under the polterior lobes of the
cerebrum.
CERE'BRUM,/. [from Gr.’the head.] The brain.
The foft medullary fnbftance contained within the Ikull.
See Anatomy, vol. i. p. 592, &c.
CE'RECLOTH, f. Cloth fmeared over with glutinous
matter, ufed for wounds and bruifes. — The ancient Egyp¬
tian mummies were fhrowded in a number of folds of
linen, beliueared with gums, in manner of cerecloth. Bacon.
CEREFO-LlUM,y; inbotany. See Ch^rophyllum
and Scandix.
CE'REMENT, f [from cera, Lat. wax.] Cloths dip¬
ped in melted wax, with which dead bodies were infolded
when they were embalmed :
Let me not burlt in ignorance, but tell
Why canonized bones, hearfed in earth.
Have burlt their cerements ? Sbakefpeare.
CEREMONIAL, adj. Relating to ceremony, or out¬
ward rite-.; ritual. — Chrilt did take away that external ce¬
remonial worlhip that was among the Jews. Stilhngfleet. —
Formal ; obfervant of old forms :
Oh monftrous, fuperftitious puritan,
Of refin’d manners, yet ceremonial man.
That, when thou meet’ft one, with enquiring eyes
Doftfearch, and, like a needy broker, prize
The filk and gold -he- wears. Donne.
CEREMONIAL,/ Outward form ; external rite; pre-
fcriptive formality. — The only condition that could make
rt prudent for the clergy to alter the ceremonial, or any in¬
different part, would be a refolution in the legiflatufe to
prevent new lefts. Swift— The order for rites and forms
in the Roman church.
CEREMONIALNESS,/ The quality of being ceremo-
Jiial ; overmuch ufe of ceremony.
CEREMONIOUS, adj. Confiding pf outward rites. —
Under a different ceconomy of religion, God was more
tender of the ceremonious part of his worfliip. South. — Full
of ceremony ; awful :
O, the facrifice,
Hove ceremonious, folemn, and unearthly
It was i’ th’ offering ! Sbakefpeare.
Attentive to outward rites, or preferiptive formalities :
You are too fenfelefs obftinate, my lord;
Too ceremonious and traditional. .Sbakefpeare.
Civil ; according to the ftrift rules of civility, formally
_refpe£tful.T-They have a fet of ceremonious plirafes, that run
through all ranks and degrees among them, Addifon, — ■
Obfervant. of the rules of civility ;
Then let us take a ceremonious leave,
And loving farewel, of our feveral friends. Sbakefpeare.
Civil and formal to a fault. — The old caitiff was grown
fo ceremonious, as he would needs accompany me fome miles
an my way. Sidney.
CEREMONIOUSLY, ad-v. In a ceremonious manner ;
formally , refpeftfully s ' •
C E R
Ceremonioiifly let us prepare
Some welcome for the miltrefs of the houfe. Sbakefpeare'.
CEREMONIOUSNESS,/. Addiftednefs to ceremony;
the ufe of too much ceremony.
CE'REMONY, / [ ceremonia , Lat.] Outward rite; ex¬
ternal form in religion :
Bring her up to the high altar, that fhe may
The iacred ceremonies partake. Spenfer.
Forms of civility. — The fauce to meat is ceremony. Shak-
fpeare. — Not to ufe ceremonies at all, is to teach others not
to ufe them again, and fo diminifti refpeft. Bacon. — Out¬
ward forms of Rate :
What art thou, thou idle ceremony?
What kind of god art thou, that fuffer’R more
Of mortal grief, than do thy worfhippers ?
Art thou aught elfe but place, degree, and form ?
Sbakefpeare.
Mafler of the CE'REMONIES, an officer inftitut¬
ed by James I. for the more honourable reception of am-
bafiadors and ftrangers of quality. He wears about his
neck a chain of gold, with a medal, having on one fide an
emblem of peace, with this motto : Beati pacifci ; and on
the other, an emblem of war, with Dieu et mon droit.
CEREN'CES, or Cerance, a town of France, in the
department of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in
the dillrift of Coutances : two leagues and a half fouth of
Coutances.
CE'RENS, a town of France, in the department of the
Sarte: ten miles fouth of Le Mansi
CEREN'ZA, or Gerenza, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, fituated on a rock, in the province of
Calabria Citra, the fee of a bifhop, united to Cariali, fuf-
fragan of St. Severina : ten miles north of St. Severina.
CE'RES, in fabulous hiftory, the goddefs of corn and
of harvefts, was daughter of Saturn and Vella. She had a
daughter by Jupiter, whom fhe called Pherephata,yh«V-
bearing, and afterwards Proferpine. This daughter was
carried away' by Pluto, as fhe was gathering flowers in the
plains near Erma. The rape of Proferpine was grievous to
Ceres, who fought her all over Sicily ; and, when night
came, fhe lighted two torches in the flames of mount zTt-
11a, to continue her fearch by night all overthe world. She
at laft found her veil near the fountain Cyane; but no in¬
telligence could be received of the place of her conceal¬
ment, till at laft thenymph ArethUfa informed her thather
daughter had been carried away by Pluto. No fooner
had Ceres heard this, than fhe flew to heaven with her cha¬
riot drawn by two dragons, and demanded of Jupiter the
reftoration of her daughter. The endeavours of Jupiter to
foften her by reprefenting Pluto as a powerful god, to be¬
come her fon-in-law, proved fruitlefs, and the reftoration
was granted, provided Proferpine had not eaten any thing
in the kingdom of Pluto. Ceres upon this repaired to
Pluto, but Proferpine bad eaten the grains of a pomegra¬
nate which fhe had gathered as fhe walked over the Eiy-
fian fields, and Afcalaphus, tire only one who had feen her,
difeovered it to make his court to Pluto. The return of
Proferpine upon earth, was therefore imprafticable ; but
Afcalaphus, for his unfolicited information, was changed
.into an owl . The grief of Ceres for the lofs of her daughter
was fo great, that Jupiter granted Proferpine to pafs fix
months with her mother, and the reft of the year with Plu¬
to. During the inquiries of Ceres for her daughter, the
cultivation of the earth was neglefted, and the ground be¬
came barren ; therefore, to repair the lofs which mankind
had fuffered by her abfence, the goddefs -went to Attica,
which was become the moft defolate country in the world,
and inftrufted Triptolemus of Eleufis in every thing which
concerned agriculture. She taught him how to plough the
ground, to low and reap the corn, to make bread, and to
take particular care of fruit-trees. After thefe inftruc-
tions, flie gave him her chariot, and commanded him to
travel
C E R
travel all over the world, and communicate his knowledge
of agriculture to the rude inhabitants, who hitherto lived
upon acorns and the roots of plants. Her beneficence to
mankind made Ceres refpeCted. Sicily was fuppofed to be
the favourite retreat of the goddefs, and Diodorus fays,
that fie and her daughter made their firft appearance to
mankind in Sicily, which Pluto received as a nuptial dowry
from Jupiter when he married Proferpine. The Sicilians
made a yearly facrifice to Ceres, every man according to
his abilities ; and the fountain of Cyane, through which
Pluto opened himfelf a palfage with his trident, when car¬
rying aw'ay Proferpine, was publicly honoured with an of¬
fering of bulls, and the blood of the victims was died in the
waters of the fountain. Befides thefe, other ceremonies
were obferved in honour of the goddeffes who had fo pe¬
culiarly favoured the ifiand. The commemoration of the
rape was celebrated about the beginning of the harveft, and
the fearch of Ceres at the time that corn is fown in the
earth. The latter feftival continued fix fuccefive days:
and during the celebration, the votaries of Ceres made ufe
of fome free and wanton exprefiions, as that language had
made the goddefs fmile while melancholy for the lofs of her
daughter. Attica, which had been fo eminently diftin-
guiflied by the goddefs, gratefully remembered her favours
in the celebration of the Eleufinian mylteries. Ceres alfo
performed the duties of a legiftator, and the Sicilians found
the advantages of her falutary laws ; hence, her furname
of Tliefmophora. She is the fame as the Ifis of the Egyp¬
tians, and her worfliip, it is faid, was firft brought into
Greece by Erechtheus. She met with different adven¬
tures when flie travelled over the earth, and the impudence
of Stellio was feverely punifhed. To avoid the importu¬
nities of Neptune, fhe changed herfelf into a mare ; but the
god took advantage of her metamorphofis, and from their
union arofe the horfe Arion. The birth of this monlter
fo offended Ceres, that fire withdrew herfelf from the light
of mankind ; and the earth would have perifhed for want
of her afiiftance, had not Pan difcovered her in Arcadia,
and given information of it to Jupiter. The Parcae were
fent by the god to comfort her, and at their perfuafion fhe
returned to Sicily, where her ftatues reprefented her veiled
in black, with the head of a horfe, and holding a dove in
one hand, and in the other a dolphin. In their facrifices,
the ancients offered Ceres a pregnant fow, as that animal
often injures and deftroys the productions of the earth.
While the corn was yet in grafs, they offered her a ram,
after the victim had been led three times round the field.
Ceres was reprefented with a garland of ears of corn on her
head, holdinginone hand alighted torch, and in theother
a poppy, which was facred to her. She appears as a coun¬
try-woman mounted on the back of an ox, and carrying a
bafket on her left arm, and holding a hoe ; and fometimes
the rides in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. She was
fuppofed to be the fame as Rhea, Tellus, Cybele, Bona
Dea, Berecynthia, &c. The Romans paid her great a-
doration, and her feflivals were yearly celebrated by the
Roman matrons in the month of April, during eight days.
Thefe matrons abftained during feveral days from the ufe
of wine and every carnal enjoyment. They always bore
lighted torchesin commemoration of the goddefs ; and who¬
ever came to thefe feftivals without a previous initiation,
was punifhed with death. Ceres is metaphorically called
bread and corn, as the word Bacchus is fometimes ufed to
iignify wine . Apollod. — Mr. Bryant, in his Analyfis of An¬
cient Mythology, defines the word Ceres originally to
mean a lacred tower where a perpetual fire was preferved ;
and, he fays, the rites of this benefaCtrefs and law-giver,
this innocent and rural goddefs, were fo cruel, that fome of
her temples were as much dreaded as thofe of Sylla and the
Cyclops. The towers of Ceres were P'urtain , or wpufiVsia,
fo called from the facred fires which were kept burning
therein. The Greeks, through ignorance, interpreted this
word 5 Tvpov rap eioy ; and rendered what was the temple of
Cerus, a granary of corn , and thusCeres became the goddefs
of corn.
VOL. IV. No. j7<5.
C E R 41
CERESO'LO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mantua;
thirteen miles north-weft of Mantua.
CE'RET, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftriCt, in the department of the Eaft Pyrenees, fituated at
the foot of the Pyrenees, on the river Tech, over which is
a bridge of one arch, fuppofed to be the higheft and boldeft
in France : it contains about 1900 inhabitants. It was
here that the commiffioners of France and Spain met, in
1660, to fettle the bounds of the two kingdoms. A bat¬
tle was fought near this town between the French republi¬
can army, and the Spaniards, on the 1 ft ot May, 1794,
in which the latter were defeated-, with the lofs of their
camp, magazines, equipage, 200 pieces of cannon, and
2000 prifoners. Five leagues fouth-weft ot Perpignan,
Lat. 42. 28. N. long. 20. 25. E. of Ferro.
CERE'TIA,/ in botany. See Hymen^a.
CE'REUS, in botany. See Cactus.
CERIGLIA'NO, or Cigliano, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and province of Bafilicata s ten miles
fouth of Tricarico.
CERIGNO'LA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Capitanata ; remarkable for a victory
obtained here in 1503, by Gonfalvo over the duke of Ne¬
mours, who was (lain in the commencement of the battle :
twenty miles fouth of Manfredonia.
CERI'GO, an ifiand of the Grecian Archipelago, for¬
merly well known by the name of Cythera, feparated from
Moreaby a narrow ftrait : it is dry and mountainous, and
produces neither corn, wine, nor oil, fufficient for the
inhabitants; yet fome of the vallies are fertile; fheep,
hares, quails, turtles, and falcons, are abundant. It is
about leven leagues in circumference, and ferves as a
rendezvous for pirates. Lat. 36. 28. N. Ion. 40. 42. E.
Ferro.
CERI'GO, a town, fituated on the weftern coaft of the
ifiand of Cerigo, defended by a cattle, fituated on a fliarp
rock, furrounded by the fea ; with a fmall harbour : it is
tbefea of a Greek bifiiop. Lat. 36. 26. N. Ion. 40. 42.
E. Ferro.
CERIGQT'TO, a fmall ifiand in the Grecian Archi¬
pelago, between Cerigo and Candia, about five miles in
circumference, and uninhabited. It was anciently called
JEgilia. Lat. 36. 2. N. Ion. 40. 59. E. Ferro.
CERIL'LA, among printers, a mark fet under the letter
c in French or Spanifh ; as y, to denote it to be pronounc¬
ed as an s, or fs.
CERIL'LY, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftriCt, in the department of Allier; eleven miles fouth
of Bourges, and feven weft of Moulins.
CERFNES, a fea-port town of the ifland of Cyprus, de¬
fended by a caftle, whofe walls are fallen to decay. It is
the fea of a bifhop, fuffragan of Nicofia. Lat. 35. 22.
N. Ion. 51. 10. E. Ferro.
CERIN'THE, / \ [jMjpo?, wax, or joipiov, a honeycomb.]
Honeyyvort; in botany, a genus of the clafs pentandria,
order monogynia, natural order of afperifoliae. The gene¬
ric characters are — Calyx : perianthium five-parted ; divi-
lions oblong, equal, permanent. Corolla: monopetalous,
bell-form. Tube fliort, thick. Border tube-bellied, ra¬
ther thicker than the tube ; mouth five-cleft; throat
naked, pervious. Stamina: filaments five, fubulate, very
ftiort. Anthers acute, ereCt. Piftillum : germ four-
parted. Style filiform, length of the ftamens. Stigma
obtufe. Pericarpium : none. Calyx unchanged. Seeds
two, bony, glofiy, fubovate, outwardly gibbous, bilocular.
. — Ejj'enUal Char after. Border of the corolla tube- bellied ;
throat pervious ; feeds two, bilocular.
Species. 1. Cerinthe major, or great honey wort. Leaves
Item clafping, corollas bluntifti fpreading. Stems eigh¬
teen inches high and more, round, fmooth, branching, and
leafy. Leaves glaucous, becoming blue by age, fmooth,
without prickles, but ciliated about the edge, dotted with
white. Branches leafy, nodding ; with flowers among
the leaves, hanging on long peduncles. The tube of the
corolla is yellow, but the border is purple : the tootlilets
' M
42 C E R
Tery flvort and revolute. Annual, flowering in June and
July : Haller fays it is perennial. There are feveral vari¬
eties. This is one of the moft common herbs all over
Italy; hence Virgil’s expreffion of Ceriniba ignobile gramen.
Jt is no lefs common in Sicily; and is found alfo in the
South of France, Swiflerland, Germany, and Siberia:
Cultivated in 1596, by Gerard. There is abundance of
honey-juice in the tube of the flower, for which reafon it
is much reforted to by bees; this plant therefore is pecu¬
liarly proper to be planted near apiaries.
.2. Cerinthe minor, or fmall honeywort : leaves ftem-
clafping entire, corollas acute clofed. Very nearly allied
to the foregoing, but the corolla flve-cleft to one-third of
the length, whereas that is only five-lobed at the edge.
Scopoli makes but one fpecies of them. The whole plant
is fmooth, and flowering the whole fummer. Annual,
when fcwn in the fpring, but biennial when f’own in au¬
tumn ; in the wild ftate therefore biennial. Italy, Ger¬
many, Auftria, Syria, Swiflerland. Cultivated 1570, by
Mr. Hugh Morgan.
Propagation and Culture. The fpecies of this plant are
propagated by feeds, which fhould be fown foon after they
are ripe ; for, if they are kept till fpring, the growing qua¬
lity of them is often loft ; or at leaft they lie fome months
in the ground before they grow ; the plants are hardy,
and, if the feeds are fown in a warm fltuation, they will en¬
dure the winter’s cold very well without ftielter ; thefe au¬
tumnal plants are alfo much furer to produce ripe feeds
than thofe which are fown in the fpring, which are gene¬
rally late in the feafon before they flower ; and confe-
quently, if the autumn fhould not prove very warm, their
feeds would not be perfefted. The plants make a pretty
variety for large borders in gardens, where, if they are
fuffered to drop their feeds, the plants will arife without
any farther care ; fo that when a perfon is once furnifhed
with the feveral varieties, he need be at no more trouble
than to allow each of them a refpeftive place where it may
remain, and fow itfelf ; and with this culture, there is a
greater certainty of preferving the forts than in any other
management ; nor will they perhaps be entirely loft in
this way, if it fhould happen that the feafon fhould pre¬
vent their ripening feed, (as it fometimes proves ;) for,
when great quantities of the feeds have fcattered upon the
ground, fome of them will be buried fo deep, in ftirring the
earth, as not to grow the firft year ; which, upon being
turned up to the air the fucceeding year, will come up as
well as new feeds. If the feeds are not taken as foon as
they change black, they drop out of the calyx in a fliort
time, and vegetate with the firft warm weather. See
ONOsMAand Pulmonaria.
CERIN'THIANS, ancient heretics, who denied the
divinity of Chrift. They took their name from Cerinthus,
one of the firft herefiarchs in the church, who was contem¬
porary with St. John. They believed that Chrift was a
mere man, born of Jofeph and Mary; but that in his
baptifm, a celeftial virtue defcended upon him, by means
whereof he was confecrated by the holy fpirit. They fup-
pofed it was by means of this celeftial fpirit, that he
wrought his miracles ; and which, as he received it from
heaven, quitted him after his paflion, and returned to the
place from whence it came. It was partly to refute this
left that St. John wrote hisgofpel.
CERINTHOFDES,/. in botany. See Pulmonaria,
CERIN'THUS, founder of the above-mentioned herefy,
was contemporary with the apoftles, and in his doftrine
he afcribed the creation not to God, but to angels. He
taught that circumcifion ought to be retained under the
gofpel. He is confidered as the head of the converted
Jews, who raifed in the church of Antioch the tumult of
which St. Luke has given the liiftory in the 15th chapter
of the Afts. Some authors afcribe the book of the apo-
calypfe to Cerinthus ; adding, that he put it off under the
.name of St. John, the better to authorife his reveries
touching the nature of Cftrift’s million upon earth; and
C E R
it is even certain that he publifhed fome works of this
kind under the title of Apocaljpfe.
CF.RISAY', a town of France, in the department of
the Two Sevres, ar.d chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Chatillon fur Seine : two leagues and a quarter
fouth-fouth-eaft of Chatillon.
CERISIE'RS, a town of France, in the department of
the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
St. Florenti'n : four leagues north-north-weft of St. Flo-
rentin.
CERISO'LA, a village of Italy, in the principality of
Piedmont, where the French gained a fignal victory over
the Spaniards on the 14th of Apiil, 1544: five miles eaft
of Carmagnola.
CERISY/, a town of France, in the department of
the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of St. Lo : two leagues and a half north-eaft of St. Lo.
CERISY' la Salle, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Coutances : two leagues eaft of Coutances.
CERLIER', fee Erlach.
CER'NA, a river of Piedmont, which runs into the
Sefia, three miles north-weft of Vercelli.
CER'NACHE, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira : four miles fouth of Coimbra.
CERNAY', a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the dif¬
trift of Befort : five leagues north-eaft of Befort.
CERNAY'-EN-DORMOIS, a town of France, in the
department of the Marne : ten miles north of St. Mene-
hold.
CERNE, or Cerne Abbas, a fmall market-town in
Dorfetfhire, famous for its ancient abbey ; and, in more
modern times, for its brewery of ftrong beer ; prodigious
quantities of which it formerly exported to America,
and the Weft-Indies. Here are three fairs annually, viz.
on Mid-lent Monday, 28th of April, and ad of Oftober;
market on Wednefdays. The town ftands on the river
Cerne, in a pleafant vale, furrounded with fteep hills on
the north ; fix miles and a half from Dorchefter, and 12 1
from London. On a fteep hill to the north of the town
is the figure of a giant cut in chalk. His left hand is ex¬
tended, and in his right he holds a club. Under the body
are three rude letters, fcarce legible, and there appears to
have been more, now not to be traced. Over them is the
date 74.8. The figure is faid to be that of Cenric, fon of
Cuthred, king of Weffex, who was killed in battle that
year. Others fuppofe it to be the figure of fome idol, and
fay the letters under it are JAO. It covers near an acre of
ground, and feems to have been projefted by the fhift
rules of proportion. It is generally repaired about once in
feven years, by cleaning the furrows, and filling them with
frefh chalk. Various have been the opinions of antiqua¬
ries on it : fome fay it reprefents the Saxon god Heil, and
muft have been as ancient as 600. Dr. Stukely thinks it
was done for the figure of Hercules, which he fays was
called Heil by the Saxon*, and cut as a memorial of their
arrival, in compliment to Eli, who expelled the Belgas.
Near it is a large coppice called Hell-wood.
CERNETZ', a town of Swiflerland, in the community
of Lower Engadine, with a mineral fpring : twenty-four
miles fouth-eaft of Coire.
CERNON', a town of France in the department of the
Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Chaalons : eight miles fouth of Chaalons.
CERNU', a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Moroccos
feven miles from Safia.
CERNY', a town of France in the department of the
Seine and Oife : feven miles eaft of Eftampes.
CE'RO, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe : fix- miles
north-north-eaft Verona.
CEROU', a river of France, which runs into the
Aveiron.
CEROPE'GIA,/. [jwp«OTy«y, Gr. acandelabre,orlamp-
ftand.J
C E R
fland.] In botany a genus of the clafs pentandria, order
monogynia, natural order of contortas. The generic
characters are — Calyx : perianthium very frhall, five-tooth¬
ed, acute, permanent. Corolla : monopetalous, with a
large globofe bafe which is terminated by a cylindrical
oblong tube. Border very fmall, five-toothed, acuminate,
with the tip converging, gaping at the tides. Stamina :
filaments five, in the bafe of the corolla, very final!, incurv¬
ed converging. Anthers fmall. Piitillium : germ veryt
fmall. Style fcarce any. Stigmas two. Pericarpium :
follicles two, cylindric, acuminate, very long, eredt, uni¬
locular, univalve. Seeds : numerous, imbricated, oblong,
crowned with a pappus. — EJfential Character. Contorted.
Follicles two, ereft. Seeds plumofe. Border of the co¬
rolla converging.
Species, i. Ceropegia candelabrum: umbels pendulous,
flowers ere<5l. X twining plant. Stems tlender, round,
green or reddith. Leaves oppofite, ovate, thick, foft,
fmootli. The peduncle, and at firll the flowers, hang down,
but when open they eredt themfelves, and, being placed
in a circle, have the appearance of a fet of lamps hanging
up. The follicles or feed-veflels hang down. Native of
the Eaft-Indies,
2. Ceropegia biflora : peduncles two-flowered. Stem
twining. Leaves oppofite, ovate, quite entire. Pedun¬
cles axillary, generally two flowered. Flowers oppofite
to the peduncles, not reflected, but extended ftraight out.
Native of the ifle of Ceylon. Perennial.
3. Ceropegia fagittata, or arrow leaved ceropegia : um¬
bels fefiile, leaves fagittate. Stem twining, filiform, to-
mentofe. Leaves oppofite, on very fhert petioles, fagit¬
tate or cordate-linear, the edges revolute, tomentofe on
both fides but paler underneath. Umbels axillary, many-
flowered, the peduncle Ihorter than the umbel. Calyx
five parted, linear, tomentofe, half the length of the co¬
rolla, which is fcarlet, fubcylindric but lefs fwelling at
the bafe ; the divifions very Ihort, mucronate, converg¬
ing. Native of the Cape. Perennial. Introduced 1775,
by Mr. Francis Maffon.
4_. Ceropegia tenuifolia : leaves linear-lanceolate. Stems
flender, milky, red, bay or green. Petioles very Ihort,
oppofite. Flowers, axillary, from two to four together,
on Ihort peduncles. Within reddifli, or reddifti brown,
on the outfide yellowilh-green. Native of the Eaft Indies.
5. Ceropegia obtufa : leaves blunt, ftem twining. Stem
perennial, filiform, finooth. Leaves oblong, quite entire,
flat, few, oppofite. Flowers pale, like thofe of the firll
fort, but on lhorter peduncles. Fruits more flender, bro¬
ken at a right angle as they are, fmooth. Native of Co¬
chin-China with the firll, from which it differs more in
the leaves than flowers.
6. Ceropegia cordata , leaves cordate, umbels pendu¬
lous. Stem long, round, climbing, branched, perennial.
Leaves quite entire, fmooth, oppofite, on long petioles.
Flowers greenifli-yellow, in large hemifpherical axillary
umbels, on long peduncles. Calyx inferior, five-leaved ;
leaflets ovate acute fmall fpreading. Corolla five-parted ;
parts ovate converging. Nedlary flelhy upright five-cleft ;
•with ten oblong glands Handing round the piftil. Fila¬
ments none. Anthers five oblong converging. Germ
longilh, bifid. Style thick very Ihort. Stigma blunt emar-
ginate. Native of Cochin-China, climbing in the hedges;
CERRE'RO. See Cerrito.
CERRE'TO, a town of Italy, in the province Umbria :
fifteen miles weft of Nurfia.
CER'RI, glans, and cer'ris, f. in botany. See
Quercus.
CERRFTO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Lavora, the refidence of the billiop
of Telefa : with a cathedral and collegiate church, and
three convents : eighteen miles north-north-weft of Bene-
•vento, and five north-north-eaft of Telefa.
CER'RO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan :
eighteen miles weft Como.
CERT-MONEY, inlaw, head-money, paid yearly by
C E R . 43
the refiants of feveral manors to the lords thereof, for the
certain keeping of the leet ; and fometimes to the hun¬
dred: as the manor of Hook, in Dorfetlhire, pays cert-
money to the hundred of Egcrdon. In ancient records
this is called certum leta.
CER'TAIN, adj. [ certus , Lat ] Sure ; indubitable ;
unqueftionable ; undoubted ; that cannot be queftioned,
or denied. — Thofe things are certain among men, which
cannot be denied without cbftinacy and fully. ‘Tillotfon. —
Refolved ; determined :
I with thee have fix'd my lot,
Certain to undergo like doom of death. Milton.
Undoubting; put pad doubt .-
This form before Alcyone prefent,
To make her certain of the fad event. Drydcn.
Unfailing; which always produces the expedled effedl.—
I have often wiflied that I knew as certain a remedy for
any other diftemper. Meadows , — Conilant ; never failing
to be ; not cafual :
Virtue, that diredls our ways
Through certain dangers to uncertain praife. Drydcn.
Regular; fettled; dated:
Who calls the council, ftates a certain day,
Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way ? Pope.
In an indefinite fenfe, fome ; as, a certain man told me
this. — How bad foever this falhion may jultiy be account¬
ed, certain of the fame countrymen do pafs far beyond it.
Carew.
CER'TAINLY, adv. Indubitably ; without q.ueftion;
without doubt ; without fail. Certainly he that, by legal
means, cannot be fecured, can be much lefs fio by any pri¬
vate attempt. Decay of Piety.
CER'TAINNESS, f. The fame with certainty.
CER'TAINTY, /. Exemption from doubt. — Certainty
is the perception of the agreement or difagreement of our
ideas. Locke. — Exemption from failure ; as the certainty
of an event, or of a remedy. — That which is real and
fixed. — Regularity ; fettled Hate.
CERTAL'DO, or Castro Caltaldo, a town of
Italy, in the territory of Sienna.
CER'TES, adnj. Icertes, Fr.] Certainly; in truth ; in
footh : an old word :
Certes, fir knight, you’ve been too much to blame.
Thus for to blot the honour of the dead,
And with foul cowardice his carcafe fliarne,
Whofe living hands immortaliz’d his name. Spenfer.
CER'THIAjyi the Creeper ; in ornithology, a genus
of birds belonging to the order of picas ; named in Greek,
xejfiicc, xigQta, xigS-ioc ; in Italian, cerzia , cenerina, picchio
pajferino , rampichino : in German, haum-lauffer (tree-
runner), rindenkleber (bark-climber), hirngrille (brain-
cricket): inDanifti, tr<s pikke, licheften , in Swedifli, kry-
fare. The generic charadlers are as follow : Bill arched,
thin, fomewhat triangular, and (harp. Tongue pointed ;
feet ambulatory. There are fifty-five fpecies, and four
varieties, of this bird now afeertained. They are fpread
over the whole globe; live chiefly on infedls ; have mi¬
nute noftrils, and are confpicuous by their tall legs, their
large hind toe, and their long hooked nails : in mod of
them the tongue is fharp, in fome it is flat at the tip, in
others ciliated, and in a few, tubulated. They creep very
nimbly on trees, both in afeending and defeending, and
on the upper and under fide of the branches: they run
fwiftly along beams, clafping the edge with their little feet.
They are diftinguifhed from the woodpeckers by their
bill and tongue, from the titmice by the greater length
of their bill, and from the nuthatches by its more flender
and hooked form. Many foreign fpecies of creepers re¬
ferable much the humming-birds, by their diminutive
fize, by the rich colours of their plumage, by their flen-
44- C E R T H I A,
der incurvated bill, which is of a more lengthened and
tharper form than that of the humming-bird, which is
fliglitly inflated at the tip ; the wings cf the creepers are
longer, and their tail contains twelve quills, while that of
the humming-bird has only ten 5 and, laftly, the tongue
of the creepers is not like that of the humming-birds,
compofed of two cylindrical half-tubes, which joined to¬
gether form an entire tube, and is properly an organ of
refpiration, and more analogous to the feeler of an infedl
than the tongue of a bird.
As the creepers live upon the fame infers with the
woodpeckers, the nuthatches, and the titmice, and can¬
not, from the defeft of their bill, extrafl the infedls lodg¬
ed under the bark, they follow thofe birds, which they
make their providers, and dexteroufly fnatch the little
prey. And, fince infefts are their principal fubfiftence,
we may readily luppofe that the fpecies are more prolific
and varied in hot climates, where fuch provifion abounds,
than in the cold or temperate, which are lefs favourable
to the multiplication of infedls.
1. Certhia Familiaris, or common creeper ; is nearly
as fmall as the crowned wren, and is perpetually in mo¬
tion : but the fcene of its adtivity is extremely limited ; it
never migrates, and its ordinary abode is the hole of a
tree. From this it emerges in purfuitof the infedls har¬
boured in the bark and the mofs ; and there the female
breeds and hatches. The hen generally lays from five to
feven eggs ; they are cinereous, with points and ftreaks of
a deeper colour. They hatch early in the fpring, being
neither obliged to conllrudt its neft, nor to migrate. The
throat of the common creeper is pure white, but generally
alTumes a rufty tint, which is always deeper on the flanks
and the remote parts (fometimes all the under fide of the
body is white), the upper fide variegated with rufous,
with white, and with blackifh; and tliefe colours vary in
their brightnefs and intenfity, according to the age of the
bird: the head is of a darker call; the ring about the
eyes, and the eyebrows, white; the rump rufous; the
quills of the wings brown, the three firft edged with grey,
the fourteen following marked with a whitifh fpot, which
forms on the wing a tranfverfe bar of the fame colour;
the three laft marked near the tip with a black fpot be¬
tween two white ones : the bill is brown above, and whi¬
tifh below; the leas grey; the ground of the feathers
deep cinereous. _
There is a variety of this fpecies called the great creep¬
er. It differs only in fize; its ceconomy, its plumage,
and its ftrudlure, are the fame as in the common creeper.
Thefe birds are frequent in England, and inhabit Ameri¬
ca, as well as the old continent.
1. Certhia Muraria, or wall creeper. The various mo¬
tions that the preceding fpecies performs on trees, this
performs on rocks and old walls; where it climbs, hunts,
and breeds. Kramer remarks, that thefe birds haunt the
maufoleucns of the dead, and have been known to depofit
their eggs in human fculls. Though they are larger than
the common creepers, they are equally lively and adtive :
flies, ants, and fpiders, are their ufual food. It inhabits
Auftria, Silefia, Switzerland, Poland, and Italy. They
keep in pairs, like moft birds that feed on infedls ; and,
though folitary, they are neither weary nor melancholy :
fo certain it is, that cheerfulnefs depends more on the ori¬
ginal difpofition, than on the enlivening influence of foci-
ety ! In the male, there is a black mark under the throat,
which extends to the fore part of the neck, and diflin-
guilhes the fex : the upper fide of the head and body is of
an afli colour, the under fide of a deeper call ; the fmall
fuperior coverts of the wings, a beautiful red. It is chiefly
cinereous, with a fulvous fpot on the wings.
3. Certhia Spanata, or red-breafted creeper. — The fong
of this bird is faid to referable that of the nightingale.
The head, the throat, and the fore part of the neck, are
variegated with fulvous and gloffy bine, changing into vi¬
olet ; the upper fide of the neck and of the body, in the
fore part, purplifli chefnut, and in the lvind part violet
changing into gold green: the final! coverts of the wing?
the fame ; the middle ones brown, terminated with pur-
plilh chefnut ; the under fide of the body crimfon ; the
upper fide chiefly purple.
4. Certhia Pufilla, or little Indian creeper.; white
below, and brown above, with fome refledlions of copper
colour ; it has a brown ftreak between the bill and the
eye, and bright white eye-brows : the quills of the wings
are of a deeper brown than the back, and edged with
lighter colours ; the quills of the tail blackilh, the outer-
moll terminated with white ; the bill and legs, brown. It
is only three inches and a half in length ; the bill, eight or
nine lines.
5. Certhia Senegalenfis, or Senegal creeper ; hath a
gold, green, head and throat, and a red breall. Its back,
and the fmall quills of the wings, violet black ; its rump
and tail like burnilhed Heel, and verging on greenifli ; and
the inferior coverts of the tail are of a dirty green.
6. Certhia Philippina, or philippine creeper. Its lead¬
ing colour is greyilh, with a greenifli call; the two middle
tail quills very long : on the throat and the upper fide of
the head is a brilliant gold green, heightened with copper
reflections : on the breall and the fore part of the neck is
a beautiful Aiming read, the only colour which is feen in
thofe parts when the feathers are quite regular and com¬
pofed : each of the feathers, however, confilts of three dif¬
ferent colours, black at its origin, gold green at its mid¬
dle, and red at its extremity; a proof that to deferibe the
tints of the feathers is not fuflicient to give an accurate
idea of the colours of the plumage. Itslength isfive inches.
7. Certhia Clialybea, or collared creeper; native of
the Cape of Good Hope. Its head is of a gold green,
waving with role copper; extending over the throat, and
all the upper fide of the body ; it borders alfo the inter¬
mediate quills of the tail, which are of a glofly purple ; not
changeable on the fuperior coverts. The break is marked
with red, forming a fort of cinfture whofe upper edge is
contiguous to the collar, or bar, of blue Heel colour, wav¬
ing with green : the reft of the under fide is grey, with
fome yellow fpeckles on the top of the belly; and on the
flanks : the quills of the wings are of a brown grey :
length, four inches and a half. This bird fings, and lives
on infedls, and drinks the juices of flowers.
8. Certhia Zeylonica, or ceylonefe creeper. Its moft
confpicuous colour is a deep and brilliant azure, which
fpreads below the neck, and on the throat ; it has a beau¬
tiful green cap ; the under fide of its body is yellow ; all
the upper fide, including the fuperior coverts of the wings,
are ferruginous, or dull olive, and the fame colour bor¬
ders the quills of the tail and of the wings, and alfo. their
great coverts : length, four inches.
9. Certhia Olivacea, or olive creeper. The upper part
of the body, including the coverts of the wings, is of a dull
olive green, darkeft on the crown of the head, and the
fame colour borders the quills of the wings and of the
tail : all thefe quills are brown ; the orbits are white; the
throat and the under fide of the body, dun grey : it
is nearly as large as the common creeper.
10. Certhia Currucaria, or grey creeper. The upper
fide of the body is dun grey, and the under fide yellow-
Ifh ; the breall darker : there is a deep violet bar, which
riles from the throat and defeends. along the neck : .the
coverts of the wings are of a Heel colour, and the fame
borders the quills of the tail, the reft of which are black-
ifh : the lateral ones are terminated with dirty white; the
quills of the wings, brown ; the tail quills equal ; the
bill is llronger than in the other creepers, and the tongue
terminated by two threads.
11. Certhia Jugularis, or fmall philippine creeper. It
is brown grey above, and yellow below ; and has a violet
collar; the quills of the wings are brown grey, like the
upper fide of the body; thole of the tail are deeper brown ;
the two outermoft tipt with yellow. This bird is much
finaller than the former, which it much relembles in
plumage,
i>, Certhia
C Ell Till A
f.oi !,/,>?! ft/M.W/, \7 <r.f rf/r . Icr ,fn\U'Aw . fu-.AflY/Zr.r.
.. : ■ ' - <
■■■ ■
‘ ... : ii - ■ '
• ' • .
C E R T H I A;
12. Certhia Lotenia, or lote’n creeper ; hath alfo a col¬
lar of a beautiful gold red; the fmall luperior coverts are
of the lame hue ; the throat, the head, the neck, all the
upper fide of the body, and the middle coverts of the
wings, of a brilliant blue green : there is a llreak of glofi'y
black between the noltril and the eye ; the breaft, the
belly, and all the under fide of the body, of the fame black,
and alfo the quills of the tail and of the wings ; the large
coverts, and the quills of the tail, are bordered with gold
green.
13. Certhia Omnicolor, or creeper of all colours : its
plumage is green, tinged with all forts of rich colours,
amongft which that of gold green feems to predominate.
Seba fays, that its young often become the prey of large
fpiders ; a danger to which the humming-bird alfo is li¬
able, and even all the fmall bit' Is that breed in climates
inhabited by thofe formidable inlefts, and have not ikill
iiifficientto guard the nelt from their intrufions.
14. Certhia Afra, or African creeper. Sonnerat, who
found this bird at the Cape of Good Hope, tells us that it
fings as melodious as the nightingale, and th'at its voice is
even fofter. Its throat is of a fine carmine ; its belly
white ; the head, the neck, and the anterior part of the
wings, of a fine geld green, and filvery ; the rump, Iky
blue; the wings and tail, fnuff brown; length, about
four inches.
15. Certhia Cruentata, or red-fpotted Indian creeper ;
is diftinguiffied by four large beautiful fpots of bright red ;
the firft on the crown of the head, the fecond behind the
neck, the third on the back, and the fourth on the fupe-
rior coverts of the tail ; the quills of the tail and of the
wings, are blue ; the under fide white ; length, three
inches and a quarter.
16. Certhia Violacea, or violet creeper. The head, the
top of the back, and the throat, are of a bright violet,
glolfed with green; the fore part of the neck alfo bright violet,
but glolfed with blue : the reft of, the upper fide of the
body is of an olive brown, which colour borders the great
coverts of the wings, their quills, and thofe of the tail,
the two middle quills of which are very long. The under
fide of the body is bright orange, more vivid on the ante¬
rior parts, and foftening in the diftant parts ; length,
about fix inches.
17. Certhia Pulchella, or beautiful creeper. The breaft
is yed, and all the body gold green, glowing and undu¬
lating with rofe copper ; the quills of the tail blackilh,
edged with gold green ; their great coverts, brown ; the
lower belly mixed with a little white. Length, (even
inches ; the tail confifts of ten lateral quills, nearly equal,
and two intermediate ones, which are very long and nar¬
row, and which projeft two inches beyond the others. It
inhabits Senegal.
18. Certhia Famofa, or famous creeper ; from the Cape
of Good Hope. It is about the fize of the linnet ; its bill
is a little incurvated, and the feet are furnilhed with long
wails, particularly the middle and hinder ones : the eyes
are black ; the upper and under fides of the body of a fine
brilliant green, glolfed with rofe copper, withfome feathers
of gold yellow under the wings ; the great feathers of the
■wings and of the tail, are of a fine black, glolfed with vio¬
let ; the two middle quills of the tail are very long, and
edged with green ; on each fide, between the bill and the
eye, there is a ftreak of velvet black.
*?• Certhia Mexicana, or Mexican creeper ; in which
red is the prevailing colour, though it has different fhades ;
the crown of the head is lighter and more brilliant, and
that on the reft of the body is deeper. The throat and
fore part of the neck are green ; the quills of the tail and
of the wings are terminated with bluilh ; the thighs, of a
light yellow. Its voice is find to be pleafant and agree¬
able ; length, about four inches and a half.
20. Certhia Gutturalis, or guttural creeper. Thethroat
and face are of a fine gold green ; the fore part of the
neck and breaft, purple ; the fmall coverts of the wings of
■a brilliant violet ; the great coverts and the quills of the
Von, IV, No. 176,
45
wings and of the tail are brown, tinged with rufous ; the
middle coverts of the wings, and all the reft both of the
upper and under fides of the body, blackilh brown. j
length, five inches.
21. Certhia Purpurea, or purple creeper; being of a
beautiful uniform purple. Seba alferts that it fings plea-
fantly : length, four inches and a half.
22. Certhia Cyanea, or Cayenne creeper. The face of
this beautiful bird is of a brilliant fea green : there is a
bar on the eyes of velvet black ; the reft of the head, the
throat, and all the under part of the body, the lower part
of the back, and the fuperior coverts of the. tail, of an
ultramarine blue, which is the only colour that appear-s
when the feathers are regularly difpofed, though each
feather has three colours ; brown at the bafe, green in
the middle, and blue at the extremity; the top of tits
back, the part of the neck contiguous to the back, and
the tail, velvet black : what appears of the wings, when,
they are clofed, is of the fame black, except a blue bar,
which crofles their coverts obliquely : the inner.fide of
the quills of the wings, and their inferior coverts, are of
a fine yellow ; fo that the wings, which feem entirely
black when at reft, appear variegated with black and gold
whendifplayed,or in. motion. It is four inches and a-quar-
ter in length ; and inhabits Brafil, Guiana, and Cayenne.
23. Certhia Caerulea, or blue creeper, is alfo found in
Cayenne, and differs from, the preceding only in the-
fhades of the plumage : the head is of a fine blue : there
is a bar on the eyes of a velvet black : the throat, the
wings, ^nd the'tail, are of the fame black : all the reft is
of a fhining blue, verging upon violet 3 the blue feathers
which cover the body are of three colours, the fame as in
the preceding. It conftrufts its neft with much art : the
outfide confifts of coarfe Ifraw, and ftiff ftalks of herbs s
the infide of fofter materials : the fhape refembles that of
a retort : it is fufpended from the end of a pliant branch',
and the aperture faces the ground. The bird enters the
neck, and creeps into the belly, of the retort, which is its
proper neft. By this contrivance the young are guarded
againft the vifits of fpiders, lizards, and other intruders.
24. Certhia Spiza, or black-headed creeper. The plu¬
mage confifts of three or four colours, which are diipofed.
in diftinft maffes, without any intermixture or fhading s
a velvet black on the throat and head only ; deep blue
under the body ; bright green on all the upper fide, in¬
cluding the tail and the wings ; but the tail is of a deeper
fhade : the inferior coverts of the wings are cinereous
brown, edged with green, and the bill is whitilh : length,
five inches and a quarter. It is a native of America.
The black-capped green creeper, the blue-green creeper,
and the all-green creeper, mentioned by Latham, are va¬
rieties of this fpecies.
25. Certhia Variegata, or variegated creeper; deco¬
rated with great variety and choice of elegant colours :
bright red on the top of the head ; fine blue on the back
of the head 5 blue and white on the cheeks ; two lhades
of yellow on the throat, the breaft, and all the under fide
of the body ; yellow, blue, white, blackilh, on the uppCr
fide of the body, including the wings, the tail, and their
fuperior coverts. It is an American bird, and nearly as
large as the chaffinch.
26. Certhia Brafiliana, or Brafilian creeper; the throat
and fore fide of the neck are of a Ihining violet ; the lower
part of the back, the fuperior coverts of the tail, and the
linall ones of the wungs, are violet, bordering onfteel co¬
lour ; the .upper part of the neck and back, of a fine vel¬
vet black; the belly, the lower coverts of the tail and of
the wings, and the great fuperior coverts of the wings, of
a dull black ; the top of the head, of a fine gold green ;
the breaft, purple chefnut ; length, three inches.
27. Certhia Flaveola, or black and yellow creeper ;
feeds on the fweet vifeous juices of the fugar-cane, which
it fucks through the cracks of the ftalk. In this refpeft
it refembles the humming birds ; it is alfo exceedingly
fmall. 5 and from the relative length of its wings it
N approaches
approaches that of Cayenne, though it differs by the
length of its legs and the fhortnefs of its tail. The throat,
the neck, and the upper fide of the head and body, are
of a fine black; the edges of the wings, the rump, the
flanks, and the belly, of a fine yellow, which fpreads and
grows dilute on the lower belly, and becomes vvhitifli on
the inferior coverts of the tail. This fpecies is diffufed
through' Martinico, Cayenne, and St. Domingo, &c. but
the plumage varies a little in thefie different illands, tho’
nearly in the fame parallel. In that of Cayenne, the head
is blackifh ; there are two white eyebrows, which extend
down the neck: the throat is light grey : th'e back and
the fuperior coverts of the. wings are of a deeper grey 5
the quills of the wings and cf the tail aflrgrey, border¬
ed with cinereous. Linnaeus regards the Bahama creeper
of BrifTon as a variety of this fpecies. Its plumage is in¬
deed very limilar ; all. the upper fide is brown, including
even the quills of the wings and of the tail ; the latter are
Vv'bitifh beneath; the throat is light yellow. The
name lufeinia, which Klein bellows on it, fliews that he
regarded it as a finging bird.
2.8. Certhia Viridis, or green creeper. A blue flripe
runs from the bafe of the bill, and defeends down the neck
on each fide ; a rufous fpoton the throat; the plumage on
the upper parts of the body greenifli ; on the under pale
yeilow, mixed with green; quills brown, the outer edges
green: tail greenilh brown : inhabits Corniola.
2.9. Certhia Pacifica, or great hooked-billed creeper.
Length eight inches; bill an inch and three quarters,
flout at the bale, and very much hooked; the upper parts
of the body are black; lower part of the back, rump,
and upper tail coverts, fine deep yellow; the under parts
of the body dufky : the under wing coverts fiiow white:
the fides of the vent, and the thighs, are yellow : the
tail aird quills black : inhabits the Friendly Ifles in the
South Seas.
30. Certhia Obfdura, or hook-billed green creeper.
Length leven inches ; bill an inch and three quarters long,
and bent quite in the fhape of a femicircle ; the under
mandible lhorted by a quarter of an inch ; the noflrils
covered with a membrane ; between the bill 'and eye is a
ftreak of brown ; the plumage in general is olive green,
palelt beneath, and fomewhat inclined to yellow ; quills
and tail uulky, edged with yellow-green. It inhabits the
Sandwich Illands, and is one of the birds wliofe plumage
the natives ufe in conftrufting their feathered garments ;
which make fome of the molt beautiful d redes of thefe
i Handers.
31. Certhia Veftiaria, or hook-billed red creeper.
Length fix inches ; bill three quarters of an inch, not fo
much hooked as in the lad fpecies ; general colour of the
plumage ficarlet : wings and tail black : on the wing co¬
verts next the body is a white fpot. This beautiful bird
inhabits the Sandwich Illands, and was firft found by the
Englifh in the ifland of Atooi, where they are called keoro-
taire.
32. Certhia Falcata, or fickle-billed creeper. Length
five inches and a half; bill an inch and three quarters,
curved like a fickle : the upper parts of the head, neck,
and body, are green : on the head a glofs of violet : be¬
neath, as far as the bread, violet: tail of the fame colour :
the great coverts and quills are pale brown. This is in
the britifh Mufeum ; but from what country is unknown.
33. Certhia Cinerea, or cinereous creeper. Length
mine inches ; head, neck, upper part of the back, and
bread, brownifh afh-colour : lower part of the back, and
rump, gloffy green : wing coverts the fame : quills brown :
belly pale yellow : down the middle of the bread and
belly a mixture of gloffy green : vent white : tail black ;
the two middle feathers two inches and a quarter longer
than the red. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
34. Certhia Fufca, or brown creeper.- Length fix
inches ; the plumage on the upper part of the body brown ;
fides of the neck the fame, edged with white : throat an(j
bread barred brown and white; belly very pale browr. ^
H I A;
tail at lead two inches and a half long, even at the end,
and of a brown colour: quills brown, with pale edges.
Inhabits the regions about the South Seas.
3 j. Certhia Carunculata, or wattled creeper ; in length
feven inches and three quarters : the bill, divided for half
its length into four fegments, like threads : at the bafe of
the under mandible is a kind of membrane like a finall
wattle, of a yellowi'fh colour, and about one fixth of an
inch in diameter; this is fiurrounded by a patch of yellow
feathers, which extends under the eye : the irides are ci¬
nereous : the plumage brown olive green ; the middle of
the back darkeft : the belly verging to afii-colour : the
chin and throat are of a rulty orange -Colour : the bread
ferruginous. It inhabits Tongataboo, or Amderdam Ifle,
in the South Seas. In. Captain Cook’s lad voyage, after
deferibing the bird, it is obferved, that it was the only
finging one found at Tongataboo ; where the drength of
its melody filled the woods at the dawn of day, in the even-
ing, and at the breaking up of bad weather.
36. Certhia Ocrochiora, or yellow-cheeked creeper;
about half the fize of the common creeper : head, back,
wings, and tail, green : cheek and throat deep yellow :
bread and fides yellowifii green, marked with bluidi
fpots : belly yellow. It inhabits Surinam.
37. Certhia Cyanogadra, or blue-throated creeper.
Size of a wren ; length four inches and a quarter ; the
top and fides cf the head, taking in the eyes, hind part
of the neck, and back, are green: chin, throat, and
bread, deep blue ; belly pale blue ; on each fide of the
neck, between the blue and green, yellowifh white 1
quills and tail black. It inhabits Cayenne.
38. Certhia Aurantia, or orange-breaded creeper ; in
length four inches ; bill curved; the head, throat, hind
part of the neck, back, and wing "coverts, are green :
quills and tail dulky black : the fore part of the neck of
an orange red : the bread and belly pale yellow : legs
dulky. Inhabits Africa.
39. Certhia Sannia, or the mocking creeper. Length
feven inches and a quarter ; fize of the leffer thrufh ; bill
fomewhat bent, flender, long, and dulky ; nodrils large,
and covered with a membrane : tongue fliarp, pencili-
form at the tip : irides hazel : on the cheeks a narrow-
white fpot : the head, efpecially on the crown, inclined
to violet ; the plumage in general is olive green, inclin¬
ing to yellow on the under parts : the quids are brown ;
the lecondaries edged with olive : the colour of the tail
like that of the fecondaries, and forked. It inhabits
both the idands of- New Zealand. It has an agreeable
note ; but at times fo varies and modulates its voice, that
itfieems to imitate the notes of all other birds ; hence it
was called by the Englifh, the mocking-bird.
40. Certhia Sanguinea, or crimfon creeper. Length,
five inches ; bill a little bent ; the body in general crim-
fon, the upper parts deepell : quills black : the feconda¬
ries margined with chelnut : belly dufky : vent white :
the tail black ; all the feathers rather pointed at the end;
the fhafts white. Inhabits the Sandwich Idands.
41. Certhia Peregrina, or olive-green creeper; in
length five inches ; bill very little curved, plumage olive-
green, paled beneath : quills and tail the fame, but more
dulky ; both edged with yellow : inhabits the Sandwich
Illands. This is by fome fuppofed to be the female of the
lad; which is by no means unlikely, as feveral birds, of
which the male is red, the females are green.
42. Certhia Cinnamomea, or cinnamon creeper.
Length five inches; bill very little bent, and black ; the
upper part of the plumage is the colour of cinnamon ;
the under parts white : the tail made like our European
creeper, and of the fame colour as the upper parts of the
body. This is preferved in the Britifh. Mufeum.
43. Certhia V.erticalis, or afli-bellied creeper ; in length
five inches and a half ;. tongue bifid: top of the head
green : the upper parts of the neck, body, and wings,
pale olive-green ; the under very pale adi-colour : quills
and.tail brown, edged with green. Inhabits Africa.
44. Certhia;
C E R
44. Certhia Parlc-tum, or indigo creeper; fize of the
laft ; irides rufous yellow : the top of the head, neck
behind, the back, wings, and tail, are of a pale indigo
blue: over the eye a white hreak, and another of black,
afliug to the hind head : the throat is white : the break,
elly, and vent, rufous. Inhabits India.
45. Certhia Lepida, or yellow-bellied creeper ; fize of
the canary-bird : bill black : irides red : the forehead
deep changeable green : behind the eye is a greenifh
band, patting half-way down the fide of the neck, where
it is rounded at the end ; parallel to and beneath this,
is a fecond, of glofl'y violet, which is continued on to
the wing : the throat is red brown : the leffer wing co¬
verts violet, with a metalline glois ; the others the fame,
inclining to red : the quills brown : the back, rump, and
tail, are changeable violet : break, belly, and thighs,
yellow.
4 6. Certhia Cantillans, or orange-backed creeper; only
three inches in length ; bill and irides black ; the upper
parts of the plumage are blue-grey: throat and fore part
of the neck the fame, but paler : on- the upper part of the
back is a fpot of orange yellow ; the break and belly are
alfo orange yellow : inhabits China.
47. Certhia Erythrocynchos, or tufted creeper ; length
four inches; bill black, incurvated : head, neck, and
back, deep olive ; the feathers edged with dulky : prime
quills brown : belly and tail black : on each fide of the
break a tuft of yellow feathers : legs black : inhabits
Bengal.
48. Certhia Chryfoptera, or yellow-winged creeper ;
fize very fmall 5 head and neck varied with dulky and
gold : tongue long, capable of being darted into flowers,
like that of the humming-bird: wing coverts of a fine
yellow : quills, tail, and legs, black : inhabits Bengal.
49. Certhia Longirokra, or long-billed creeper ; length
five inches; tongue long and millile, as in the lak def-
cribed : crown and hind part of the neck light green:
back, wings, and tail, dulky, edged with olive-green :
fore part of the neck and break white : inhabits Bengal.
50. Certhia Griiea, or barred-tailed creeper ; fize of a
titmoufe : the top of the head, neck, back, and wings,
cinereous grey ; throat, break, and belly, pale rufous;
quills brown ; tail compofed of ten feathers, cuneiform
in fhape ; the two middle ones brown, with a black band
at the end ; the others' grey, with a curved band of
black near the tip : inhabits China.
Other recently-difcovered fpecies are : 51. Certhia
Fulva, or fulvous creeper, from South America. 52. Cer¬
thia Undklata, or waved creeper. 53. Certhia Novae
Hollandise, or New-Holland creeper; it is black, and
kriped below with white. 54. Certhia Incana, or brown-
ilh creeper; from New Caledonia. 55. Certhia Armil-
lata, or bracelet creeper, from Surinam.
CERTIFICAN'DO de p.ecognitione st apulte, in
law, a rvrit commanding the mayor of the kaple to certify
to the lord chancellor a katute kaple taken before him,
where the party himfelf detains it, and refufeth to bring
in the fame. Reg.Orig. 152. There is the like writ to
certify a katute-merchant ; and in divers other cafes.
Ibid. 148, &c.
CERTFFICATE,^ [ certficat , low Lat. he certifies.]
Any tdkimony in writing. — A certificate of poverty is as
good as a proteftion. V Eji range .
CERTIFICATE, in law, a writing made in any
court to give notice to another court of any thing done
therein ; which is ufually by way of tranfcript. Some¬
times it is made by an officer of the fame court, where
matters are referred to him, or a rule of court is obtained
for it; containing the tenor andeffedl of what is done.
The clerks of the crown, affize,nnd peace, are to make
certificates into B. R. of the tenor of indictments, con¬
victions, &c. under certain penalties, by the flat. 34 and
35 Hen. 8. c. 14. 3 W. & M. c. 9. If a quekion of
mere lawarifes in the courfe of a caufe in chancery, (as
whether by the words: of a will, an eftate for life or in
c E R 47
tail is created, or whether a future interek devifed by a
tekator, fhall operate as a remainder, or an executory de-
vife,) it is the practice of that court, to refer it to the opi¬
nion of the judges of the court of king’s-bench, or com¬
mon-pleas, upon a cafe kated for the purpofe ; wherein
all the material faffs are admitted, and the point of law
is fubmitted to their decifion, who thereupon hear it fo-
lemnly argued by counfel on both fides, and certify then-
opinion to the chancellor. And upon fuch certificate^
the decree is ufually founded. 3 Comm. 453.
Trial by CERTIFICATE, is allowed in cafes, where
the evidence of the perfon certifying, is the only proper
criterion of the point in difpute. Thus, the quekion
whether one were abfent with the king in his army out
of the realm, in time of war, might be tried by the cer¬
tificate of the marfhal of the king’s holt under feah
Lilt. 102. If in order to avoid an outlawry, it be al-
ledged the defendant was in prifon, &c. at Bourdeaux or
Calais, this, when thofe places belonged to the crown of’
England, was allowed to be tried by the certificate of the
mayor. 9 Rep. 31. a Ro. Ab. 583. And therefore by
parity of realon, it fliould now hold that in fimilar cafes
arifing at Jamaica, &c. the trial fliould be by certificate
from the governor. 3 Comm. 334.
For matters within the realm ; the cukoms of the city
of London fhall be tried by the certificate of the mayor
and aldermen, certified by the mouth of the recorder,,
upon a furmife from the party alleging it, that it kiould
be fo tried ; elfe it mult be tried by the country, as it
muk alfo if the corporation of London be a party, or in-
tereked in the fuit. 1 Injl . 74. 4 Burr. 248. If the, re¬
corder has once certified a cultom, the court are in future-
bound to take notice of it. Doug. 380. In forne cafes
the Iheriff of London’s certificate fhali be the final trial ;
as if the ilfue be whether the defendant be a citizen of"
London, or a foreigner, in cafe of privilege pleaded to be
fued only in the. city courts. 1 Injl. 74. Of a nature
fomewhat fimilar to which is the trial of the privilege of
either Univerfify, when the chancellor claims cognizance
of the caufe ; in which cafe the charters confirmed by-
parliament, allow the quelliorr to be determined by the
certificate of the chancellor under feal. But in cafe of an.
ilfue between two parties themfelves, the trial fhall be by
jury. 2 Ro. Ab. 583. 3 Comm. 335.
In matters of eccleliakical jurifdiiSfion, as marriage,
general baftardy, excommunication, and orders, thefe and
otheriike matters fh all be tried bythe bifhop’s certificate..
Ability of a clerk prefented, admiffion, inkitution and
deprivation of a clerk, fhall alfo be tried by certificate
from the ordinary or metropolitan. 2 Injl 632. Show
P. C. 88. But inclusion fhall -be tried by a jury ; being
the corporal invekiture-of the temporal profits. Dy. 229.
Refignation of a benefice may be tried either way-, but
feems mok properly to fall within the bifhcp’s cogni¬
zance. 2 Ro. Ab. 583. 3 Comm. 33.6. The trial of all
cukoms and practice of the courts fhall be by certificate
from the proper officer cf thofe courts rel’peftiveiy ; and
what return, was made on a writ by a fheriffor under-
fheriff, {hail be only tried by his own certificate. 9 Rep >
31. The certificate of the commiffioners for hating the
army debts, is cohclufive evidence, if made by them, yfrr
ting as commiffioners. 1 Stra. 481. 56 S. For certificates of
cojls of bankrupts, or relative to the fettlement of the poor,
fee thofe articles. There is alfo another kind of certifi¬
cate, which is required to be taken out annually, as an
authority for wearing hair-powder, killing game, ufing
armorial-bearings, &c . See G ame-la w s, H e R a l d r y , &c.
To CER'TIFY, *v. a. [ certifier , French.}. To give cer¬
tain information of. — This is defigned to certify thofe
things that are confirmed of God’s favour.. Hammond.
— It has of before the thing told,. after the perfon told :
as, I certified you of the faff.
CERTIORATE f. in law, an original writ,iffiiing out
of the court of chancery or king’s-bench, directed in,
the king’s name to the judges or officers of inferior courts,
commanding
4$ CERT I
commanding them to certify, or to return the records of
a caufe depending before them; that the party may have
the more lure and fpeedy juftice before the king, or fucli
juftices as he {hall aflign to determine the caufe. This
writ is either returnable in the king’s-bench, and then
hath thefe words, “ fend to us or in the common bench
and then has “• to our juftices of the bench;” or in the
chancery, and then hath “ in our chancery, & c.” A
writ of certiorari may be had at any time before trial, to
certify and remove indifilments, with all the proceedings
thereon from any inferior court of criminal jurifdiftion,
into the court of king’s-bench, the fovereign ordinary
court of juftice in caufes criminal. And this is frequent¬
ly done for one of four purpofes, i. To confider and
determine the validity of appeals and indiftments, and
the proceedings thereon; and to quafh or confirm them
accordingly. 2. To have the prifoner or defendant tried
at the bar of the courts, or before juftices of Nifi Prius
when it is furmifed that a partial or infufficient trial will
probably be had in the inferior court. 3. To plead the
Icing’s pardon in the court of king's-bench. 4. To iftue
procefs of outlawry againft the offender, in thofe coun¬
ties or places where the procefs of inferior judges will
not reach him. 2 H. P. C. 210., 4 Cotnm. 320.
A certiorari lies in all judicial proceedings, in which a
writ of error does not lie ; and it is a confequence of all
inferior jurifiliftions, erected by a6l of parliament, to
have their proceedings returnable in the king’s- bench.
But without laying a l'pecial ground before the court, it
cannot be fued out to remove proceeding? in an aftion
from the courts of the counties palatine. Doug. 749.
It does not lie to judges of oyer and terminer to remove a
recognizance of appearance. Lucas 278. Nor to remove
apoor’srate. Stra. 932, 975.
A certiorari lies to juftices of the peace and others,
even in fucli cafes, which they are empowered by ftatute
filially to hear and determine and the fuperintendency of
the court of king’s-bench is not taken away without ex-
prefs words. 2 Hawk. P. C. c. 27. That a certiorari
does not lie to remove any other than judicial a£ts, fee
Cald. 309. Where a certiorari is by law grantable for an
indictment, at the fuit of the king, the court is bound to
award it; for it is the king’s prerogative to fue in what
court he pleafes : but it is at the difcretion of the court to
grant or not, in cafe of private profecutions, and at the
prayer of the defendant: and the court will not grant it
for the removal of an indictment before juftices of gaol-
delivery, without fome fpecial caufe; or where there is
fo much difficulty in the cafe, that the judge defires it
may be determined in B. R. & c. Burr. 2456. Alfo on
indictments of perjury, forgery, or for heinous mifde-
meanors, the court will not generally grant a certiorari
to remove at the inftance of the defendant. 2 Hawk. P.
C. c. 27. But in particular cafes, the court wfillufe their
difcretion to grant a certiorari; as if the defendant be of
good character, or if the profecution be malicious or at¬
tended with oppreffive circnmltances.
Where ifliie is joined in the court below, it is a good
objection againft granting a certiorari : and if a perfon
doth not make ufe of this writ till the jury are fworn, he
lofes the benefit of it. Stat. 43 Eliz. c. 5. After con¬
viction, a certiorari may not be had to remove an indict¬
ment, unlefs there be fpecial caufe; as if the judge below
is doubtful what judgment is proper to be given, then it
may. Stra. 1227. Burr. 749. And after conviction, &c.
it lies in fuch cafes where writ of error will not lie. 1
Salk. 149. The court on motion in an extraordinary cafe
will grant a certiorari to remove a judgment given in an
inferior court; but this is done where the ordinary w'ay
of taking out execution is hindered in the inferior court.
1 Lill. Abr 253. In common cafes a certiorari will not
lie to remove a caufe out of an inferior court, after ver-
diCt. It is never fued out after a writ of error, but where
diminution is alleged: and when the thing in demand
does not exceed 5/. a certiorari {hall not be had, but a
O R A R T.
writ of error or attaint. Stat. 21 Jac. 1. cap. 2-3. 12 Geoi.
I. c. 29. A certiorari is to be granted on matter of law
only : and in many cafes there muftbe a judge’s hand for
it. 1 Lill. 232. Certioraris to remove indictments, See.
are to be fignecl by a judge : and to remove orders, the
fiat for making out the writ mult be (igned by fome
judge. 1 Salk. 150. Certiorari lies to the courts of
Wales; and the cinque ports, counties palatine, See.'
2 Hawk. P . C. c. 27.
Things may not be removed from before juftices of
peace, which cannot be proceeded in by the court where
removed ; as in caie of refufing to take the oaths, See.
which is to be certified and enquired into, according to
the ftatute. 1 Salk. 143-. And, where the court which
awards the certiorari cannot hold plea on the record,
there but a tenor of the record Ihall be certified ; for
otherwife if the record was removed into B R. as it can¬
not befent back, there would be a failure of right after¬
wards. 1 Danv. Abr. 792. But a. record fent by certio¬
rari into B. R. may be lent after by mittimus into-C. B*
And a record into B. R. may be certified into chancery,
and from thence be fent by mittimus into an inferior court,
where an aftion of debt is brought into an inferior court,
and the defendant pleads that the plantiffhath recovered
-in B. R. and the plantiff replies Nul iiel record, (Ac. 1
Sautid. 97, 99.
The court of B. R. will grant anew certiorari to affirm
a judgment, See. though generally one perfon can have
but one certiorari. Cro.Jac. 369. A certiorari mav not
be had to a court fuperior, or that has equal jurifdiftion,
in which cafe day is given to bring in the record, cec.
There are feveral ftatutes which reftrain, and many which
abfolutely prohibit, a certiorari; in order to avoid frivo¬
lous and unfounded delays in juftice. By ftat. 11 Car. IT.
no certiorari Ihall be allow-ed in certain cafes of tranfgref-
fion of the excife laws. By ftat. 13 Geo. III. c. 78, no
prefentmertt, Sec. of any highway Ihall be removed from
the feflions, until it be traverfed, except the right to re¬
pair be the queftion. Or. by ftat. 5 and 6 W. and M. c.
I I , may come in queftion. But this means on t he part of
the defendant only, for on the part of the profecution it
lies before. No other proceedings under the highway-act
may be removed by certiorari. But, if the feflions mani-
feftiy exceed their authority in making orders, they may
be removed into the king’s bench by certiorari and quafh-
ed. Leach's Hawk. P. C. ii. c. 27. By ftat. 16 Geo. III.
againft deer-ftealers, no certiorari {hall iftue, unlefs the
party convicted {hall become bound to the profecutor in
iool. to pay full cofts and damages within thirty days, and
to the juftice in 60I. to profecute the certiorari with efteft.
But in appeal to the feflions, he may fue out a certiorari
on fix days’ notice to profecute. And the like in effeft
is enafted by ftats. 4 and 5 W. and M. c. 23, concerning
game. Alfo by ftat. 1. An. c. 11. concerning the repair
of bridges, no certiorari {hall be allowed. Nor by ftat.
8 Geo. II. for punifhingdeftroyers of turnpikes. Nor by
12 Geo. II. for aflefiing county rates. Nor on 19 Geo. II.
againft curling and fwearing. Nor on 23 Geo. II. againft
feducing artificers. Nor on 25 Geo. II. againft bawdy-
houfes. Nor on 29 Geo. II. againft Healing lead, iron.
Sic. Nor on 30 Geo. II. for preferving filh in the Thames.
Nor on 30 Geo. II. for reftraining gaming in public
lioufes. Nor on 31 Geo. II. for regulating bread. Nor on
2 Geo. III. for preventing thefts in bumb-boats. Nor on
10 Geo. III. againft dog-ftealers.
By flat. 1 and 2 P. and M. c. 13, no certiorari Ihall be
granted to remove any recognizance, unlefs figured by
the chief juftice, or in his abfence by one of the other
judges. By ftats. 5 and 6 W. and M. and 8 and 9 W.
3. a certiorari may be granted in vacation time by any of
the judges of B. R. and fecurity is to be found before it
is allow-ed. No certiorari is to be granted out of B. R.
to remove an indiftment, or prefentment, before juftices
of peace at the feflions before trial, unlefs motion be made
in open court, and the party indifted find fecurity by two
perfons
C E R
perfons in 20I. each to plead to the indiSment in B. R.
&c. And, if the defendant profecuting the certiorari
be convi&ed, the court of B. R. (hall order colts to the
prolecutor of the indictment. In cafe of certiorari grant¬
ed in vacation, the name of the judge and party applying
to be indorfed on the writ. If on a certiorari to remove
an indictment the party do not find manucaptors in the
fum of 20I. to plead to the indictment and try it, accord¬
ing to the llatute, it is ho fuperledeas. Mod. Ca. 33.
Certiorari, to remove convictions, orders or proceed¬
ings of j'uftices, to be applied for within iix calendar
months, and upon fix days’ notice tt> the juftices. 13
Geo. II. c. 18. It is faid a certiorari to remove an indiCt -
ment is good, although it bear date before the taking
thereof ; but on a certiorari the very record mull be re¬
turned, and not a tranfcript of it ; for if fo, then the re¬
cord will ftill remain in the inferior court. 2 Lil. 253.
In B. R. the very record itfelf of indictments is removed
by certiorari ; but ufually in chancery, if a certiorari be
returnable there, it removes only the tenor of the record ;
and therefore, if it be fent from thence into the king’s
bench, they cannot proceed either to judgment or execu¬
tion, becaufe they have but fuch tenor of the record be¬
fore them. 2 Hale's Iiiji. P. C. 215. In London a return
of the tenor only is warranted by- the city charters. 2
Hawk. P. C. c. 27. If a certiorari be prayed to remove
an indictment out of London or Middlefex, three days’
notice mull be given the other fide, or the certiorari Ihall
not be granted. Raym. 74.
After a certiorari is allowed by the inferior court, it
makes all the fublequent proceedings, on the record that
is removed by it, erroneous. 2 Hawk. P. C. c. 27. But,
if a certiorari for the removal of an indictment before
juftices of peace be not delivered before the jury befworn
for the trial of it, the juftices may proceed. And the juf¬
tices may let a fine to complete their judgment after a cer¬
tiorari delivered. Ld. Raym. 1515. A certiorari removes
all things done between the telle and return. And, as it
removes the record itfelf out of the inferior court, there¬
fore, if it remove the record againft the principal, the ac-
ceflary cannot be tried there. 2 Hawk. P. C. c. 29. And,
if the defendant be convicted of a capital crime, the per-
fon of the defendant muft be removed by habeas corpus,
in order to be prefent in court, if he will move in arreft
of judgment. And herein the cafe of a conviction differs
from that of a fpecial verdiCt. Burr. 930. Although, on
a habeas corpus to remove a perfon, the court may bail
or difcharge the prifoner; they can give no judgment
upon the record of the indictment againft him, without a
certiorari to remove it, but the fame ftands in force as it
did, and new proeefs may iffue upon it. 2 H. P. C. 211.
If an indictment be one, but the offences feveral, where
four perfons are indicted together; a certiorari to remove
this indictment againft two of them, removes it not as to
the others, but as to them the record remains below.
2 Hale’s HJf. 214- If a caufe be removed from an infe¬
rior court by certiorari, the pledges in the court below
are not difcharged ; becaufe a defendant may bring a cer¬
tiorari, and thereby the plaintiff may lofe his pledges.
Skin. Rep. 244. A certiorari from the king’s bench is a
fuperfedeas to reftitution in a forcibly entry. 1 Hawk.
P. C. c. 64.
The return of a certiorari is to be under feal ; and the
perfon to whom a Gertiorari is directed may make what
return hepleafes, and the court will not flop the filing of
it, on affidavit of its falfity, except where the public good
requires it : the remedy for a falfe return is aCtion on the
cafe, at the fuit of the party injured ; and information,
&e. at the fuit of the king. 2 Hawk. P. C. c. 27.
If the perfon to whom the certiorari is directed, do not
make a return, then an alias, then a pluries, vel caufapt
nobis fignifices quare, fhall be awarded, and finally an at¬
tachment. Cromp. 1 16.
form of a Certiorari. — “ George III. &c. To the
mayor and fheriffs of our city of Lxeter, and to every of
Vol. IV. No. 177.
C £ R 49
them, in our court at the Guildhall there, greeting:
Whereas A. B. hath lately in our faid court in the faid
city, according to the cuftom of the fame court, implea¬
ded C. D. late of, &c. in an aCtion of debt upon demand
of thirty pounds ; and thereupon, in our faid court be¬
fore you, obtained judgment againft the faid C. forthe re¬
covery of the faid debt : and we, being defirous for cer¬
tain reafons, that the laid record fhould by you be certi¬
fied to us, Do command you, that you fend under your
feals the record of the faid recovery, with all things touch¬
ing the fame, into our court before us at Weltminfter, on
the day, &c. plainly and diltinCtly, and in as full and
ample manner as it now remains before you, together
with this writ ; fo that we on the part of the faid A. may
be able to proceed to the execution of the faid judgment,
and do what fhall appear to us of right ought to be done.”
Witnefs, &c.
The return of a certiorari may be thus. Firft, on the
back of the writ indorfe thefe or limilar words, “The
execution of this writ appears in a fchedule to the fame
writ annexed.” Which fchedule muft be on a piece of
parchment, (not paper, 1 Barn. K. B. 113, ) by itfelf, and
fifed to the writ.
C’ER'TITUDE, f. [ eertitudo , Lat.] Certainty ; free¬
dom from doubt 5 infallibility of proof :
They thought at firft they dream’d: for Rwas offence
With them, to queftion certitude of fenfe. Drydenr
CERTO'SA, a celebrated Carthufian monaftery, in
the territory of the Pavefe; in the duchy of Milan, four
miles from Pavia: its park is lurrounded with a wall
twenty miles in circumference, inclofing feveral fmall
towns and villages.
CERVAN'I'ES. See Saavedra.
CERVA'RIA,/: in botany. See Athamanta and
Tr acheljum.
CERVA'RO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Principato Citra: nine miles
eaft-north-eaft of Policaftro.
CERU'CHIS,/. in botany. See SpiLANTHEs.
CEK/VERA, a river of Spain, which runs into the
Segre, a little above Lerida, in Catalonia.
CER'VERA, a town of Spain, and capital of aviguery,
to which it gives name, in the province of Catalonia.
Here is an univerfity, founded in 1717: feven leagues
north-weft of Tarragona.
CER'VER A, a town of Spain, in the province of Ca¬
talonia, fituated on the coaft of the Mediterranean, be¬
tween Rofes and Coilioure.
CER'VERA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile : fix
leagues from Cuenca.
CERVET'TO, father to the celebrated violoncello
performer of that name, and an extraordinary character
in the mufical world, came to England in the hard froft,
and was then an old man. He foon after was engaged to
play the bafs at Drury-lane theatre, and continued in
that employment till the era of Mr. Garrick’s retiring
from the ftage. He died June 14, 1783, in his 103d
year.
CER'VI, a fmall ifland of the Grecian Archipelago,
near the coaft of the Morea, on the eaft fide of the en¬
trance into the Gulf of Kolokitia : fix miles north of
Cerigo.
CER'VIA, a modern built town of Italy, in the pro¬
vince of Romania, near the Adriatic Sea, from whence
canals are cut to admit the fea-water, which is here eva¬
porated, and great quantities of fait made. It is the fee
of a bifhop, fuffragan of Ravenna : fifteen miles fouth-
louth-eaft of Ravenna,and 144 north of Rome.
CERVIA'NA,/. in botany. See Pkarnaceum.
CER'VICAL, adj. [cervicalis, Lat.] Belonging to the
neck. — The aorta, bending a little upwards, fends forth
the cervical and axillary arteries ; the reft, turning down
again, forms the defcending trunk. Cbeyns.
"CERVICA'RIA, f. in botany. See Campanula.
O CERVIE'RES
50
C E R
CERVIE'RES, a town of France, in the department of
t>Jie Rhone and Loire : fix leagues fouth-weft of Roanne.
CERVINA'RA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Principato Ultra : twelve miles
fcuth-weft of Benevento.
CERVIO NE, a town of the ifland of CorfiGa : twenty
miles eaft of Corte.
CERVISPI NA,/. in botany. See Rhamnus.
CER'VON, atown of France, in the department of the
Nyevre, and chief place of a canton* in the di it rift of
Corbigny : three miles- eaft of Covbigny.
CERU'LEAN, or Ceruleous, adj. [caruletis, Lat.]
blue ; fky-coloured. — It afforded a folution with now
and then a light touch of-fky colour, but nothing near fo
high as the ceruleous tinfture of filver. Boyle.
From thee the faphire folid ether takes
Its hue cerulean. Thomfon.
CERULITIC^, adj. Having the power to produce a
blue colour. — The feveral fpecies of rays, as the rubific,
cerulific, and others, are ieparated one from another.
Grew.
CERU'ME.N, f. [tat.] The wax or excrement of the
ear. Its ufe is, to.invifcate and flop ini'efts from enter¬
ing and irritating the membrana tympani. It is fepa-
rated from the glands in that part of the ear where it is
found ; and is fluid when firft difcharged, but foon
thickens by drying. Wax, under fome circumftances, is
found to occafion deafnefs.
CF/RUSE,/. \_ccrujfa, Lat. from x»5«;,wax, or from
razaz, Arab, white-lead, or white paint-] A calx of
lead produced by expofing this metal to the vapours of
vinegar. To prepare this colour, the lead is caft into
plates about one twentieth part of an inch thick, four or
five inches wide, and two feet long. Thefe are rolled
up in a fpiral form, in fuch a manner that the fpace of
half an inch is left between each revolution. They are
then placed in earthen pots which have three projedtions
within, to prevent them from refting on the bottom.
Some good vinegar is then poured in, lo as to reach no
higher than the lower edge of the leaden fpiral, and the
pots are then buried in dung beneath lheds. A great
number of tliefe are difpofed befide each other, each pot
•being covered with a leaden plate and boards, by which
contrivance the number of pots is multiplied by placing
them above each other in ftrata. At the expiration of a
month or fix weeks they are taken out, and the white
lead feparated by unrolling the coils. It is then ground
in mills, and dried in the lhade for ufe. Some writers
diftinguifh this calx by the name of white-lead, and ap¬
ply the termcerufe to denote a mixture of white-lead and
chalk. Lead is found native in the form of cerufe, or
the white calx.
A patent for two new and ingenious methods of mak¬
ing cerufe or white-lead, was granted on the 18th of Au-
guft 1797, to Archibald earl of Dundonald, the procefs
whereof is defcribed as follows : “ Lead is to be brought to .
the ftate of a calx or oxide, the calx is to be mixed with
muriat of potafh or fal digeftivum Sylvii, or with the oxy¬
genated muriat of potafh, or with the folution of either
of thefe falts, in the proportion which fhall be found re-
quifite ; this, for the moll part, may be reckoned at one
part of fait, by weight, to five parts of the calx of lead.
The materials are to be intimately mixed by grinding,
or otherwife, and are to be ftirred at different times, to
expofe frefh furfaces to the aftion of the air ; and are to
be alternately wetted with water, (either impregnated, or
not, with fixable air or carbonic acid,) and dried by ex-
pofure to atmofpheric air, or to any air in which car-
boric acid is contained, until the complete aftion of the
materials, the one on the other, is effefted : in this ftate,
they confift of a cerufe or white-lead or carbonat of
lead, and muriat of potafh. The' muriat of pot-afh
"s, by wafhmg, to be feparated from the cerufe or white-
dead 5 to be concentrated by evaporation j and to be pre-
C E R
ferved, to aft again on more of the calces of lead. Laff-
ly, the white-lead is to be ground, levigated, and dried.
It is proper here to ftate, that muriat of potafn or fait of
Silvius has, in moft Chemical treatifes, been reprefented
to be of little or no ufe in the arts ; and, as it is a fait
which very rarely occurs as a refiduum from chemical
mixtures or combinations, it might the moreeafily efcape
the notice, and experiments of chemical perfons, or of
perfons in fearch of difcoveries connefted with different
branches of manufafture. Muriat of potafh poffefles pro¬
perties different from muriat of foda or fea-falt : and, in
the prefent inftance, produces a change on the calces of
lead, not effefted when muriat of foda only is ufed. The
application of muriat of potafh to the calces of lead, for
the prod uft ion of cerufe or carbonat of lead, is not there¬
fore to be confounded with the attempts of others to pro¬
duce a carbonat of lead, by the mixture of muriat of
foda with the calces of lead. When the muriat of potafh,
or, more properly fpeaking, its folution, is mixed with
the calx of lead, a change takes place ; the vegetable al¬
kali of the muriat of potafh is difengaged in a cauftic
ftate, while the muriatic acid enters into combination
with the calx of lead, and forms muriat of lead. By the
expofure of the materials to atmofpheric air, or to air
containing the carbonic acid, this acid is attrafted by the
cauftic vegetable alkali, and, as it is received, is rranfmit-
ted to the lead, forming therewith a carbonat of lead or
cerufe ; while, in return, the alkali takes back, from the
muriat of lead, the muriatic acid, in a ftate more oxyge-
genated than that in which it exifted in the muriat of pot-
nfh when firft applied. The muriat of pot-afh recovered
is to be applied for making, with the calces of lead, more
cerufe or carbonat of lead. It has been found moft ad¬
vantageous not to ufe the calx of lead very highly calcin¬
ed : in this highly calcined ftate, I generally ufe a fmall
proportion of lead in a metallic ftate along with the calx.
The procefs of mixing lead with the calx or calces of
lead, for making, with muriat of potafh, cerufe or car¬
bonat of lead, is to be included under the patent to which
this fpecification refers. And I do hereby farther declare,
that the other method or procefs for making cerufe or
white-lead, for which the letters patent herein before re¬
cited have been obtained, is as follows : that is to fay, in
this method or procefs, muriat of foda or fea-falt is to be
fubftituted for muriat of potafh, and it, or its folution, is
to be mixed in the fame manner, with the calx or calces
of lead, as in the firft procefs or method herein before
mentioned. To this mixture, after the proper degree of
aftion has taken place, a fufficient quantity of vegetable
alkaline fait is to be added, to give or procure to the lead
the carbonic acid, which is more fpeedily done when the
vegetable alkali is in a ftate of carbonat. The falts are
then to be feparated from the cerufe or carbonat of lead,
by waffling oft’ the two lalts, confifting of foda or mine¬
ral alkali, and muriat of pot-afh ; or the foda may be fe¬
parated before the pot-afh is added to the materials. Laftly,
the cerufe or carbonat of lead is to be levigated, and dried.
The muriat of pot-afh, when feparated, is to be preferv-
ed, and applied to operate on more oft the calx or calces
of lead ; and this comes under the defcription given in
the firft method or procefs herein before mentioned.”
A patent was alfo granted to Mr. John Wilkinfon, of
Caftle-head in Lancashire, on the 18th of June 1799, for
the following method of making white-lead j which he
defcribes thus : “ Inftead of corroding blue lead, by vi¬
negar, in pots, with the heat of dung or bark, accord¬
ing to the prefent method of making it, I take litharge,
and grind it exceeding fine in fea-water, or any other la-
line mixture ; and, by repeated trituration, waffling, and
bleaching, cerufe or white-lead of the belt quality, is ob¬
tained. The cerufe may be procured without the acid
mixture, which is merely ufed to facilitate the procefs :
levigation, repeated wafhings, and drying, being fuffi¬
cient, upon allowing more time for the operation, by the
medium of the common air.
CE'RUSE
C E R
CE'RUSE of ANTIMONY. A white calx of this
femi-metal, which feparates from the water in which
diaphoretic antimony has been wafhed.
CER'VUS,/. [>tE5ao?, from xsf« c, a horn, becaufe of the
exuberance of its horns.] The Deer ; a genus of qua7
drupeds belonging to the order of ppcora. The generic
character are as follow : Horns folid, and moftly branch¬
ing; which fall off, and are renewed every year. The
lower jaw has eight fore-teeth ;• in general this genus
wants tufks, but fometimes one tufk is found on each
fide in the upper jaw. The animals of this genus are all
fond of living in woods ; they fight with their horns, and
ftrike with their fore feet ; they are faid to have no gall
bladder ; their flefli is univerfally wholefome, and that of
fome kinds, under the name of venifon, is efteemed a
great delicacy; fome fpecies are ufed by mankind for
draught. Mr. Pennant has fubdivided the genus into
fitch as have the horns palmated, that is, fpread out into
broad flat boards, having procefles or projections, named
fnags, fancifully fuppofed to referable fingers, and the
broad part to have fome likenef3 to the palms of the
hands ; hence the name '; and fucli as have rounded horns,
likewife branched. It may be nectffary to explain a few
terms ufed in defcribing the horns of this genus : the
beam is that part of the horn which riles from the fore¬
head, like the item of a tree; the palms are broad flatex-
panfions of the horns in fome fpecies, which are befet
round with procefles like Angers, called fnags ; the bran¬
ches are fubdivifions of the horns, like tliofe of trees;
the brow antlers are particular procefles in fome fpecies,
which arife from the beams near the head, and project
forwards. The horns grow from the points, and, when
growing, are covered with a (kin which is extremely vaf-
cular, and clothed with a fine velvet fur ; from which
circumitance the growing horns are named velvets; this
fkin dries, fhrivels, and falls ofF, when the horns have at¬
tained their full fize.
i . Cervus Camelopardalus, or giraffe ; a very Angular
animal, having Ample perfiftent horns, covered with fkin,
blunt and abrupt at the ends, and terminated with a tuft
of black hair. In the lower jaw are eight broad, thin,
fore-teeth ; the outermofl, in each fide, being deeply di¬
vided into two lobes. It inhabits Senniar, Ethiopia, and
the interior parts of Africa ; though rarely in Abyffinia,
and is never found in Guinea; it extends fouthwards to
the country of the Hottentots behind the Cape of Good
Hope. It feeds chiefly on the leaves and tender fhoots of
trees, but likewife grazes occafionally, at which time it is
obliged to fpread its fore feet very wide. It is gentle, ti¬
mid, and fhy ; runs very aukwardly, and is eafily taken,
but is very lcarce and rarely met with ; when about to lie
down, it kneels like the camel ; when Handing ere£l and
holding up its head, it meafures feventeen feet from the
crown of the head to the ground, eighteen feet from the
pc’ it of the nofe to the end of the tail ; it is only nine
feet high at the rump, the neck is feven feet long, and
the diftance from the withers to the rump is fix feet.
This is a very handfome animal, of a mixed reddifh and
white colour, marked with numerous large dufky fpots ;
the head fomewhat refembles that of a horfe, having
middle-fized, ereft, pointed, ears, and fhort ere£l horns
about fix inches long, which are covered with a hairy
fkin ; thefe are blunt, as if cut off at the ends ; the
neck is long, thin, and ere&, and is provided on the ridge
w ith a fhort ereft mane, which extends quite down to
the back ; the tail is long and round, reaching to the fe-
cond joint of the hind legs, and is tufted with long, flow¬
ing, coarfe hairs at the end. It is a vulgar error that the.
fore legs are longer than thofe behind, for the great dif-
proportion between the height of the fore and hind parts,
depends on the great depth of the fhoulders, and the
length of the neck.
M. le Vaillant, in his travels through the fouthern
parts of Africa, gives the following account of this cu¬
rious animal s “ The giraffe has an undoubted pre-emi-
C E R 52
nence over all other quadrupeds in refpefl to its height,
reckoning from the point of the hoof to the tip of its
horns : I ufe this expreffion to make mytelf uaderftood ;
for, ftriftly fpeaking, the animal has no horns ; but what
are ufiially fo termed, is Amply a projection, or a conti¬
nuation of two portions of the cranium, arifing perpen¬
dicularly and parallel to each other between the ears, and
about eight or nine inches in height. This, projection
terminates with a convex furface, edged with a tuft or
ftraight briftly hairs. The female has four teats, and is
fmaller than the male. We are not to eftimate this ani¬
mal’s ftrength in proportion to its fize. It feems to confift
of little more than neck and legs ; the contrail] alfo, be¬
tween the anterior and pofterior parts, is equally remark¬
able. About the fhoulders it is thick, deep, and ftrong;
but the form of its pofteriors is lb thin and meagre, that
they do not appear to be made for each other. The fi¬
gure of this animal given in fevera! authors is inaccurate j
they reprefent the horns terminating in a point, and ex¬
tend the hair from the fhoulders to the origin of the tail,
which are both contrary to faCf.”
The giraffe was known to the Romans in the early pe¬
riod of their hiftory ; it appears among the figures in the
aflemblage of cajlern animals on the celebrated Prsenef-
tine pavement, made by the direCIion of Sylla, and is re-
prefented both grazing and browzing, in its natural atti¬
tudes. It was exhibited at Rome by Caefar, among other
animals in the Circsean games; and is finely and juftly
deferibed by Oppian.
2. Cervus Alces, the elk; an inhabitant of Europe, A-
merica,and Afiaas far as Japan. This animal is chiefly found
in the. northern parts of both continents, and frequents
poplar woods and other forefts, browzing on the twigs
and branches of trees ; the likewife often feed on marfhy
plants, and are faid to be very fond of the anagyris fee-
tida, or. flanking bean-trefoil. The elk is larger than a
horfe, meafuring from fifteen to feventeen hands high ;
the head is coarfe and large, with very long, upright,
flouching, ears ; a very broad, fquare, upper lip, deeply
furrowed, and hanging much over the mouth; a very
broad, nofe, with large noftrils ; the horns have no brow
antlers, the palms are very broad, plain on the infide,
and having many fharp fnags on the out fide ; the neck is
fhort and flouching, with a fhort upright mane, and a
hairy wattle on the throat; the fhoulder is very high; the
tail extremely fhort ; the hoofs are much divided, and
the fpurious hoofs large and loofe : the general colour
is a hoary black, but greyefl about the face. It is a mild
animal, except in the feafon of love, when wounded, or
when teazed with the gad-fly. Its pace is very ungrace¬
ful, confiding of a high fhambling trot, during which
their fpurious hoofs make a loud rattling noife ; but they
go with great fwiftnefs, and were formerly ufed in Swe¬
den to draw fledges, with which they have been known to
travel more than fifty miles a day. The hide is faid to
be fo thick as to turn amufket-ball, and makes excellent
buff leather. The flefli is very light and nourifliing ; the
nofe is efteemed a great delicacy ; and the tongues, when
falted, are much admired. Mr. Pennant mentions a
fpecies of elk, the horns of which are frequently dug up
from peat-bogs in Ireland, but the living animal is un¬
known, having long been extirpated from that country ;
the horns are vaftly larger than tliofe of the elk, befides
being very differently formed, and meafure fometimes
eight feet long each, and fourteen feet between their tips.
3 . Cervus Tarandus, the rein deer ; has long, round¬
ed, flender, horns, which bend forwards, and are palmat¬
ed at the ends. There are feveral varieties ; as the com¬
mon rein deer; the Greenland rein deer ; the Canadian
rein deer, &c, It chiefly inhabits the moll northern moun¬
tains of Europe, Afia, and America, as far as Spitfbergen,
Greenland, and Kamtfchatka ; it is found likewife in the
more fouthern parts of Ruffia, and even in Sardinia, tho’
fmaller; the horns have likewife been found in marie pits
in Scotland, In Lapland the wild rein deer inhabit the
hlgheft
52 C E R
higheft mountains during fummer, and defcend into the
defert plains in winter, from which they are again driven
to the mountains in the fummer to efcape from the perfe¬
ction of various infefts. They feed much on a fpecies
of liver-wort called from them lichen rangifjprinus, efpe-
cially in winter, when they have to dig it out with their
feet from below the fnow, under which it lies buried.
The male cads his horns immediately after the rutting fea-
fon, about the end of November ; and the female, which
has horns like the male, though not fo large, preferves
hers till the middle of May, when lhe drops her fawns.
She goes thirty-three weeks with young, and frequently
has twins. In a domedicated date, the rein deer rarely
exceeds dxteen years of age. When cadrated, the male
feldom lofes his horns till nine years old. In a domeftic
itate they are about three feet high, but the wild animals
grow larger, fometimes four and a half feet at the Ihoulder.
The horns of the rein deer, though long, are rather flen-
der; the beams are very long, bend fird a little backward,
are then gradually curved, and the palms at the ends
dand forwards ; the brow antlers rile from the main
beams clofe to the head, have fhort beams, broad palms,
and numerous fnags; and generally over thefe a branch
riles from each main beam, which projedls forwards, and
is fomewhai pal mated at the end, with feveral fnags. The
upper parts of the body are of a brown afli colour, grow¬
ing gradually lighter with age, till it becomes white at
lad; the fpace round the mouth, the whole under parts
of the body, and the tail, are white ; the orbits are fur-
rounded with black; the fur is very thickly let, and on
the fore part of the neck it is long and pendent; the tail
is very Ihort ; the hoofs are large and concave ; the male
prepuce is much pendent ; the female has lix teats, the
two poderiorof which are impervious. To the Laplan¬
ders it is a fubditute for the horfe, the cow, the goat, and
the Iheep ; and is their only wealth. The milk of the
rein aft'ords themcheele ; the flelh, food ; the Ikin, cloth¬
ing ; the tendons, bow-fixings ; and, when fplit, thread ;
the horns, glue ; the bones, fpoons. During the winter
it fupplies the want of a horfe, and draws their (ledges
with amazing fwiftnefs over the frozen lakes and rivers ;
or over the fnow, which at that feafon covers the whole
country. In running it makes a great clatter with the col-
lifion of the fpurious hoofs, which are large and loofe.
It does not gallop in the manner reprefented by Mr. Rid-
inger, in the 35th plate of his Wilden Thiere ; but has a
rapid running pace. A rich Laplander is poflefled of a
herd of 1000 reins. In autumn they feek the higlied
hills, to avoid the Lapland gadfly, which at that feafon
depolits its eggs in their fkin ; and is the ped of thefe
animals, for numbers' die that are thus vifited. The mo¬
ment a lingle fly appears, the whole herd inftantly per¬
ceives it : they fling up their heads, tofs about their
horns, and at once attempt to fly for fhelter amidfl the
lnows on the loftied Alps.
4. Cervus Dama, the fallow deer ; with the horns
compreffed, branched, and bending forwards; having
their extremities palmated. It inhabits Europe, and Afia
as far as the northern parts of Perfia and China, Greece,
and Palelline, being the Jachmurof the Scriptures. This
fpecies is not fo plentiful or univerfal as the ftag; few are
now found wild in Britain; but numbers are kept in
parks, of which it forms the common flock. The colour
varies, being fometimes reddifh, fometimes deep brown,
frequently fpotted with white or grey, and rarely altoge¬
ther white. It is gregarious, feeding always in flocks; is
very eafily confined to parks, and very readily made tame ;
?t feldom lives above twenty years. The doe, or female,
has no horns, goes eight months with young, and brings
only one fawn in general, feldom two, and hardly ever
three, at a birth. Though they leap remarkably well,
yet they may either be kept in an inclofure, or fenced out
by means of a cord fixed horizontally two or three feet
above the ground.
5. Cervus Elaphus, the flag; diflinguilhed by long,
V u s.
rounded, upright, branched, horns. Of this there are fe¬
veral varieties ; as the maned or German dag, with along
fliaggy mane on the lower part of the neck; the Corfican
dag, with draight antlers ; the Canadian dag, with very
large horns; the Chinefe dag, &c. Thefe feveral varie¬
ties inhabit Europe, Barbary, the north of Afia as far as
Japan, and North America. The colour is generally a
reddilh brown, with fome black about the face, and a
black lid down the hind part of the neck and between the
Ihoulders. In fpring, they died their horns, which fall
ofl’ fpontaneoufly, or by rubbing them againdthe branch¬
es of trees. It is feldom that both horns fall ofl’ at the
fame time, the one generally preceding the other a day
or two. The old flags cad their horns fird, which hap¬
pens about the end of February or beginning of March.
An 2ged dag, or one in his feventh year^or upwards,
does not cad his horns before the middle of March; adag
oi fix years lheds his horns in April ; young flags, or thofe
from three to five years old, died their horns in the be¬
ginning, and thofe which are in their fecond year not
till the middle or end, of May. But in all this there is
much variety ; for old flags fometimes cad their horns
foonerthan thofe which are younger. Befides, the (bed¬
ding of the horns is advanced by a mild, and retarded by
a fevere and long, winter. When the dags have cad their
horns, they feparate from each other, the young ones on¬
ly keeping together- They no longer haunt the deep re¬
cedes of the fored, but advance into the cultivated coun¬
try, and remain among brudiwood during the fummer,
till their horns are renewed. In this feafon, they walk
with their heads low, to prevent their new horns from,
rubbing againd the branches; for they continue to have
fgnfibility till they acquire their full growth. The horns
of the oldefl dags are not half completed in the middle of
May, and acquire not their full length and hardnefs be¬
fore the end of July. Thofe of the younger flags are
proportionally later both in flredding and being renewed.
Soon after they have recovered their horns, they begin to
feel the imprellions of love. Towards the end of AuguA
or beginning of September, they leave the coppice, return
to the forefls, and fearch for the hinds. They cry with a
loud voice; their neck and throat fwell; they become
perferily redlels, and traverfe in open day the fields and
the fallow grounds; they flrike their horns againd trees
and hedges; in a word, they feem to be tranfported with
fury, and run from one fored to another, till they find
the female, whom they purfue and compeLinto compli¬
ance; for the female at fird avoids and flies from the male,
and never fubmits till lhe be fatigued with the purfuit.
The did hinds likewife come in feafon before the younger
ones. When two dags approach the fame hind, they
ufually fight before they enjoy. If nearlyequal in drength,
they threaten, paw the ground, fet up terrible cries, and
attack each other with fuch fury, that they often inflict
mortal wounds with the flrokes of their horns. The
combat never terminates but in the defeat or flight of one
of the rivals. The conqueror lofes not a moment in en¬
joying his viftory, unlefs another rival approaches, whom
he is again obliged to attach and repel. The .oldefl dags
are always maflers of the field; becaufe they are dronger
and more furious than the young ones, who wait pa¬
tiently till their fuperiors tire, and quit their miflrefles.
Sometimes, however, the young dags accomplilh their
defires while the old ones are fighting, and, after a hafly
gratification, fly ofl’. The hinds prefer the old dags, not
becaufe they are mod courageous, but becaufe they are
mod ardent. They are likewife more incondant, having
often feveral females at a time; and, when a flag has but
one hind, his attachment to her does not continue above
a few days : he then leaves her, goes in quefl of another,
with whom he remains a dill lhorter time; and in this
manner he pafles from one to another till he is perfectly
exhauded. This paroxyfm of love lalts only three weeks,
during which the dags take very little food, and neither
deep nor reft. Night and day they are either walking,
running.
C E R
Winning, fighting, or enjoying the hinds. Hence, at
'the end of the feafon, they are lb meagre and exhaufted,
that they recover not their ftrength for a confiderable
time. They generally retire to the borders of the forefts,
feed upon the cultivated fields, where they find plenty of
iiourimirient, and remain till their ftrength is re -eftabli fin¬
ed. The rutting feafon of old flags, commences about
the beginning, and ends about the 20th, of September.
In thofe of fix or feven years old, it begins about the
1 oth of September, and concludes in the beginning of Oc¬
tober. In young flags, or thofie in their third, fourth,
or fifth year, it begins about the 20th ofSeptember, and
terminates about the 15th of Oftober ; and, at the end of
•Odtober, the rutting is all over, excepting among the
prickets, or thofe which have entered into their fecond
year; becaufe they, like the young hinds, are lateft of
coming into feafon. Hence, at the beginning of No¬
vember, the feafon oflove is entirely at an end; and the
flags, during this period of weaknefs and laffitude, are
eafily hunted down. The hinds go with young eight
months and fome days, and feldom bring more than one
fawn at a time. They bring forth in May or the begin¬
ning of June, and fo anxicufly conceal their fawns, that
they often expofe themfielves to be chafed, with a view to
■draw off an enemy, and afterwards return to take care of
their young, which they likewise hide from the flag, who
would deftroy it. All hinds are not fertile; for lome of
them never conceive. Thefe barren hinds are grofler
; and fatter than thofe which are prolific, and alfo come
lboneft in feafon. The young are not called fawns or
calves after the fixth month: the knobs of their horns
then begin to appear, and they take the name of knob-
bers till their horns lengthen into fpears, and then they
are called brocks or Haggards. During the firll feafon they
never leave their mothers. In winter, the Hags and hinds,
of all ages, keep together in flocks-, which are more nume¬
rous in proportion to the rigour of the feafon. They fepa-
rateinlpring: the hinds retire to bring forth; and, during
this period, the flocks confifit only of knobbers and young
flags. In general, the flags are inclined to aflbeiate, ‘and
nothing but fear or neceflity obliges them to difperfe.
The life of the flag is fpent in alternate plenty and
want, vigour and debility, health and ficknefs, without
having any change introduced into his conftitution by
thefe oppofite extremes. He lives as long as other animals
which are notfubjefiled tofuch viciflitudes. As he grows
five or fix years, he lives feven times that number, or
from thirty-five to forty years. What has been reported
concerning the extraordinary longevity of the flag, me¬
rits no credit. -It is only a popular prejudice which pre¬
vailed in the days of Ariftotle, and which that philofo-
pher confidered as improbable, becaufe neither the time
-of geftation, nor of the growth of the young flag, indi¬
cated fuch long life. This authority ought to have abo-
lilhed the prejudice; but it has been renewed, in the ages
of ignorance, by a fabulous account of a flag taken by
Charles VI. of France, in the foreft of Senlis, with a
collar, upon which was written this infeription, Cafar
hoesne donavit . The love of the marvellous inclined men
to believe that this animal had lived a thou (arid years,
and had his collar from a Roman emperor, rather than to
fuppofe that he came from Germany, where all the em¬
perors took the name of Caefar. The flag has a fine-eye,
an acute finell, and an excellent ear. When liftening,
.he raifes his head, erefts his ears, and hears from a great
difiance. When he is going into a coppice, or ether
half covered place, he flops to look round him on all
fides, and fcents the wind, to dificover if any objefl is
near that might difiufb him. He is a Ample, and yet a
curious and crafty, animal. When biffed or called to
from a dif'tance, he flops Ihcrt, and Looks ftedfaifly', and
with a kind of admiration, at carriages, cattle, or men ;
and, if they have neither arms nor dogs, he moves on un¬
concernedly, and without fear. He appears to iiften,
with great tranquillity and delight, to the Ihepherd’s
- Vox. IV. No. 177.
V U S. 53
pipe ; and the hunters fbmetimes employ this artifice to
encourage and deceive him. In general, he is lei's, afraid
of men than of dogs, and is never fufpicious, or ufes
any arts of concealment, but in proportion to the diltur-
bances he has met with. He eats flow, and has a choice
in his aliment; and, after his ftomach is full, he lies
down, and ruminates at leifure. He feeras to ruminate
with lefs facility than the ex. It is only by violent lliakes
that the flag can make the food rife from his firlt ftomach.
This difficulty proceeds from the length and direction of
the paflage through which the aliment has to go. The
neck of the ox is Ihcrt and ftraight, but that of the flag
is long and arched ; and therefore greater efforts are ne-
cellary to raifie the food. Thefe efforts are made by a.
kind of hiccup, the movement of which is apparent,
and continues during the time of rumination. His voice
is ftrpnger, and more quivering, in proportion as he ad¬
vances in years. The voice of the hind is fhorter and
more feeble. She never bellows from love but from fear.
The flag, during the rutting feafon, bellows in a fright¬
ful manner: he- is then fo tranfported, that nothing dif-
tufbs or terrifies him. He is therefore eafily furprifed;
as he is loaded with fat, he cannot keep long before
his purfuers. But he is dangerous when at bay, and at¬
tacks the hounds with a fpecies of fury. He drinks none
in winter nor in fpring, the dews and tender herbage be¬
ing then fufficient to extinguish his third; but, during
the parching heats of fumrner, to obtain drink, he fre¬
quents the brooks, the marlhes, and the fountains; and
in the feafon oflove, he is fo over heated, that he fearch-
es every where for water, not- only to fatisfy his immode¬
rate thirft, but to bathe and refrefh his body. He then
fwims eafier than at any other time, on account of his fat-
nefs. He. has been obferved crofting very large rivers.
It has even been aliedged, that, attracted by the odour
of the hinds, the flags, in the rutting feafon, throw
themfelves into the fea, and pals from one ifland to ano¬
ther, at the diftance of feveral leagues. They leap Hill
more nimbly than they fwira; for, when purfued, they
eafily clear a hedge or a pale fence of fix or feven feet high .
Their food varies in different feafons. In autumn they
fearch for the buds of green finrubs, the flowers of broom
or heath, the leaves of brambles, & c. During the fnows
of winter, they feed upon the bark, mofs, and excref-
cences of trees ; and, in mild weather, they browfe in the
wheat fields. In the beginning of fpring, they go in
quell of the catkins of the trembling poplar, willow, and
hazel-trees, the flowers and buds of the cornel tree, & c.
In fumrner, when they have great choice, they prefer
rye to all other grain, and the black berry-bearing alder
to all other Ihrubs. The flcfii of the fawn is very deli -•
cate.; that of the hind and.knobber very good; but that
oi the flag has a Itrong tafte. The Ikin and the horns are
ufeful parts of this animal. The Ikin makes a pliable and
very handfome and durable leather. The horns are ufed.
by cutlers, for knife handles, &c. and by chemifis, for
dillilling the volatile alkali, called ipirits of hartfhorn.
In America, flags feed eagerly on the broad-leaved
kalmia; -yet that plant is a poifon to all other horned
animals; their inteftines are found filled with it duiing
winter. The' American flags grow very fat: their tallow
is much efteemed for making candles. The Indians hunt
and Ihoot them. As they are very Ihy .animals, the na¬
tives cover themfelves with a hide, leaving the horns
ereft ; under Ihelter of which they walk within reach of
the herd. De Brie, in his hiftory of Florida, gives a
very curious reprelentation of this artful method or chafe,
when it was vifited by the French in 1564. Their lkins
are an article of commerce imported by the Hudfijn’s-
Bay Company ; but they are procured far inland by the
Indians, who bring them from the neighbourhood of the
lakes. In Britain the flag is become dels common than
formerly; its excefllye vicioufnefs during the rutting lea-
ion, has induced molt people to part with the lpecies;
Stags are Hill found wild in the Highlands of Scotland,
P in
V
54- C E R
in herds of 4 or 500 together, ranging over the vaft hills
of the north. Formerly the great Highland chieftains
ufed to hunt with the magnificence of an eaifern mo¬
narch, affembling 4 or 5000 of their elan, who drove the
deer into the toils or to the Rations the lairds had placed
themfelves in: but, as this pretence was frequently uled
to colleft their vafl'als for rebellious purpofes, an aft was
palled prohibiting any aflemblies of this nature. Stags
arelikewife met with in Ireland on the mountains of Ker¬
ry, where they add greatly to the magnificence of the
romantic fcenery round the lake of Killarney. The Rags
of Ireland during its uncultivated Rate, and while it re¬
mained an almoR boundlefs traft of foreR, had an exaft:
agreement in habit with thofe that range at prefent
through the wilds of America. They were lefs in body,
but very fat; and their horns of a fize far fuperior to
thofe of Europe, but in form agreed in all points. The
Siberian Rags grow to a monftrous fize ; but in RulTia
they are extirpated. Their attachment to muiic has been
noticed by our poet Waller, and by other writers. Play-
lord, in his introduftion to nuific, has the following cu¬
rious remark: “ Myfelt,” fays he, “ as I travelled near
Roy Ron, met a herd of Rags, about twenty, on the road,
following a bagpipe and violin ; which, while the muiic
played, they went forward, but when it ceafed, they
Rood Hill ; and in this manner they were brought out of
Yorkfhire to Hampton-court.” For the Ciiace of the
Rag, fee the article Hunting.
6. Cervus Virginianus, the Virginian deer ; has Render
horns, bending much forwards, very Rightly palmated
at the extrejnities, with numerous branches on the inte¬
rior edges, -and having no brow antlers. It inhabits Ca¬
rolina and Virginia ; and has a coniiderable refernblance to
the fallow deer, but is higher at the flioulders, and has a
longer tail and longer legs ; the colour likewife is lighter,
being an afli-coloured or cinereous browm. It is gregari¬
ous, very reRlefs, aftive, and eafily domeRicated ; and in
winter live much on the mofs, or lichens, which grow on
the trunks of trees. The.fleRn is dry, but ufeful to the
Indians, who dry it for their winter provifion. The fkins
area great article of commerce, and make excellent pliable
leather for gloves, &c. They are trained by -the American
Indians to decoy the wild deer, which they eafily bring
within mulket-Riot.
7. Cervus Axis, or deer, having ereft rounded horns,
with three fnags or branches pointing upwards, and.no
brow antlers. Of this there are feveral varieties, viz. —
The fpotted axis, beautifully fpotted w'ith white : the
horns are Render, and the firR branch is near the bafe.
This inhabits the banks of the Ganges and the ifland of
Ceylon ; it is about the fize of a fallow deer ; of a light
red colour, beautifully marked with white fpots, and
having a white line along the lower part of the iides near
the belly : the tail is longifh, of a red colour above
and white beneath. This animal is very eafily tamed,
and bears the climate of Europe, having bred at the
Hague. — The middle axis, of an uniform light red co¬
lour: the horns rough, Rrong, and three-forked. Inha¬
bits the dry hilly forefis of Ceylon, Borneo, Celebes, and
Java. Is about the fize of a Rag, being larger than the
fpotted axis ; goes together in herds of feveral hundreds ;
and becomes very fat. The flefli is cut into fmall pieces,
faltecl, and dried in the fun, for provifion. — The white
axis ; refembles the former in every thing, except being
entirely white. It inhabits with the former, and is
efieemed a great rarity. — The larger axis ; of a reddifii
brown colour, with very thick, large, Rrong", and rug¬
ged, three-forked horns. It inhabits the marlhes of Bor¬
neo and Ceylon, and is as large as a horfe ; with whitifh
horns. The-animals of this variety are called Elanden,
or elks, by the Dutch, and Mejangan Banjee, or water
fiqgs, by the Javanefe and Malay's. Some of thefe are
found among oxen, buffaloes, goats, hogs, &c. in Min¬
danao, Gilolo, Mandioly, Batchian, and the Papuas
iflands. The axis has the fenfe of finelling in a very
u s.
nice degree, infomuch that, when tame, they will not
eat bread which has been breathed on ; they agree in
this circumftance with feveral other animals of the fame
genus, and of the antelope and goat kinds.
8. Cervus Porcinus, the porcine deer; with flender
three-forked horns; the upper parts of the body are
brown, and the under parts afh coloured. It inhabits
India and Borneo. The body is thick and clumfy, from
which it had its name of hog deer ; but the legs are fine
and flender ; the body and head meafure three feet and a
half long, is two feet two inches high at the fiioulder,
and two inches higher at the rump ; the tail is eight in¬
ches long. It is caught in pit-falls, covered with fome
Right materials. There is another variety, called the
hog Rag, or fpotted porcine deer; has Rightly three¬
forked horns, the firR fnag being very near the head ; the
body is of a yellowifh colour marked with white fpots.
It is faid to have been brought from the Cape of Good
Hope. This feems much tjie fame with the porcine deer,
deferibed above, except the colour, and the fpots : the
fize is very much the fame ; the noflrils are black, with
a blackifh band at the corners of the mouth ; the colour
of the head is mixed with grey, the fore-head and fides
of the eyes being brow ; the ears are very large, gar-
nifhed within with white hairs, and on the outfide' co¬
vered with fmooth brown hair, mixed with yellow ; the
top of the back is brownifh ; the tail is yellow above,
and white below ; and the legs are of a dark, or blackifh,
brown colour.
9. Cervus Muntjac, or rib-faced deer ; has three lon¬
gitudinal ribs extending from the horns to the eyes ; aud
a tufk hanging out from each fide of the upper jaw. It
inhabits Java and Ceylon. This fpecies is fomewhat lefs
than the roe, and refembles the porcine deer in fhape.
The horns are placed on a boney procefs, which riles
three inches above the fkull, and is covered with hair ;
they are three-forked, the uppermoR fnag or branch be¬
ing hooked. In the Malay language it is called kidang,
and munt-jakby the Javanefe. It is very common, going
about only in fingle families, and is much elteemed for
its flefli.
10. Cervus Capreolus, the roe; has Rrong, fliort, rugged,
upright, rounded horns, which are two-forked at the
ends ; the body is of a reddifii brown colour ; in fize
about four feet long; two feet three inches high before,
and two feet feven inches high behind : weigh from fifty to
fixty pounds. Kis figure is elegant and handfome ; his
eyes are brilliant, and more animated than thofe of the
Rag. His limbs are more nimble his movements quicker,
and he bounds, feemingly without effort, with equal vi¬
gour and agility. His hair is always clean, fmooth, and
glofly. He never wallows in the mire like the Rag, but
delights in dry and elevated fituations, where the air is
pureR. He conceals himfelf with great addrefs, is moll-
difficult to trace, and derives fuperior refources from in-
Rinft : for though- he has the misfortune to leave behind
him a flronger feent than the Rag, which redoubles the
ardour and appetite of the hounds, he knows how to
withdraw himfelf from their purfuit, by the rapidity
with which he begins his flight, and by, his numerous"
doublings. He delays not his arts of defence till his
flrength fails him ; but, as fo.on as he finds that the firR
efforts of a rapid chafe have been unfuccefsful, he repeat¬
edly returns on his former fteps : and after confounding,
by thefe oppofite movements, the direftion he has taken,
after intermixing the prefent with the part feent, he rifes
from the earth by a great bound, and, retiring to a fide*
he lies down fiat on his belly ; and, in this immoveable
fituation, he allows the whole troop of his deceived
enemies to pafs by him. The roe differs from the Rag
and fallow-deer in difpofition, temperament, manners,
and almoR every natural habit. Inflead of affociating
in herds, they live in feparate families. The father, mo¬
ther, and young, go together, and never mix with
flrangers. They are conflant in their amours, and
never
C E S
C E R
never unfaithful like the flag. As the females generally
produce two fawns, the one male and the other female,
thefe young animals, brought up and nourillied together,
acquire fo Itrong an aft'e&ion, that they never quit each
other, unlefs one of them meets with a misfortune. This
attachment is more than love ; for, though always toge¬
ther, they fec-1 the ardour of that paffion but once a-year,
■ and it continues only fifteen days, commencing at the
end of October, and ending by the fifteenth day of No¬
vember. They are not then, like the flag, overloaded
with fat: they have no ftrong odour, no fury, in
a word, nothing that can change the ftate of their bo¬
dies. During this period, they indeed fuft'er not their
fawns to remain with them. The father drives them ofF,
as if he meant to oblige them to yield their place to thofe
which are to fucceed, and to form new families. for them-
felves. However, after the rutting feafon is pad, the
fawns return to their mother, and remain with her fome
time ; after which they feparate for ever, and remove to
a di dance from the place which gave them birth. The
female goes with young twenty-two weeks, and brings
forth about the end of April or beginning of May. She
produces two at a time, which, lhe alfo is obliged to con¬
ceal from the buck while very young. In ten or twelve
days they acquire drength fufficient to enable them to
follow her. When threatened with danger, die hides
them in a clofe thicket, and, to preferve them, prefents
herfelf to every danger. Roe-bucks were formerly very
common in Wales, and in the north of England, and in
Scotland ; but at prefent the fpecies no where exifts in
Great Britain except in the Scottilh highlands. In France
they are more frequent ; they are alfo found in Italy,
Sweden, and Norway ; and in Alia they are met with in
Siberia. The fird that are met with in Scotland are in
the woods on thelouth fide of Loch-Rannoch, in Perth-
Ihire; the lad in thofe of Longwal, on the fouthern bor¬
ders of Caithnefs ; but they are mod numerous in the
beautiful foreds of Invercaukl, in the midd of the Gram¬
pian hills. They are unknown in Ireland. Wild roes,
during fummer, feed on grafs ; and are very fond of the
rubus faxatilis, called in the Highlands the roe-buck ber¬
ry ; but in the winter, when the ground is covered with
fnow, they browfe on the tender branches of the fir and
birch. Charlevoix mentions roes in North America;
but, as the other writers, Lawfon, Catefby, Kalm, and Du
Pratz, on the natural hidory of that country, do not
fpeak of them, he is probably midaken. There is a vari¬
ety of this fpecies called the white roe, exactly like the
common roe, only that it is pure white, with black hoofs
and nole. This animal, which is mentioned only by Buf-
fon, is probably an accidental variety rarely to be feen.
ii. Cervus Pygargus, the aha, or tail-lels roe. It has
no tail ; and the horns are three-forked. It inhabits the
woody mountains of Ruffia and Siberia beyond the Volga,
and in Hircania. This fpecies refembles the roe, but is
conliderably larger ; it is of the fame deep red colour,
with a large bed of white on the rump and buttocks, ex¬
tending up the back ; the fur is excelfively thick, and in
Ipring is quite rough and ere£t ; on the belly and limbs
it is yellowilh ; the Ipace round the nofe, and the fides of
the under lip, are black, but the point of the lip is white ;
the hairs of the eye-lids, and round the orbits, are long
and black ; the horns are very rugged at the bafes, and
full of knobs; the ears are covered on the infide with a
very thick white fur. At the approach of winter, this
animal becomes hoary, and defcends into the plains ; it
is called dikeja roza by the Ruffians, faiga by the Tar¬
tars, which name is ufed in Ruffia for the Scythian an¬
telope, and ahu, or aha, by the Perfiahs.
iz. Cervus Mexicanus, the Mexican deer ; has Itrong,
thick, rugged, horns, bending forwards, three-forked at
their extremities, with one erefi: faag about two inches
above the bade : of a reddilh colour. It inhabits New
Spain, Guiana, and Brafil. This fpecies is about the
.fize of the roe; it is of a reddifu colour, and is fipotted
55
with white when young. The head is large, with bril¬
liant eyes, and a thick neck. The horns are apt to vary
in the number of their branches ; and the fldh is much
inferior to other venifon.
13. Cervus Guineenfis, the grey deer; thus named by
Mr. Pennant ; and Guinea deer, by Dr. Gmelin ; is an
obfcnre fpecies, and doubtful whether it belongs to the
genus of deer, mulk, or antelope, as the fpecimen def¬
ended had no horns. It is only of the fize of a cat, of a
grey colour on the upper parts, and blackilh underneath,
having longifh ears ; with a large black fpot above the
eyes, a black line between the ears, a perpendicular black
line on each fide of the throat, the middle of the breafi;
black, the fore legs and fides of the belly, as far as the
hams, marked with black, and the under fide of the tail
black.
CER/VUS VOTANS, a name given by fome authors to
the ftag-fly, or horned beetle.
CE'RYX,yi the anceftor of the ceryces, a fort of public
criers appointed to proclaim orpubliih things aloud in al-
femblies. The ceryx among the Greeks anfwered to the
praco among the Romans ; and in fome meafure to the
criers of our courts. There were anciently two kinds of
ceiyces, civil, and facred. The civil were appointed to
call affemblies, and make filence therein; alfo to go on
mefiages, and do the office of heralds. The facred were
a fort of priefi's, wliofe office was to proclaim filence in the
public games and facrifices, publifn the names of the con¬
querors, proclaim feafts, See. The priefthood of the ce¬
ryces was annexed to a particular family, the defeendants
of Ceryx, fon of Eumolphus. To them it alfo belonged
to lead the viftims to daughter ; and, before the ceremo¬
nies began, they called filence in the affembly.
CE''SARE,_/'. among logicians, one of the modes of the
fecond figure of fyllogifms ; the minor propofition of
which is an universal affirmative, the other two univerfal
negatives : thus,
Ce No immoral book ought to be read ;
Sa But every obfeene book is immoral ;
Re Therefore no obfeene books ought to be read.
CESARE/A, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro¬
vince of Caramania : forty miles fouth-eaft of Yurcup.
CESARE'A, or Cohansey Creek, a river of North
America, in the ftate of New Jerfey, which runs into the
Delaware : ten miles fouth-weft of Bridge Town.
CESA'REAN, adj. ~ The Cefarccui fedlion is cutting a
child out of the womb, either dead or alive, when it can¬
not otherwife be delivered. Which circumftance firlt
gave the name of C’afar to the Roman family fo called.
See the article Midwifery.
CESE'NA, a town of Italy, in the province of Romag¬
na, the fee of a biihop, fuffragan of Ravenna: eighteen
miles- loath of Ravenna, and twenty-five north-north-
weft of Urbino.
CESENA'TICA, a fea-port of Italy, in the Adriatic,
in the province of Romagna, with a fntall harbour for
filhing-boats : eight miles north-eaft of Cefena.
CE'SI, a town of Italy, in the province of Umbria: fi-
tu.ated on the edge of a lofty mountain, or rock, expofed
to the fun from its riling to its fetting.
CE'SLES, a town of Hungary; rive leagues north-
north-eaft of Stul- Weifenburg.
CESPE'DES (Paul), a painter of Cordova, who ac¬
quired fame in the fixteenth century, both in Spain and
Italy. His manner approaches to that of Corregio : the
fame exactnefs in the drawing, the fame force in the ex-
preffion, the fame vigour in the colouring. It is impoffi-
ble to contemplate without emotion his picture of the fall:
flipper in the cathedral of Cordova ; where each of the
apoftles prelents a different charafter of refpeft and affec¬
tion for their mafter; who difplays at once an air of ma-
jefty and kindnefs; and the Judas a falfe and malignant
countenance. The talents of Cefpedes were not whollj
confined to painting; he was at the lame time philoib
pher,
C E S
56
pher, antiquary, fculptor, architect; an adept in the He¬
brew, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Italian languages ; a
great poet, and a prolific author. He died in 1608, aged
upwards of 70.
CESS, f. [probably corrupted from cenfe ; fee Cense;
though imagined by Junius to be derived from faifire, to
fidze.] A levy made upon the inhabitants of a place, rated
according to their property. — The Wk&cefs is aifo charged
upon the country Ibmetimes for victualling the foldiers,
when they lie in garrifon. Sfevfir. — The aft of laying
rates. It feerns to have been tiled by Shakefpeare for
bounds or limits, though it (land for rate, reckoning.
— [ pr’thee, Tom, beat Cutt’s (addle, put a few flocks
in the point ; the poor jade is wrung in the withers out of
all cefs. Skakefpcare.
To CESS, <v. a. To rate ; to lay charge on. — ~$7e are to
confider how much land there is in all Uilter, that, accord¬
ing to the quantity thereof, we may cefs the faid rent, and
'allowance illuing thereout.
To CESS, as. n. To omit a legal duty. See Cessor.
CES'SARES, a territory northward of Patagonia, in
South America, in the 4.8th deg. of S. lat. inhabited by a
mixed tribe of that name, defcended from the Spaniards,
being the people of three fliips that were wrecked on this
coalt in 1 540.
CESS A'TION, f. ymfltotio* Lat.] A flop ; a reft. — The
day was yearly oblerved for a feltival, by cejfation from
labour, and by retorting to church. Haynxiard.
True piety, without cejfation toft
By theories, the praftic part is loft. Denham ,
Vacation; fufpenflon. — The rifingof aparliamentis akind
of cefj'ation from politics. Addifon. — End of aftion ; the
ftate of ceafing to aft — The ferum, which is mixed with
an alkali, being poured out to that which is mixed with
an acid, raifeth an effervefcence ; at the cejfation of which,
the falts, of which the acid was compofed, will be regene-
tated. Arbuthnot. — A paufe of hoftility, without peace.
— When thefuccours of the poor proteftants in Ireland
were diverted, I was intreated to get them forne reipite,
by a cejfation. King Charles.
CESS A'VIT,/. inlaw, a writ which lies by (lie flats, of
Gloucefter, 6 E. 1. and Weftm. 2. 13 E.‘i. when a man,
who holds lands by rent or other fervices, neglefts or
ceafes to perform 'his fervices for two years together ; or
where a religious houfe hath lands given it, on condition
of performing fome certain Ipiritual fervice, as reading
prayers, or giving alms, and neglects it ; in either of which
cales if the cdfer or negleft fhall have continued for two
years, the lord or donor and his heirs fltall have a writ of
ccJ'anjit to recover the land itfelf. F.N.B. 20%. In fome
inftances relating to religious houfes, called Ccjfavit de
Cantarid. By the flat, of Gloucefter, the cejfavit does not
lie for lands let upon fee-farm rents, uniefs they have lain
frefh and uncultivated for two years, and there be not
lufticient cliftrefs upon the premiles, or uniefs the tenant
hath fo enclofed the land, that the lord cannot come upon
it to diftrain. 2 Inf. 298. For the law prefers the Ample
and ordinary remedies, by diftrels, &c. to this extraordi¬
nary cne of forfeiture ; and therefore the fame ftatute lias
provided farther, that on tender of arrears and damages
before judgment, and giving fecurity for the future per¬
formance of the fervices, (that he will no more ceale,) the
procefs fhall be at an end, and the tenant fhall retain his
land, to which the flat, of Weft. 2, conforms lo far as
■may Hand with convenience and reafon of law. 2 I/Jf.
401.
The flats. 4 Geo. II. and 11 Geo. II. c. 19, feem evi¬
dently borrowed from the above ancient writ of cejfanjit.
The former of theie ftatutes permits landlords who have
a right of re-entry for non-payment of rent, to lerve an
ejeftment on their tenants when half a year’s rent is due,
and no lufticient diltrefs on the premifes. See Eject¬
ment. And the fame remedy is in fubftance adopted by
■.the flat. 11 Geo. II. c. 16, which enafts, that where any
C E S
tenant at rack rent fhall be one year’s rent in arrear, aha
fhall defert the demifed premifes, leaving the fame uncul¬
tivated or unoccupied, fo that no fuflicient diftrefs can be
bad, two juftices of the pence (after notice affixed on the
premifes forfourteen days) may give the landlord poflefTion
thereof; and the leafefhalibevojd. SeeDisTREss. By.ftat.
Welt. 2, tne heir of the demandant may maintain a cejfa-
as'it agai nft the heir or aftignee of the tenant. But in other
cafes, the heir may not bring this writ for ceflure in the
time of his anceltor: and it lies not but for annual ler-
vice, rent, and iuch like ; not for homage or fealty. Nexo
Nat. By. 463. The lord fhall have a writ of cejfaasit
againft tenant for life, where the remainder is over in fee
•to another: but the donor of an eftate-tail (hall not have
a cejfavit againft the tenant in tail ; though if a man
make a gift in tail, the remainder over in fee to another,
or to the heirs of the tenant in tail, there the lord of whom
tlie lands are holden immediate, fhall have a ccjfavit
againft the tenant in tail, becaufe that he is tenant to him,
&c. If the lord diftrains pending the writ of cejfa-uit
■againft his tenant, the writ fhall abate. The writ ceJJ'a-vit
is d hefted to the fheriff.
CESSENON', a town of France, in the department of
Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
St. Pons-de Thomieres : three leagues north of Beziers.
CESSIBFLITY, f. [from cedo, cejfion , Lat.] The
quality of receding, or giving way, without refiftance.
■ — 1/ the fubjeft ftrucken be of a proportionate cejfibility,
■it feerns to dull and deaden the ftroke; whereas, if the
tiling ftrucken be hard, the ftroke leems to lofie no force,
but to work greater effeft. Digby.
CES'S IBLE, adj. [from cedo , cejfum, Lat.] Eafy to give
way. — If the parts of the ftrucken body be fo ealiiy cejfible,
as without difficulty the ftroke can divide them, then it
enters into Inch a body, till it has fpent its force. Digby.
CESSIEU'X, a town of France, in the department of
the Here, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of La
Tour du Pin : twenty -leven miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Lyons.
CES'SION, f. \_cejficn, Fr. ccjjio , Lat.] Retreat; the
aft of giving way. -r-Sound is not produced without fome .
refiftance, either in the air or the body percufled ; for if
there be a mere yielding, or cejfion, it produceth no found.
Bacon — Refignation ; the aft of yielding up or quitting
-to another. — A parity in their council would make and
/ecu re the beft peace they can with France, by a cejfion of
Flanders to that crown, in exchange for other provinces.
'Temple.
CES'SION, J. [ cejfio , Lat. to ceafe.] In law, a ceafing)
yielding up, or giving over. When an ecclefiaftical per-
Ion is created bifhop, or a parfon of a parfonage takes an¬
other benefice, without difpenfation or being otherwife
not qualified, &c. in both cafes' their firft benefices art
become void, and are in the law faid to be void b y cejfion-.
•and to thofe benefices that the perfon had who was created
bifhop, the king fhall prefent for that time, whoever is pa-
tronof them ; and,intheothercafe, the patron may prefent,
Coxvel. But cefiion in the cafe of bilhops does not take
place till confecration. Dyer 223. No perfon is entitled to
difpenfation, but chaplains of the king and others menti-
onedin the flat. 21H.8.C. 13; the brethren, and the tons
oflords and knights, (not of baronets) and doftors and
bachelors of divinity and law in the univerfities -of this
realm. 1 Comm. 392. Both the livings muft have cure of
fouls ; and the ftatute exprefsly excepts deaneries, arch¬
deaconries, chancellorfhips, treafurerfhips, chanterfhips,
prebends, and finecure reftories. In cafe of a cefiion un¬
der the ftatute, the church is fo far void upon inftitution
to the fecond living, that the patron may take notice of
it, and prefent if hepleafes ; but it feems that a lapfeuvill
not incur from the time of inftitution againft the patron,
uniefs notice be given him ; but it will froiU the time of
induftion. 2 Wilf. 200. 3 Burr. 1504.
CES'SIONARY, adj. As, a cejfionary bankrupt, one
who has delivered up all his effefts. Martin.
CESS'MENT, n.J. An afleflment or tax.
CESSOR,
C E S
CES'SOR,/ [from eeffio, Lat.] He who ceafeth, or neg¬
lects fo long to perform a duty, that he thereby incurs the
danger of the law.
CESTAYRO'LS,a town of France, in the department of
the Tam : three leagues north of Alby.
CES'TRUM,/". [icscrlpa, Gr. a hammer.] In botany, a
genus of the clafs pentandria, order monogynia, natural
order of luridse. The generic characters are — calyx :
perianthium one-leafed, tubular, columnar, obtufe, very
ihort ; mouth five-cleft, ereCt, obfcure. Corollas mono-
petalous, funnel-form. Tube eylindric, very long,
{lender ; throat roundifli ; border flat, plaited, five-cleft ;
clivifions ovate, equal. Stamina: filaments five, filiform,
attached longitudinally to the tube, emitting a tootlilet
inwards at the middle. Anthers roundifli, quadrangu¬
lar, within the throat. Piftillium : germ cylindric-o vote,
length of the calyx. Style filiform, length of the fta-
mens. Stigma thickifh, obtufe, fcarcely emarginate.
Pericarpium c berry ovate, unilocular, oblong. Seeds
veiy many, roundifli. — EJfenlialChar after . Corolla: fun¬
nel-form. Stamens emitting a tootlilet from their mid¬
dle. Berry unilocular.
Species, i . Ceftrum noCturnum, or night fmelling cef-
ctrum : filaments toothed; peduncles fubracemed equal
tb the leaf. It rifes with an upright ftalk about fix or
feven feet high, covered with a greyifh bark, and divides
upwards into many- flenderbranch.es, which generally in¬
cline to one fide; and are garniftied with leaves placed
alternate, near four inches long, and one and a half
broad, fmooth on their upper fide, of a pale green, and
on their under fide’they have feveral tranfverfe veins, and
are of a fea-green colour, having fliort foot-ftalks. The
flowers are produced at the -wings of the leaves, in fmall
clufters, Handing upon fliort peduncles, each fuftaining
four or five flowers, of an herbaceous colour. They ap¬
pear in Auguft, but are not fucceeded by berries in this
country : thofe which come from America are fmall, and
of a dark brown colour. It is a native of the ifland of
Cuba, whence Mr. Miller received the feeds by the title
of Dama de Noche, or lady of the night. It is probably fo
called, from the flowers fending out a ftrong odour after
fun-fet. It was raifed many years paft in the curious
garden of the duchefs of Beaufort, at Badminton, and
was thence communicated to feveral gardens in England
and Holland, where it pafled by the name of Badminton
iafmin. Mr. Miller has another fort, which lie fays w’as
fent him from Carthagena ; it is probably not different
from this ; and if fo it is found not only in the iflands of
the Weft Indies, but on the continent of South Ame¬
rica,
2. Ceftrum vefpertinum, or clufter-flowered ceftrum :
filaments toothlefs, tube filiform, peduncles very fliort.
A tree twelve feet in height : item not very ftrong.
Leaves alternate, on fliort petioles, length double the
breadth, fharp, quite entire, green on both tides, with
crofs veins underneath, almoft parallel, convex. The
berries are blue. The bark and fruit are fetid. It is a
native of the Weft Indies, and was cultivated in 1759 by
Mr. Miller.
3. Ceftrum diurnum, or day-fmellingceftrum : filaments
toothlefs, fegments of the corolla roundifli reflected ; leaves
lanceolate. This rifes with an upright ftalk to the
height often or twelve feet, covered with a fmooth light
green bark, dividing at top into many finaller branches,
with fmooth leaves near three inches long, and one and a
half broad, of a lively green colour, ranged alternately on
the branches. Towards the upper part of the flioots
come out the flowers from the wings of the leaves, Hand¬
ing in clufters clofe to the branches ; they are very white,
fhaped like thofe of the firft fort, and fmell fweet in the
day-time, whence it had the appellation of Lady of the
.Day. The berries of this are fmaller than thofe of the
firft fort. . It flowers in September, OCtober, and Novem¬
ber. It is a native of the Havaiina, whence the feeds
were fent to Mr. Miller by the name of Dama di Dio ; but
Vol. IV. No. 177,
c E S 57
it had been cultivated before in 1732, by Dr. Sharard at
Eltham.
4. Ceftrum tomentcfum: flowers crowded, feffile, ter¬
minal j branches, leaves, and calyxes, tomentofe. The
form of the leaves and flowers is the fame as in the third
fpecies; but the calyxes, branches, and under furface of
the leaves, are tomentofe ; the calyxes are larger; the co¬
rollas coloured, with a flior ter tube, and a more enlarged
border. It was found in South America, byMutis.
5. Ceftrum laurifolium, or laurel-leaved ceftrum : fila¬
ments toothletted or naked ; leaves elliptic coriaceous
Alining very much, peduncles fliorter than the petiole.
Stem flirubby, ereCt, round, with a rugged afli-coloured
bark ; eight or nine feet high ; leaves five inches long, and
two broad ; the flowers emit a difagreeable odour, and
are fucceeded by oval berries of a violet colour, full of
juice; they are reckoned very poifonous, and have the
appellation of poifon-berries in Jamaica, whence it was
fent by Dr. Houftoun. Its fetid fmell feems to imply that
poifonous nature which Miller and Sloane attribute to
it, and which other plants of this genus poffefs. It was
cultivated in 1691, in the royal garden at Hampton-court,
and flowers in Auguft.
6. Ceftrum auriculatum, or ear-leaved ceftrum : fila¬
ments toothlefs, ftipules lunate. This is a very fetid
flirub, two fathoms in height ; Hems ufually feveral from
the fame root, upright, round, fomewhat branched, ci¬
nereous : branches alternate, upright, warted : flioots
pubefcent, green. Leaves five inches long, twenty
lines broad ; petioles, rounded on one fide, flat on the
other. Stipules axillary, lurrounding the branchlets, of
the fame form with the leaves. Panicles terminating,
confiding of axillary fpikesatthe bale, ereCt, leafy, braCt -
ed, villofe, three inches long : peduncles alternate : flow¬
ers crowded at the top of the peduncles, eight lines
long, and four or five broad. The natives of Lima in
Peru ufe it externally to cleanfe foul ulcers, and inter¬
nally in the venereal dileafe; they look upon it as a pec¬
toral, but it feems to be a plant of fufpicious character.
Dombey obferved it in wet places about Lima. It has
been cultivated many years in the Paris garden. It flow¬
ers in winter, but feldom, and has never borne fruit.
Introduced here about 1774.
7. Ceftrum parqui : filaments toothletted or naked;
floriferous Item panicled ; ftipules linear. This is a fetid
flirub, one fathom in height. Introduced at Paris from
feeds lent by Dombey from Chili, where it grows na¬
turally.
8. Ceftrum hirtum : flowers fubfpiked axillary, leaves
fubcordate ovate acute, underneath with the branchlets
rough with hairs. Native of the Weft Indies; Ja¬
maica, &c.
9. Ceftrum nervofum : leaves lanceolate oppofite, with
tranfverfe nerves ; peduncles branching. Stem flirubby,
five or fix inches high, covered with a brown bark, and
dividing at top into very fmall branches. Leaves about
four inches long, and little more than one broad, fmooth,
of a light green. Flowers axillary, towards the ends of
the branches, four or five on each peduncle. Native of
Carthagena in New Spain, whence it was fent to Mr.
Miller.
Propagation and Culture. The firft and fecond forts
produce their flowers every year in England, the others
feldom flower here; but, as they retain their leaves all
the year, they make a pretty variety in the ftove, during
the winter feafon ; and, when they flower, the branches
are commonly well furnifned at their joints with bunches
of flowers. All thefe plants, growing naturally in very
hot countries, require to be placed in a warm ftove, el'-
pecially in the winter. The firft and third are hardier
than the others. They may all be propagated from feeds,
or by cuttings. Thofe which come from feeds are al¬
ways the mod vigorous, and ftraighteft plants ; but, as
they do not produce feeds in England, the other method
i s generally praCtifed, becaufe their feeds are rarely brought
Q^_ hither.
58 C E S'.
hither. Tlrebeft time to plant thefe cuttings is about the
end of May, by which time the fhoots will have had
time to recover their .ftrength, after their confinement du¬
ring the winter feafon. The (hoots which come out from
the lower part of the {talks, (hould always be cliofen for
this purpofe. Thefe (hould be cut about four inches long,
and five or fix of them may be planted in each halfpenny
pot; for the cuttings of molt, forts of exotic plants will
fucceed better when they are planted in the fmall pots,
than they do in larger. The earth (hould be frefli and
light-, but not full of dung : it mull be prefled pretty
clofe to the cuttings, and then they muft be gently wa--
tered; after which the pots muft be plunged into a mo¬
derate hot-bed of tanners bark, and every day (haded
from the fun. They muft alfo have frelh air admitted to
them in warm weather, and two or three times a-:week
muft be refreftied with water. With this management
the cuttings will put out roots in five or fix weeks, when
they (hould be gradually expofed to the fun ; and, when
they begin to put out (hoots, they muft have a greater
(hare of frefli air admitted to them, to prevent their draw¬
ing up weak; and their waterings fliould be oftener re¬
peated, but given in fmall quantities, for their young
tender fibres wall not endure much wet. When they have
made good roots, they (hould be carefully (haken out of
the pots, and each put into a feparate fmall pot, filled
with the fame fort of earth as before ; then give them
fome water, to fettle the earth to their roots, and plunge
them again into the tan-bed; obferving, if any of their
leaves hang down, to (hade them from the fun in the
middle of the day, until they have taken frefli root ; af¬
ter which they (hould have a large fliare of air in warm
weather, to ltrengthen them before winter. Their wa¬
terings in the fummer fliould be frequent ; and, if they
are (prinkled all over their leaves, it will wafhand cleanie
them from filth, which will greatly promote their growth ;
but their roots muft not be kept too moift. In the autumn
the plants of the fecond and fifth forts muft be removed
into the bark-ftove, and plunged into the tan-bed, where
they muft be treated in the fame manner as other tender
exotic plants ; but the firft and third forts may be treated
otherwife, efpecialiy when they have obtained ftrength ;
yet the firft winter they may be managed in the fame wray
as the others. There muft be great care had in watering
thele plants in winter, for they are all (except the third
fort) very impatient of moifture. If the feeds of thefe
are procured from the countries where they grow natu¬
rally, they (hould be fowed in fmall pots filled with the
earth before diredled, and plunged into a moderate hot¬
bed of tanners bark, giving them now and then a little
water. Sometimes the feeds will come up the fame year,
but they very often lie in the ground till the fpring fol¬
lowing ; fo that, if the plants do not appear in fix or feven
•weeks after the feeds are fown, they will not come up that
feafon; in which cafe the pots may be plunged into the tan -
bed of the ftove, between the other plants, where they
will be (haded from the fun, and but little water given
them ; in this fituation they may remain till the follow¬
ing fpring, when they (hould be removed, and plunged
into a frefti hot-bed, which will bring up the plants in a
fliort time, provided the feeds were good. When the
young plants are fit to remove, they (hould be carefully
(haken out of the pots, and each planted into a feparate
pot filled with the before-mentioned earth, and plunged
into the hot-bed again, and afterwards treated in the
fame way as hath been directed for the plants raifed from
cuttings.
CESTUT QUE TRUST, in law, is he in truft for whom,
or to whofe uie or benefit, another man is enfeoffed or
feized of lands or tenements. By (tat. 29 Car. c. 3,
lands of cejluique trujl may be delivered in execution.
CESTUT QUE VIE. He for whofe life any lands or
tenements are granted. Perk. 97.
CESTU'I QUE USE. He to whofe ufe any other man is
enfeoffed of lands or tenements, 2 Rep. 133. Feoffees to
GET
ufes w6f£ formerly deemed owners of the lands j but now
the poffeffion is adjudged in cejhii que ufe, and without
any entry he may bring aflife, &c. Stat. 27 Hen. VIII.
c. 10.
CES'TUS, Lat. [from xes-©-, Gr.] A marriage-girdle,
that of old times the bride ufed to wear, and the bride¬
groom unloofed on the wedding-night. A leathern
gauntlet garnifhed with lead, ufed by combatants, or in
the exercifes of the athletas. The girdle of Venus and
Juno, according to the poets. — Venus, wdthoutany orna¬
ment but her own beauties, not fo much as her cefius.
Addifon.
CETA'CEOUS, adj. [from cete, whales, Lat.] Thefe
fiflies are thus called, which bring forth a living animal
inftead of fpawn; orwhich,like viviparous animals, relpire
by means of lungs, generate, conceive, bring forth young,
and nourifti them with milk. — He hath created variety of
thefe cetaceous fifties, which converfe chiefly in the
northern feas, whofe whole body being encompaffed
round with a copious fat or blubber, it is enabled to abide
the greateft cold of the fea-water. Ray.
C£'TE,yi [ynroi, from or niSID chota , Chald.]
The name of Linnaeus’s feven th order of mammalia, or
quadrupeds; comprehending the genus Monodon, or
narval; BaLjENA, orw'hale; Physeter, or cachalot;
and Delphinus, or dolphin; for the natural liiftory,
and different fpecies, of each of which, fee their relpec-
tive titles. Nature on this tribe hath beftowed an inter¬
nal ftrudture in all refpedts agreeing with that of quadru¬
peds ; and in a few others the external parts in both are
fimilar. Cetaceous fifties, like land animals, breathe by
means of lungs, being deftitute of gills. This obliges
them to rife frequently on the furface of the water, to
refpire, to deep, and to perform feveral other fun&ions.
They have the power of uttering founds, fuch as bellow¬
ing and making other noifes denied to genuine fiflies.
Like land animals they have warm blood; like them they
are furniftied with organs of generation, copulate, bring
forth, and fuckle their young, (howing a ltrong attach¬
ment to them. Their bodies beneath the (kin are entirely
furrounded with a thick layer of fat, analogous to the
lard on hogs. The number of their fins never exceeds
three, •viz. two pedtoral fins, and one back fin; but in
fome fpecies the laft is wanting. Their tails are placed
horizontally, or flat in relpedt to their bodies; contrary
to the direction of thofe of all other fiflies. This fituation
of the tail, enables them to force themfelves fuddenly to
the furface of the water to breathe, which they are fo fre¬
quently conltrained to do. Many of thefe circumftances
induced Linnaeus to place this tribe amonghis mammalia,
or what other writers call quadrupeds. To have prefer-
ved the chain of beings entire, fome writers think
he fliould in this cafe have made the genus of phocae or
feals, and that of the trichecus or manati, immediately
precede the whale, thofe being the links that connect the
mammalia or quadrupeds with the fifti: for the feal is, in
refpeft to its legs, the moft imperfeft of the former clafs ;
and in the manati the hind feet coalefce, affuming the
form of a broad horizontal tail. Yet, notwithftanding
all thele properties which the cete have in common with
land animals, there (till remain others which render it
more natural to place them, with Ray, in the rank of
fifties: the form of their bodies agrees with that of fifli;
they are entirely naked, or covered only with a fmooth
(kin ; they live conftantly in the water, and have all the
actions of fifties. But the illuftrious Swede, having a-
dopted the ingenious idea of employing the circumftance
of their fuckling young as a charadferiftic mark for a great
number of animals, all of which have the blood propelled
by two auricles and two ventricles, he found himfelf
obliged to include thefe with the reft of the mammalia,
to prevent diforder in his claflification.
CE'TERACH, /. in botany. See Asplenium.
CE'TINA, a town of European Turkey, in Dalma¬
tia ; fifty miles weft-north- weft of Moftar.
CE'TON*
C E V
CE'TON, a town of France, in the department of the
Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of Bel-
lelfne: ten miles fouth-ealt of Bellel'me.
CET/TE, a fea-port town of France, on the coaft of
the Mediterranean, in the department of Hfrault, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Montpellier :
the canal of Languedoc begins at this place : it is fmall,
and hardly contains 700 inhabitants. It was taken in
S710, by a detachment of troops fent to affift the inha¬
bitants of the Cevennes, then in arms againft Louis
XIV. This detachment was commanded by major-gene¬
ral Seilfan, a native of Languedoc, and convoyed by the
Englifli fleet, under Sir John Norris 5 but the duke de
Roquelare, with fome militia, retook the place, and
made about 300 men prifoners. Fourteen miles fouth-weft
of Montpellier, and ten north-eaft of Agde. Lat. 43.
23. N. Ion. 21; 22. E. Ferro.
CE'TUS, the Whale, a fouthern conftellation, and
one of the 48 old afteriiins. In the neck of the whale is
a remarkable ftar, Collo Ceti, which appears and difap-
pears periodically, or rather grows brighter and fainter
by turns, owing it is fuppoled to the alternate turning of
Its bright and dark fides towards us, as it revolves upon
its axis, or elfe owing to the ftar having a flattifli form.
The period of its changes is about 312 days. The ftars
In the conftellation cetus, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are
twenty-two, in Tycho’s twenty-one, in Hevelius’s for¬
ty-five, and in the Britannic catalogue ninety-feven.
CE'TUS is reprelented by the poets, as the fea-mon-
fter which Neptune, at the fuit of the nymphs, fent to
devour Andromeda for the pride of her mother, and
which was killed by Perfeus. This term has alfo been
ufed in a figurative or metaphorical fenle, on many diffe¬
rent occafions. The ark, in which mankind was preferv-
ed, has been defcribed under the emblem of a large filh,
which Pliny terms fabnlofa seta ; and from this repre-
fentation (hips, which were unwieldy, and of great bur¬
then, were often called cetense. In ancient times great
depredations were committed by rovers at lea, who con¬
tinually landed, and laid people under contribution upon
the coaft. Piracy and plunder were of. old elleemed ho¬
nourable. Many migrations were made by perfons, who
were obliged to fly, and leave their wives and'effebts be¬
hind them. Such Ioffes were to be repaired, as loon as
they gained a fettlement. Hence, when they infefted
any country, and made their levies upon the natives, one
of their principal demands was women ; and of thefe the
moft noble and fair. Such depredations gave rife to the
hiltories of princeffes being carried away by banditti;
and of king’s daughters being expofed to fea-monfters.
The monfters alluded to were nothing more than mariners
and pirates, ftyled Cetei, Ceteni, and Cetones, from
Cetus, which fignifies a fea-monfter, or whale ; and alfo
a large Ihip. They were Ceteans, and Cetonians ; fome
of whom fettled in Phrygia, and Myfia, where they con¬
tinued the like pra&ices, and made the fame demands.
Their hiftory feems alluded to by Homer in the paf-
fage, Od. iv. 518.
CE'VA, a city and fortrels of Italy, in the principali¬
ty of Piedmont, and comte of Afti, lituated on the Ta~
naro, the capital of a marquifate, in a plain, furrounded
on all fides with hills, at the extremity of the country,
which extends from the Apennines to the Tanaro, and
from thence to the northern part of the Maritime Alps.
It was anciently celebrated for its cheefe, made of ewes-
milk. This cheefe, called by the Italians rubiola, is
much efteemed even now, and fold not only into Pied¬
mont and the Milanefe, but other parts more diftant.
The hills about Ceva produce excellent wine : great
quantities of chefnuts grow at the foot of the mountains,
and excellent truffles are found in the neighbouring
plains. It was formerly an independent ftate, but a great
part of the domain was fold to the town of Afti in 1295,
whence, in the year 1531, it came to the houfe of Savoy.
It was befieged by the FrencJi in 1543, but the enemy
were compelled to retire without fuccefs. A fudden
inundation, on the 6th of July, 1584, beat down great
part of the walls, deftroyed the bridges, houfes, and
churches, and drowned a great number of the inhabi¬
tants ; and, in 1625 and the five following years, a pef-
tilential difeafe carried off the greater part of the furvi-
vors. It has one collegiate church, and three convents.
In April 1796, this city was taken by the French repub¬
licans under Buonaparte. Forty miles weft Genoa, and
twenty-five fouth-fouth-eaft Turin. Lat. 44. 20. N..
Ion. 25. 37. E. Ferro.
CEVER/TA, a town of Italy in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Calabria Ultra : ten miles north-
north-eaft of Bova.
CEU'TA, a feaport town of Africa, on the fouth
coaft of the Mediterranean, in the kingdom of Fez, be¬
longing to Spain, with a good harbour for fmall veffels,
the lee of a bifhop, fuffragan ofLilbon. This town was
taken from the Moors in 1409, by John king of Portu¬
gal, and continued annexed to that crown till the revo¬
lution in 1640, when it fell to Spain, and was finally-
ceded to that country by the treaty of Lifbon, in 16S8.
It withftood a vigorous fiege againft the Moors in 1697 ;
it is lituated in the narrowed part of the Mediterranean,.,
not above five leagues from Gibraltar. Lat. 35. 48. N„
Ion. 5. 25. W. Greenwich.
CEYTON, an extenfive ifland in the Indian ocean,,
lituated to the fouth-eaft of the peninfula of India,
from which it is only feparated by a narrow fea, about
fixty miles wide. This ifland is called by the Arabians,
Serendib ; but it was known to the ancients by the name
of Tabrobana. The Portuguefe were the firft of the Eu¬
ropean nations who vifited Ceylon. It was difcovered
by Laurence Almeyda, in 1505, who was driven acciden¬
tally from his cruize off the Maidive ifles, by the violence
of the currents, into a port called by the natives Gaba-
lican. The ruling prince was then, and is now, ftyled
emperor, and is lord paramount over the minor chiefs; he is
ftyled moft great, invincible, and tailed, the firft of his
race being laid to have come from Siam, with a tail a
foot long, pendent from behind; his pofterity in due
time (according to lord Monboddo’s fyftem) Hied. their
tails, and became as capable of the arts of government
as any European monarch whatfoever. Almeyda was.
received by the governor with the utraoft courtely. He
fent Pelagio Souza, one of his officers, to the royal refi-
dence at Colombo, where he was introduced to the em¬
peror. He met with a moft favourable reception, form¬
ed a league with his imperial majelty, who agreed to pay
Emmanuel annually 250,000 pounds weight of cinna¬
mon ; on condition, that the fleets of Portugal Ihould
defend his coafts from all hoftile invafions. The Portu¬
guefe foon made themfelves matters of the principal ports,
and engrafted the whole trade of this valuable bark. The
Moors, or Arabs, afterwards exerted every effort to
prevent them from eftablilhing themfelves in Ceylon.
This highly concerned the Arabs, who before that time
were the foie venders of the cinnamon, which they car¬
ried to Suez, from whence it was conveyed over the ifth-
mus, and from Alexandria to all parts of Europe ; but
all their endeavours were to no purpofe ; that rich trade
became monopolized by thefe new rivals.
The Dutch firft landed here in 1603, and vifited the
emperor. In 1632 they received a formal invitation from,
the ruling monarch to aflift him againft the Portuguefe ;
and in confequence they appeared off the coaft with a
potent fleet. They confederated with the king of Ceylon,
and after a ftruggle of feveral years, with great blood-
flied, they expelled the Portuguefe, whofe power ended
in the taking of Colombo, in 1656, after a fiege of feven
months, in which the Portuguefe exerted all that fpirit
and valour which originally made them lords of the In¬
dies. The emperor repaid the Dutch all their expences
in cinnamon, and other productions of the ifland ; and
iuvefted them with many privileges 5 but in return he
found
;:6o C E Y
found himfelf exactly hi the fame dependent ftate as he
was before his victories. The Dutch, becoming fuperior,
fortified every one of his ports. They had befides a grant
of coafic round theifland, twelve miles in breadth, reck¬
oning from the fea. The emperor maintained a magni¬
ficent court at Candy ; but at any time his good allies
were pleafed, they could, by the tole interdiction of the
article fait, make him and his fubjefts fubmit to any
terms they chofe to dictate.
The form and extent of the ifle of Ceylon, are very
much undetermined. The figure which is generally
adopted in the maps, is that of a pear, with the (talk
turned towards the north. The length from Dondra-
head fouth, to Tellipeli north, is about 280 miles; the
greateft breadth, or from Colombo to Trir.coli, is about
160. The latitudes of the two extremes in length, are
between 50 50% and 90 51'. Its extremes of longitude
are 790 50', and 82° io/. The illand rifes from the fea
on every fide to the mountains, which run in chains,
principally from north to fouth. The higheft and rudeff
■traft is the kingdom of Conde Uda, which is impervious,
by reafon of rocks and forefts, except by narrow paths,
-which are alfo impeded by gates of thorns, ciofely watch¬
ed by guards. At the vveltern (kirt ofthefe mountains
foars Hamalell, in the European language Adam’s Peak*
It riles pre-eminent above all the reft, in form of a fu-
gar loaf. On the fummit is a flat ftone, with an impref-
fion refembling a human foot, two feet long, faid to be
that of our great and common anceftor : this, however,
is denied by Mr. Bryant, who thinks there are very few
allufions in ancient hiftory to the antediluvian world.
The Cingalefe fay, it is that of Buddo, their great deity,
when he afeended into heaven, from whom they. expeCt
falvation. The Mahometan tradition is, that Adam was
call down from Paradife, and fell on this fummit, and
Eve near Judda, in Arabia. They were feparated 200
years, after which, as the legend goes, he found his
-wife, and conducted her to his old retreat; there he
died, and was buried, and there are two large tombs.
To this day many votaries vifit his imaginary fepulchre;
the Mahometans out of refpeft to our common father;
the Cingalefe under the notion above-mentioned. All the
vifitants are obliged to be drawn up by chains, fo rude
and inacceffible is the way to this rock of fanCtity. From
this mountain rallies the great river Mavila-Ganga, or
Ceylonefe Ganges, which pafles unnavigable, clofe to
Candy, a very long and rocky courfe, to the fea at Trin-
comale. All the reft of the i-fle, except fome marfliy
flats adapted to the culture of rice, are broken into thou¬
sands of hills, beautifully clothed with wood. The in¬
tervening valleys are often morally, or confiding of a
rich fat foil ; but the fertility of the open parts is aftonifli-
ingly great.
The ancient account given by Ptolemy of the mineral
or foflil productions, is now in a great mcafure confirm¬
ed. Iron and copper are found here, and alfo black lead.
A gold mine is laid to be latent in one of the great moun¬
tains, but the working is prohibited by the emperor. Of
gems, the ruby, fapphire, topaz, the eleCtric tourmalin,
and the cat’s eye, or pfeud-opal, and hyacinth, are met
’with, But what occafions the negleCt of the mines, and
of the gems, is the attention to the great ftaple of the
illand, the important bark of the cinnamon-tree. Dr.
Thunberg is very exaCl in his account of the gems of
Ceylon. They are dug up about Matura, and the liber¬
ty of fearch is farmed for no more than 180 rix-dollars a
year. Amethyfts, and an infinite variety of cryftals and
cryftalline gems, are found in that neigbourhood. The
inhabitants are called Cingalefe ; thefe are aboriginal,
and differ totally in language from the people of Mala¬
bar, or any other neighbouring nation. Their features
are more like Europeans than any other. Their hair is
long, and moft commonly turned up. They are black,
but well made, with good countenances, and excellent
•, morals. Their religion is derived from Buddo, a pro-
L O N.
felyte of the great Indian Foe : his doCVrine overfpread
Japan and Siam, as well as that of Foe. It conlifts of
the wildeft idolatry, and the idols, the objefts of their
worlhip, are the moft monftrous and fantaftic. The
pagodas or temples are numerous, and many of them,
like feveral in India, are of hewn ftone, moft richly and
exquifiteiy carved. The civil government is monarchi¬
cal. The emperor, in the time of Knox, was abfolute,
and claimed the moft undifputable right over the lives
and fortunes of all his fubjefts. He was a barbarous ty¬
rant, and took delight in putting his fubjefts to the moft
cruel and lingering deaths. Elephants were often the
executioners of his vengeance, and were direfted to pull
the unhappy criminals limb from limb with their trunks,
and fcatter them to the birds of the air, or beafts of the
field. The emperor's court was at Candy, nearly in the
centre of theifland; but he was, in Knox’s time, by the
rebellion of his fubjefts, obliged to defert that city.
The government is faid, by Wolff, to be at prefent very
mild, and regulated by ltatute laws, the joint production
of divers wife princes, and are confidered as facred by
the Cingalefe. It is poflible that the tyrant, in the days
of Knox, had deltroyed the liberties of his country,
which were afterwards reftored. The author Robert
Knox is a writer fully to be depended on; a plain honeft
man, who, in 1657, tailed in one of the Eaft India com¬
pany’s lliips to Madras; and on liis return, in 1659, was
forced by a ftorm into Ceylon, to refit: when his father
(who was captain) went on Ihore, and, with fixteen more
of the crew, were feizecl by the emperor’s foldiers, and
detained. The captain died in a year’s time, but his fon
lived nineteen years in the illand, and law the greateft
part of it. At length, with difficulty, he made his
efcape, and arrived in England, in September 1680. His
hiftory of the illand, and of his adventures, were pub¬
lished in 1680 ; and appears to be the only authentic ac¬
count of the internal parts, and the only one that can be
entirely relied on.
There is in this illand a race of wild men, called We-
das, or Bedas ; they fpeak the Cingalefe language, but
inhabit the. depth of the woods, and the faftnefles of the
mountains, and are, in all refpefts, as favage as animals
in the ftate of nature. They wear their hair long, coi¬
led it together, and tie it on the crown of the head in a
bunch. Their complexions are, comparative to the other
Cingalefe, light : they inhabit the lhade of the woods,
and their Ikins, that way, efcape the effeft of the burn¬
ing fun. They live entirely on flelh, or on roots; the
firft they eat raw or dried, or preferved in honey. They
live either in caves, or under a tree, with the boughs
cut and laid round about them to give notice when any
wild beafts come near, which they may hear by their mil¬
ling and trampling upon them. They are like them,
without law, and, as Wolff fays, without religion. Knox
rather afferts the contrary. The wilder fort never ffiew
themfelves; the tamer will enter into fome kind of com¬
merce with their civilized countrymen. Their drefs is
only a cloth wrapped round their waifts, and brought
between their legs. A fmall axe is ufually ftuck in the
wrapper. They are ficilful archers, and very nice in their
arrows. The heads are of iron, made by the fmiths of the
civilized people. They have no other means of befpeak-
ing them, than leaving near the fliop a pattern, cut out
-of a leaf, with a piece of flelh by way of reward: if he
does the work, they bring him more meat, otherwife they
flioot him in the night.
This illand was celebrated by Pliny for its race of
elephants, which were larger; and more adapted for war,
than thofe of India. He alfo gives the methods of cap¬
ture. They are, at prefent, taken by different methods;
and, after being tamed, are lent to the great annual fair
at Jaffanapatam. The merchants of Malabar and Ben¬
gal, have notice of the numbers and qualities of the
elephants to be fet up to fale ; fometimes 100 are fold at
one fair. A full grown beaft, twelve or fourteen feet
high,
C E Y
high, will be fold at the rate of 2000 dollars. The horfes
of the ifland are defcended from the Arabian breeds
Thefe are kept in a wild ftate, in the adjoining iflands,
called ilhas de cavallos. They are at certain times forced
into the ponds and rivers, and caught by people, who,
in the molt dexterous manner, fling over any part they
pleafe a ncofe. Thefe are fent to a fair, immediately fol¬
lowing the elephant fair, and fold for high prices. The
peafants make no fort of ufe of horfes; but in their
place employ the buffalo, which they catch and tame for.
draught, and all their rural work.
The fpecies of deer are very elegant ; here are found
the fpotted axis, and the great, called by the Dutch,
elk, as tall as a horfe ; and the rib-faced, with a tufk
front each upper jaw, pointing downwards. The little
Indian mufk, called ntentinna, not larger than a hare, is
a native of this ifle; it alfo has, like the lafl, its tufks.
Buffaloes and wild-boars are very numerous, and very fierce.
To fight an enemy, to hunt the elephant, and catch the
wild-hog, are the three points of valour among the Cin-
galefe. Monkies fwarm here ; the wanderow is a fpecies
mentioned by Knox, with a great white beard from ear
to ear, a black face, and dark grey body. There is a
variety of the above quite white. The tail-lefs macauco,
and the loris, are found here; alfo the jackal, and tiger,
of the largeft fize. Thefe animals are fliot with crofs-
bows, placed in their haunts. Pliny fays, that tigers and
elephants were made by the people the executioners of
their kings, whenever they had. offended them. They
appointed a folemn hunting match, and expofed then-
monarch to the fury of tliofe bealls. Bears are nume¬
rous even in this neighbourhood of the line. .Wolf fays,
they are large and black, and feed on honey, as they do
in Europe. The civet, and the mungo, or Indian ichneu¬
mon., are found here. This weefel is famous for its an¬
tipathy to the naja, or cobra de capello, and for its in-
ftant recourfe to the antidote to the fatal bite, on its re¬
ceiving a wound from that dreadful ferpent. The plants
it feeks relief from, are the ophiorrhiza mungos, ffrycli-
nos colubrina, and ophioxylon ferpentinuin. The co¬
bra de capello grows to a vaft fize in this ifland, and its
bite is initant death. See a figure and defcription of it
tinder the article Coluber.
The burning-ferpent, found in this ifland, feerns to
pofleis the dreadful poifon of three fpecies : it gives by
its bite the fymptoms' of raging fire, like. the torrida dip-
fas. It caufes, at other times, the blood to flow through
every pore, like the hosmorrhois; at other times, to caufe
fwelling like the prefter, and to incite racking pains;
at length, by a happy numbnefs, death brings kindly re¬
lief to the miferable fufferer. Our countryman Ray', enu¬
merates leveral of the Ceylonefe ferpents : one is the
oelnetulla, i. e. oculis infeftus.. The ninypolonga, or
afp, which kills the perfon it bites by flinging him into
an endlefs fleep. The vaft boa, the anacandaia of the
Ceylonefe, is common here, and is compared for fize to
the maft of a ftiip. Quintus- Curtins mentions it among
the monftrous ferpents which aftonifhed the army of
Alexander in his march into India. This is common to
Africa, and the greater fland of India. It is the fer¬
pent which Livy fuppofes to nave given Regulus fo much
employ on the banks of the Bagrada. See a figure of it
in vol. iii. under Boa. Crocodiles are alfo very nume¬
rous in Ceylon, and fometimes are found of the length of
■eighteen feet. The lacerta calotes is a Angular lizard.,
with a ferrated back. The lacerta gekko is a lpecies juftl.y
dreaded for the poifon which exudes from the ends of
its toes, and which infefts to a degree of fatality every
thing it pafles over; its urine and faliva are eo^aily dan¬
gerous ; its voice, which is acute, like that of a cricket,
flings a whole company into confirmation. The natives
obtain from it a deadly poifon for their arrows. They
tie one of thefe animals pendent by the tail, and pro-
• voke it till it emits its deadly ialiva on the point of the
VqL; IV. No. i7g. ■
L O N. 6t
weapons, which kill with the flighteft wound. This
dreadful reptile feldom attains a foot in lengthy
The infefts of Ceylon are of an uncommon fize : fcor-
pions have been found here eight inches iong, exclufive
of the legs; fcolopendrae fev.en inches; and of fpiders,
the aranea avicularia, with legs four inches long, and
the body covered with thick black hair, a fpecies that
makes a web ftrong enough to entangle the fmaller fpe¬
cies of birds, on which it feeds. See this enormous fpi-
der defcribed, and a figure of it, in vol. ii. under Aranea.
The cerambyx, as large, or larger than the one figured in
the preceding plate, is found inthisifland ; andmany others
of the coleoptera are in the fame frightful proportion.
The Ceylonefe fquirrel is remarkable for being three
times the fize of our fquirrel, and having a tail twice as
long as its body. The perfuming fltrew is a native of
this and other of the Indian ifles. Its mufky odour is fo
fubtil, as to pervade every thing it runs over. It will to¬
tally fpoil the wine in a well-corked bottle, by barely
pafiing over the furface. The cordated. bat, with its
heart-fhaped appendage to the nofe;’ and the ftriped, or
kiriwoula, inhabit Ceylon. The monftrous fpecies called
the ternate is alfo very frequent here. Many of thefe ani¬
mals are, in all probability, common to the continent of
India, and doubtlefs many more which have efcape(l
the notice of travellers : there is all the appearance of
Ceylon having been united with the Indian continent;
and that the gulph of Manaar was once fblid land. The
Maldives, and Laccadives, feem likewife to have been
fragments of the once far extended continent.
Birds in the greateft varieties, and of themoft elegar.t
plumage, fwarm in Ceylon. That magnificent bird the
peacock abounds in this ifland ; its legs are much longer,
audits tail of far greater length and brilliancy, in its na¬
tive ftate, than they are with us. This moll elegant and
fuperb of the feathered creation, is confined (in the ftate
of nature) to India, and adds highly to the beauty of the
rich forefts of that vaft country, and fome of its iflands.
Among the aquatic birds is the great white-headed ibis,
which makes a fnapping noiie with its bill ; it lofes its
fine rofeate colour in the rainy ftafon. The plotus, or
anhinga, is the terror of paflengers; it lurks in thick
bullies by the water fide, and, darting out its long and
flender neck, terrifies them with the idea of fome ferpent
going to inflidt a mortal wound.
Ceylon is peculiarly happy in its vegetation; it abounds
with all the choiceft fruits, and molt magnificent flowers;
all the trees and plants of India feem crowded within its
limits. Here we find the grand flowering Indian reed;
tire various fpecies of amomum ; the flabelliformis or fan
palm; the papaw-tree, with large luxuriant fruit, like a
melon ; the zedoary, which retains its place in our difpen-
fa.tory; the grandiflora or jafminum of Merian ; the me-
locadlus or melon- thiftle ; the moll beautiful creeping ce~
rufes; the prickly pear or Indian fig ; the black and white
pepper; and tamarind-tree; the arundo or bamboo-tree ;
many fpecies of mimofa, the mirabilis, which has the quality
of opening its flowers at four in thee veiling, and clofing them
in the morning till the fame hour returns, when they again
expand in the evening at the fame hour; the bromelia or
pine-apple grows ipontaneoufly , amid the capficum and nux
vomica; the anacardium or cafhew-nut tree ; the caflia or
i’enna, euphorbia, gambouge, and dolichos or cow-itch,
which the natives ufe for lafcivious purpofes; the fineft
pomegranates, citrons, oranges, and myrtles the celebra¬
ted and Angular plant nepenthes; and the bread-fruit; the
mufca paradifea, which the Jews believe to be the tree of
knowledge of good and evil, placed in the midft of the
garden of Eden ; the ficus indica, which throws out frefh
trunks from every branch, and which, defending into
the ground, take root, liill. enlarging their branches, un¬
til a vaft extent is. covered with the arched (hade. Thus
it forms of itfelf a foreft of arched avenues, and a laby¬
rinth of alleys, which afford fhelter both to nun and ani-
R mals
62 C E Y
snals from the fcorching rays of the vertical fan, Blit
the glory of Ceylon is the laurus ■ cinnamomum, or cin¬
namon tree, which grows to the height of about twenty
feet. This valuable tree grows in greater quantity in
the ifle of Ceylon, than any other place. It grows
wild in the woods, without any culture : every province
does not poffefs it, there is none in that of Jaffanapatam,
nor Manaar, but it abounds in molt of the internal parts,
and about Negurnbo and Gale. The pompadour pigeon,
is the bird, which, by carrying the fruit to different
places, is a great diffeminator of this valuable tree. It is
not peculiar to this ifland ; but here the bark is infinitely
fuperior in quality to any other. Botanills enumerate
numbers of kinds, all which, with the various trees
above-mentioned, fee particularly defciibed under their
refpedtive heads in this work.
The northern extremity of Ceylon is broken into two
ides, divided from the greater by a very narrowchannel; the
other fide is faced by rocks and ihoals, and affefited by
moil variable currents. The city of jaffanapatam Hands
on the weliern fide of one of the ides; this retains its
Cingalefe name; but mod; of the other places in the neigh¬
bourhood have been changed by the Dutch. When the
city was taken from the natives by the Portuguefe, in
i 560, they found in its treafury the tooth of an ape, lb
highly, venerated bv the people of Ceylon, that immenfe
funis were offered for its redemption, but in vain. To
deltroy this piece of idolatry, the Portuguefe viceroy or¬
dered it to be reduced to powder, and then burnt. Apes
are in many parts of India highly venerated, out of refpeft
to their idols.
Mod: of the eaftern fide of Ceylon is guarded with
fand banks or rocks. Trincomale harbour is in lat. 8° 30',
a fine and fecure port, prote&ed by a ftrong fort, which
was taken by affault, on January ii, 178a, by our brave
admiral, Sir Edward Hughes; but which, on Auguft 26
of the fame year, was wreffetl from us by his aftive rival
Suffrein. On September 2d, the former came off Trin¬
comale, and to his great furprife found the French colours
flying on all the forts. Suffrein, with a fuperior fquadron,
failed out of the harbour, fecure, as he thought, of vic¬
tory. Our brave admiral, and his officers, incenfed at
the lofs of the place, eagerly accepted the offer of com¬
bat. The contending admirals displayed every proof of
courage and Ikill. Suffrein’s Ihip was reduced to a wreck,
3nd he was obliged to remove bis flag to another. Night
alone terminated the battle. Suffrein, retired into Trin¬
comale, crowding in without order. Thus lecured,
Hughes left him reluctantly, and failed for Madras with his
fquadron. Between the bay of Trincomale and the fort
Calirauw is the "country called Bedas, a tradl of foreft,
comprehending 120 miles ;the habitation of theBedas. The
Ganges of Ptolemy runs into this harbour. Barticaio is
the next port, lying in lat. 7® 40'. This all'o has a
llrong iortrefs. Here the Dutch firft landed in 1638, and
took it by capitulation from the Portuguefe. The moun¬
tain called Monk's-hood, fome leagues inland, is a re¬
markable lea mark. Barticaio may have been near the
flte of the town called by Ptolemy, Bocona; near it is a
river which preferves the name, being called by the na¬
tives Ko-bokan-oye, or the river of Bokan. Dondra-
head is the molt fouthern point of any in the iiland.
A little to the weft is Tanawar, remarkable for having been
the DianaofPtolemy, facred to the moon ; the place Hill has
its temple, or Pagoda, highly venerated by the natives.
Punta de Galle is a little to the north-welt of Dondra-
head, in lat. 6°, turning almolt due north. The town
is ftrongly fortified, and is a place of great trade. In
iat. 70 we find Colombo, built in a beautiful aud magni¬
ficent manner by the Portuguefe. Nigombo is a fortrefs
fome miles to the north of Colombo. The whole inter¬
val from Colombo is filled with beautiful villages, and
open towns, cbaracteriltic of neatnefs and induitry. The
long ille of Calpentyn lies near the fhore, about thirty-
fix miles farther north, That of Manaar, as the name
C H A
implies, is a fandy tra6t, and had upon it at one time
feven churches, built by the Portuguefe. Thefe fell to
decay under their fuccelfors the Dutch, who were finally
difpoffeffed of Trincomale by the Englifli, on the 26th
of Auguft 1795. The expedition againft this valuable
fettlement was conducted by general Stuart, and rear-
admiral Rainier, to whom it was furrendered by capitu¬
lation, and placed under the government of the king of
Great Britain. .
CEY'RAS, a town of France, in the department of
the Herault : feven miles eaft of Lodeve.
CEYSE'RIAT, a town of France, in thedepartmentof
the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Bourg en Brefl’e : four miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Bourg en
Brefi'e.
CEYSERIEU', a town of France, in the department of
the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Belley : five miles north of Belley.
CEYS'SAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in the diltricl
of Bourg : ten miles fouth-eaft of Blaye.
CEYX, in fabulous hiftory, a king of Trachinia, fon
of Lucifer, and hufband of Alcyone. He was drowned
as he went to conlult the oracle of Claros. His wife was
apprifed of his misfortune in a dream, and found his dead
body wafhed on the fea fhore. They were both changed
into Alcyons, or king-fiffiers. According to Apollodorus,
the hufband of Alcyone and the king of .Trachinia
were two different perfons,
CE'ZE, a river of France, which runs into the Rhone,
two miles weft of Caderouffe.
CEZIM'BRA, a fmall feaport of Portugal, on the At¬
lantic : ten miles weft of Setuval.
CE'ZY, a town of France, in the department of the
Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridl of
Joigny: three miles north-weft of Joigny.
C-FAUT, a note in the fcale of mufic :
Gamut I am, the ground of all accord,
A re, to plead Hortenfio’s paffion ;
B mi Bianca', take him for thy lord,
C faut , that loves with all affection. Shakefpearei
CH has, in words purely Englifli, or fully naturalized,
the found of tjk\ a peculiar pronunciation, which it is
hard to defcribe in words. In fome words derived from,
the French, it has the found of fh , as cbaife ; and, in fome
derived from the Greek, the found of k, as choleric.
CHA, a town of China, of the third rank, in the pro¬
vince of Fo-kien : twenty-five miles fouth-fouth-weft of
Yen-ping.
CHA-TCHEOU7, a town of Afia, in the country of
Thibet : fifty-five leagues fouth-fouth-eaft of Hami. Lat.
40.22. N. Ion. 11 3. 3. E. Ferro.
CHA'A, f. in botany. See Thf.a.
CHAALO'NS, or Chalons sur. Marne, a city of
France, and capital of the department of the Marne; be¬
fore the revolution, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of
Rheims, and chief place of the generality of Champagnes
here are manufactures of coarfe woollen cloth. It is fitu-
ated on the river Marne, and contains thirteen pariffies.
The number of houfes about 2800, and of inhabitants
18,000: twenty polls and a half north-north-weft of Lan-
gres, and twenty and a quarter eaft of Paris. Lat. 48.57.
N. Ion. 22. 2. E. Ferro.
CHABANOIS', a town of France, in the department
of the Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trifl of Confolent: three leagues fouth of Confolent.
CHABEIUL', a town of Fiance, in the department of
the Drome, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt
of Valence : two leagues fouth-eaft of Valence.
CHA'BIS, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ker¬
man, at the edge of a defert, on the confines of Segeftan :
11 5 miles north-eaft of Sirgian.
CHABLA'IS (duchy of), a province of Savoy, which
ftretches along the fouthern banks of the lake of Geneva,
3cn>.
C H A
as far as the Valais, which bounds it on the eaft ; on the
fouth it is bounded by Faucigny, and on the weftby the re¬
public of Geneva : the country is mountainous and po¬
pulous. Thonon is the capital.
CHABLIS', a town of France, in the department of
the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt
of Auxerre, celebrated for its excellent white wine : three
leagues eaft of Auxerre.
CHABNO', a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Voihynia; fixty-eight miles north-eaft of Zytomiers.
CHABON'S, a town of France, in the department of
the Here, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of
La Tour du Pin : thirty miles fouth-eaft of Lyons.
CHABOT'TES, a town of France, in the department
of the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridt of Gap : leven miles north of Gap.
CHABRl'A, a town of Perfia, fixty miles north-eaft
of Afterabat.
CHA'BRIAS, an Athenian general and philofopher,
who chiefly fignalized liimfelf when he alfiftedthe Boeo¬
tians againit Agefilaus. In this celebrated campaign, he
ordered his foldiers to put one knee on the ground, and
firmly to reft their fpears upon the other, and cover them-
felves with their fhields, by which means he daunted the
enemy, and had a ftatue railed to his honour in' that fame
pofture. He aflifted alfo Nedtanebus, king of Egypt, and
conquered the whole ifland of Cyprus; but he at laft fell
a facrifice to his exceflive courage, and difdained to fly
from his fhip, when he had it in his power to fave his life
like his companions.
CHABRILLA'ND, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Drome, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridt of Creft : three miles weft of Creft.
CHA'BRIS, a town of France, in the department of
the Indre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of
Ilfoudun: feven leagues and a half north-north-weft of
Ifloudun.
CHABRFT (Peter), member of the fupreme council
of Bouillon, and advocate in the parliament of Paris,
died in that capital in 1785. Born to no fortune, his
days were fhortened by difficulties and cares. In reading
his works we admire his talents ; and his manners are faid
to have attradted univerfal efteem. His book, intituled,
Of the French Monarchy and its Laws, 2 vols, nmo.
1785, difplays a novelty in the defign, and a variety of
knowledge in the execution. He is thought to have taken
Montefquieu for his model, whofe energy and precifion
he copies with fuccefs.
CHA'CA-HA'MAR, a town of Chinefe Tartary. Lat.
44.. 50, N. Ion. no. 23. E. Ferro.
CHA'CA-TERGA'SH, a town of Afia, in the country
of Thibet : forty-two miles north-north-eaft of Tchontori.
CHACAN'GA, fee Chicanga.
CHACA'O, a town of South America, in the ifland
’ of Chiloe, where the governor ufually refides.
CHACE, f. a ftation of game more extended than a
park, and lefs than a foreft : and is fometimes taken for the
liberty of chafing or hunting within fuch a diftridt. And
according to Blount it hath another fignification, i. e.
the way through which cattle are drove to pafture, com¬
monly called in fome places a drcme nvay. See Chase.
CHACE, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridt of Saumur : one league fouth of Saumur.
CHA'CE WATER, a fmall town in the county of
Cornwall, near which are feveral rich copper mines,
which, within the circle of two miles, are faid to produce
to the value of 15,000!, every month: five miles from
Truro, and 262 weft of London.
CHACHAPOY'AS, a diftridt of South America, in
Peru, lying to the eaft of the'Andes, with a town of the
fame name, called alfo St, Juan de la Frontera, and two
or three others. The Indians rnake a great variety of
cottons and tapeftry here, which for the livelinefs of the
colours and neatnefs of the work are much valued.
C H /E 63
CHATO fLe), a province of South America, in the
country of Buenos Ayres, reckoned 200 leagues long, and
J25 broad, on the weft fide of the river Plata, and boun¬
ded on the weft by a chain of mountains ; it is inhabited
by many Indian nations, and but little known.
CHA'CRELAS, f a fpecies of albinos, or white ne¬
groes, peculiar to the ifland of Java, having weak eyes,
and dead-white fkins, with features ftriftly correfponding
to the negro race. See a figure of thefe extraordinary
people, under the article .Albinos, vol. i. p. 240.
CHACTAW'S, or Flat Heads, a powerful and in¬
trepid race of Indians, who inhabit a fine and ex ten-
five tradl of hilly country, with large and fertile plains
intervening, between the Albania and Miffiffippi rivers, and
on the weltern part of theftate of Georgia. This nation
had, not many years ago, forty-three towns and villages,
in three divifions, containing 12,123 fouls, of whicli4,04i
were fighting men. They are called Flat-heads by the
traders, beCaufe all the males have the fore and hind part
of their fculls artificially flattened when young. Diffe¬
rent from molt of the Indians bordering on the United
States, they have large plantations or country farms, where
they employ much of their time in agricultural improve¬
ments, after the manner of the white people. The Chac-
taws and Creek Indians are inveterate enemies to each
other.
CHADA'GHI, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Farfiftan : five miles weft of Schiras.
CHAD'CHOD, f. a term in Jewiffi antiquity ; Ezekiel,
mentions chadchod among the feveral merchandizes which,
were brought to Tyre. The old interpreters, not very
well knowing the meaning of this term, continued it in
their tranflation. St. Jerom acknowledges that he could
not difeover the interpretation of it. The Chaldee inter¬
prets it pearls ; others think that the onyx, ruby, carbun¬
cle, cryital, or diamond, is meant by it.
CHA'DER, an ifland of Afia, formed by a river which
runs from the Euphrates to thePerfian Gulph, which ex¬
tends from Baflbra nearly to El Catif, 240 miles long, and-
thirty wide-
CHZEREFOTIUM, /. in botany. See Scandix.
CHZERONE'A, anciently a city, now a fmall village,
of Bceotia, towards Phocis ; the birthplace of Plutarch 5
famous for the defeat of the confederate Greeks by Philip
of Macedon, who commanded in perfon. The army of
the confederate Greeks amounted to 30,000 men, com¬
manded by Lyficles and Chares ; the firft but littlfe, and
the fecond unfavourably, known ; and by Theagenes the
Theban, a perfon ftrongly fufpedted of treachery. The
Macedonian forces amounted to 32,000. Both armies
formed in battle array before the rifing of the fun. The
right wing of the Macedonians was headed by Philip;
his ton Alexander, then only nineteen years of age, but
furrounded by experienced officers, commanded the left
wing, which faced the facred band of the Thebans. The
auxiliaries of either army were polled in the centre. In
the beginning of the action, the Athenians charged with
impetuofity, and repelled the oppofing divifions. of the
enemy ; but the youthful ardour of Alexander obliged
the Thebans to retire, the tacred band being cut down to
a man. The activity of the young prince completed their
diforder, and he purfued the fcattered multitude with his
Theffalian cavalry. Meantime the Athenian generals,
too much elated by their firft advantage, loft the opportu¬
nity to improve it; for having repelled the centre and
right wing of the Macedonians, pxceptthe phalanx, which
was compofed of chofen men, -and immediately com¬
manded by the king, they, inftead of attempting to break
this formidable body , by attacking it in flank, prefled for¬
ward againft the fugitives, Lyficles exclaiming in vain
triumph, “ Purfue, my brave countrymen ! let us drive
the cowards to Macedon.” Philip oblerved this rath folly
with contempt ; and laying to thofe around him, “ Our
enemies know not how to conquer,” commanded his pha¬
lanx, by a rapid evolution, to gain an adjacent eminence,
from.
C H JE
64.
from which they poured down, firm and collefted, on
the advancing Athenians, whole confidence of fuccefs
had rendered them infenfible of their danger. But the
irrefiltible force of the Macedonian fpear converted their
fury into del'pair. Above 1000 fell, 2000 were taken pri-
foners ; the reft efcaped by a precipitate and (liaineful
flight. Of the Thebans more were killed than taken.
Few of the confederates perilhed, as they had little lhare
in the adtion ; and as Philip, perceiving his vidtory to be
complete, gave orders to fpare the vanquifhed, with a
clemency unufual in that age, and not lels honourable to
his underftanding than his heart ; fince his humanity thus
fubdued the minds and gained the affeftions of his con¬
quered enemies. See Macedon.
CHASROPHYL'LO SI'MILIS, /. in botany. See
Aphanes.
CHiEROPHYL'L'UM, f. and Or. re¬
joicing or being very luxuriant in leaves.] In botany, a
genus of the clafs pentandria, order digynia, natural order
or umbellatse or umbelliferae. The generic characters
are — Calyx. : umbel univerfal fpreading ; partial nearly
equal as to the number of rays. Involucre univerfal none ;
partial fubpentaphyllous ; leaflets lanceolate, concave, re¬
flected, nearly the length of the umbellule; perianthium
proper oh fcure. Corolla : univerfal nearly uniform ; florets
.of the dilk abortive. Proper of five petals, heart- in-
fledted ; with the point bent in, flattifh ; exterior ones ra¬
ther larger. Stamina : filaments five, Ample, length of
the umbellule. Anthers roundilh. Piltillum : germ in¬
ferior. Styles two refledted. Stigmas obtufe. Pericar-
piurn ; none, fruit oblong, acuminate, fmooth, bipartile.
Seeds two, oblong, attenuated upwards, convex on one
fide, flat on the other. — EJfential Character. Involu-
crum refledted concave ; petal, lieart-infledted ; fruit,
oblong, even.
Species, t. Chaerophyllum fylveftre, or wild cicely,
cow-weed, or common cow-parfley : Item even, ftriated,
joints fomewhat fvvelling. Two feet high and upwards,
hollow, grooved, generally villofe and purplifh, much
branched : branches lubereCt, lefs hoary than the Item.
Very common in paftures, orchards, and under hedges,
.flowering in May, and in warm fituations in April. Hud-
fon marks itasan annual plant ; other authors affirm it to be
perennial ; we rather fuppofe it to be biennial. Linnaeus re¬
marks that this plant indicates a luxuriant foil ; and fays
thattheflowerscommunicate a green and yellow dye to wool.
He alfo affirms that horfes, fneep and goats are not fond of
it, and that cows and fwine refufe it. According to Villars,
horfes will not eat it, even in the liable. Miller fays that
there are few animals who care to eat it except the afs.
Oil the contrary, Ray informs us that it has the name of
co'w-'wced, becaufe it is a grateful food to cows, in the
fpring, before it runs up to ftalk ; and in confirmation of
.this, Wainwright fays that cows like it fo well, that,
when a pafture is over-run with it, as is often the cafe
about Dudley, they always turn them in to eat it up.
Rabbits are well known to be very fond of this herb ;
and Curtis relates, that, in time of fcarcity, the young
leaves have been ufed as a pot-herb. Haller (from Buck-
wald) fays that the Dutch ufe it in gangrenes. John Bau-
hin mentions inftances of two families having been poi-
foned by eating a fmail quantity of the root.
2. Chaerophyllum bulbofum, or tuberous chervil: Item
even, fwelling at the joints, rough with hairs at the bafe.
Root like the navew, and biennial ; (tern from two or
three to fix feet high, with reddifh-brown fpots, fmooth
and even at top, hifpid, with long white hairs below, a
little fwelling at the joints. The roots taken up early in
the fpring are eaten boiled, with fait, oil, and vinegar.
Gmelin affirms both thefe and the feeds to occafion verti¬
goes ; but certainly this is not true, at lealt of the frefti
root, many perfons having eaten of that with impunity.
Native of Germany, Auftria, Sv.i fieri and, Norway 5 in
hedges and by wood fides ; flowering in June and July.
Cultivated 1739, by Mr. Miller.
C H JE
3. Chaerophyllum ariftatum : ftem even fwelling at the
joints, feeds rough with hairs two-awned. Native of
Japan.
4. Chaerophyllum temulum, or wild chervil. Rough
cow-parfley: ftem rugged, joints fwelling. Twofeetormore
in height. The roughnefs, deep purple colour, and fwel-
led joints, of the ftem, diftinguifli it from the firft fpecies ;
it alfo flowers a month or fix weeks later, and is more
confined to hedges, being rarely met with in open paf¬
tures. The ftem being generally fpotted with purple,
it is frequently miftaken for hemlock. It has the name
of temulum or t cmulentum from its fuppofed narcotic or
inebriating quality, which it probably poffefles, like the
fylveftre, only in a very fmail degree, &c.
5. Chaerophyllum hirfutum, or hairy chervil: ftem
equal ; leaflets gaftied, acute ; fruits two-awned. This
fpecies is perennial, and refembles the firft fort, but the
leaves are hairy, and their fegments broader. Stem four
feet. high. Corolla in fome plants red, in others white.
Native of Swifferland, Germany, Auftria, Carniola, &c.
6. Chaerophyllum aromaticum, or aromatic, chaerophyl-
lum : ftem equal; leaflets ferrate, entire; fruits two-
awned. Stem and petioles rough with hairs ; from two
to three feet high. Native of Lufatia, Militia, Auftria,
Silelia ; flowering in July and Auguft. Cultivated 1718,
by Mr. Miller.
7. Chaerophyllum coloratum : ftem equal ; leaves fuper-
decompound ; jnvolucels coloured. Native of Illyria.
8. Chaerophyllum aureum, or golden chaerophyllum :
ftem equal ; leaflets gaflted; feeds coloured, grooved, awn-
lefs. Stem angular, ftriated, fpotted, rough with hairs
at bottom, and not hollow : eighteen inches or more in
height. Native of the country about Geneva, of Svvif-
ferland, Germany, and Auftria. Cultivated 1570 by Mr.
Penn.
9. Chaerophyllum fcabrum : ftem equal, leaves gaflted,
acute, rough with hairs, peduncles rugged. Root fibrous ;
ftem fomewhat flexuoie, er.eCt, angular, ftriated, fmooth
below, liirfute above, a foot high and more ; leaves bi-
pinnatc, rough with hairs. Found near Jeddo, &c. in
Japan ; flowering in April and May.
10. Chaerophyllum aiborefcens : ftem Iflrubby ; leaves
like thofe of the firft fpecies, large, fuperdecompound,
with the pinnas much expanded. Native of Virginia.
Propagation and Culture. The firft and fourth fpecies
are common weeds. The others are admitted only into
botanic gardens; not being in uffe either for medi¬
cine, or in the kitchen. If the feeds be permitted to
fcatter, the plants will come up without farther care ; or
they may be fown in fpring, where they are to remain.
See Athamanta and Scandix.
CHA5/TODON,y'. in ichthyology, a genus of fifhesbe-
longing to the order of thoraci. The generic character,
by which thefe differ from all other thoracic fillies, is, the
fetaceous teeth. The body is broad, thin, laterally coni-
preffed, covered with hard feales, and moft of the fpecies
are ornamented with tranfverle bands. The head and the
aperture of the mouth are finall ; the lips can be
protruded and drawn back : the teeth are loofe, and of
equal lengths ; the eyes are fmail, round, covered with
a membrane, and near the top of the head. The noftrils
are double, fmail, and very near the eye. In moft of
the fpecies, the dorfal; anal, and tail, fins, are ftiff, and
covered with feales ; but all the fpecies have fpines in the
dorlal and anal fins, the number of which varies in the
different kinds, and often forms the fpecific character.
This genus confifts of a vaft number of fpecies ; fome
authors reckon as many as feventy-feven ; but it is not
poffible to lay how many there may be. They are all en¬
tirely exotic, none of them being known in our leas.
They are found in the warm countries of Afia, Africa,
and America ; moft of the fpecies are found in the Baft
Indies : yet the genus was not even known to the ancient
writers on fifties. Block, in his late celebrated work,
enumerates forty-feven fpecies, viz.
1. Chaetodon
'ILETODON,
C H JE T
i. Chaetodon Suratenfis., or Surat chetodon, Nineteen
fpines in the dorl'al and thirteen in the anal fin, form the
lpecific character. The membrane of the gills has five
rays, the ventral fin fixteen, the anal twenty-three, the
tail fixteen, the dorl'al thirty-one. The aperture of the
mouth is finall ; the lips flefhy ; the noftrils, which are
midway between the mouth and the eyes, -are tingle and
round ; the roltrum declines ; the iris is filvery. The
aperture of the gills is wide, the membrane is loofe, and
fuftained by five linall jagged bones. The lateral line,
which paffes along the body near the back, is loft towards
the end, and appears again about the middle of the tail.
There is a black fpot near the gill-covert, under the pec¬
toral fin. .The ground-colour of the fifh is white, cloud¬
ed with violet and there are a vaft number of beautiful
round filvery fpots, and fix brown flripes or bands, the
firft of which reaches only to the pectoral fin. The anus
is nearer to the head than to the tail. The ventral fins
are black; the dorfal and anal, all along the fpines, are
violet, but the foft parts are grey ; the fpines of thefe fins
are provided with foft broad filaments. It is a native of
the leas about Surat, and is reprefented in the annexed
Chaetodon Plate I. They frequent the mouths of rivers
in November, when they are taken pretty plentifully with
the line. This grows fifteen inches long; the flefli is
fat and well-tafted, either fried or boiled. At Tranque-
bar, the Portuguefe eat them on faft-days, keeping them
dried for that purpofe. They fpawn in February.
a. Chaetodon Chinenfis, or Chinefe chetodon : with
eighteen fpines in the dorfal fin, which conftitutes itsfpe-
cific character. The membrane of the gills has five, rays ;
the pedtoral fin ten, the ventral fix, the anal twenty-eight,
the tail fixteen, the dorfal twenty-four. This fifh is broad
in the middle, compreffed at the ends. The head and
mouth are linall ; the iris of the eye is bluilh ; on the gill-
covert there is a black oval fpot, with a white rim ; there
are two fimilar fpots between the gill-covert and the eye.
The branchiollege membrane is hid under the gill-co¬
vert. The lateral line runs parallel with the back ; the anus
is near the head. There are ten brown narrow bands on
a white ground round the body of this fifh, feveral of
which are divided.. The pe&oral and ventral fins are
grey ; the reft violet- colour ; the dorfal and pedtoral fins
are fliort ; the anal long ; there are fifteen fpines in the dor¬
fal fin. It is one of the fillies which the Chinefe take by
means of the tame guillemot or diver, which birds are
trained for this fport.
3. Chaetodon Kleinii, or Klein’s band fifh. A ftripe
acrofs the eye and head, and feventeen fpines in the
dorfal fin, form the fpecific charafter. The membrane
of the gills contains fix rays, the peftoral fin fifteen, the
ventral fix, the anal twenty-three, the tail eighteen, the
dorfal thirty-fix. This filh is of a globular form ; the
aperture of the mouth is very fmall ; the noftrils fingle ;
the pupil of the eye is black; the iris white ; the gill-
covert is competed of two thin leaves ; the aperture is
wide, and the membrane loofe. The ground-colour of
the body is white ; the back is brown; the fins gold-
yellow. This fpecies is found in the Eaft Indies. Klein
was the firft who defcribed this fifh, and gave a figure ofit.
4. Chaetodon bimaculatus, or the two-fpotted cheto¬
don. T wo. fpots on the dorfal fin, and a ftripe acrofs the
eyes, form its fpecific character. The membrane of the
gills is provided with fix rays, the peftoral fin with four¬
teen, the ventral with fix, the anal with eighteen, the tail
with feventeen, and the dorfal with thirty-four. The
jins are oblong ; the noftrils double, and placed near the
eyes ; the pupil of the eye is black, the iris yellow. The
aperture of the gills is wide, and the membrane is con¬
cealed. The colouris white, inclining to grey ; the pec¬
toral and ventral fins are red, the others yellow at their
origin and grey at the extremities. The band and the
fpots are edged with black and white ; one of the fpots is
at the bottom, and the other at the edge, of the dorfal fin.
Native of the Eaft Indies.
You IV. No. 178,
O D O N. 6s
5. Chaetodon biaculeatus, or two-fpined Chetodon.
The two fpines under the eye furnifh the fpecific charac¬
ter and the name. The' membrane of the gills has four
rays, the peftoral fin eighteen, the ventral fix, the anal
and tail feventeen each, the dorfal twenty-feven. The
body is long ; the back of a blue colour, the belly white.
It is girt with three bands : the firft encompafles the
head, the Tecond the body, the third ’the fail. The iris
of the eye is of a brown hue. The hindermoft of the
two fpines which are below the eye is much longer than
the other. The two gill-coverts are jagged ; the lateral
line goes near the back ; the anus is in the middle of the
body. The fins are all grey, and vary only in fhape ;
the peftoral and anal being round, the reft fharp ; the
dorfal fin has ten fpines; and a furrow in the middle ; the
anal fin has two fpines, the dorfal only one. This alfo
is found in the Eaft Indies.
6. Chaetodon aureus, or the golden chetodon; the
beautiful yellow colour of which, and the ftrong fpine
with which the jaw-bone is armed, form the fpecific cha¬
racter. There are twelve rays in the peCtoral fin, fix in
the ventral, fifteen in the anal and tail, and twenty-four
in the dorfal. The body down to the tail forms an oval
figure ; and except on the peCtoral and ventral fins, it is
covered with hard jagged fcales. The mouth is linall,
with fetaceous teeth; the lips are ftrong; the noftrils dou¬
ble, not far from the eyes; the pupil of the eye is black,
the iris reddifli. The gill-covert is a fingle plate, and
goes off to a point near the peCtoral fin : the aperture is
large, and the membrane lies concealed under the covert.
The origin of the fins is yellow, the extremities green.
There are twelve fharp fpines in the dorfal fin, and
two in the anal; the rays of all the fins are branched;
the tail and peftoral fins are round, the others are fickle-
fhaped. It inhabits the waters of the Antilles; and is
carnivorous, being furnilhed with teeth proper for feizing
its prey.
7. Chaetodon imperator, or imperial chetodon; the
body ftriped longitudinally, and the fourteen fpines in
the dorfal fin, form the fpecific character. The rays in
the peCtoralfin are eighteen in number, in the ventralfix,
in the anal twenty-three, in the tail fixteen, in the dorfal
thirty-four. The head is large, and covered with fmall
fcales ; the eyes have a black pupil, and orange-coloured
iris; and round the iris is an arched blue ftripe. The
jaw-bone is edged with blue, and armed with a ftrong
fpine. The gill-covert is made up of two laminae, with a
blue ftripe upon each. The ground-colour of the fifth
is white ; tire longitudinal ftripes are blue. The dorfal
and anal fins ' are thick, itiff, and round ; the latter
at its origin has three fliort ftrong fpines; the ventral fin
has one long one; all the fins have branched rays. It is
a native of japan, and the belt of all the Eaft-India fifh:
they are very fcarce and dear, and only found on the
tables of the great : whence the name.
8. Chsetodon fafciatus, or ftriped chetodon. The fpe¬
cific character is, the fafciated, fwathed, or lifted, body,
and fever, fpines in the anal fin. The pefioral fin has
fixteen rays, the ventral fix, the anal twenty-one, the
tail fourteen, the dorfal twenty-three. The head, the
fcales, and the aperture of the mouth, are finall ; the
jaws are of equal length, and furnifhed with teeth.
The lips are hard ; the noftrils double, and near the eyes;
the pupil is black, the iris blue and white. There are
blue ftripes on the forehead, above, below, and behind,
the eyes.' The maxillary bone is jagged, and terminates
behind in a ftrong fpine. The gill-covert is one thin
plate ; the aperture is wide, the membrane hid. The
colour is white, with blue ftripes, edged with brown.
The pectoral fin is fhort, tranlparent, and rounded ;
there is one fpine in the ventral fin ; and fourteen in the
dorfal ; the reft of the rays of the fins are foft and rami¬
fied. The blue bands round the anal fin have not the
brown edge remarked in thofe on the trunk. This fifli,
which the Japanefe call the duke, probably an-accou'nt of
S its
66 C H m T
its various-colouredbands,' is a native oftheEaftlndies. It
appears to be of the voracious kind by its mouth andteeth.
9. Chtetodon guttatus, or the fpottfcd chetodon. Two
fpines (the firft and laft rays) in the ventral fin form the
fpecific character. There are fifteen rays in the mem¬
brane of the gills, fifteen in the pedtoral fin, five in the
-ventral, fixteen in the tail, and anal, and twenty-three
in the dorfal. The body is narrow, compared with the
other fpecies, and covered with fmall fcales ; and the
mouth is larger; the jaws are of an equal length, armed
with fharp teeth ; the lips are ftrong, the upper moveable
and confiding of two bones. The eyes are large and
round, the pupil black, the iris deep yellow. The gill-
covert is one thin long plate, under which the membrane
lies concealed. The iides are grey towards the back,
white towards the belly, and marked with round fpots of
a reddifh-brpwn colour, which look like drops of water.
The fins are without fcales, the pectoral yellowifh brown,
the ventral grey, the tail yellowifh, the dorfal and anal
dark grey. The rays of all the fins, except the fpecific
fpines, are branched ; thofe of the tail have foine red-
di(h-brown dots ; the dorfal has thirteen fpines, the anal
feven. It is a native of Japan, defcribed only by Bloch,
who calls it bandouliere tachetee. It is never caught but at
the junftion of frefh water and fait, i. e. at the mouths of
rivers and ftreams; it is a fcarce fifh, and delicate eating;
the prick of its fpines is very painful.
10. Chsstodon paru, or variegated angel-fifh ; the fpe¬
cific character of which is known by twelve fpines in
the dorfal fin, and five in the anal. There are four¬
teen ray's in the pedloral fin, fix in the ventral, and
fifteen in the tail. The head is fmall ; the aperture of
the mouth fomewhat wider than in many of tire other
fpecies; the lower jaw is protruded beyond the upper';
snd both are armed with teeth; the upper lip confifts of
two long, narrow, thin, bones. The eyes are fmall, with
a blqck pupil inclofed in a golden iris. The noftrils are
juft below the eyes, the gill-covert confifts of two plates,
and ends in a ftrong fpine below ; the head and breaft
are covered with fmall fcales; thofe on the reft of the
body are large; and they are all edged with yellow;
there is alfo a yellow fpot in front of the pedtoral fin.
The ground-colour of the fifh is entirely black ; and it
- is only on the fides, where the filvery fcales hardly cover
it, that the black appears through, and makes a grey
colour. This fifh is a native of America ; it is found at
Brafil and Jamaica, where its flefli is eaten.
11. Chastodon pavo, or peacock chetodon ; in which
its lengthened body, and fourteen fpines in the dorfal
fin, make up the fpecific charadler. There are four rays
in the membrane of the gills, fifteen in the pedloral fin,
fix in the ventral, feventeen in the anal, fixteen in the
tail, and twenty-feven in the dorfal. The head is large;
mouth fmall; jaws armed with fmall teeth, and the lips
hard ; above thefe are the noftrils, double and round ;
between which and the eyes are fome faint blue lines.
The pupil of the eye is black ; the iris of a greenifh white.
Behind the eyes, and near the beginning of the lateral
line, is a round blue fpot. The head and breaft are of a
yellowifh brown colour, marked with bright blue fpots.
The gill-covert is one fingle plate, with a large aperture.
The whole body is fpread with various colour, which are
intermixed fo agreeably as to referable a peacock’s tail.
It is a native of the Ealt Indies, and is defcribed only by
Bloch, who, from it beautiful colours, calls it, paon de
. i'Inde, the Indian peacock.
12. Chaetodon tricolor, or three-coloured chetodon.
Its three diflimff colours, and along fpine at the gill-co¬
vert, form its fpecific charafter. There are fix rays in
the membrane of the gills, twelve in the pectoral fin,
fix in the ventral, twenty-one in the anal, fifteen in the
tail, and thirty-three in the dorfal. This very fingular
fpecies is reprefented in the Chaetodon Plate II. The
head and mouth are fmall; the noftrils double; the gill-
coverts and fins are edged with red, the mouth with
Black; the head, breaft, belly, and fins, are yellow}
O D O N.
from the fhoulders to the tail it Is entirely black; the
pupil of the eye is black; with an iris -of a beautiful
gold-colour. The gill-covert is rounded before, and
jagged behind; the aperture is wide, and the membrane
covered; the back is fharp, and the belly rounded.
The fcales are hard, jagged, ftrongly attached to the
fkin, and like the fins, edged with red. The dorfal and
anal fins are fo covered with fcales as to be quite lliff ; the
anal has three fpines, the dorfal fourteen. This curious
fifh is found in the Brafilian fea, wljere prince Maurice
made his drawing on the fpot, from whence the annexed
engraving is copied; it is alfo known in Cuba and at
Guadaloupe; where it grows to two feet long.
13. Chsetodon maculatus, or fpangled chetodon.
Eighteen prickles in the dorfal fin, and twelve in the
anal, form its fpecific character. There are fix rays in
the membrane of the gills, fixteen in the pectoral fin,
thirteen in the ventral, twenty in the anal and tail, and
twenty-fix in the dorfal. This fpecies is alfo diflinguifh-
ed by being fmaller, the body more flattened, the fcales
fofter, and fhining like gold fpangles. Thefe fifties a-
bound on the coaft of Coromandel, and in the frelh wa¬
ters of Surinam ; they are very full of bones, and there¬
fore feldom eaten except by the negroes. The head is
fmall and blunt; the bones of the lips narrow; the teeth
like briftles ; the noftrils fingle, and near the eyes.
The pupil of the eye is black, with double irid’es, a nar¬
row one which is yellow, and abroaderone which isbrown,
14. Chaetodon macrolepidotus, or chetodon with en¬
larged fcales. Two broad ftripes on the body extending
to the fins, the fin of the tail ftraight, and the fourth
ray of the dorfal fin very long, like a hair or firing,
form its fpecific charafiler. There are fixteen rays in the
pedtoral fin, fix in the ventral, twenty-four in the anal,
eighteen in the tail, and thirty-four in the dorfal. The
head is fmall; the jaws of .equal length; the eyes round,
with a black pupil and bluifh iris ; below which there
are two little apertures; above the eyes is a brown fpot,
and below them another of the fame colour. The gill-
covert is fingle ; the aperture is wide, and the membrane
lies hid under the covert. ■ The fcales on the head are
fmall; but they advance in fize from the head to the
tail, where they are confiderfibly enlarged. The brown
ftripes on a filver ground have a very pretty effedt. The
dorfal fin has eleven fliff rays, the anal three, the ven¬
tral one ; the other rays are branched. This beautiful
fifh haunts the Eaft-Indian feas; it grows to a large fize,
fometimes weighing twenty-five pounds. It is fat and
well-flavoured, tailing like the foie.
15. Chaetodon cornutus, the fea heron, or horned che¬
todon. Its fpecific character confifts in the mouth be¬
ing in the^form of a cylinder, the tail crefcent-fhaped,
and the third ray of the dorfal fin very long, like a horn.
There are four rays in the membrane of the gills, eigh¬
teen in the pedtoral fin, fix in the ventral, thirty-two
in the anal, and forty-five in the dorfal. The body is
thin, and covered with very fmall fcales. The jaws are
of equal length, with two rows of teeth.- The eyes are
very near the top of the head ; and below them are four
little apertures. The gill-covert is fingle, and round ;
the aperture is wide, and the membrane lies concealed.
The white ground of the body is relieved by black bands :
the upper band, which pafles over the eye, is divided,
in fome fubjedts, by a light ftroke: this occafional varia¬
tion has occafioned fome to make two fpecies of it. The
dorfal fin has twelve fliff rays. It is an Eaft Indian fifh ;
and, according to Valentine, the flefli is good food.
16. Choetodon unimaculatus, or one-fpotted cheto¬
don : the fingle black fpot on the lateral line, and thir¬
teen fpines in the dorfal fin, conftitute its fpecific charac¬
ter. There are fourteen rays in the pedtoral fin, fix in
the ventral, twenty-three in the anal, fixteen in the tail,
thirty-five in the dorfal. The head is fmall, and a black
band pafles over the eye. The jaws are of equal length;
and the noftrils are near the eyes. The pupil is black,
furrounded by a white line, and a brown iris. The gill-
covert
C HiETODOK.
C H m T
.covert is compofed of two fmall plates, and the mem¬
brane lies underneath, fuftained by four little bones.
The Tides are white, covered with fcales, and ornament¬
ed with tranfye'rfe lines of a yellow colour. The back,
is grey, and there is a brown ftripe acrol’s the tail. The
tins are -all yellow, with branched rays. Both the anal
and dorfal tins are Ihort, rounded, and edged with
brown. This is alfo an Eall-Indian filh; Bloch received
it from Japan, and he calls it bandoulicre d tache.
17. Chastodon ro'ftratus, or beaked chetodon; fpecifi-
cally diltinguilhed by its long cylindrical beak, and by a
black ipot edged with white on the back. There are
twelve rays in the peftoral fin, fix in the ventral, twen¬
ty-three in the anal, fifteen in the tail, and thirty-nine
in the dorfal. The trunk is broad and thin ; the head
narrow and long, and the mouth fmall; the jaws are of
equal length, with fmall teeth. The noftrils are fingle,
cylindrical, and very near the eyes; the pupil of the eye
is black, the iris yellow, partly covered by a brown ftripe
or band palling over the eye. On the white ground there
are brown longitudinal ftrokes, and four broad trans-
verfe bands: all the bands are black, edged with white.
This fifh haunts the Indian ocean, and at certain feafons
approaches the mouths of rivers. It is remarkable for
the method of obtaining its food. When it perceives an
infeft or fly perched on a fea-weed above the water, it
advances within five or fix feet, and thence Ipirts the
Water out of its long beak as through a fyringe or fquirt,
with fo much force as to beat it into the water, when he
catches it up before it can recover itfelf. As this is a
plekling fight, the great men in the eaft keep thefe filh
in large vafes for amufement. They transfix an infe<5t
with a pin, and fallen it to the fide of the veffel, when
all the fillies, eager to get the fly, begin fpirting drops of
water at it with the greatest fwiftnefs and without ever
miffing their aim. When they have furnilhed lufticient
amulement, they are killed for the table, and are good
food.
1 8 . Chastodon orbis, the globular chetodon. Its orbicular
form, with nineteen rays in the anal fin, determine its
fpecific charafter. There are eighteen rays in the pefto-
ral fin, fix in the ventral, fixteen in the tail, and twenty-
eight in the dorfal. The head is fmall, and very much
declihing ; the noftrils fingle, and not far from the eyes;
the pupil is black, iris gold-colour. The jaws are of
equal length; the aperture of the gills is very large, and
the membrane lies under the operculum or covert, which
is narrow. The lateral line differs from the other fpe-
cies ; inftead of forming the ufual arch, it is compofed
of anumberof Ihort ftrokes, at a fmall diftance from each
other, making a blunt angle with the back. The ground¬
colour of this- filh is blue; it is a native of the Eaft In¬
dies; grows a foot long, and nearly as much broad. It
is only caught in the lea, chiefly in the month of Octo¬
ber, when it is molt fat and fucculent ; but it is never
found in abundance.
19. Chsetodon nigricans, or Brafilian chetodon. Its
notched teeth and the fpine in the tail, form the fpecific
character. There are four rays in the membrane of the
gills, eighteen in the peftoral fin, fix in the ventral,
twenty-leven in the anal, twenty-one in the tail, and
thirty-fix in the dorlal. When the teeth are examined
with a microfcope, they look like a row of hands, being
narrow and round below, and broader above, and they
end in yellow points, one rifing above another, fome-
what like the fingers in a hand laid flat. There are fix-
teen teeth in the upper jaw, and ten in the lower. The
body of this filfi is harder than the other fpecies, and is
covered with fcales. The head is fmall, the eyes large,
with a black pupil and filvery iris : it has two apertures
direftly under the eyes. The gill-covert is long and nar¬
row. The trunk is blackilh on the back, brown at the
fides, and white towards the belly. The peftoral fins
are grey ; the ventrals black; both furnilhed with branch¬
ed rays': the dorfal a©d anal fins are white at their ori-
O D O N. 67
gin, brownilh towards the extremities, with branched
rays alfo, the tail fin is light grey with branched rays.
This filh is found in different countries: at Brafil, in the
Red Sea, and in the Eaft Indies ; where it grows to the
length of two feet. The flelh is firm, juicy, and well tail¬
ed; its food is Ihell-filh and young crabs.
20. Chastodon Argufi, the Argus chetodon. Its fpe¬
cific charafter is taken from the four fpotted Ipines, like
eyes, in the anal fin. There are four rays in the mem¬
brane of the gills, eighteen in the peftoral fin, fix in the
ventral, eighteen in the anal, fourteen in the tail, twen¬
ty-eight in the dorlal. The body of this filh is almoit
fquare. The pupil of the eye is black ; the iris gold-yel-
low. The aperture of the gills is wide, the membrane
loole ; the lateral line forms an arch. The fides are full
of beautiful brown fpots like eyes: whence the name.
The colour is violet towards the back, white towards
the belly : the fins are all Ihort, and of a yellow colour.
It is found in the frelh waters of the Eaft Indies, com¬
monly in marlhy places abounding with inlefts, which
are its food. Ruyi'ch fays that they follow the Hi ips, and
eat whatever is thrown into the lea, whence the name
Jiront-ruifch , as if they fed on ordure. The flelh is whole-
fome, fat, and well-tailed. It is very remarkable that
this filh is found petriliedin the mountains of Bolca in Italy.
21. Chastodon vagabundus, or wandering chetodon.
Its cylindrical mouth, a band acrofs the eye, and thir¬
teen fpines in the dorfal fin, form its fpecific charafter.
There are eighteen rays in the peftoral fin, fix in the
ventral, twenty in the anal, fourteen in the tail, and
thirty-three in the dorfal. The head and body is cover¬
ed with fcales ; over the head pafles a black band, and
round the body a brown ftripe. The gill-covert is made
up of two iinail plates, and the membrane is loole. The
pupil of the eye is black, enclbfed in a brown iris with a
white line. The ground-colour of the filh is yellow ; at
the extremity of the trunk, and in the middle of the
tail, fin, there is a black band. The dorlal, anal, and
tail fins, are yellow bordered with brown. This beau¬
tiful filh abounds all over the Eall-Indian Teas; and tra-
verles the lakes and rivulets. It is fat, firm, and well-
tailed,
22. Chtetodon tri vine alum, or three-banded chetodon.
Specific charafter, three black bands round the body,
with the dorfal and anal fins very long. There are feven
rays in the membrane of the gills, eleven in the peftoral
fin, fix in the ventral, twenty-fix in the anal, feventeen
in the tail, and thirty-four in the dorfal. The body is
very thin, as broad as it is long, with a declining rof-
trum. The head and mouth are fmall ; the noftrils dou¬
ble, and near the eyes: the pupil is black, the iris white
inclining to red. The gill-covert is one lmall plate;
the aperture is wide, and the membrane partly concealed.
The fcales are very fmall, and jagged. The ground-co¬
lour is white ; and. the three black bands which inter-
left it have a very pretty efieft : the firft begins at the
top of the head, goes round the eyes, and ends at the,
chin ; the fecond reaches from the back to the anus; and
the third which is near the tail, pafles over part ot the
dorfal and anal fins'. The reft of thefe fins, as well as thofe
of the bread and tail, are white; but the ventral is
black; the dorfal fin has five Ipines at its origin, the anal
three. This lingular filh is tound in the Arabian and
Indian feas; the fubjeft reprefented in the Chastodon
Plate III. fig. 1. is from the latter place. It lives on co¬
rals and Ihell-filh; and grows a foot and a half long, and
broad in proportion; it lives only in the fea; and is
caught from January to May; but never plentiful, and
they are taken at no other part of the year. The flelh
is nourilhing, and is much recommended to fick people.
23. Chaetodon perca, or perch-headed chetodon.
The three bands on its body, with the dorfal and anal
fins very Ihort, form its fpecific charafter. The firft band
paffes over the head; the fecond over the bread, the
third from the extremity of the anus to the end of the
dorfal
68 C H JE T
dorfal fin. This is a beautiful little fifh; the ground-
colour of which is filver. There are feventeen rays in
the peftoral fin, five in the ventral, thirteen in the anal,
fixteen in the tail, and twenty-four in the dorfal. The
head is large; the mouth final! ; the jaws of equal length,
armed with little fharp teeth. The top of the head and
the iris are brown; the noftrils are near the upper lip ; the
bones of the cheeks, are jagged, the gill-covert is. one
little plate, goingto a point in the middle; the aperture
is large, and the membrane is hid under the covert.
The back and its fin are yellow, except where interfered
by the bands ; the central fin is long and black ; the anal
yellowifh ; the peftoral fin is transparent, that of the tail
grey, and round. The fcales are fmall, and extend over
the dorfal, anal, and tail, fins. This fifh is alfo found
in the Eaft Indies, and in Arabia; the one reprefented
in the annexed plate, fig. 2. is from the former place. It lies
among the coral, and lives on polype and other little ani¬
mals. Its fl£fh is good food. This fifh leems to form a con¬
necting link between the chetodon(orband-filh,) andthe
perch. Its teeth and cheek-bone refemble the latter;
but the body or trunk anfwers to the former, being
broad, banded, and the fins covered with fcales. But,
as the teeth are not fetaceous, or briftly, which is. the
generic character of the chetodon, it would more proper¬
ly come among the perches. It is probable Linnaeus
did not examine the teeth. We have neverthelefs fol¬
lowed that fv hematic author, in placing it in this genus.
24. Cbaetodon vefpertilio, or lea-bat; the fpecific cha¬
racter of which arifes from the broad dorfal and anal fins,
extended like wings; and a black band acrofs the tail.
There are five rays in the membrane of the gills, eigh¬
teen in the peftoral fin; fix in the ventral, thirty-three
in the anal, feventeen in the tail, and forty-one in the
dorfal. This fifh is as broad as it is long. The head has
no fcales; the lips areftrong; there are two round holes
near the eyes; the pupil is black, encircled by a white
line and a yellow iris. The gill-covert is made up of
two linall filvery plates; the aperture is wide, and the
membrane partly concealed. The body is grey towards
theback, white towards the belly, and covered with very
frcall fcales. The fins have branched rays ; and are of a
grey colour, except the dorfal and anal, of which the
part covered with fcales is yellowifh. The firft ray of
the long ventral fin is a fpine, of which there are three
intheanal fin, and five in the dorfal; the dorfal and anal
fins are very wide and thick, which occafioned Bloch to
call it bandouiliere a larges nageoires ; but Willughby, the
Jea-bat. This curious fpecies is fhewn. at fig. 3. of the
preceding plate.
23. Chaetodon ftriatus, the ftriated chetodon. Its bo¬
dy fwathed, the tail fin rounded, and thirteen fpines in
the dorfal fin, determine its fpecific character. There
are fixteen rays in the peftoral -fin, fix in the ventral,
twenty-two in the anal, eighteen in the tail, and thirty-
tw.o in the dorfal. The head is fmall, but furnifhed
with large fcales. The eyes are large, the pupil black,
enclofed within a yellow line and a white iris.. The gill-
covert, under which the membrane is concealed, is dou¬
ble, The colour is yellow towards the back, white to¬
wards the belly, which colours are greatly fet off by the
brown bands. The fins are yellow at bottom, and brown
towards the extremities'. The peftoral fin is entirely
brown, the ventral black. It is found both in the Ealt
Indies and in America ; and is excellent food.
26. Chaetodon capillratus, the ftriped angel -fifh, or fea-
butterfly. The fpecific charafter arifes from a black fpot
encircled with white near the tail, and thirteen fpines in
the dorfal fin. There are five rays in the membrane of the
gills, fourteen jn the peftoral fin, fix in the ventral, nine¬
teen in the anal, fixteen in the tail, and thirty-three in
the. dorfal. This pretty fifh lias large eyes compared with
the other fpecies, the pupil is black, the iris reddifh.
The gill-covert is double, or made up of two fmall la¬
mina?, under which the membrane lies concealed ; the
i
O D O N,
aperture is very broad. The body is covered with large
fcales, and a number of brown lines, forming a'net-work,
which has a pretty effeft. There is.a brown band at the
origin of the tail-fin, and to the dorfal and anal fins
there is an edging of the fame colour. The gill-coverts
and the fpines of the dorfal and anal fins, are of a beau¬
tiful fea-green ; but the fins themfelves are all of a yel-
lovvifh colour. This filh is found at Jamaica ; it is fmall
and thin, being feldom more than two or three inches
long'; and hence is devoured by the voracious kinds. -
27. Chaetodon bicolor, or two-coloured cbaetodon;
fpecifically diltinguiflied by. the contrail of the two co¬
lours on its body. There are fourteen rays in the pefto¬
ral fin, fix in the ventral, eighteen in the anal, fixteen in
the tail, -and thirty-five in the dorfal. The body is ob¬
long ; the gill-covert jagged, and armed with a fpine.
The head, with one half of the body, and the tail, are
white; all the reft brown.. The peftoral fins are femi-
tranfparent; the anal and dorfal are covered with fcales
to the very ends. The eyes are large; pupil black, iris
red. This beautiful fifh is found in both the Indies.
28. Chaetodon faxatilis, the mouchana chetodon. Its
body long and fafeiated, with thirteen rays in the anal
fin, form the fpecific charafter. There are eighteen rays
in the peftoral fin, fix in the ventral, nineteen in the tail,
twenty-fix in the dorfal. The fcales are very large in
proportion to the body ; thofe on the fins only are fmall.
The eyes are large ; pupil black, iris yellow. It has four
little apertures juft below the eyes. The membrane of
the gills is loofe, the aperture very wide. Five black
bands on a white ground decorate the body. The fins
are all black ; the tail forked. Inhabits the leas of Brail!,
the Eaft Indies, and Arabia. It lies in deep places on
beds of coral, and feeds on polypes. It rarely grows
more than fix or eight inches long. It keeps generally
at the bottom of the waters, and thus efcapes the hand
of man.
29. Chaetodon marginatus, the bordered chetodon : all
the fins bordered cr edged, and ending in a point, form
its fpecific charafter. There are twelve rays in the pec¬
toral fin, eight in the ventral, fixteen in the anal, twenty
in the tail, and twenty-five in the dorfal. Befides thele
marks, it is diftmguifhed by having no fcales on the ana],
tail, and dorfal, fins, which laft only has prickly rays.
The head and belly are whitifh, the fides and back yellow.
The fcales are large ; the ventral, peftoral, and anal,
fins, and the back part of the dorfal, are grey; the reft
of the dorfal fin and the tail are yellow ; all the fins have
branched rays except the twelve fpiny ones of the dorfal.
The eyes, inftead of the ufual round form, are oblong ;
and the branchial membrane is loole.; the pupil of the
eye is black, iris filvery ; with two little round holes be¬
low. The eight light-brown band son this fifh give it an
agreeable appearance. This fpecies is found haunting
the fhores of the Antilles ; and lives on fmall fifh. Its
flefii is well tailed.
30. Chaetodon chirurgus, or the furgeon : one fpine in
the tail, and fourteen on the back, give its lpecific cha¬
rafter. There are fixteen rays in the peftoral fin, fix in
the ventral, twenty in the anal, fixteen in the tail, twen¬
ty-fix in the dorfal. It has no fcales on the fins ; the
head is large ; the upper jaw the longell ; the aperture of
the gills is wide, and the membrane lo'ofe. The eyes are
round, having a black pupil with a white line and a yel¬
low iris. The “head is mingled with violet-colour and
black, the fides and back yellow, the belly bluifh ; the
peftoral and ventral fins violet; the anal of the fame co¬
lour, with brown bands; the tail-fin is yellow at its ori¬
gin, violet towards the extremity ; and the dorfal fin is
'marbled with yellow and violet-colour. There are five,
narrow bands of a "violet- colour on the trunk, ft his fifti
alfo inhabits the Antilles, and its flefhis well-tafted. The
lancet-fhaped fpine in the tail gained it the name of tbs
furgeon. This account is from Plunder's MS.
31. Ch a; tedon rhomb aides, or rhombuidal .eltetodon.
; ; <* Specific
I;
C H
TlateW
i . l/Ae r'^vyv/ . 'z , r '///r 3 < S/f' */
r.onAon PtJ’ii^ricttixsfln' .1st .*'•
C H JE T
Specific chara&er, three fpines in the anus, and five in
the back. There are eighteen rays in the' peftoral fin,
fix in the ventral, twenty-four in the anal, twenty-fix in
the tail, twenty-two in the dorfal. The body is covered
with fcales, and is of a rhomboidal fhape. The head is
green at top, at the fides filvery. The back is dark green,
which declines to a fea-green on the fides, which colour
towards the belly is loft in three bands ; the interval be¬
tween thefe bands is white, and the belly yellow: The
mouth is larger, and the teeth fmaller, than in mod of
the fpecies. The eyes are large, round, and have a black
pupil in the middle of ai red iris : below each eye are two
little holes; The gill-covert confifts of two fmall laminae;
the membrane is loofe., and lies near the aperture, which
is wide. The peCtoral and ventral fins are yellow in
the middle, violet towards the extremities ; the anal,
tail, and dorfal, fins, have a green border. This is an
American fifh ; and grows to a confiderable fize.
32. Chsetodon glaucus, or blue chetodon. The lateral
line ftrait, and five fpines on the back, form the fpecific
chatafiler. There are twelve rays in the peftoral fin, fix
in the ventral, feventeen in the anal, twenty in the dorfal
and tail. It is alfo peculiar to this fpecies, that the anal
fin is entirely compofed of foft rays, and the ventral fins
very final!. The body is long, and covered with fcales.
The head fmall ; the aperture of the mouth large. The
eyes are fmall ; the pupil, which is black, is furrounded
with a white iris. Between the eyes and mouth are four
little holes. The branchial .membrane is loofe ; the aper¬
ture of the gills wide. The back and fides are blue as
far as the lateral line, below which they are of a filvery
whitenefs. There are fix fitort narrow black ftripes on
the body. The peCtoral and ventral fins are yellowifh at
bottom, blue towards the ends ; the others are blackifli,
and end in long points. Found in the American feas.
33. Chsetodon Plumieri, or Plumier’s chetodon. Its
fpecific ch arafter is determined by two dorfal fins, and no
fcales on the head. There are four rays in the membrane
•of the gills, fourteen in the pedtoral fin, fix in the ven¬
tral, twenty-five in the anal, twelve in the tail, five in
the firft dorfal, thirty-four in the fecond. The body is
fliaped like a I'rftall fliield ; it is ornamented with fix
green bands, and covered above with lmali fcales. The
head is fmall, brown above, white at the fides. The eyes
are white inclining to orange : above them is an elevation,
below which are two round apertures. The giil-covert
is two final 1 laminae; and the membrane, which has broad
rays, is loofe. The back is of a brownifh colour; the
fides yellowifh, the belly white. The fins have no fcales;
they are green, and have branched rays. This was firft
found by Plunder, and retains his name. Native of the
Eaft: Indies, and is good food.
34. Chsetodon falcula, or fickle-banded chetodon.
Specific character, two large black fickle-fhaped bands,
edged with white, running down the back. There are
fix rays in the membrane of the gills, fifteen in the pec¬
toral fin ; fix in the ventral, twenty-four in the anal,
twenty in the tail, and thirtyrfeven in the dorfal. The
head is lmali ; the fnout almott like a trumpet ; the orifice
of the mouth is narrow, the teeth fmall ; the nolfrils fin-
gie, and near the eyes ; the pupil is black, full, and fur-
rounded with a narrow blue iris. This fifh has a broad
black band going almoft round the head, and in this the
eyes are placed ; this band is edged, on both fides, with a
narrow itripe of white. The front gill-covert is like a
fine favv ; tne hinder one is rounded off ; and both are
bounded by a black line. The fcales on the head and fins
are fmall ; thofe on the body large ; they adhere firmly to
the lkin, are toothed, and hard. The lateral line is near
the back, and forms almoft a femi-circle. The peCtoral,
ventral, and tail, fins, are ail covered with fcales, edged
with black; their rays are branched. The regular brown
bands which run down from the back, the edgings of the
fcales, &c. have a very beautiful effeCt on the filvery
ground. Round the tail, dofe to the trunk, is a broad black
Vol. IV. No, 178.
O D O N. 69
band parallel with the edge of the fin ; and bordered top
and bottom with white. This curious fpecies is found
on the coaft of Coromandel, and is correCtly reprefented
in the Chsetodon Plate IV. fig. 1.
35. Chsetodon fetifer, or briftled chetodon: one long
briltle, and a round black foot edged with white, in the
dorfal fin, forms the fpecific character. There are fix
rays in the membrane of the gills, fifteen in, the peCtoral
fin, fix in the ventral, twenty-four in the anal, twenty in
the tail, thirtyrfeven in the dorfal. The head is fmall ;
tire Ihout thin and fhort : the aperture of the mouth is
fmall ; the lips broad ; a black band, edged with white,
goes round the head. The lateral line is arched ; it is
much . nearer the back than the belly. It has thirteen,
prickly rays in the dorfalfin ; three in the anal, and one
in the ventral. The body is covered with large, hard,
jagged, fcales ; fomewhat refembling the quills of a por¬
cupine. The red ftripes which go in different directions
acrofs the body have a fine effeCt on the ground colour,
which is yellow. The fcales on the tail, anal, and dorfal,
fins, make them very ftiff; they are decorated with a black
border. This very lingular and elegant fifh is fliewn at
fig. 2, of the above-mentioned engraving.
36. Chsetodon ocellatus, the eye-banded chetodon.
The fpecific character is, a black band over the e} e ;
twelve fpines in the dorfal fin ; and a round black f’pot
edged with white on the back. There are five rays in the
membrane of the gills, fixteen in the peCtoral fin, fix in
the ventral, twenty-two in the anal, eighteen in the tail,
and thirty-four in the dorfal. The head and fins are co¬
vered' with fmall fcales ; thofe on the body are large.
The gill-covert is a lingle plate, which is lhort, and of a
golden colour ; the membrane is loofe. The back is
brown ; the fides and belly white. The lateral line, con¬
trary to the direction of the other fpecies, goes ftrait from
the upper end of the gill covert to the fpot on the dorfal
fin, where it is loll, but appears, again on the oppofite fide
of it, and then terminates in the middle of the tail. This
fifh is found in the Eaft Indies.
37. Chaetodon arcuatus, or bow-banded chetodon : five
white arched bands on the body, and nine fpines in the
dorfal fin, determine the fpecific charaCfer. The firft of
the bands encircles the mouth ; thelaft the dorfal fin ; the
reft pals over the body, very curioufly bent in the lhapeof
a bow, which occaiioned Linnaeus to give it the name,
arcuatus. There are fix rays in the membrane of the
gills, fixteen in the peCtoral fin, fix in the ventral,
twenty-five in the anal, fourteen in the tail, and forty-
three in the dorfal. The head is large ; the eyes placed
at top, and fmall ; the pupil black, iris gold yeiiow. The
aperture of the gills is wide, and at the covert there is a
fpine. The lateral line is made up of white dots. The
ground colour is brown, which towards the back inclines
to black ; and looks as if covered with velvet, inlaid with
ivory. This fpecies inhabits the feas of Brazil ; and ac-.
cording toMarcgrave grows only three or four inches long;
but from Seb.Ts account it certainly attains a larger fize.
38. Chaetodon Curagao, or the angel-fifh of Curagoa..
Specific character, two fpines in the anus, and thirteen
in the back. There are twelve rays in the peCtoral fin ;
fix in the ventral, fixteen in theanal and tail, and twenty- -
five in the dorfal. The head is large, the jaws equal,
and the lips ftrong ; between which and the eyes are two
little cylindrical holes on each fide. The iris of the eye
is white edged with yeiiow, and the pupil is black. The
gill-covert is broad, and violet-coloured. The back is
bluifh ; on the fides are three fpots, with filvery fcales
edged with violet. The fins are yellow, with ramified
rays ; the tail-fin is bifucated, the anal very ftrong. This
fifh inhabits the waters of South America, eipecially
about the ifland of Curagoa, whence the name. It is
larger than molt of the fpecies ; the flefh is fat and well-
tufted.
39. Chsetodon faber, or the fmith. Specific character;
body banded, the third fpine of the dorfal fin long.
T There.
7© C H JE T
There are eight rays in the membrane of the gills, fix-
teen in the peCtoral fin, fix in the ventral, twenty-four in
the anal, and thirty-one in the dorfal. The body is
thin; the ground-colour filver relieved by fix bands, of
deep blue, the upper one but weak. The pupil of the
eye is black, iris yellow. The branchial membrane is hid
under the covert. The lateral line runs near the back,
and forms a fimilar arch. The pectoral and ventral fins
are black; the others dark blue. This is alfo found in
the waters of South America, and is good food.
40. Chastodon Mauritii, or Prince Maurice’s chastodon ;
three fpines in the anal fin, and eleven in the dorfal, form
the fpeciiic character. There are fourteen rays in the
peCtoral fin, fix in the ventral, thirteen in the ana],
eighteen in the tail, twenty-three in the dorfal. The
body is covered with fmall fcales ; the mouth is large,
the iris of the eye filvery white, inclining to yellow :
the noftrils are below, and very narrow. The aperture
of the gills is wide, and the membrane is hid under the
covert. The back is arched, and of a deep blue colour;
the belly is white; and over the fides, which are light
blue, pafs fix black bands. The ventral fins are yellow ;
the pectorals dark blue'; the others dark blue at the ends,
and reddifh at the bottom. Prince Maurice found this
fpecies at Brafil. It grows two feet long.: the flefli is
white, and well-tafted.
41. Chastodon Bengalenfis, or Bengal chetodon. Spe¬
cific character; banded body, two fpines in the anal fin,
and thirteen in the dorfal. There are four rays in the
membrane of the gills, fixteen in the pedtoral fin, fix in
the ventral, fourteen in the anal, eighteen in the tail,
twenty-five in the dorfal. The body is broad ; the
ground colour blue, with' five chefnut-coloured bands.
The fins are brown at their origin, and blue at their ex¬
tremities. The Icales on the head and fins are fmall,
thofe on the body large. The opening at the gills is
wide, and the membrane is concealed under the oper¬
culum. The eyes have a black pupil, furrounded by a
white iris inclining to yellow. This fpecies is peculiar
to Bengal, whence its name,
42. Chastodon ciliaris, the hairy angel-fifh. The fpine
in the cheek, and the briftly edges of the Icales, form the
fpecific charadter. There are fix rays in the membrane-
of the gills, twenty in the pedtoral fin, fix in the ventral,
twenty-two in the anal, fixteen in the tail, and thirty-
five in the dorfal. The bead and fins are furnifhed with
fmall fcales ; the body with large ones; the capillary ri-
fings, which begin at the middle of the fcales and pafs be¬
yond their extremities, are very remarkable, and give the
fpecific name. The aperture of the mouth i9 fmall 5 the
jaws of equal length, the lips ftrong; between which and
the eyes are four round apertures. The eyes have- a
black pupil ; the iris is white inclining to red. On the
back, which is dark grey, and juft before the fin, is a
black ring. The fides are grey 5 the fins the fame, edged
with brown ; and the belly is white. The cheeks are
jagged, and near the long fpine are two fhorter ones; the
aperture of the gills is wide, and the membrane is in part
concealed. This fpecies is front the Eaft Indies ; they
are caught about the ifland of St. Croix, and are much
efteemed by the. inhabitants. The flomach is large and
wfide, of a bent form ; the food is little crabs, which are
often found half-digefled therein. The inteltinal canal
is very long, with a great many flexures, and is faftened
to the mefentery, as in quadrupeds. The air-bladder is
ltrong, and faftened to each fide, as in the perch. Nei¬
ther ovary nor feed-veffels have been difcovered : indeed
the fill) is very imperfectly known in Europe.
43. Chastodon oCto fafciatus, or eight-banded che-
todon. Specific character, eight tranfverle bands on the
body, eleven fpines in the dorfal fin. There are fixteen
rays in the peCtoral fin, fix in the ventral, fixteen in the
anal, twelve in the tail, twenty-eight in the dorfal. The
head is fmall ; the jaws protrude, but are of equal length.
'J he iris of the eye is white inclining to yellow j in front
a
O D O N.
of which are two round apertures. The ground-colour
is white inclining to violet ; the bands are brown, lying
two and two together. The anal and dorfal fins are edg¬
ed with brown, the others with grey. This is an Eatt-
Indian fifh, and Linnaeus regards it.as a perch-, but it is
evidently a chetodon, for which reafon we have followed
Bloch’s claffification.
44. Chastodon annularis, the ring-chetodon. Specific
character ; the body flriped longitudinally, with a circle
or ring on the lateral line near the head. There are fix¬
teen rays in the peCtoral fin, fix in the ventral, twenty-
eight in the anal, fixteen in the tail, forty-one in the
dorfal. The ftripes are fix in number, not f trait, and of
a light-blue colour. The ground-colour of the fifh is
brown, the fcales are fmall. The iris of the eye is filvery,
and near the eyes there are four fmall apertures. The
gill-covert is double ; the upper lamina jagged and armed
■ with a fpine. The peCtoral, ventral, and tail, fins, are
white; the anal and dorfal black : the former is rounded,
and has a blue band; the latter ends in a point. This is
from the Eaft Indies ; and is good food.
45. Chastodon coilare, the collared chetodon: five
bands round the head (two white, the others black), and
twelve fpines in the dorfal fin, form the fpecific character.
There are four rays in the membrane of the gills, fourteen
in the peCtoral fin, fix in the ventral, twenty-four in the
anal, twenty in the tail, and forty in the dorfal. The
jaws are protruded; the eyes are large, with a black pupil,
blue iris, and a membrane ; juft below there are two little
holes. The forehead goes .down with a lteep declivity.
The fcales are fmall on the head and fins ; but very large
on the body. The fides and back are blue ; the belly yei-
lowifh. The peCtoral fin is yeliow, the ventral grey, the
reft yellowifh edged with brown. There is a yellow band
on the dorfal fin, and a brown one acrofs tire tail. This
fpecies is very fmall, and is a native of Japan.
46. Chastodon meloleucus, or mulatto chetodon : a
black band over the eye, the gill-covert armed with a
fpine, and twelve fpines in the dorfal fin, form the fpeci¬
fic character. There are fixteen rays in the peCtoral fin,
fix in the ventral, twenty one in the anal, fixteen in the
tail, twenty-nine in the dorfal. The body forms an ob¬
long rounded figure, aud is covered with fmall fcales.
The for e-part is white inclining to blue : the back part
black ; the dorfal and anal fins are dark, the reft light.
The eyes are large,, and juft in front of them are two ob¬
long apertures ; the gill-covert confifts of two fmall la¬
minae ; and beneath the large fpine feveral fmall ones ap¬
pear; the aperture is large, and the membrane partly
loofe. This is alfo a fmall f pecies, and was received from
Japan by Bloch, in' whole work only a delcription of it
is found.
47. Chastodon velifer, the fail-finned chetodon. The
teeth ferrated and cutting, and one fpine in the tail, form
its fpecific character. The body is compreffed, party-
coloured, and has leven fins. It inhabits the feas of
both the Indies. The head is fmall, blunt, and ends in
a blunt fnout ; the mouth is fmall, the lips large; the
jaws are armed with only one row of hollowed jagged
teeth. The noftrils are fingle, and near the eyes. The
pupil is black, with two irides ; one blue, the other yel¬
low. The gill-coverts are united ; the aperture is wide,
the membrane concealed. The ground colour of the bo¬
dy is white, covered with brown bands, like molt of the
other chastodons. The belly goes off {harp ; the back is
rounded. The dorfal and anal fins form each a half-cir¬
cle, fomewhat like full-bent fails ; whence its name : and
are ornamented with round blue fpots. The fpine of the
tail is enclofed in a flieath ; it is moveable, and the point
is direded upwards towards the head of the fifh. The
rays of the peCtoral fins are foft and ramified ; the anal
fin has two prickly rdys, the dorfal three, the tail four
on each fide ; the reft of the rays of thefe fins are foft.
Bloch makes a leparate genus of this, under the name of
acanthuriis,
l'e
Lt 'n Jon Jitblhf/u\l as the Jb rets. 4uy t^o. 1S00. by JlJlu 5?kp.
C H A
To CHAFE, hj. a. [e chauffer, Fr.] To warm with
rubbing:
Soft, and more foft, at ev’ry touch it grew ;
Like pliant wax, when chafing hands reduce
The former mafs to form, and frame to ufe. Dry den •
To heat by rage or hurry :
Have I not heard the fea, puff’d up with winds,
Rage like an angry boar chafed with fweat ? Sbakefpeare,
To perfume :
Lilies more white than fnow
New fall’n from heav’n, with violets mix’d, did grow ;
Whole fcent fo chaf'd the neighbour air, that you
Would furely fwear Arabic fpices grew. Suckling*
To make angry ; to inflame paflion.
1 his chaf’d the boar ; his noftrils flames expire,
And his red eyeballs roll with living fire. Dryden..
To CHAFE, as. n. To rage ; to fret ; to fume ; to boil :
Be lion mettled, proud, and take no care
Who chafes, who frets, or where confpirers are. Shake f.
To fret againft any thing :
The murmuring furge.
That on th’ unnumber’d idle pebbles chafes,
Cannot be heard fo high. Sbakefpeare.
CHAFE,/. A heat*, a rage; a fury; a paflion; a fume;
a pet; a fret; a ftorm. — When Sir Thomas More was
ipeaker of the parliament, with his wifdom and eloquence
he lo eroded a purpofe of cardinal Wolfey’s, that the
cardinal, in a chafe, fent for him to Whitehall. Camden.
CHAFE-WAX, f An officer belonging to the lord
chancellor, who fits the wax for the lealing of writs,
Si c. Harris.
CHA'FER, /. [ceapop, Sax. kever, Dutch.] An in-
deft; a fort of yellow beetle. See ScarabjEUs.
CHA'FER, a town of Perfia, in the province of Far-
fiftan : fifty miles fouth of Schiras.
CHA'FERY, f. A forge in an iron mill, where the
iron is wrought into complete bars, and brought to per-
feftion. Phillips.
CHAFF, /. [ceap, Sax. kaf Dutch.] The hulks of
corn that are feparated by threfhing and winnowing.—
It is ufed as a term for any thing worthlefs:
Pleafure with inftruftion flrould be join’d,
So take the corn, and leave the chaff behind. Dryden.
CHAFF-CUTTER, a machine for cutting chaff to
feed horfes. Thefe machines are now brought to great
perfeftion, and aft on fo firnple and eafy a principle, that
a boy may cut thirty bufhels of chaff in an hour. They
are made by feveral perfons in London, who manufafture
the implements for modern hufbandry, and fold at rea-
fonable prices;
The moft approved of thefe machines at prefent in ufe,
is the one invented by Mr. Robert Salmon, of Woburn
in Bedfordfhire ; for which a reward of thirty guineas
was voted to Mr. Salmon, bv the London Society for the
Encouragement of Arts. We (hall deferibe and figure
this machine, being of fuch general utility, and yet fo
Ample, that any carpenter might, by infpefting the
figure, eafily make them.
With this machine the chaff is cut by two knives,
marked AA, in the figure ; which knives are fixed on
the infide of the fellies of two wheels BB, which are
wrongly connefted together ; the edge of the knives be¬
ing at an angle of about forty-five degrees from the plane
of the wheels motion. Thefe knives are fo fixed as to
be forced forward by fprings, CC, on the wheel ; which
fprings are formed to ad juft, and aft more or lels as oc •
cafion may require, fo as to give the knife as much pref-
C H A 71
fure againft the box as may be requifite to cut the draw.
The knives are prevented from coming too forward, and
occafioning unneceflary friftion, by the wedges under
the ftaples aa ; which wedges, as the knives wear, mult
be drawn out fo as to admit the knives to come more for¬
ward. With thefe provifions it will be found very eaiy
at any time to put on new knives, as the fprings, &c.
will always adjuft them to their work.
On one fide of the wheel is fixed a round block of
wood, D, in which there are four holes, and a moveabie-
ferew ; to this block is ferewed one end of the feeding
arm E, running horizontally to the crofs-bar F, at the
end of the box G ; to which the crofs-bar E is attached
by the pin h, moveable to five different holes in F, by
means of which, and the four holes in the block before
deferibed, tw'enty changes in the fize or length of the
chaff may be obtained. The ftraw or hay is moved for¬
ward by the rollers in the box G, the form of which is
fliewn at fig. 2 ; which rollers are turned by riggers or
rachet wheels H, one on each fide the box, which move
more or lefs, according to the ftroke given to the crofs-
bar by the feeding arm and wheel. By this mode of feed¬
ing the machine, the ftraw is perfeftly at reft, and does
not prefs forward at the time the knife is cutting ; and,
by means of the pin being taken out of the crofs bar, the
feeding is inftantly thrown off, although the wheels and
knives may continue their motion. Under the box is
fufpended the preffing weight I, which may be made
more or lefs powerful by (hitting the weight on the lever
K, to which it hangs, and alfo may be thrown on either
fide, more or lefs, as occafion may require ; which will
be found ufeful, in order to force the ftraw towards the
knife, and to counterbalance the racket-wheel of the
upper roller. Near the fulcrum of this lever is fixed a
chain, fhevvn by the line c, with its upper end affixed to a
roller ; at each extremity of which is a (mail bar of iron
joined to the end of the upper fpiked roller, by which
means the ftraw or hay is always equally prefled in pafling
the two fpiked rollers. L, the winch or handle by which
the machine is worked ; and fig. 3, fhew's the form of one
of the cutting knives taken from the wheels.
To CHAF'FER, nj. n. \kauffen, Germ, to buy.] To
treat about a bargain ; to haggle ; to bargain :
To chaffer for preferments with his gold.
Where bifhopricks and finecures are fold. Dryden.
To CH AFTER, <u. a. £The aftive fenfe is abfolete.]
To buy ; to exchange :
He chaffer'd chairs in which churchmen were fet,
And breach of law’s to privy farm did let. Spenfer.
CHAFTERCONNERS,/ printed linens manufactured
in India.
CHAFTERER,
72 C H A
CHAF'FERER, /. A buyer ; bargainer; purchaser.
CH AF'FFRN,/. \_efchauffer, Fr. to heat.] A veil'd for
heating water.
CHAFTFRY, f. Traffic; the practice of buying and
felling. — The third is, merchandize and chaffery ; that
is, buying and felling.- Spenfer.
CHAF'FERY, in the iron works, the name of one of
the two principal forges. The other is called the finery.
When the iron has been brought at the finery into what
is called an ancony, or fquare mafs, hammered into a
bar in its middle, but with its two ends rough, the bufi-
nefs to be done at the chaffery is the reducing the whole
to the fame fhape, by hammering down the rough ends
to the fhape of the middle part.
CHAF'FINCH,/! A bird fo called, becaufe it delights
in chaff. See Fringilla.
CHAFFTESS, adj. Without chaff:
The love I bear him.
Made me to fan you thus ; but the gods made you,
Unlike all others, chafflefs. Shakefpeare.
CHAFFTVEED, f [gnaphalium, Lat.] An herb the
fame with cudweed.
CHAF-'FY, adj. Like chaff; full of chaff; light. — If
the ftraw-s be light and chaffy, and held at a reafonable
difiance, they will not rife unto the middle. Brown.
CHATING-DISII,/. A vefiel to make airy thing hot
in; a portable grate for coals.
CHAGNON', a town of Franpe in the department of
the Rhone and Loire: fix leagues fouth of Lyons.
CHAGNY/, a town of France, in the department of
the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Chalons; ten miles north-north-well Chalons
fur Saone.
CHA'GRE, a river of South America, in the ifthmus
of Darien, which runs into the fea, thirty miles weft-
fouth-weft Porto Bello.
CHAGRI'N,/! \_cbagrine, Fr.] Ill humour; vexafion;
•fretfulnefs ; peevifnnefs. It is pronounced Jhagreen-
Hear me, and touch Belinda with chagrin ;
That fingle aft gives half the world the fpleen. Pope.
’To CHAGRTN, v. a. \_chagriner, Fr.] To vex; to put
out of temper ; to teaze ; to make uneafy.
CHAHAI'GNE, a town of France, in the department
of the Sarte, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Chateau du Loir : five miles north-eaft Chateau du
Loir.
CHA-HO, a town of China, in the province of Pe-
tche-li .- feven miles fouth of Chun-te.
CH A-HO-TCHAN, a town of Chinefe Tartary : thirty
miles fouth- well of Ning-yuen.
CHAIA, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Oby :
twenty miles north-eaft of Obdorlkoi.
C H APB AR , or K a i b a r , a ftrong to wn of Arabia, taken
from the Jews by Mahomet in the feventh year of the
Hegira: 152 miles north-eaft of Medina.
CHAILA'RD (Le), a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrift of Mezen : four leagues and a half north-
weft of Privas.
CHALLA'C, a town of France, in the department of
the Indre, and chief place of a canton in the diftrift of
Argenton : four leagues fouth-fouth-weft of Argenton.
CH AILLA'ND, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the
■diftrift of Ernee : ten miles north of Laval.
CHAIL'LF. les Marais, a town of France, in the
department of the Vendee, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrift of Fontenay-le-Conte : three leagues weft-
fouth-vveft of Fontenay.
CHAILTE-sous-les-Ormeaxjx, a town of France,
in the department of thd Sarte : ten miles eaft of Sable.
CHAILLEVET'TE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ed H A
ment of the Lower Charente: five miles fouth of Ma,
rennes.
CH AILLOU'E, a town of France, in the department of
the Orne, containing about 1100 inhabitants : one league
north of Sees.
CHAIN, an ifland of the Pacific Ocean, difeovered by-
captain Cook in 1769, about four leagues long, and two
wide. Lat. 17.23.S. Ion. 14.5. 54. W. Greenwich.
CHAIN, f. [ chaine , Fr.] A feries of links faftened one
within another. — And Pharoah took off his ring, and put
it upon Jofeph’s hand, and put a gold chain about his
neck. Genefis, xli. 42. — A bond; a manacle; a fetter with
which priloners are bound:
Still in conftraint your fuff ’ring fex remains,
Or bound in formal or in real chains. Pope.
A feries linked together, as of caufes or thoughts ; a fuc-
cefiion ; a fubordination. — As there is pleafure in the
right exercife of any faculty, fo elpecially in that of right
reafoning ; which is ftill the greater, by how. much the
confc-quences are more clear, and the chains of them more
long. Burnet. — A gold chain is one of -the ornaments or
badges of the dignity of the chief magiftrates of a city,
as the lord mayor and aldermen of London, the provoft
and bailiffs of Edinburgh, & c. Something like this ob¬
tained among the ancient Gauls : the principal ornament
of their perfons in power and authority was a gold chain,
which they wore on ail occafions ; and even in battle, to
diftiiiguilh them from the common foldiers.
To CHAIN, <v. a. To fallen or bind with a chain. —
They repeal daily any wholefome aft eftablifhed againft
the rich, ar.d provide more piercing ftatutes daily to chain
up and reftrain the poor. Shakefpeare. — To enllave ; to
keep in llavery :
This world, ’tis true,
Was made for Caefar, but for Titus too :
And which more bled ? who chain'd his country, fay.
Or he whofe virtue figh’d to lofe a day ? " Pope.
To keep by a chain. — The admiral feeing the mouth of
the haven chained, and the caftles full of ordnance, and-
ftrongly manned, durft not attempt to enter. Knolles. —
To unite :
O Warwick, I do bend my knee with thine,
And in this vow do chain my foul with thine. Shake/.
CHAIN, f. in furveying, a lineal meafure; confifting of
a certain number of iron links, ufually a hundred; ferv-
ing to take the dimenfions of fields, &c. At every tenth
link is ufually faftened a fmall brafs plate, with a figure
engraven upon it, orelfe cut into different fnapes, tolhew
how many links it is from one end of the chain. Thefe
chains are of various kinds and lengths; as — 1. A chain
of a hundred feet long, each link one foot, for meafur-
ing of large diltances only, when regard is not propofed
to be had to acres, See. in the fuperficial content. 2. A
chain of one pole or fixteen feet and a half in length ;
ufeful in measuring and laying out gardens and orchards,
turnips, &c. by the pole or rod meafure. 3. A chain of
four poles, or fixty-fix feet, -or twenty-two yards, in¬
length, called Gunter’s chain, peculiarly adapted to fur-
veying or land-meafuring ; becaufe ten fquare chains
juft make an Englifli acre of land ; lb that the dimenfions.
being taken in thefe chains, and thence the contents
computed in fquare chains, they are readily turned into
acres by dividing by ten, or barely cutting off the laft
figure from the fquare chains. But it is ftill better in
praftice to proceed thus, viz. Count the dimenfions, not
in chains, but all in links ; then the contents are in fquare
links ; and, five figures being cut off for decimals, the
reft are acres; that is four figures to bring the fquare
links to fquare chains, and one more- to bring the fquare
chains to acres. In this chain, the links are each leven
inches and or inches in length, which is very
nearly | of a foot. And hence any number of chains
or
C H A
or links are eafily brought to feet or inches, or the con-
trary : the bell way of doing which is this: multiply
the number of links by fixty-lix, then cut off two figures
for decimals, and the reft are feet : or multiply links by
twenty-two for yards, cutting off two figures.
CHAlN-PUMP. See Pump.
CHAIN-SHOT, two bullets united by a chain. They
are ufed at fea to bring down yards or mails, and to cut
tlielhrouds or rigging of a fliip. — In fea-figlits, oftentimes,
a buttock the brawn of the thigh, and the calf of the
leg, are torn off by the chain-fhot. Wifeman.
CHAIN- WALES, or Channels, of a fhip. See Na¬
val Architecture.
CHA'INWORK, f Work with open fpaces like the
links of a chain. — Nets of cbequerwork, and wreaths of
chainwork , for the chapiters which were upon the tops of
the pillars, i Kings .
CHAIN GY', a town of France, in the deparment of
the Loiret : five miles weft of Orleans.
CH AIR, /. [chair e, Fr.] A moveable feat. — If a chair
be de fined a feat for a fingle perfon, with a back belong¬
ing to it, then a flool is a feat for a fingle perfon, without
a back. Watts. — A feat of juftice, or of authority :
The honour’d gods
Keep Rome in lafety, and the chairs of juftice
Supply with worthy men. Sbakefpearc.
A vehicle borne by men ; a fedan.
CHA'IRMAN, f. The prefident of an affembly. — In
aflemblies generally one perfon is cliofen chairman or mo¬
derator, to keep the feveral fpeakers to the rules of order.
Watts . — One whofe trade it is to carry a chair:
Troy chairmen bore the wooden fteed.
Pregnant with Greeks, impatient to be freed ;
Thofe bully Greeks, who, as the moderns do,
Inftead of paying chai rmen, run them through. Swift.
CHAIS (Charles), born in 1701, at' Geneva. The
church was chofen for his profefii on ; and in the miniftry
his reputation as a preacher and an orator foon became
fo popular and extenfive, that in 172S he was elected paf-
tor at the Hague. His conduct in this eftablilhment,
while it contributed to his own reputation, redounded no
lei’s to the honour of thofe who had appointed him. Hav¬
ing adorned his miniftry by the purity of his manners,
the excellency of the difcourfes which he delivered from
the pulpit, and his numerous writings in defence of re¬
vealed religion, he died in 1786, at the age of 85, after
having punctually difcharged his duty as a pallor during
the period of fifty-eight years. The unfortunate fup-
ported by his conlolation, the youth enlightened by his
inftrudlions, and the poor fuccoured by his charity, la¬
menting the lofs which they had fuftained by the death
of a benefadlor and a friend, proved more eloquent at-
teftations of his merit, than any panegyric which might
have been pronounced from the lips of the fublimeft ora¬
tor. His lermons were diftinguilhed by a perfpicuous
ftyle and a pure morality. Theyfeemed to flow not only
from a man who praftiled what he taught, but from one
who, acquainted with the inmoft recedes of the human
heart, could exert his eloquence to affedt his hearers, and
lead them almoft imperceptibly to the paths of virtue and
religion. His literary excellence confifted in a judicious
and happy arrangement of his fubjedls, delivered in a
plain and unaffedted ftyle. He made no pretenfions to
originality, but he illuilrated the works of other writers,
by introducing them to his countryman in a language that
was more familiar to them. He compiled La Sante'Bible,
with an extenfive commentary, tranflated from the Eng-
lifh Lnbles, printed at the Hague in 1742, and was continu¬
ed till 1777, forming 6 vol. in 4to. The 7th vol. was left
by the author in MS. and the 8th, which completes this
valuable Commentary on the Bible, was finifhed, after the
author’s death, by the Rev. Dr. Macleane, of the Hague;
Vol. IV. No. 179.
C H A 73
and the whole was republiflied, with a learned preface,
introduction, and an account of the author’s life, at
Utrecht, in 1790. 2. Le fens literal de l’Ecriture Sainte,
traduit de l’Anglois de Stackhoufe in 8vo. 3 vol. 1751.
A la Haye. 3. Lettres liiftoriques et dogmatiques lur
les Jubiles, 1750, 1751, 3 tom. 8vo., ala Haye. 4. The-
ologie de l’Ecriture S. ou la Science du Salut, comprile
dans une ample colledlion de paflages du V. & N. Tella-
ment ; a. la Haye 1752, 2 tom. 8vo. Befides thefe works
he fuperintended the publication of the Hiftory of France
by the prefident Hainault, which was publilhed at the
Hague in 1747, 8vo. He was befides engaged as a
writer in the Bibliotheque hiftorique, which was begun
at the Hague in 1738, and alfo contributed fome articles
in the Bibliotheque des Sciences et Beaux Arts.
CHAISE (Father dela), a jefuit of uncommon abilities,
confeflor to Louis XIV. born at Forez in the province of
Lyons about 1626. He gave early indications of an ex¬
cellent wit when he was atfchool, and performed his phi-
lofophical exercifes under father de Vaux, When he was
arrived at a proper age, he was ordained pried ; and be¬
came profeflor of divinity in the college of Lyons. He
fpent a good deal of time in Paris, where his great ad-
drefs, his wit, and love of letters, made him almoft uni-
verfally known: and in 1663, cardinal Mazarine intro¬
duced him to the king, as a perfon of whofe great abili-
lities and merit he was well convinced. In 1675, he was
made confeflor to the king; and about ten years after,
was the principal adviier and director of his marriage
with madame de Maintenon. Louis XIV. was then arriv¬
ed at an age when confeflors have more than an ordinary
influence : and la Chaii'e found himfelf a minifter of Hate,
without expecting, and almoft before he perceived it.
He did bufinefs regularly with the king, and immediately
law all the lords and all the prelates at his feet. He died
January 1709, and pofleiTed to the very laft fo great a
Hi are -of favour and efteem with the king, that his majefty
confulted him upon his death-bed about the choice of
his fuccefior.
CHAISE,/ [chafe, Fr.] A carriage of pleafure. — In¬
ftead of the chariot he might have faid the chafe of go¬
vernment ; for a chafe is driven by the perfon that fits in
it. Addifon. — Aurelius Vidlor relates, that Trajan firll in¬
troduced the ufe of poft-cliaifes : but the invention is ge¬
nerally afcribed to Auguftus ; and was probably only im¬
proved by Trajan, and fucceeding emperors. See Coach.
CHAISE (La) a town of France, in the department
of the North Coaft, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridl of Loudeac : five miles fouth-eaft of Loudeac.
CHAISE DIEU (La), a town of France in the depart¬
ment of the Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltriCt of Brioude : thirteen miles Brioude, and
eighteen north-north-well le Puy.
CHAISE le VICOMTE (La), a town of France, in the
department of the Vendee, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftridl of La Roche-fur- Yon : five miles ealt of
La Roche.
CHA'JUK, a town of Alia, in the country of Charafm,
on the frontiers of Grand Bukharia.
CHA'KEN KAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Caramania : twenty miles north-north-eaft
of Tarfus.
CHAKE'NI-KOUZEY, a town of Alia, in the king¬
dom of Candahar : 120 miles eaft-north-eaft of Candahar.
CHA'LA, a fmall feaport of South America, in the
Pacific Ocean, near the river Arequipa.
CHALA'BRE, a town of France, in the department
of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the diilrift
of Limoux: ten miles fouth-well of Limoux.
CHALAIN', oi-La Potherie, a town of France, in
the department of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftrift of Seagre : leven leagues north-
weft of Angers.
CH ALAI'S, a town of France, in the department of
the Charente; five miles weft of Aubeterre.
U CHALAMO'NT
74 C H A
CHALAMO'NT, a town of France, in the department
■of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridl
of Montluel ; four leagues fout.'a of Bourg enBrefle, and
four north north-eaft of Montluel.
CHALAN7, a town of Perfia, in the province of Far-
fiftan : forty miles north-well of Scliiras.
CHALAN^O'N, a town of France, in the department
of the Ardeche : three leagues north of Privas.
CHALARON'NE, a river of France, which runs into
■the Sa.one, near Toiffey,
CH ALAU7, or Kalau, a town of Lufatia: forty-fix
miles louth-weft of Francfort on the Oder.
CHALAU'TRE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Seine and Marne : two leagues and a half
eall of Provins.
CHALA'ZA, [from ;^aXa£a, a hail-ftone.] The tread
of an egg, and a Irnall tubercle on the eye-lid, are fo
named from their likenefs to a hail-ftone.
CHAL'CASPANICULA'TA,/. in botany. See.MuR-
raya Exotica.
CHALCE'DON, or Ch alcf.do'nia, now Kadi-Keni,
an ancient city of Bithynia, oppofite Byzantium, built
by a c dony from Megara. Its fituation was fo impro¬
perly chofen, that it was called the city of blind men,
intimating the inconfiderate plan of the founders. Chal¬
cedon, in the Chriftian times, became famous on account
cf the council which was held there againft Eutyches.
The emperor Valens caufed its walls to be levelled with
the ground for tiding with Procopius, and the materials
to be conveyed to Conllantinople, where they were em¬
ployed in building the famous Valentinian aquedudt.
Chalcedon is at prefent a fmall place*, known to the
Greeks by its ancient name, and to the Turks by that
of Cadiaci, or “ the judges town.”
CHAL'CEDONY, or White Agate,/. A flint of
a white colour, refembling milk diluted with water, and
more or lefs opake, with veins, circles, or lpots. It is
fofter than the onyx, but much harder than the agates
of the fame colour as the onyx. Bergman obferves
that it varies greatly in fpecific gravity, from 2*5
to 4*6. He found the chalcedony of Ferro to contain
eighty-four parts of filex, and fixteen of clay.
CHALCEFAS, / in botany. See Alchinops.
CHALCFDENE, or Chalcidice, in the ancient geo¬
graphy, an inland country of Syria, having Antioch or
Seleucia to the weft, Cyrrheftica to the north, to the
fouth Apamene and Ccelofyria, and to the eaft Chaiybo-
nitis ; fo called from its principal city Chalcis. This
province, one of the molt fruitful in Syria, was feized
by Ptolemy the fon of Mennteus during the troubles of
Syria, and by him made a feparate kingdom.
CHALCr'DIC,CHALCiDinuM,orCH ALCEnoNiuM,in
ancient architefture, a magnificent hall belonging to a
tribunal or court of juftice. Feftus fays, it took its name
from the city Chalcis; but he does not give the realon.
Pilander defcribes it as the court or tribunal where alfairs
of money and coinage were regulated j fo called from
p/(Xxoc[ brafs, and bun, juftice. Others fay, the money
was ftruck in it ; and derive the word from pcaXxo?, and
oxoc, houfe. In Vitruvius, it is ufed for the auditory of
a bafilica ; in more ancient writers, for a hall or apart¬
ment where the heathens imagined their gods to eat.
CHALCI'DIUS, a famous platonic philofopher in the
third century, who wrote a commentary, which is efteem-
ed, on the Timteus of Plato. This work has been tran¬
slated from the Greek into Latin.
CHAL7C1S, now Egripo, the chief city of Euboea, in
that part which is neareft to Bceotia. It was founded by
an Athenian colony. The illand was faid to have been
anciently joined to the continent in the neighbourhood
of Chalcis. There were three other towns of the fame
name, in Thrace, Acarnania, and Siciiy, all belonging
to the Corinthians. Pliny.
CHALCFOPE, a daughter of iEetes king of Colchis,
who married Phryxus fon of Athamas, who had fled to
a
C H A
her father’s court for proteftion. She had fome children
by Phryxus, and fhe preferved her life from the avarice
and cruelty of her father, who bad murdered herhulband
to obtain the golden fleece. Ovid.
CHALCFTIS, one of the divifians or diftri&s of Me-
fopotamia, to the fouth of Anthemufia, the moft northern
diftri<5l, next to Armenia, and fituated between Edefla
and Carras. Cbalcitis (Pliny), an illand oppofite to
Chalcedon.
CHAL'CO, a town of America, in the province of
Mexico, near a lake to which it gives name : eighteen
miles fouth -eaft of Mexico.
CHAL7CONDYLES (Demetrius), a native of Athens,
and lcholar of Theodore Gaza, was one of thofe Greeks
who about the time of the taking of Conllantinople
went into the weft. At the invitation of Laurence de
Medxcis, he profefled to teach the Greek language at
Florence, ini479 ; where he had for his rival Angelus Po-
litianus, to whom Laurence had committed the tuition
of one of his fons. After the death of Laurence, Chal-
condyles was invited to Milan by Lewis Sfortia. Here
he taught Greek with great reputation; and died in
1510, at eighty years of age. Among the learned whom
pope Nicolas V. lent to Rome to trar.llate the Greek au¬
thors into Latin, Chalcondyles was one ; from which we.
may colieft, that he probably travelled into the well be¬
fore the taking of Conllantinople in 1453, fince Nicolas
died in 1455- He pubiilhed a grammar, and fome other
things ; and under his infpeftion was firft pubiilhed at
Florence, in 1499, the Greek lexicon of Saidas. Pierius
Valerianus, in his book De infelicitate literatorum, fays*
that Chalcondyles, though a deferving man in his moral
as well as literary character, led neverthelefs a very un¬
happy life; and reckons perpetual banilhment from his
country among the chief of his misfortunes.
CHAL7CONDYLES (Laonicus), a native of Athens,
who wrote in the 15th century a hiftory of the Turks*
in ten hooks, from 1298 to 1462. This hiftory, tranflat-
ed into Latin by Claufer, is interefting to all Inch as
would trace the Grecian empire in its decline and fall,
and the Ottoman power in its origin and progrefs; but
allowance mull be made for feveral fa£ls fet down in too
much hafte. The hiftory of Chalcondyles made its ap¬
pearance in Greek and Latin, from the Louvre, in 1650,
folio. There is a French tranllation of it by Vigenere,
continued by Mezerai, 1662, 2 vols. folio.
CHALDE7A, in the ancient geography, taken in a
larger fenfe, included Babylonia ; as in the prophecies
of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. In a reftrifted fenfe, it de¬
noted a province of Babylon, towards Arabia Deferta ;
called in Scripture ‘The land of the Chaldeans. Named
from Chafed the fourth fon of Nahor. See Bab ylonia.
CHAL'DEE Paraphrase, acelebrated writing, called
the Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrafes in
Walton’s Polyglot ; viz. that of Onkelos, that of Jona¬
than fon of Uziel, and that of Jerufalem.
CHAL'DER, Chaldron, or Chaudron, / A dry
Englilh meafure of coals, confining of thirty-fix bufhels
heaped up, according to the fealed bulhel kept at Guild¬
hall, London. The chaldron of coals is accounted to
weigh about 2000 pounds. On fhip board, twenty-one
chaldrons of coals are allowed to the fcore.
CHALDES AY'GUES, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Cantal : four leagues fouth of St. Flour.
CHA'LEUR BAY, a large bay of the Atlantic, in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, between the province of New
Brunfwick and the fouth part of Lower Canada. On the
8th cf July, 1760, a French fleet was deftroyed by the
Englifli, under the command of captain Byron, in this
bay. Lat. 48. N. Ion. 65. W.
CHALENCEY7, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri6l of Langres: thirteen miles fouth-fouth-well of
Langres.
CHALET7TE, a town of France, in the department of
the
C H A
the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Arcis: twelve miles fouth-eaft of Arcis.
CHA'LICE, /. [ calic , Sax. c cilice, Fr. calix, Lat.] A
cup ; a bowl :
When in your motion you are hot,
And, that he calls for drink, I’ll have prepared him
A chalice for the nonce. Shakefpeare.
It is generally ufed for a cup ufed in a6ts of worfhip.— -
All the church at that time did not think emblematical
figures unlawful ornaments of cups or chalices. StHlingjleet.
CHA'LICED, adj. [from calix , Lat. the cup of a few¬
er.] Having a cell or a cup: applied by Shakefpeare to a
flower, but now obfolete:
Hark, hark! the lark at heav’n’s gate fings,
And Phoebus ’gins arife,
His (feeds to water at thefe fprings.
On chalk'd flowers that lies. Shakefpeare.
CHALIGNY', a town of France, in the department
of the Meurte : five miles fouth-weft of Nancy.
CHA'LIM, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Tin los Montes : twenty miles Couth of Bragan9a.
CHATIM-POU, a town of Chinefe Tartary. Lat.
41.12.N. Ion. 139. 40. E. Ferro.
CHATIN, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Kar-
Ikoi Sea. Lat. 73. 5. N. Ion. 89. E. Ferro.
CHALINAR'QUES, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Cantal : twelve miles north of St. Flour.
CHALINDREY', a town of France, in the department
o the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriff of Langres : five miles fouth-eaft of ‘Langres.
CHALK, / \_cealc, cealcftan, Sax. calck, Welfti.] A
very common fpecies of calcareous earth, of an opake
white colour, very foft, and without the lead appearance
of a polifh in its fracture. Its fpecinc gravity is from
2-4 to 2-6 according to Kirwan, who likewife informs us
that the fubftance contains more fixed air than any other
variety of the calcareous clafs, generally about forty per
cent. It contains a little filiceous earth, and about two
per cent of clay. Some fpecimens, and perhaps moft,
contain a little iron ; and Birgman affirms, that marine
fait of lime, ormagnefia, is often found in it; for which
reafon he direfts the powder of chalk to be feveral times
boiled in difti lied water before it is dilfolved for the pur-
pofe of obtaining pure calcareous earth. See Lime.
Red chalk is a clay coloured by the calx of iron, of
which it contains from fixteen to eighteen parts in the
hundred, according to Rinman. Spanish chalk, is the
loap-rock, or lapis ollaris ; which is ufually diftinguiflied
by this name. See Chemistry. Black chalk is a name
given by painters to a fpecies of earth with which they
draw or defign on paper, & c. The colour-ftiops are
fupplied with this earth from Italy or Germany ; though
fome parts of England afford fubftances nearly, if not
entirely, of the fame quality, and which are found to be
equally ferviceable both for marking, and for black
paints. Such particularly is the black earth called killow ,
faid by Dr. Merrit in his Pinax Rerum Britannicanum,
to be found in Lancalhire; and by Da Cofta, in his Hif-
tory of Foffils, to be plentiful near the top of Cay-Avon,
an high hill in Merionethfhire. Chalk is employed as a
remedy againft the heart-burn, and other dilorders that
have acidity in the primae viae for their caufe. Dr. Slare
afferts from experiments, that it abforbs acid fooner, and
more powerfully, than crabs’-eyes, calcined hartftiorn,
or coral. Some ufe it when finely powdered, to fprinkle
on eryfipelatous inflammations. When chalk is faturat-
ed with an acid, it is faid to become fubaftringent, other-
wife it hath no fuch property; hence chalk, given when
acidity prevails in the ftomach, fometimes produces cof-
tivenefs; though this is much doubted by Cullen and
others. Two drachms for a dole, and repeated at proper
intervals, have often effected at a fpeedy cure, both in a
C H A 75
diarrhoea and a dyfentery ; but this effect was owing to
its abforbing thofe acrid juices whofe ftimuli caufed the
morbid excretion. When milk turns four on the fto¬
mach, afcruple of chalk may be given with each halt pint.
To CHALK, cv. a. To rub with chalk :
The beaftly rabble then came down
From all the garrets in the town,
And (falls and (hop-boards in vaft fwarms.
With new -chalk'd bills and rufty arms. Hudihras.
To manure with chalk. — Land that is chalked , if it is not
well dunged, will receive but little benefit from a fecond
chalking. Mortimer. — To mark or trace out as with chalk-.
— His own mind chalked out to him the juft proportions
and meaiures of behaviour to his fellow-creatures. South.
CHALK-CUTTER, f A man that digs chalk. — ■
Shells, by the feamen called chalk eggs, are dug up com¬
monly in the chalk-pits, where the chalk-cutters drive a
great trade with them. Woodward.
CHALK-PIT, f. A pit in which chalk is dug.
CHALK-STONES,/. The calculi or concretions in the
hands and feet of people violently afflidfed with the gout.
Leeuwenhoek has been at the pains of examining thefe
by the microfcope. He divides them into three parts.
The firft is compofed of fmall particles of matter looking-
like white grains of fand ; this is harder and drier, and
alfo whiter, than the reft. When examined with large
magnifiers, they are found to be compofed of oblong
particles laid clolely and evenly together : though the
whole fmall (tones are opaque, thefe component parts of
them are pellucid, and relentble pieces of liorfe-hair cut
(hort, only that they are fomewhat pointed at both ends.
Thefe are fo extremely thin, that Mr. Leeuwenhoek com¬
putes, that a thoufand of them placed together would
not amount to the fize of one hair of our heads. The
whole (tones in this harder part of the chalk are not com ¬
pofed of thefe particles, but there are confufedly thrown
in among them fome broken parts of others fubftances,
and in a few places fome globules of blood and fmall re¬
mains of other juices. The fecond kind of chalky mat¬
ter is lefs hard and lefs white than the former, and is
compofed of fragments or irregular parts of thofe oblong
bodies which compofe the firft or hardeft kind, and thefe
are mixed among tough and clear matter, interfperfed
with the fmall broken globules of blood difcoverable in
the former, but in much greater quantity. The third
kind appears red to the naked eye ; and, when examin¬
ed with glaffes, is found to be a more tough and clammy
white matter, in which a great number of globules of
blood are interfperfed ; thelegive it its red appearance.
CH ALK' Y, adj. Confiding of chalk ; white with chalk. •
— That bellowing beats on Dover’s chalky cliff. Rowe. —
Impregnated with chalk. — Chalky water towards the top
of earth is fretting. Bacon.
CHALLA'NS, a town of France, and principal place
of a diftridt, in the department of the Vendee : (even
leagues north of Sables d’Glonne, and fixteen north-welt
of Fontenay le Comte.
CHALL'ANT, a town of Piedmont, in the duchy of.
Aofta : eleven miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Aofta.
To CHALLENGE, as. a. [ckalenger, Fr.] To call
ther to arifwer for an offence by combat :
The prince of Wales ftept forth before the king,
And, nephew, challeng'd you to (ingle fight. Shake f.
To call to a conteft. — I challenge any man to make
pretence to power by right of fatherhood, either intek
ligible or poffible. Locke. — To accufe :
Were the grac’d perfon of our Banquo prefent, .
Whom I may rather challenge for unkindnefs. Shake/.
To claim as due. — That divine order, whereby the pre*
eminence of chiefeft acceptation is by the belt things
worthily challenged. Hooker ,
St>.
C H A
€ H A
76
So when a tyger fucks the bullock’s blood,
A famifh’d lion, iffuing, from the wood,
Roars loudly fierce, and challenges the food. Dryden.
To call any one of the performance of conditions. — I
will now challenge you of your promife, to give me cer¬
tain rules as to the principles of blazonry. Peach am .
CHALLENGE, /. A fummons to combat:
I never in my life
Did hear a challenge urg’d more modeftly. Shakefpeare.
A demand of fomething as due. — There rauft be no chal¬
lenge of fuperiority, or difcountenancing of freedom.
Collier.
CHAI/LENGE, in law, an exception taken either
againft perfons or things. Perfons, as to jurors, or any
one or more of them : or in cafe of felony, by the pri-
foner at the bar againft things, as a declaration, &c. The
former is the molt frequent fignification in which this
term is now ufed. There are two kinds of challenge ;
either to the array, by which is meant the whole jury as
it ftands arrayed in the panel, or little fquare pane or
parchment, on which the jurors’ names are written ; or
to the polls ; by which are meant the feveral particular
perfons or heads in the array. 1 Injl. 156. Challenge to
jurors is alfo divided into challenge principal or peremp¬
tory j and challenge pur caufe, i. e. upon caufe or reafon
alledged : challenge principal or peremptory, is that
which the law allows without caufe alledged, or further
examination ; as a prifoner at the bar, arraigned for fe¬
lony, may challenge peremptorily the number allowed
him by law, one after another, alleging no caufe, but
his own diflike, and they fhall be put off, and new taken
in their places : but yet there is a difference between
challenge principal, and challenge peremptory ; the latter
being ufed only in matters criminal, and barely without
caufe alleged; whereas the former is in civil actions for
the moll part, and by afligning fome i’uch caufe of ex¬
ception, as being found true the law allows. Stundf. P. C.
124. Challenge to the favour, which is afpecies of chal¬
lenge for caufe, is where the plaintiff or defendant is te¬
nant to the fheriff, or if the ffieriff’s foil hath married the
daughter of the party, See. and is alfo when either party
cannot take any principal challenge, butfheweth caufe of
favour; and caufes of favour are infinite. If one of the
parties is of affinity to a juror, the j uror hath married
the plaintiff’s daughter, &c. If a juror hath given aver -
dift before in the caufe, matter, or title ; if one labours a
juror to give his verdift ; if after he is returned, a juror
eats and drinks at the charge of either party ; if the
plaintiff, &c. be his mafter, or the juror hath any intereft
in the thing demanded, See. thefe are challenges to the
favour. 2 Rol. Abr. 636.
CHAI/LENGE TO FIGHT. It is a very high of¬
fence to challenge another, either by word or letter, to
fight a duel, or to be the meffenger of fuch a challenge,
or even barely to endeavour to provoke another to fend a
challenge, or to fight;asbydifperfingletterstothatpurpofe,
full of reflexions, and infinuating a defire to fight, &c. By
flat. 9 An. c. 14. “ Whoever fhall challenge, or provoke
to fight, any other perl’on or perfons whatfoever, upon
account of any money won by gaming, playing, or bet¬
ting at any of the games mentioned in that aft, fhall on
conviftion by indidfment or information, forfeit all their
goods, chattels, and perfonal eftate, and fuffer impril'on-
inent without bail, in the county prifon for two years.”
It is now every day's praftice for the court of king’s-
bench, to grant informations againft perfons fending
challenges to jullices of the peace, or to other perfons.
CHAL'LENGER, /. One that defies or fummons ano¬
ther to combat:
Young man, have you challenged Charles the wreftler ?— -
No, fair princefs ; he is the general challenger .• Shake f.
One that claims fuperiority;
Whofe worth
Stood challenger on mount of all the age.
For her perfeftions. Shakefpeare.
A claimant ; one that requires fomething as of -right —
Earneft challengers there are of trial, by fome public de¬
putation. Hooker.
CHAL'LIN, a town of France, in the department of
the Mayne and Loire : five leagues w'eft of Anger.
CHA'LO, a river of Afia, which rifes near Laffa, or
Baratola, in Tartary, paffes through the province of
Yunnan, in China, the country of Laos and Tonquin,
and empties itfelf into the gulf of Cochinchina, in the
Eaftern Sea, oppofite the ifland of Hainan.
CHA'LONER (Sir Thomas), a celebrated ftatefman,
foldier, and poet, defcended from a good family at Den¬
bigh in Wales, and born at London in 1515- Havingbeen
educated in both univerfities, but chiefly at Cambridge,
he was introduced at the court of Henry VIII. w'ho fent
him abroad in the retinue of Sir Henry Knevet, ambaf-
fador to Charles V. and he had the honour to attend
that monarch on his fatal expedition againft Algiers in
•1-541. Soon after the fleet left that place, he was fliip-
wrecked on the coaft of Barbary in a very dark night:
and having exliaufted his ftrength by Iwimming, he
chanced to ftrike his head againft a cable, which he had
the prefence of mind to catch hold of with his teeth; and,
with the lofs of feveral of them, was drawn up by it into
the fhip to which he belonged. Mr. Chaloner returned
loon after to England, and was appointed firft clerk of
the council, which office he held during the reft of that
reign. On the acceflion of Edward VI. he became a fa¬
vourite of the duke of Somerfet, whom he attended to
Scotland, and was knighted by that nobleman after the
battle of Muffelburgh, 1111547. The proteftor’s fall put
a Hop to Sir Thomas Chaloner’s expectations, and in¬
volved him in difficulties. During the reign of queen
Mary, being a determined proteftant, he was in fome
danger; but having many powerful friends, he had the
good fortune to efcape. On the acceflion of queen
Elizabeth, he appeared again at court; and wasfo loon
diltinguifhed by her majefty, that flie appointed him
ambaffador to the emperor Ferdinand I. The queen
was fo well fatisfied with his conduft, that, loon after
his return, Ihe fent him in the fame capacity to the court
of Madrid. He embarked for Spain in 1561, and re¬
turned to London in 1564, in confequence of a requeft
to his fovereign, in an elegy written in imitation of
Ovid. After his return, he refided in Cierkenwell-clole,
where he died in 1 565, and was buried in St. Paul’s ca¬
thedral. So various were the talents of Sir Thomas
Chaloner, that he excelled in almoft every thing to
which he applied himfelf. He made a confiderable figure
as a poet. His poetical works were publilhed by Wil¬
liam Malim, mafter of St. Paul’s fchool, in 1579. His
capital work was that “ Of reftoring the Englilh repub¬
lic, in ten books,” which he wrqte when he was ambaf¬
fador in Spain.
CHALONER (Sir Thomas), though inconfiderable
as an author, delerves to be recorded as a Ikilful natu-
ralift, in an age when natural hiftory was very little un-
derftood in this or any other country ; and particularly
as the founder of the alum works in Yorklhire, which
have fince proved fo exceedingly advantageous to the
commerce of this kingdom. He was the only fon of Sir
Thomas Chaloner mentioned in the preceding article,
and was born in 1559. Being very young at the time of
his father’s death, lord, treafurer Burleigh, taking charge
of his education, fent him to St. Paul’s fchool, and af¬
terwards to Magdalen college in Oxford, where like his
father, he difeovered'extraordinary talents for Latin and
Englilh poetry. About the year 1580, lie made the
tour of Europe, and returned to England in 1584, when
he married the daughter of Sir William Fleetwood, re¬
corder of London. In 1591 he was knighted; and fome
time
C H A
rime after, vifiting Scotland; he returned in the retinue
ot'James T. and was appointed governor to prince Henry,
whom he conftantly attended, and, when his royal pu¬
pil vifited Oxford, was honoured with the degree of
matter of arts. He died in 1615, and was buried at
Chifwick in Middlefex. His eldett fon William was cre-
atedabaronet, the 18th of James, 1620. He wrote, 1. De¬
dication to Lord Burleigh of his father’s poetical works,
1759. 2. The Virtue of Nitre, wherein is declared the
fundry cures by the fame effected. Lor.d. 1584., 4-to.
CHALON'NJS, a town of France, .in the department
of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Angers, fituated near coal mines : four
leagues fouth-weft of Angers.
CHALON NE, an ifland in the Loire, a little below
the town of the fame name, about three miles in length,
with a village.
CHALONOIS', before the revolution, a fmall coun¬
try of France, in the environs of Chalons fur Saone.
CHALO'NS-SUR-SAONE, a city of France, in the
department of the Saone and Loi re : before the revolution,
the fee of a bilhop, luftragan of Lyons; fituated on the
Saone. It is furrounded with walls, and defended by a
citadel. The principal commerce confifts in corn, wine,
and wood : fourteen polls north of Lyons, forty-fix
and a half fouth-fouth-eaft of Paris. Lat. 46.48. N. Ion.
22. 31. E. Ferro.
CHALO'NS-SUR-MARNE. See Chaalons.
CHALOS'SE, before the revolution, a fmall diftri£t
of France, in the environs of St. Sever.
CHALTARON', a town of Afia,. in the country of
Thibet: ten miles weft-north-weft of Coucha.
CHALVAN'CA, or Chumbivilcas, a town of South
America, and principal place of the jurildidtion of
Chumbivilcas, in Peru.
CHA'LUS, a town of France in the department of the
Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
llridl of St. Yrieux. Richard I. king of England, re¬
ceived a wound in his fhoulder, which proved mortal,
by an arrow (hot from the caftle of this town, as he was
taking obfervations on the bell way of aflaulting it, to
recover a treafure found there, which he claimed as his
right, and was withheld by the vifcount of Limoges:
fifteen miles fouth-louth-weft of Limoges.
CHALYfBEATE, adj. [from chaljbs, Lat. Heel.]
Impregnated with iron or lleel; having the qualities of
Heel — The diet ought to ftrengthen the folids, allowing
fpices and wine, and the ufe of chalybeate waters. Ar -
buthnot.
CHA'LYBES, a people of Afia Minor, near Pontus,
once very powerful, and poflefled of a great extent of
country, abounding in iron mines, where the inhabi¬
tants worked naked. The Chalybes attacked the ten
thoufand in their retreat, and behaved with much fpirit
and courage. They were partly conquered by Crcefus,
king of Lydia. Some authors imagine that the Chalybes
are a nation of Spain.
CHA'LYBON, now fuppofed to be Aleppo, a town
of Syria, which gave the name of Chalybonitis to the
neighbouring country.
CHA-MA-KI, a town of the ifland of Formofa. Lat.
22. xo. N. Ion. 138. E. Ferro.
CHAM, a country of Afia, and one of the provinces
of Cochinchina.
CHAM, a town of Swiflerland, in the canton of Zug,
on the fouth fide of the lake of Zug.
CHAM, a town of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria,
on the Regen, at its conflux with a river called Campl,
or KampL: fixty-four miles eaft of Nuremberg, and
eighty-four north of Saltzburg.
CHAM, Chan, or Khan, f. the title given to the fo-
vereign princes of Tsrtary. The word, in the Perfian,
fignifies mighty lord; in the Sclavonic, emperor. Sper-
lingius, in his diflertation on the Danilh term of Majefty,
Vol. IV. No. 179.
*C HA 77
koning, king, thinks the Tartarian chain may be well
derived from it; adding, that in the north they fay,
kan, konnen, konge, konning, &c. The term cham is
alfo applied, among the Perfians, to the great lords of
the court, and the governors of provinces.
CHAM de COUCE, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Eilramadura: fix leagues north ofThomar.
CHA'MA, f a genus of ftiell-fifii belonging to the or¬
der of vermes teftaceae. The fliell is thick, and has two
valves; it is of the oyfter kind. Linnaeus enumerates
fourteen fpecies, principally diftinguiihed by the figure of
their fliells. See Concholocy.
CHA'MA. CHRYSO'COME,/ in botany. See Stje-
HELIN A.
CHAMADE, f, [Fr.] The beat of the drum which
declares a furrender. — Several French battalions made
a fliow of refiftance; but, upon our preparing to fill up a
little fofle, in order to attack them, they beat the cha-
made , and fent us charte blanche. Addifon.
CHAMAiBALA'NUS, /. in botany. See Arachis.
CHAMALBUX'US, /. in botany. See Polygala.
CHAMiECE'RASUS,/ in botany. SeePRUNusand
Lo NICER A.
CHAMZECIS'SUS,/. in botany. See.GLECOMA.
CHAMZECIS'TUS,/. in botany. See Andromeda,
Azalea, Cistus, Portulaca, Rhododendron,
Saxifraga, and Turnera.
CHAMALCLE'M A,/ in botany. See Glechoma.
CHAMAECRIS'TA,yi in botany. See Cassia.
CHAMAECYPARIS'SUS, /. in botany. See San-
tolina.
CH AMiEDAPH'NE,/. in botany. See Andromeda,
Kalmia, Mitchella, and Ruscus.
CHAMAEDRIFO'LIA, /. in botany. See Forsko-
ehlea.
CHAMAFDRYS,/ in botany. See Bartsia, Dryas,
P/EDEROTA, RHINANTHUS, TEUCRIUM, VERONICA.
CHAMAiFI'LIX, f. in botany. See Asplenium.
CHA'MAi-GENIS'TA, /. in botany. See Genista.
CHAMdEIAS'ME, /■ in botany. See Stellera.
CHAM/EI'RIS, /• in botany. See Iris.
CHAMAELA'RIX, f. in botany. See Aspalathus.
CHAM^TLE'A, f in botany. See Cneorum, Clu-
TI A, PHYLICA, andTRAGIA.
CHAMAsLEAG'NUS, / in botany. See Myrica.
CHAMiE'LEON, [from and Xemv, a lion, i. e.
dwarf lion.] The trivial name ot a fpecies of lizard.
See Lacerta.
CHAMZE'XEON, /. in botany. See Atractylis,
Carduus, Carlina, Carthamus, Centaurea,
and Cnicus.
CHAMAsLI'NUM, f in botany. SeetLiNUM.
CHAMAsME'LUM, /. in botany. See Achillea,
Anthemis, Arctotis, Chrysanthemum, Cotula,
and Matricaria.
CHAMJEMES'PILUS,/ in botany. SeeMESPiLus.
CHA-'MjE-MO'LY,/. in botany. See Allium.
CHAMZEMCVRUS, f. in botany. See Runus.
CHAM^ENE'RION, f in botany. See Epilobium.
CHA’MAi-OR'CHIS, f. in botany. See Ophrys.
CHAMAiPERICLY'MENUM, /. in botany. See
CORNUS.
CHAM AiPEU'CE, f. in botanjr. See STjThelina.
CHAMA2PPTYS,/. in botany. See Cressa, Dra-
cocephalum, Erica, and Teucrium.
CHAMiERHODODEN'DRON, f. in botany. See
Azalea and Kalmia.
’CHAMiERHODODEN'DROS, / in botany. See
Azalea and Rhododendron.
CHAMZERFPHES, f in botany. See Chamjerops.
CHA/MAiROPS,/'. [from a l°w flirub.]
The Dwarf Palm, or Palmetto; in botany, one of
the genera of palmai in the Linnaean Appendix, and be¬
longing to the clafs polygamia, order dioecia. The ge-
X neric
78 C H A
neric charadfters are — I. Hermaphrodite flower. Calyx:
jpathe univerfa'l, cotnprefl’ed, bifid ; fp'adix branching;
perianthium proper tripartite, very fmall. Corolla : tri¬
partite. Petals ovate, coriaceous, eredt, acute, infiedted
at the tip. Stamina : filaments fix, fubulate-compreffed,
fcarce cohering at the bafe. Anthers linear, twin, grow¬
ing to the interior fide of the filaments. Piltillum : germs
three, ■/roundiIh ; ftyles as many, diltindl, permanent.
Stigmas acute. Pericarpium: drupes three, globofe,
unilocular. Seeds folitary, globofe. II. Male flower in
a diftinft plant, flowering in the fame manner. Calyx
and corolla as in the hermaphrodite. Stamina: a gib¬
bous receptacle, ending in fix filaments not marked by
perforations. All the other particulars as in the herma¬
phrodites. EJfgktial Char after. — Hermaphrodite. Calyx :
three-parted; corolla three-petalled. Stamina fix ; pif-
tiilum three ; drupes three, one-ieeded. Males. Dioe-
cous, as in the hermaphrodite. Thunberg removes this
genus into the dais hexandria, and the order monogynia,
along with mufa.
Species, i . Chamserops humilis, or dwarf fan-palm : fronds
palmated, plaited ; ftipes thorny. This never riles with
an upright Item, hut the foot-lialks of the leaves rife
immediately from the head of the root, and are armed
on each fide with ' ttrong fpines ; they are flat on then-
upper furface, and convex on their under fide. The cen-
• ters of the leaves are fattened to the foot-ftalk, and
fpread open like a fan, having many foldings, and at the
top are deeply divided like the fingers of a hand ; -when
■fiiey firft come out, they are clofed together like a. fan
when fliut, and are fattened together by ftrong fibres
which run along the borders of the leaves; and, when
the leaves fpread open, thefe fibres or firings hang from
the fides and ends ; the borders of the leaves are finely
fawed, and have white narrow edgings ; they are from
nine to eighteen inches- long, and near afoot broad in
their wideft part: as the lower leaves of the plants decay,
their veftiges remain, and form a fiiort flump above
ground, in the fame manner as our common male fern
does ; from between the leaves comes out the fpadix or
club, which futtains the flowers ; this is covered with a
thin fpathe or hood, which falls off when the bunches
open and divide. It grows naturally in Italy, Sicily'-, and
Spain, particularly in Andaluiia, where, in the lhndy
land, the roots fpread and propagate lo fait, as to cover
the ground-in the lame manner as fern in England. The
leaves of thele plants are tied together to make befoms
for fweeping. Miller has a variety called Chamserops,
glabra, native of the Weft-Indies; where it never tiles
with a Item ; the ftipes are rounder than thole of the
European fan-paim, and have no fpines on their fides.
When the plants ar§ old, the leaves are three or four feet
long, and upwards of two broad, and of a darker green ;
the folds alfo are broader : fome of them have put out
flender bunches of male flowers in England. He calls it
in Englilh palmetto royal. There is a dwarf palm from
Carolina very like this, if not the fame. They are alio
ufed for making balkets, and in thatching. The pith
next the root is tender and fweetifli, and is fometimes
eaten in deferts.
2. Chamserops excelfa : fronds palmated, nervous, fer¬
rate; ftipes unarmed. A lofty tree. Leaves fmooth,
green above, pale underneath. There is a variety of
this, which is a much lower tree.' Native of Japan.
3. Chamserops Cochinchinenfis : fronds palmate plaited,
itipes thorny, Ipathes partial, corollas monopetalous.
Trunk eight feet high, an inch in diameter, ftraiglit,
equsll. Native of the woods of Cochin-China. The
fronds are fit for covering houfes, and making of um¬
brellas.
Propagation and Culture. The dwarf fan-palm is
commonly propagated here by heads, which fometimes
ieparste from the main root ; if thefe- are carefully taken-
off with, fibres and planted, they will grow ; but- the
C H A
plants fo railed are not fo good as thofe which are pro*
duced from feeds ; fo that, if good feeds can be procur-.
ed, that is by much the better way to propagate it. The
feeds Ihould be Iqjvn. in fmall pots filled with light fandy
earth, and plunged-ijito a moderate hot-bed of tanners
bark ; thefe mult be jefreffied now and then with water.
If the feeds are frefii, the plants wifi come up in two
months ; thefe rile with a Angle long-pointed leaf. When
they appear, they muft be now and then refreflied with
water, but they muft not have it in too great plenty. If
the plants are not too clofe to each other in the pots, they
will not require to be tranlplanted the firft year; there¬
fore they Ihould remain in the tan-bed all the l'ummer*.
but in warm weather they muft have plenty of air ad¬
mitted to them. In autumn the pots Ihould be removed
into the Hove, and, if they are plunged into the bark-
bed the firft winter, it wifi greatly forward the growth of
the plants. The following fpring the plants Ihould be
carefully turned out of the pots, fo as to preferve their
roots entire ; for ail the forts of palms have tender roots,
and, if thele be cut. off or broken, the plants are frequent¬
ly killed : then they Ihould be each planted into a feparate
fmall pot filled with light, fandy, vmdunged, earth, and
plunged into a frelh hot-bed to encourage their taking
root ; the following furamer they Ihould be gradually
hardened, by railing the glaffes pretty high, fo as to ad¬
mit a large lhare of air to them, but they Ihould not yet
be wholly expofed to the open air. The autumn fol¬
lowing, the plants may be placed in a dry ftove ; but, as
they advance and get llrength, they may be treated more
hardily, and in fummer placed in the open air in a warm
fixation, and in winter may be preferved in a warm
green-houfe without artificial heat. As the plants ad¬
vance in growth, they Ihould be put into larger pots ;
but, when this is done, there muft be great care taken
th.at their roots are not cut or broken, nor Ihould they
have pots too large. In winter they muft have but little
water, and, if they are expofed to the open air in fummer,
they will not require much, unlefs the feafon proves very
warm and dry, hi which cafe they may be fparingiy wa¬
tered two or three times a-w-eek.
CII AMZERU'BUS, f. in botany. See Rwbus,
CHAMHiSY'Cii, f in botany. See Euphorbia.
CHAMAILLE'RE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Puy de Dome, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrict of Clermont Ferrand : one mile feuth-weft
of Clermont.
CHAMAN1M', oi-Chamerim, f in the Jewilh anti¬
quities, the Hebrew name for that which the Greeks
call Pjreia, or Pyrateria ; and which, according to rabbi
Solomon, were idols expofed to the fun upon the tops of
houfes. Abenezoa lays, they were portable chapels or
temples made in the form of chariots, in honour of the
fun. What the Greeks call Pyreia, were temples confed¬
erated to the fun and fire, wherein a perpetual fire was
kept up. They were built upon eminences ; and were
large inclofures without a roof or covering, where the
fun was worlhipped. Chamerim occurs in leveral places
of the Hebrew bible, and is generally tranflated the priejls
of the idols. St. Jerom, in the fecond hook of Kings,
renders it arufpices. In Hofea and Zephania, he tranflates
it eeditui, or church-wardens. But according to' Mr.
Bryant, Chamirbn were priefts of Ham, the fun-, Chamma
was the title of the hereditary prieftefs of Diana ; and the
Puratheia, where the rites of fire and idolatrous worfhip
were carried on, were called Chamina, and Chaminim,
whence Caminus of the Latins.
CHAMARAN'DE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Seine and Oile, and chief place -of a canton,
in the diftridl of Eftampes : five miles north-north-ealt of
Eftampes.
CHA'MA-TA'O, a fmall ifland,nearthecoaftof China,
in the Eaftern Sea. Lat. 37. 5.8: N. Ion. 138. 36. E. Ferro.
CHAMA'ZE, a town of France, in the department of
the
C H A
the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, In the diltrffit
of Chateaugontier : four milts louth-weft of Chateau-
gontior.
CKAM'BE, a town of Armenia : 120 miles fouth-eaft
of Erivan,
CHAMBER, f. [chambre, Fr. camera, Lat. fiambr.
Weld).] An apartment in a houfe ; generally uled for
thole appropriated to lodging :
Bid them come forth, and hear me ;
Or at their chamber door I'll beat the drum,
Till it cry. Sleep to death. Sbakefpeare.
Any retired room ; as,The dark caves of death, and chambers
of the grave. Prior. — Any cavity or hollow. — Petit has,
from an examination of the figure cf the eye, argued
againft the poflibility of a film’s exittence in the polteriour
chamber. S'barp. — A court of jullice, or of commerce. —
In the imperial chamber this vulgar error is not admitted.
Ayliffe. — The lower part of a gun where the charge is
lodged. — A fpecies of great gun. — Names given them, as
cannons, demi-cannons, chambers, arquebuie, mufket, &c.
Camden. — The cavity where the powder is lodged in a
mine.
Pri'zy-Cn amber. Gentlemen of. the privy-chamber
are lervants of the king, who are to wait and attend on
him and the queen at court, in their diverfions, See. Their
number is forty-eight, under the lord-chamberlain ; twelve
of whom are in quarterly waiting, and two of theie lie in
the privy-chamber. In the abfence of the lord-chamber-
lain, or vice-chamberlain, they execute the king's orders:
at coronations, two of them peribnate the dukes of
Aquitain and Normandy ; and fix of them, appointed by
the lord-chamberlain, attend the foreign ambaiTadors to
their audiences, and in public entries. The gentlemen
of the privy- chamber were inliituted by Henry VII.
CHAM BER of a Mcrtar, or cannon, is a cell or
cavity at the bottom of the bore, to receive the charge
of powder. It is not found by experience that Chambers
have any lenfibie e field on the velocity of the fliot, unleis
in the large# ordnance, as mortars or very large cannon.
Neither is it found that the form of them is very material ;
a fmall cylinder is as good as any j though mathematical
fipeculations. inay (hew a preference of one form over ano¬
ther. But in practice, the chief point to be oblerved, is
to have the chamber of a fize jult to contain the charge
of powder, and no more, that the ball may lie dole to
the charge ; and that its entrance may point exactly to
the centre of the ball.
To CHAM'BER, %>. n. To be wanton ; to intrigue. —
Let us walk honeltly as in the day, not in rioting and
clrunkennefs, not in chambering and wantonnefs. Romans.
— To refide as in the chamber. — The bell blood chamber'd
in his bofom. Sbakejpearef
CHAM'BERER, f. A man of intrigue :
I have not thole foft parts of converfation
That chamberers have. Sbakefpeare.
CHAMBERET/, a town of France, in the department
of the Correze: fifteen miles north of Tulle.
CHAM'BERFELLOW, f. One that lies in the fame
chamber. — It is my fortune to have a chamberfellonu , with
whom I agree very well in many fentiments. Spectator.
CHAM'BERI, or Chambeicy, a large and populous
town, the capital of Savoy, fituated on two fmall brooks,
with a c a file, leated on an eminence : it is furrounded
with mountains, but not fortified ; fo has never withftood
a-fiege.. It contains two parochial churches, and about
3 5,000 inhabitants : twelve polls and a half ealt of Lyons.
The inhabitants of this town threw themfelves into the
' power of France, in September, 1792. It is now the
capital of the department of Mont Blanc. Lat. 45. 34. N.
Ion: 23. 36. E. Ferro.
CHAM'BERLAIN, f a term or title varioufly tiled iri
outlaws, ftatutes, and chronicles ; as firft there is the Lord
j
C H A 79
Great Chamberlain of England, to whofe office belongs
the government of the palace at Weftininfter ; and upon,
all fiolemn occafions the keys of Weftmi niter-hall, and
of the court of requells, are delivered to him ; he difpofes
of the Avoi d of Hate to be carried before the king when
he comes to the parliament, and goes on the right hand
of the Avord next to the king’s perfon : he lias the care
of providing all things in the houfe of lords in the time
of parliament ; to him belong livery and lodgings in the
king’s court, &c. And the gentleman ulher of the black
rod, yeoman ufher, he. are under his authority. The
office of Lord Great Chamberlain of England is heredi¬
tary 1 and where a penon dies leifed in fee of this office,
leaving two filters, the office belongs to both fillers, and
they may execute it by deputy 5 but fuch deputy mull be
approved of by the king, and mull not be of a degree
inferior to a knight. 2 BPo. P. C. 146.
The Lord Chamberlain of the Houlehold has the over-
fight and government of all officers belonging to the
king’s chamber, (except the bed-chamber, which is under
the groom of the' Hole,) and alfo of the wardrobe} of
artificers retained in the king’s fervice, meffengers’, come¬
dians, revels, mufic, he. The lerjeants at arms are like-
wile under his infpe£lion ; and the king’s chaplains, phy*-
ficians, apothecaries, furgeons, barbers, he. And he
hath under him a vice-chamberlain, both being always
privy counfellors. There were formerly chamberlains of
the king’s courts. 7 Ed-zu. 6. c. 1. And there are cham¬
berlains of the Exchequer, who- keep a controlment of
the pells, of receipts and exitus, and have in their cufto-
dy the leagues and treaties with foreign princes, many
ancient records, the two famous books of antiquity called
Domefday, and the Black Book of the Exchequer; and
the llandards of money, and weights, and meaiiires, are
kept by them. There are alfo under-chamberlains of the
exchequer, who make fearches for all records in the trea-
fury j and are concerned in making out the tallies, &c.
The office of chamberlain of the exchequer is mention¬
ed in the flat. 34 and 35 H. 8. c. 16. Befides theie, we.
read of a chamberlain of North Wales. Sto we, p. 641.
There is a chamberlain of Cheller, to whom it belongs
to receive the rents and revenues of that city ; and, when
there is no prince of Wales, and earl of Cheller, he hath
the receiving and returning of all writs coming thither
out of any of' the king’s courts. The Chamberlain of
London, is an officer who is commonly the receiver of
the city rents payable into the chamber ; and hath great
authority in making and determining the rights of free¬
men ; as alfo concerning apprentices, orphans, he.
CHAM-'BERLAIN,/. A fervant who has the care of
the chambers :
Think’ll thou
That the bleak air, thy boilterous chamberlain,
Wili put thy lliirt on warm ? Sbakefpeare,
When Duncan is afleep, his two chamherlaitis
We will with wine and w.affel lb convince. Sbakefpeare.
He ferv’d at firft ASmilia’s chamberlain. Dyden. — A re¬
ceiver of rents and revenues ; aS, chamberlain of the ex¬
chequer, of Cheller, of the city of London. Chambers.
CHAM'BE'RLAINSHIP, /. The office of a cham¬
berlain.
CHAM'BERLAYNE (Edward), defeejided from an
ancient family at Odington in Gloucefterthire, was bom-
in 1616. He was a commoner of St. Edmund-hall in
Oxford in 1634; and was afterwards appointed rhetoric
reader. During the civil war in England, he made the
tour of Europe, In 1658 he married the only daughter
of Richard Clifford, efq-. by whom he had nine children.
After the re'ftoration he was chofen F. R. S. and, in 1669*
attended Charles earl of Carlille to Stockholm, with the
order of the garter to the king of Sweden. In 1670 the
degree of LL.D. was conferred on him at Cambridge,,
and two years after he was incorporated in the larfte at,
Oxford
So C H A
Oxford. He was appointed to be tutor to Henry duke
of Grafton, one of the natural fons of Charles II. and
nvas afterwards pitched upon to inltruft prince George of
Denmark in the Englith tongue. He died at Chelfea in
1703, and was author of the following works : 1. A brief
Relation of the five years civil wars of Henry III, king
of England, 16+7. 2. England’sWants; offered to the con-
ikleration of both houfes of parliament, 1667. 3. The
Converted Prefbyterian : or the church of England jufti-
fied, 1668. 4. Angliae Notitia : or the Prelent State of
England, 1668, The fecond part was publilhed 1671,
&t.‘ This work has gone through many editions : that
of 1741 is the 34th. 5. An Academy or College for
Young Ladies, 1671. He alfo tranflated many books
out of Italian, Spanillx, and Portuguefe, into Englilh.
CH AM'BERL AYNE (John), Ion to the above-men¬
tioned author of The Preient State of England, and con-
tin u'ator of that ufeful work, was admitted into Trinity
college, Oxford, in 1683. He tranflated, x. From French
and Spanilh, The Manner of Making Tea, Cotfee, and
Chocolate, 1685, 8vo. 2. From Italian, A Treafure of
Health, 1686, 8vo. 3. The Arguments of the Books
and Chapters of the Old and New Teflament, written
originally in French by the reverend Fir. Oltervald, 3
vois. 8vo. 1716. 4. The Lives of the French Pliilofb-
phe^s, republilhed fince in 1711, under the title of Me¬
moirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris, 8vo.
5. The Religious Philofopher, in 3 vols. 8vo. 17183 re¬
printed feveral times fince in 8vo. and once in 4to. 6.
The Hiftory ofthe Reformation in the Low Countries, from
the Dutch of Gerrard Brandt, 4 vols. fol. 1721. 7. The
Lord’s Prayer in a hundred different languages, Svo.- 8.
Diflertations Hiftorical, Critical, Theological, and Moral,
on the moft Memorable Events of the Old and New Tefta-
rnents, 1 72 3, folio. Fie was F.R.S . and communicated three
pieces, inferted in the Philofophical Tranfaftions ; one,
concerning the Effects of Thunder and Lightning at
Sampford Courtney in Devonfhire, Oftober 7, 1711. 2.
An Account of the Sunk Iflands in the Humber, reco¬
vered from the Sea. 3. Remarks on the Plague at Copen¬
hagen in 17 1 1. It was laid of him, that he underltood
fixteen languages. He died in the year 1724.
CHAIVFBERMAID, /. A maid wliofe bufmefs is to
drefs a lady, and wait in her chamber.
CHAM'BERS (Ephraim), authorof the well-known dic¬
tionary of Arts and Science called the Cyclopaedia. He was
born at Milton in Weftmoreland, where he received the
common education for qualifying a youth for trade and
commerce. When of a proper age, he was put apprentice
to Mr. Senex the globe-maker, a bufinefs which is con¬
nected with literature, efpecially with geography and
aftronomy. It was during Mr. Chambers’s refidence with
this fkilful artift, that he acquired that tafte for literature
which accompanied him through life, and diredted all
his purfuits. It was even at this time that he formed the
delign of his grand work, the Cyclopaedia ; fome of the
firft articles of which were written behind the counter.
To have leifure to purfue this work, he quitted Mr. Se¬
nex, and took chambers in Gray’s-Inn, where he chiefly
reficled during the reft of his life. The firft edition of
the Cyclopaedia, which was the refult of many years in-
tenle application, appeared in 1728, in 2 vols. folio. The
reputation that Mr. Chambers acquired by the execution
of this work, procured him the honour of being eledted
F. R. S. Nov. 6, 1729. In lefs than ten years time, a fe¬
cond edition became neceflary ; which accordingly was
printed, with corredtions and additions, in 1738; and
this was followed by a third edition the very next year.
Although the Cyclopiedia was the chief bufmels of
Mr. Chambers’s life, and may be regarded as almoft the
lole foundation <.f his fame, his attention was not wholly
confined to this undertaking. He was concerned in a
.periodical publication, called, The Literary Magazine,
which was begun in 1735. In this work he wrote a va-
C H A
riety of articles ; particularly a review of Morgan's Moral
Philofopher. He was alfo concerned with Mr. John
Martyn, profeflor of botany at Cambridge, in preparing
for the prefs a tranflation and abridgement of the Philo-
fophical Hiftory and Memoirs of the R. Acad, of Sciences
at Paris; which work was not publilhed till 1742, fome
time after our author’s 'deceafe, in 5 volumes 8vo. Mr,
Chambers was alfo author of the tranflation of the Jefuit’s
Perlpedtive, from the French, in 4to ; which has gone,
through feveral editions. Mr. Chambers’s clofe and un¬
remitting attention to his lludies at length impaired his
health, and obliged him occaflonally to take a country
lodging, but without much benefit ; he afterwards vifit-
ed the fouth of France, but ftill with little effedt ; he
therefore returned to England, where he foon after died,
at Iflington, May 15, 1740, and was buried at Weftmin-
fter Abbey. After the author’s death, two more
editions of his Cyclopaedia were publilhed. The propri¬
etors afterwards procured a fupplement to be compiled,
by Mr. Scott and Dr. Hill, but chiefly by the latter, which
extended to two volumes more; and the whole has fince
been reduced into one alphabet in four volumes, by Dr,
Rees, forming a very valuable body of the fciences.
CHAM'BERS (Sir William), the celebrated architedl,
was defcended ofthe ancient family of Chalmers in Scot¬
land, barons of Tartas, in France. Elis grandfather luf-
fered confiderably in his fortune by fupplying Charles
XII. of Sweden with money, &c. which that monarch
repaid in bafe coin. Sir William’s father refided feveral
years in Sweden to recover his claims; and there Sir Wil¬
liam was born, and, at eighteen years of age, was ap¬
pointed l’upercargo to the Swedilh Eaft-India company.
From a voyage which he made to China, he brought home
the Afiatic ftyle of ornament, in tents, temples, tnofques,
and pagodas. Thefe ornaments, through the interell of
lord Bute, he was enabled to apply in the gardens at Kew.
Patronifed by the princefs dowager and the king, Mr.
Chambers had much of the fafliionable buildings of his
day. Under Burke's reform, he was appointed lurveyor
general of the board of works. Somerl'et-houfe was
worth to him at leaft 2000I. a-year. His chef d’ oeuvres
are his Itaircal'es, particularly thofe at lord Belborough’s,
lord Gower’s, and the Royal and Antiquarian Societies.
The terrace behind Somerfet-houfe is a bold effortof con¬
ception. His defigns for interior arrangements were ex¬
cellent. His Treatife on Civil Architecture alone will
immortalize his name. In private life, Sir William was
hofpitable, kind, and amiable. His fon married Mifs
Rodney; Mr. Cotton, Mr. Innis, and Mr. Harward,
married his beautiful daughters. Having been abftemious
in his youth, Sir William’s conftitution did not begin to
break till he was feventy years of age. For the laft three
years, he was kept alive by wine and oxygenated air ; and
died on the 5th of March 1796. His celebrity will be
lading in the works which he has left; and, as he was
equally (killed in the theory and pradtice of the arts which
he profefled, his precepts are as valuable as his works.
At his death, he was fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian
Societies, treafurer of the Royal Academy, furveyor-ge-
neral of the board of works, and knight of the Swedifh
order of the Polar Star. As to the attack on his profef-
fional character by Mr. Revely, fee under Architec¬
ture, vol. ii. p. 97.
CHAM'BERSBURGH, a poft-town of the American
States, in Pennfylvania, and the chief of Franklin county.
It is fituated on the eartern branch of Conogocheague
creek, on Potowmac river, in a rich and highly cultivated
country. Here are about 200 houfes, a (tone goal, a
hand fome court lioufe built of brick, a paper and corn
mill. It is fifty-eight miles eaft by fouth of Bedford,
eleven north-welt of Shippenlburg, and 157 welt of Phi¬
ladelphia. Lat. 39.53.N. Ion. 77. 30. W.
CHAMBLE'E FORT,- ftrong and well built, on the
margin of the river of the fame name, about fifteen
miles
C H A
81
C H A
miles fouth-weft from Montreal, and north of St. John’s
fort. It was taken by the Americans, October ao, 1775;
and retaken by the Britifh, January 18, 1776.
CHAMBLE'E, or Sorrell River, a water of the
St. Laurence, iffuing from lake Champlain, 300 yards
wide when lowed:. It is fhoal in dry feafons ; but of
fufficient depth for rafting lumber, & c. fpring and fall.
It was called both Sorrel and Richlieu, when the French
held Canada.
To CH AM'BLET, <v. a. [from Camelot.] To vary;
to variegate. — Some have the veins more varied and cham -
bleted-., as oak, whereof wainfcot is made. Bacon,
CHAM'BLIS, or Chambly, a town of France, in
the department of the Oife, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriCt of Senlis : thirteen miles weft-louth-weft
of Senlis.
CHAMBOIS', a town of France, in the department of
the Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriCt of
Argentan : two leagues north-eall of Argentan.
CHAMBON/ (Le), a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Rhone and Loire, in the diftridt of St. Eti¬
enne: one league fouth-weft of St. Etienne.
CHAMBON', a town of France, in the department of’
theCreufe, and feat of a tribunal, in the diftriclof Evaux :
one league weft of Evaux, and eight eaft of Gueret.
CHAMBONLI'VE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Coireze, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriCf of Uzerche : five miles eaft of Uzerche.
CHAMBO'SE, a town of France, in the department
of the Rhone and Loire, feven miles weft of Villefranche
en Beaujolois.
CHAMBRAIS', a town of France, in the department
of the Eure : five miles weft of Bernay.
CHAMBRAN'LE,/ in architecture, theborder, frame,
or ornament of ftone or wood, furrounding the three fides
of doors, windows, and chimneys. This is different in
the different orders: when it is plain and without mould¬
ings, it is called fimply and properly, band, cafe, or
frame. In an ordinary door, it is moftly called door-cafe;
in a window, the window-frame. The chambranle con-
fifts of three parts ; the two fides, called afcendents ; and
the top,, called the traverfe or fupercilium.
CHAM'BRE (La), a town of Savoy, onthelfere: the
inhabitants are remarkably fubjeCt to the goitre, or fwel-
ling of the neck : whence they are called craws. Twen¬
ty-three miles north-eaftof Chambery.
CHAM'BRE (Martin Cureau dela), pliyfician inordi¬
nary to the French king, was cliftinguilhed by his know¬
ledge in medicine, pbilofophy, and polite learning. He
was born at Mons, and was received into the French aca¬
demy in 1635, and afterwards into the academy of fci-
ences. He wrote a great number of works ; the princi¬
pal of which are, 1. The Characters of the Paflions. 2.
The Art of knowing Men. 3. On the Knowledge of
brute Animals, See. He died at Paris in 1669.
CHAM'BREL of a Horse. The joint or bending
of the upper part of the hinder leg.
CHAM'BRON, a town of the Netherlands, in the
county of Hainaut, ontbeDender: eight miles fouth-eaft
of Ath.
CHAM'CHOU-POU, a town of Chinefe Tartary :
eight miles north-north-eaft ofNing-yuen.
CHAMCHOZ', a town of Armenia: 14.5 miles eaft
of Erivan.
CHAMEJASME, f. in botany. See Houstonia.
CHAMEIRAT', a town of France, in the department
of the Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the dil-
triCl of Tulle: three miles fouth-weft of Tulle.
CHAMELZE'A, f. in botany. See Daphne, Paul-
3.INIA, and Tragia.
CHAMELET', a town of France, in the department
of the Rhone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriCt of Villefranche : three leagues weft of Vilie-
’franche.
CHAMELION,/. A fpeciesof lizard. SccLacerta.
Vol. IV. No. 179.
To CHAM'FER, v.a. [ chanfrer , Fr.J To channel;
to make furrows or gutters upon a column, called fluting.
CHAM'FER or Chamfret,/. A fmall furrow or
gutter on a column ; hence called a fluted column. Cham¬
fering is alfo a term for cutting the edge or the end of any
thing bevel or aflope.
CHAM'FORT (Nicolas), one of the forty members of
the French academy, but who, by levelling all family
diftinCtions, feems to have been born a republican. He
was the fruit of illicit love, and, as it fhould feem, of pro-
milcuous amours; for he never knew his father; a cir-
cumftance which in no degree diminilhed his affeCtion
for his mother, to fupply whofe wants he often denied
himfelf the neceflaries of life. He was taken at a very
early age into the College des Graffms, at Paris, in qua¬
lity of burfar, and was known there by his chriftian
name of Nicolas. Nothing, during the two firft years,
announced extraordinary talents ; but in the third, out
of five prizes that were diftributed annually, he bore a-
way four, failing in Latin verfes alone. The next year
his fuccefs was complete; and he made a remark upon
the occafion, which difeovered good tafte, a fuperior
mind, and the opinion he entertained of the judges: “I
loft the prize laft year,” faid he, “ becaufe I imitated
Virgil ; this year I obtained it, becaule I took Buchanan,
Sarbievius, and other moderns, for my guides.” In Greek
he made a rapid progrefs ; but his petulance, his wit,
and his waggifti tricks, threw the clals into fo much dif-
order, that he was expelled from it by M. Lebeau, the
profeffor of that; language ; and not long after left the
college altogether. Thrown upon the wide world, with¬
out friends, or any means of fupport, he was foon re¬
duced to the loweil. ftate of poverty. He bore his mis¬
fortunes, however, with philofophic patience, and cheer¬
ed himfelf with the molt flattering hopes : “ I am a poor
devil now,” faid he to Selis, another man of letters ;
“ but do you know what will happen ? I (hall obtain a
prize from the academy, my play will fucceed, I lhall
be courted by the world, and well received by the great,
whom I defpile : they will make my fortune forme, and
I lhall afterwards live like a philofopher.” The firft part
of his prediction was loon verified. He obtained a prize,
and lent a copy of his production to the very M. Lebeau
who had expelled him from the Greek clafs, accompa¬
nied by the following note : “ Chamfort fends the work
that has obtained the luffrages of the academy to his old
and relpeCtable mafter ; and, at the end of nine years,
begs his pardon for Nicolas.” M. Lebeau made anfwer,
“ I always loved Nicolas; I admire Chamfort.” A few
days after they met, and the mafter and the pupil em¬
braced each other with tears. Norwas he deceived by his
prefentiment of his future fortune. By the cares and in-
tereft of his friends, it gradually fwel’led to eight or nine
thouland livres a-year; but the greateft part ol it con-
filted of penlions, and the whirlwind of the revolution
fwept them away. In this reverie of fortune Mirabeau
was his friend, and often borrowed his pen. Chamfort
was, indeed, his counfel upon many occafions ; and,
when Mirabeau went to pals an hour with him, as was
his cuftom in the morning, he ufed to call it going to
rub the moft eleCtrical head he had ever met with. The
light emitted by this eleCtrical head could not foil to
Ihine in oppofition to the Waiting rays of the mock fun
of liberty ; of the felon Robefpierre ; to whom talents
and virtue were alike obnoxious. It was difficult, how¬
ever, to lay hold on Chamfort. Frank, upright, decided,
and independent of all parties, he had fleered a fteady
courfe through the revolutionary ftorm ; openly profeff-
ing an equal hatred of priefts.and nobles, and of Marat
and the reft of the men of blood. At the fame time that
he was author of the faying, Guerre aux chateaux, paix
aux chaumieres , “ War to the palace, peace to the cot¬
tage,” he explained, by the appellation of the fraternity
of Cain and Abel, the compulfive fyitem of fraterniza¬
tion, deviled by the jacobin club. At length, however,
Y an
82 * C H A
an ob'fcure Informer was found to denounce him, and
Chamfort was carried to the Madcdonnettes. Unable to
obtain there the attentions he required, he conceived fo
profound a horror of imprifonment, that when he was
buffered to return-, a few days after, to his apartments,
tinder the cuftody of a guard, he fwore he would rather
die than be immured anew. In little more than a month,
the gendarme told him he had orders to carry him back
to confinement. Chamfort retired to a clofet, tired a
piftol at his head, fhattered the bones of his nofe, and
drove-in his right eye. Aftonifhed at finding himfelf a-
live, he took up a razor, tried to cut his throat, and
mangled the flefh in the moil dreadful manner. The
weakness of his hand made no change in the resolution
of his mind : he attempted Several times, in vain, to
reach his heart with the fame inftrument ; and, finding
himfelf begin to faint, made a laft effort to open the
veins at his '--sees. At length, overcome by pain, he ut¬
tered a lc uu cry, and fell almoft lifelefs into a chair.
The door was broke open, and furgeons and civil offi¬
cers foon repaired to the fpot. Wliile the former were
preparing dreffings for fo many wounds, Chamfort dic¬
tated to "the latter the following truly Roman declara¬
tion : “I, Scbaftian Roch Nicolas Chamfort, declare it
was my intention to die a freeman, rather than to be
carried back, like a flave, to a houfe of confinement. I
declare, moreover, that, if violence be u fed to carry me
thither in the ftate I am in, I have ftil! llrength enough
to finifh what I have begun.” An hour or two after he
became perfeftly calm, and refumed his ufual ironical
manner: “ See what it is,” Said he, “ to want dexteri¬
ty; an aukward man cannot even kill himfelf.” He then
went on to relate how he had perforated his eye, and the
lower part of his forehead, inifead of blowing out his
brains ; f'cored his throat, in Head of cutting it ; and i'ca-
rified his bread, without reaching his heart: “ At iaft,”
added he, “ I recoileCled Seneca; and, in honour of
Seneca, 1 refolved to open my veins ; but Seneca was, a
rich man ; he had a warm bath, and every thing to his
with : I am a poor devil, and have none of the fame ad¬
vantages ; yet here 1 am (till.” Not one of the multi¬
tude of wounds he had made was mortal. Strange as it
may appear, they were even attended by beneficial con-
fequences. By giving vent to an internal humour that
had long preyed upon his conftitution, they reftored him
to a date of health he had been, a ftranger to for years ;
and Chamfort might now have been alive, if, when his
wounds were clofed, the furgeons had given vent to that
humour by other means. But they negle&ed the’precau-
tion, and this fingularly courageous chara&er was foon
after feized with an inflammation of the lungs, and died.
In his port-folio was found a colle&ion of original anec¬
dotes, thoughts, maxims, and chara biers, which were
published in one volume, 8vo. Paris, 1796.
CHAMIER' (Daniel), an eminent proteftant divine,
born in Dauphiny, was long minifter at Montelimart,
from whence he removed in 1612 to Montaubon, to be
profeflor of divinity; and was killed at the fiege of that
place by a cannon ball in 1621. He was no lefs diftin-
guifhed as a ftatefman than as a divine. Varillas fays, ,it
was he who drew up the edift of Nantz. His treatife De
cecumenicopontilice, and his Epiftolie jefuiticse, are com¬
mended by Scaliger. His principal work is his Panftra-
tie catholique, written at the deflre of the fynod of the
reformed churches in France, to confute Bellarmine.
Though this work makes four large folio volumes, it
wants a -fifth, which the author’s death prevented him
from finifhing. His Corpus Theologicum, and his Epif-
tolae jefuiticne, were printed in a final 1 folio volume, 1693.
CHAMILLA'RD (Stephen), a jefuit, born at Bour-
ges in 1656, taught grammar and philoi'ophy, and was a
popular preacher for about twenty years. He died at Pa¬
ris in 1730, at the age of feventy. He was deeply verfed
in the knowledge of antiquity. He publifhed, 1, A
C H A
learned edition of Prudentius for the life of the dauphin,
with an interpretation and notes, Paris, 1687. qto. It is
become fcarce. 2. DiHertations or. feveral medals, gems,
and other monuments of antiquity, Paris, 4to. 17 n.
CI1 AMIR', a town of Arabia, in the country of Ye¬
men: fifty miles north-eaft of Loheia. Lat. 17. 15. N.
Ion. 43. 5. E. Greenwich.
CHAMI'RA, f. in botany. See Heliophila,
CHAMIT SCHE, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Mogilev, on the borders of Poland: forty miles fouth-
fouth-weft: of Mogilev.
CHAM'KA or Tchamka, a town of Alia, in the
country of Thibet: 229 miles fouth-eaft of Laifa.
CHA'MLET, f [See Camelot,] Scuff made origi¬
nally of camel’s hair. — To make a chamlet, draw five
lines, waved overthwart, if your diapering confiit of a
double line. Peach am .
CH AMNEPSKOI, a fortrefs of Ruffia, on the con¬
fines of China : 168 miles fouth-weft of Verch Udinfkoi.
CHA'MOIS, f. [ chamois , Fr.] An animal of the an¬
telope kind, whole fkin is made into loft leather, called
among \i%fhammy. SeeCAPRA, vol. iii. p. 772. — Tiiefe are
the beafls which ye fhail ear; the ox, the flieep, and the
wild ox, and the chamois. Deuteronomy.
CHA'MOMILE, f. See Anthemis.
CHAMOMIL'LA, f. in botany. See Matricaria.
CHA'MOS, oi-Chemosh, the idol orgod of the Mo¬
abites; a fymbol of the i'un, which that people worfliipped.
CHAMOU'Nl, or Chambny, one of the elevated
valleys of the Alps, fituated at the foot of Mount Blanc.
See Alps, vol. i. p.371.
CHAMOUSSET', (Charles Humbert Piarron de),
born at Paris in 1717, and deftined to lupply his fa¬
ther’s place in the parliament of that city as a judge.
Medicine, however, became his favourite ftudy ; and his
difpoficion to do good appeared fo early, that, whenhewas
a boy, he ufed to give, to the poor the money allowed
him weekly for bat things. When became into praftice,
he was lo forcibly brack with .the wretched fituation of
the great hofpital of Paris (the Hotel Dieu), where the
dead, the dying, and the living, were very otten crowded
together in the fame bed (five perfo’ns at a time occafion-
ally occupying the fame bed), that he wrote a plan of
reform for that hofpital, which no one can read without
fhuddering at the horrid pictures it reprefents. M. de
Chamouflet was now fo well known as a man of true be¬
nevolence, that Choifeul made him, in 1761, intendant
general of the military liofpitals of France, the king,
Louis XV. telling him, “that he had never, lince he
came to the throne, made out an appointment fo agree¬
able to himfelf;” and added, “I am fure I can never
make anyone that will be of fuch fervice to my troops.”
The pains he took in this employment were incredible.
His attention to his fituation w as fo great, and conduct¬
ed with fuch good fenfe and underftanding, that the
marfhal de Soubife, on vifiting one of the great military
hofpitals at Duffeldorf, under the care of M. de Cha-
mojiffet, faid, “ This is the firft time I have been fo happy
as to go round an hofpital without hearing any com¬
plaints.” Another marfhal of France told his wife:
“ Were I fick,” faid he, “ I would be taken to the hof¬
pital of which M. de Chamouflet has the management.”
This good man died in 1773, at the age of 56 years,
from a malignant diforder induced by an inceffant appli¬
cation to the duties of his profeffion.
CH AMOU'X, a town of Savoy, in the county of M tu-
rienne: four miles and a half north-weft of Argentina.
To CHAMP, nj. a \_champayer, Fr.] To bite with a
frequent aftion of the teeth. — Coffee and opium are taken
down, tobacco but in fmoke, and betel is but champed in
the mouth with a little lime. Bacon.
The fiend reply’d not, overcome with rage ;
But, like a proud fteed rein’d, went haughty on,
Champing his iron curb. Milton.
C H A
To devour, 'with violent action of the teeth. — A tobacco-
pipe happened to break in my mouth, and the pieces
left fuch a delicious roughnefs on my tongue, that /
champed up the remaining part. Spectator.
To CHAMP, v. n. To perform frequently the aftion
of biting. — They began to repent of that they had done,
and iref ully t > champ upon the bit they had taken into
their mouths. Hooker .
CHAMPACA' and CHAMPACAM', / in botany.
See Mich Eli a. ,
CHAMP AGNAC', a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in
the dill rift of Nontron ; twelve -miles north of Perigueux.
CHAMPA GNE (Philip de). a celebrated painter,
born at Bruflels in 1602.- He difeovered an inclination
to painting from his youth; and owed but little to mat¬
ters for the perfeftion he attained in it; excepting, that he
learned landfcape from Fouquiere. In all other branches
of his art, nature was his matter, and he is faid to have
followed her very faithfully. At nineteen years of age
he let off for Italy, taking France in his way; but he
proceeded no farther than Parts. He lodged there in
the college of Laon, where Pouffin alfo dwelt; and thefe
two painters became very good friends. Du Chefne,
painter to queen Mary of Medicis, was employed about
the paintings in the palace of Luxembourg, and fet
Pouffin and Champagne at work under him. Cham¬
pagne acquitted himfelf fo well, that he was prefently
made director of the queen’s paintings, who fettled on
him a yearly penfion of 1200 livres, and allowed him
lodgings in the palace of Luxembourg. There are avalt
number of his pieces much efteemed. He was made rec¬
tor of the royal academy of painting, which office he
exercifed many years. He died at Paris in 1674.
CHAMPA'GNE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Dordogne, and chief placeof a canton, in the
diftrift of Riberac : ten miles north of Riberac.
CHAMPA'GNE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the di-
ftrift of Belley, ten miles north of Belley.
CHAMPA'GNE, before the revolution, a diftrift of
France, bordered on the eaft by Lorraine and Franche
Comte, on the fouth by Burgundy and Nivernois, on
the weft by the Me of t rance and Picardy, and on the
north by Flanders ; about fixty-five leagues in length,
and forty-live broad: the land is fertile, and produces that
celebrated wine called after its name: and abounds in
grain and pafturage: it contained two archbilhoprics,
Rheims and Sens; and four bilhoprics, Langres, Chalons,
Troyes, and Meaux. The principal rivers are the Seine,
the Marne, the Aube, the Meule, and the Ailne.
Troyes was the capital.
CHAMPA'GNE MOUTON, a town of France, in
he department of the Charente, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrift of Confolent : ten miles weft of
Confolent.
CHAMPAGNO'LE, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Jural, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Poligny : three leagues fouth-eaft of Poligny.
CHAMPAI GN,yi [_c amp ague, Fr.J A flat open coun'
try :
Of all thefe bounds,
With fhadowy forefts and with champaigns rich’d,
We make thee lady. Shakefpcare.
CHAMPAIN',or Point Champain,/. in heraldry, a
mark of diflionour in the coat of arms of him who kills
a prifoner of war after he has cried quarter.
CHAMPCON', a town of France*, in the department
of Mayenne : two leagues north-eaft of Mayenne.
CHAMPDENIE'RS, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftricl of St. Maixent : ten miles north of Niort.
CHAMPDIEU', a town of France in the department of
the Rhone and Loire : one league north of Montbriion.
C H A 83
CHAMPFAU'X, a town of France, in the department of
the Seine and Marne : feven miles north-eaft of Melun.
CHAMPEI'X, a town of France, in the de partment of
the Puy de Dome, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Iffoire : two leagues and a half north-welt of II-
foiie.
C H AM'PERTY, f. [from campi parthio, becaufe the
parties in champerty agree to divide the land, &c. in
queftion.] In law, a bargain with the plaintiff or de¬
fendant in any fuit, to have part of the land, debt, or
other thing fued for, if the party that undertakes it pre¬
vails therein. Whereupon the champertor is to carry 011
the party’s fuit' at his own expence. See 4 Comm. 135.
1 hift. 368. It is a lpecies of maintenance, and punifhed
in the fame manner. This feems to have been an an¬
cient grievance in our nation ; for, notwithftanding the
feveral (latutes of 3 Ed. I. c. 25. 13 Ed. I. c. 49. 28 Ed. I.
flat. 3. c. 11. and 33 Ed. I. &c. and a form of a writ
framed to them ; yet 4 Ed. III. c. 1 1 and 32 Hen. VIII. c. 9.
enacted, That, whereas former ftatutes provided redrefs
for this evil in the king’s-bench only, from henceforth
it (hould be lawful for jutfices of the common pleas,
juflices of affile, and juftices of peace in their quarter
feflions, to ihquire, hear, and determine, this and fuch
like cafes, as well at the fuit of the king, as of the party :
and this offence is puniffiable by common law and fta-
tute ; the flat. 33 Ed. I. ftat. 3. makes the offenders liable
to three years imprifonment, and a fine at the king’s
pleafure. By the ftat. 28 Ed. I c. n. it is ordained.
That no officer, nor any other, (hall take upon him any
bufinefs in fuit, to have part of the thing in plea; nor
none upon any covenant (hall give up his right to an¬
other; and if any do, and be convicted thereof, the
taker Hull forfeit to the king fo much of his lands and
goods as amounts to the value of the part purchafed. In
the conftruftion of thefe ftatutes, it hath been adjudged,
that under the word covenant all kinds of promifes and
contrails are included, whether by writing or parol :
that rent granted out of land in .variance, is within the
ftatute of champerty. : and grants of part of the thing in
fuit made merely in confideration of the maintenance or
champerty, are within the meaning of this ftatute ; but
not Inch as are made in confideration of a precedent
honeft debt, which is agreed to be fatisfied with the thing
in demand when recovered. 2 Infi. 209. 2 Rol. Abr. 113.
It is faid not to be material, whether he who brings a
writ of champerty, did in truth fuffer any damage by
it ; or whether the plea wherein it is alleged he deter¬
mined or not. 1 Hawk. P. C. c. 84. A conveyance exe¬
cuted pending a plea, in purfuance of a bargain made
beforej is not within the ftatutes againft champerty : and
if a man purchafe land of a party, pending the writ, if
it be bond fide, and not to maintain, it is not champerty,
F. N. B. 272. But it hath been held, that the purchafe
of land while a fuit of equity concerning it is depending,
is within the purview of the ftatute 28 E - 1. c. 11. A
leafe for life, or years, or a voluntary gift of land, is
within the ftatutes of champerty ; but not a furrender
made by a lefi.ee to his leflbr; or a conveyance relating
to lands in fuit, made by a father to his Ion, See. 1 Hawk.
P. C. c. 84. The giving part of the lands in fuit, after
the end of it, to a counfellor for his reward, is not cham¬
perty, if there be no precedent bargain relating to fuch
gift; but if it had been agreed between the counfellor
and his client before the action brought, that he fnould
have part lor his reward, then it would be champerty.
Bro. Champert. 3. And it is dangerous to meddle with
any fuch gi t, fince it carries with it a ftrong prefumption
of champerty. 2 Fiji. 564. If any attorney follow a cauie
to be paid in grofs, when the thing in fuit is recovered, it
hath been adjudged, that this is champerty. Hob. 117..
Every champerty implies ’maintenance ; but every main¬
tenance is not champerty. Cram. jur. 39. a o this may¬
be referred the provificn of the ftat. 32 H. 8. c. 9. that
no one fhall fell or purchafe any pretended right cr title
to
84 C H A
to land, unlefs the vendor hath received the profits there¬
of for one whole year before l'uch grant ; or hath been
in aftual poffelfion of the land, or of the reversion or re¬
mainder, on pain that both purchafer and vendor fiiall
each forfeit the value of fuch land to the king and the
profecutor. See Maintenance.
CH AM'PERTORS, f. by ftatute, are thofe who move
pleas or fuits, or caufe them to be moved, either by their
own procurement, or by others, and fue them at their
proper cofts, to have part of the land in variance, or part
of the gain.
CHAMPIGNEL'LE, a town of France in the depart¬
ment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of St. Fargeau : nine miles north of St. Fargeau.
CHAMPI'GNON, /. [ champignon , Fr.] A kind of
mulhroom. See Agaricus.
He viler friends with doubtful mufhrooms treats,
Secure for you, himfelf champignons eats. Dry den,
CHAMPIGNY'sur VEUDE, a town of France in the
department of the Indre and Loire : two leagues and a
half louth of Chi non.
CHAMTION, f. \_champion , Fr. campio, low Lat.] A
man who undertakes a caufe in fingle combat. — In many
armies, the matter fliould be tried by duel between two
champions. Bacon.
For hot, cold, moift, and dry, four champions fierce.
Strive here for maft’ry, and to battle bring
Their embryon atoms. Milton.
A hero; a ftout warrior; one bold in conteft. — This
makes you incapable of conviftion ; and they applaud
themfelves as zealous champions for truth, when indeed
they are contending for error. Locke. — It appears that
champions, in the ancient fenfe of the word, were per-
fons who fought in ftead of thofe that, by cuftom, were
obliged to accept the duel, but had a juft excufe for dif-
penfing with it, as too old, infirm, being ecclefiaftics, See.
CHAMTION, in law, is taken not only for him that
fights a combat in his own caufe, but alio for him that
doth it in the place or quarrel of another. Brail. cap.
21. And in Sir Edward Bilhe’s notes on Upton, fol. 36,
it appears that Henry de Ferneberg, for thirty marks
fee, did by charter covenant to be champion to Roger
abbot of Glaftenbury. An. Hen. 3. Thefe champions,
fo mentioned in our law books and hiftories, were ufu-
ally hired ; and any one might hire them, except parri¬
cides, and thofe who were accufed of the higheft of¬
fences : before they came into the field, they fhaved their
heads, and made oath that they believed the perfons
who hired them were in the right, and that they would
defend their caufe to the utmoft of their power ; which
was always done on foot, and with no other weapon than
a ftick or club, and a fhield : and before they engaged,
they always made an offering to the church, that God
might affiit them in the battle. When the battle was
over, the punifhment of a champion overcome, and like-
wife of the perlon for whom he fought, was various : if
it was the champion of a woman for a capital offence,
file was burnt, and the champion hanged : if it was of a
man, and not for a capital crime, he not only made fa-
tisfadlion, but had his right hand cut off; and the man
was to be dole confined in prifon till the battle was over.
Brail, lib. a. c. 35. Viftory in the trial by battle is ob¬
tained, if either champion proves recreant ; that is, yields
and pronounces the horrible word of craven ; a word of
difgrace and obloquy, rather than of any determinate
meaning. But a horrible word it indeed is to the van-
quilhed champion : fince as a punifhment to him for for¬
feiting the land of his principal, by pronouncing that
fhameful word, he is condemned as a recreant to become
infamous, and not to be accounted liber & legalis homo ;
being luppoled by the event to be proved forfworn, and
therefore never to be put upon a jury, or admitted as a
witnefs in any caufe. 3 Comm. 340.
C H A
CHAMTION OF THEKING, an ancient officer, whofe
office it is at the coronation of our kings, when the king
is at dinner, to ride armed cap-a-pie into Weftmi nfter-
hall, and by the proclamation of a herald make a chal¬
lenge, That, if any man lhall deny the king’s title to the
crown, he is there ready to defend it in fingle combat,
&c. which being done, the king drinks to him, and fends
him' a gilt cup with a cover full of wine, which the cham¬
pion drinks, and hath the cup for his fee. This office,
ever fince the coronation of Richard II, when Baldwin
Freville exhibited his petition for it, was adjudged from
him to Sir John Dymocke his competitor, (both claim¬
ing from Marmion,) and hath continued ever fince in
the family of the Dymockes ; who hold the manor of
Scrivelfby in Lincolnfhire, hereditary from the Mar-
mions, by grand ferjeanty, viz. That the lord thereof
fhall be the king’s champion, as abovefaid. Accordingly
Sir Edward Dymocke performed this office at the coro¬
nation of Charles II. And a perfon of the name of Dy¬
mocke performed it at the coronation of- his prefent ma-
jefty George the Third.
To CHAMTION, <v. a . [from the noun.] To chal¬
lenge to the combat :
The feed of Banquo kings !
Rather than fo, come. Fate, into the lift,
And champion me to th’ utterance. Shakefpeare .
CHAMTION (Jofeph), famous in the art of pen-
manfhip, was born at Chatham in 1709, and received his
education under Snell, who kept Sir John Johnfon’s
free vvriting-fehool, in Forfter-lane, Cheapfide. He after¬
wards kept the new academy in Bedford-ftreet, where
he had many pupils, whom he inftru&ed with great fuc-
cels ; and he has never been excelled in his art. His
firft performance was his Pradtical Arithmetic, Svo,
1733. In 1747 he publifhed his Tutor’s Afliftant in
Arithmetic, in forty plates, 4to. But his molt elaborate
and curious performance, is his Comparative Penman-
fliip, twenty-four folio plates, 1750. It is engraved by
Thorowgood, and is an honour to Britifh penmanfhip.
His New and complete Alphabets, with the Hebrew,
Greek, and German, Charadters, in twenty-one plates fo¬
lio, engraved by Bickham, came out in 1754; and in
1758 he began to publilh his Living Hands, or the dif¬
ferent hands in common ufe, upwards of forty plates,
4to. He contributed forty-feven folio pieces for George
Bickham’s Univerfal Penman, wherein he difplays a de¬
lightful variety of writing, both for ufe and ornament.
His other pieces are, Engroffing Hands for young Clerks,
1757. The Young Penman’s Practice, 1760. The Pen¬
man’s Employment, folio, 1759 and 1762. In 1754 he
addreffed and prefented to the royal fociety a large body
of penmanfhip, in folio, which remains in MS.
CHAMP'L, a river of Germany, in the circle of Ba¬
varia, which runs into the Regen, at Cham.
CHAMPLAIN' (Samuel de), a celebrated French na¬
vigator, the original founder of the colony of New France
or Canada. He built Quebec ; was the firft governor of
the colony in 1603, and was accidentally drowned in
1649.
CHAMPLAIN', a lake of North America, next in fize
to lake Qntario, and fituate eaft-north-eaft from it, form¬
ing a part of.the dividing line between the ftates of New-
York and Vermont. It took its name from the French
governor above-mentioned, who was drowned in it. It
was before called Corlaer’s Lake. . In length from Fair-
haven to St. John’s it is about 200 miles ; its breadth is
from one to eighteen miles, being very different in dif¬
ferent places; the mean width is about five miles; and
it occupies about 500,000 acres. Its depth is fufficient
for the largeft veffels. There are in it ab.ove fixty iftands
of different fizes ; the moft confiderable are North and
South Hero, and Motte Ifland. North Hero, or Grand
Ifte, is twenty-four miles long, and from two to four
wide. It receives at Ticonderoga the waters of Lake
George
C H A
George from the fouth-fouth-weft, winch is fakl to be
100 feet higher than the waters of this lake. Half the
rivers and ftreams which rife in Vermont fall into it.
There are feveral which come to it from New- York ftate,
and from Canada ; to which laft it fends its own waters
through Chamblee river into the St. Lawrence. This
lake is well ftored with fifli, particularly falmon, falmon-
trout, fturgeon, and pickerel ; and the land on its bor¬
ders, and on the banks of its rivers, is good. The rocks
in feveral places appear to be marked, and ftained, with
the former fiirface of the lake, many feet higher than it
has been fince its difcovery in 1608. The waters gene¬
rally rife from about the 20th of April to the 20th of
June, from four to fix feet ; the greateft variation is not
more than eight feet. It is feldom entirely fiiut up with
ice until the middle of January. Between the 6th and
15th of April the ice generally goes off; and it is not
uncommon for many fquare miles of it to difappear in
one day. The fcenery along various parts of the lake is
extremely grand and pidturefque, particularly beyond
Crown Point ; the fliores are there beautifully orna¬
mented with hanging woods and rocks, and the moun¬
tains on the weltern fide rife up in ranges one behind
the other in the mod magnificent manner.
CHAMPLAIN', a town, the moft northerly in Clinton
county, Ne\*-York, which takes its name from the lake
above defcribed. It was granted to fome Canadian and
and Nova-Scotia refugees, who were either in the fer-
vice of the United States during the war, or fled to them
for protection. The indigence or ill habits of thefe peo-
le occafioned the breaking up of the fettlement ; and a
etter fet of inhabitants have now taken their place.
The lands are fertile ; and two livers run through it
well ftored with fifli.
CHAMPLEMY', a town of France, in thedepartment
of Nyevre, and chief' place of a canton, in the dillriCt of
La Charite : four leagues louth-fouth-weft of Clamecy.
CHAMPLIT^TE, a town of France, and principal
place of a diltriCt, in the department of the Upper Saone,
it contains about 1000 inhabitants: twdnty-feven miles
weft of Vefoul, and twelve north of Gray.
CHAMPRO'ND, a town of France in the department
of the Eure and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriCt of Nogent le Rotrou ; fifteen miles weft of
Chartres.
CHAMPROUE'NT, a town of Savoy : nine miles
north of Chambery.
CHAMPTERCIER', a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Digne : three miles weft of Digne.
CHAMPTO'CE, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of Angers: four leagues weft-fouth- weft of
Angers.
CHAMPTOCE AU'X, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Mayne and Lorre, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrift of St. Florent le Vieil, containing
about 1000 inhabitants: four miles weft-fouth-weft of
Ancenis.
CHAMPVA'NS, a town of France, in the department
of Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri<5t of
Bole : one league fouth-weft of Dole. .
CHAMPVA'NT, a town of France in the department
of the Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltricft of Gray : one league fouth of Gray.
CHAM'TA, or Tchamta, a town of Afia, in the
country of Thibet : 107 miles eaft of Lafla.
CHAMTOU', a town of Afia, in the country of Thi¬
bet : feventy-five miles north-north-weft of Cont-Choud-
fong. *
CHAMU'NY, a town of Savoy, in the lordfhip of
Faucigny : nine miles eaft of Salanche.
CHAMUS'CA, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Eftramadura; three leagues north-eaft of Santaren.
CHAMU'TI, a river of Italy, in the kingdom of Na-
Vol, IV. No. 180,
C H A 85
pies, which runs into the fea : fix miles fouth-fouth eaft
of Girace.
CHAMU'TI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Calabria Ultra : five miles fouth-
fouth-weft of Girace.
CHAN-CHAN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Corea : twelve miles fouth-weft of Long-Kouang.
CHANAC', a town of France, in the department of
Lozere, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Mende : two leagues and a half fouth-weft of Mende.
CHANAID', a fmall ifland of Scotland, near the fouth-
weft extremity of the ifland of Iia.
CHAN ANAs'I, the name of the ancient inhabitants
of Canaan, defcendants of Canaan, but peculiarly ap¬
propriated to fome one branch, though uncertain which
branch or fon of Canaan it was.
CHA'NAS, a town of France, in the department of
the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrifl: of
Vienne : four miles fouth-fouth-weft of Vienne.
CHANCAIL'LO, a feaport of South America, in the
Pacific Ocean, on the coaft of Peru, north-weft of Lima.
Lat. J2. 5. S.
CHAN9AY', a town of South America, in Peru, and
principal place of a jurifdiftion, in the archbilhopric of
Lima ; it contains 300 families, chiefly Spaniards : ten
leagues fouth of Lima.
CHANCE, f. [ chance , Fr.J Fortune; the caufe of for¬
tuitous events. — Chance is but a mere name, and really
nothing in itfelf ; a conception of our minds, and only a
compendious way of fpeaking, whereby we would ex-
prefs, that fuch effefts as are commonly attributed to
chance, were verily produced by their true and proper
caufes, but without their defign to produce them. Bent¬
ley. — Fortune; the a£t of fortune; what fortune may
bring: applied to perfons. — Thefe things are commonly
not obferved, but left to take their chance. Bacon. — Ac¬
cident, cafual occurrence; fortuitous event. — To fay a
thing is a chance or cafualty, as it relates to fecond
caufes, is not profanenefs, but a great truth ; as fignify-
ing no more, than that there are fome events befides the
knowledge and power of fecond agents. South.
All nature is but art, unknown to thee ;
All chance direction, which thou canft not fee. Pope,
Event ; fuccefs ; luck : applied to things :
Now we'll together, and the chance of goodnefs
Be like our warranted quarrel ! Sbakefpeare,
Misfortune ; unlucky accident :
To fay extremity is the trier of fpirits.
That common chances common men could bear. ShakefL
Poflibility of any occurrence :
A chance, but chance may lead, where I may meet
Some wand’ring fpirit of heav’n, by fountain fide,
Or in thick fliade retir’d. Milton.
CHANCE, adj. [It is feldom ufed but in compofition.J
Happening by chance :
Now ftiould they part, malicious tongues would fay,
They met like chance companions on the way. Dry den.
To CHANCE. <v. n. [from the noun.] To happen ; to
fall out; to fortune. — How chance thou art not with the
prince thy brother ? Shakefpearc.
I h ofe the fafer fea, and chanc'd to find
Ar[ ver’s mouth impervious to the wind. Pope.
CHANCE,/. The doftrine and laws of, are the fame as
thofe of expeftation or probability, &c. Chances, in
play, confift of the number of ways by which events
may happen. Thus’, if a halfpenny, or other piece of
money, be tofled up, there are two events, or chances,
or fides that may turn up, namely, one chance for turn¬
s' ing
86 C H A
ing up a head, and one for the contrary ; that is, it is an
equal chance to throw a head or not. And in throwing
a common die, which has fix faces, there are in all fix
chances, that is, one chance for throwing an ace, or any
other fingle point, and five chances againft it ; or it is
five to one that fuch afligned point does not come up.
Upon this ffiibjeft, fee Demoivre, Simplon, & c. alfo Al¬
gebra, vol. i. p. 315; and the article Gaming,
The ancient fortilege, or chance , M. Placette obferves,
was inftituted in the Old Teftament, where we find fe-
veral Handing laws and exprefs commands which pre-
fcribed its ufe on certain cccafions. Hence the fcrip-
ture fays, “ The lot, or chance, fell on Matthias,” when
it was in quefti'on who fnouid fill Judas’s place in the
apollolate. Hence alfo arofe the fortes fanclorum, or me¬
thod of determining things,, among the ancient Chrif-
tians, by opening fome of the facred books, and pitching
on the firlt verl'e they call their eye on, as a fure prog-
noftic of what was to befal them. The fortes Homeric*,
Virgiliance , Pranefina, &c. ufed by the heathens, were
with the fame view, and in the fame manner. St. Au-
guftin feems to approve of this method of determining
things future, and owns that he had p raft i fed it himlelf ;
grounded on this fuppofition, that God prefides over
chance; and on Pro-v. xvi. 33.
CHANCE, in law, is where a man commits an un¬
lawful aft, by misfortune, or chance, and not by defign,
but by a deficiency of the will ; becaufe here it obferves
a total neutrality, and doth not co-operate with the
deed; which therefore wants one main ingredient of a
crime. Of this, as it affefts the life of another, fee
Murder . It is to be oblerved, however, generally, that
if any accidental mifchief happens to follow from the
performance of a lawful aft, the party Hands exculed
from all guilt ; but if a man be doing any thing unlaw¬
ful, and a confequence enfues which he did not forefee
or intend, as the death of a man, or the like, his want
of forefight fitall be no excule ; for being guilty of one
offence, in doing antecedently what is in ilfelf unlawful,
he is criminally guilty of whatever confequence may
follow the firfi misbehaviour. 1 Hal. P. C. 39.
CHANCE-MEDLEY, in law, fuch killing of a man
as happens' either in felf-defence on a Hidden quarrel, or
in the commiffion of an unlawful aft, without any de¬
liberate intention of doing any mifchief at all. 1 Hawk.
P. C. c. 30. The felf-defence here meant, is that where¬
by a man may proteft himfelf from an affault in the
courfe of a Hidden quarrel, by killing him who affaults
him. And this is what the law exprefTes by this word
chance-medley, or, as fome rather choofe to write it,
chaud-medley ; the former of which, in its etymology,
fignines a cafual affray, the latter an affray in the heat
of blood or pafiion ; both of them of much the fame
import : but the former is in common fpeech too often
erroneoufiy applied to any manner of homicide, by mif-
adventure ; whereas it appears by Hat. 24 Hen. VIII. c. 5.
and, in ancient law-books, that it is properly applied to
fuch killing as happens to felf-defence, in a Hidden ren¬
counter. 4 Comtn. 183. 3 Inf. 55. Fojler 275. In chance-
medley the offender forfeits his goods, but hath a pardon
of courfe. 6 Ed. 1. c. 9.
CHANGEABLE, adj. Accidental. — The trial there¬
of was cut off by the chanceable coming thither of the
king of Iberia. Sidney.
CHANGEFUL, adj. Hazadous, Out of ufe:
Myfelf would offer you t’ accompany
In this adven’trous chanceful jeopardy. Spenfer.
CHANGF.L, /. That part of the choir of a church,
between the altar or communion-table and the ballul-
traue or rail that inclofes it, where the minifler is placed
at the celebration of the communion. The word comes
from the Latin cancellus, which in the lower Latin is ufed
in the fame fenfe, from cancelli , “ lattices or crofs bars,”
wherewith the chancels were anciently encompaffed, as
C H A
they new are with rails. The right of a feat and a fe-
pulchre in the chancels is one of the privileges of foun¬
ders. The right of granting the fame indulgence to
individuals, is in the reftor or vicar for the time being.
CHANCELA'DE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Dordogne : one league north-welt of Pcri-
gueux.
CHANCELLOR, f. [cancellarins, Lat.] A great legal
officer, who was at firfi only a chief notary or feribe un¬
der the emperor, and was called cancellarius, becaufe he
fate intra cancellos, to avoid the crowd of the p,ecple.
This word is by fome derived from cancello, and by others
from cancellis , an inclofed or feparated place, or chancel,
encompafled with bars, to defend the judges, and other
officers from the prels of the public. And cancellarius
originally, as Lupanus thinks, fignified only the regifier
in court ; Grapharies, fell, qui confcribendis & excipiendis
judicum aclis dant operam : but this name and officer is of
late times greatly advanced, not only in this, but in other
kingdoms; for the lord high chancellor is the chief ad-
minifiratofiof jufiice, next to the fovereign, who anciently
heard equitable caules himfelf. All other jufiices in this
kingdom are tied to the firift rules of the law, in their
judgments; but the chancellor hath power to moderate
the written law, governing his judgment by the law of
nature and confcience, and ordering all things juxta
aquum & bonum. It has been fuggefled, that the chan¬
cellor originally prefided over a political college of le-
cretaries, for the writing of treaties, grants, and other
public bufinefs ; and that the court of equity under the
old confiitution was held before the king and his council
in the palace, where one fupreme court for bufinefs of
every kind was kept : and at firfi the chancellor became a
judge to hear and determine petitions to the king, which
were referred to him ; and in the end, as bufinefs increaf-
ed, the people. intitled their fuits to the chancellor, and
not the king : and thus the chancellor’s equitable power
had by degrees commencement by prefeription. Staund-
ford lays, the chancellor hath two powers ; one abfolute,
the other ordinary; meaning, that although by his ordi¬
nary power, in fome cafes, he muft oblerve the form
of proceeding as other inferior judges, in his abfolute
power he is not limited by the law, but by confcience and
equity, according to the circumftances of things. And
though Polydore Virgil, in his hiftory.of England, makes
William the Conqueror the founder of our chancellors ;
yet Dugdale has (hewn that there were many chancellors
of England long before that time, which are mentioned
in his Origines Juridicales, and catalogues of chancellors;
and Sir Edward Coke in his fourth Inftitute faith, it is
certain, That both theBritilh and Saxon kings had their
chancellors, whole great authority under their kings were
in all probability drawn from the reafonable cultom of
neighbouring nations and the civil law.
He that bears this chief magiftracy, is filled the Lord
High Chancellor of Great Britain, which is the higheft
honour of the long robe. A chancellor may be made fo
at will, by patent, but it is faid not for life, for, being an
ancient office, it ought to be granted as hath been accuf-
tomed. 2 Inf. 87. But Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards
earl of Clarendon, had a patent to be lord chancellor for
life, though he -was difmifled from that office, and the
patent declared void. 1 Sid. 338. By the fiat. 5 Eliz.
c. r8. The lord chancellor and keeper have one and the
fame power ; and therefore, fince that ftatute, there can¬
not be a lord chancellor and lord keeper at the fame time ;
before, there might and had been. 4 Inf. 78. Henry V,
had a great feal of gold, which he delivered to the biftiop
of Durham, and made him lord chancellor, and alfo ano-~
ther of filver, which he delivered to the biffiop of London
to keep. But the lord Bridgman was lord keeper, and
lord chief jufiice of the common pleas, at the fame time 5
which offices were held not to be inconfifient. By fiat.
1 W. & M. c. 21. Commiffioners appointed to execute
the office of lord chancellor, may exercile all the autho-
C H A
vity, jurifdifKon, and execution of laws, which the lord
chancellor, or lord keeper, of right ought to ufe and exe¬
cute, &c. fince which ftatute this high office hath been le-
veral times in commiffion.
The office of lord chancellor or lord keeper, is now
created by the mere delivery of the king’s great feal into
his cuftody; whereby he becomes, without writ or patent,
an officer of the greateft weight and power of any now
-Jubfifting in the kingdom, and fuperior in point of pre¬
cedency to every temporal lord. And the adt of taking
away this feal by the king, or of its being refigned or
given up by the chancellor, determines his office. He is
a privy counfellor by his office ; and according to loru-
chaiiceJlor Ellelinere, prolocutor of the houfe of lords
by prefcription. To him belongs the appointment of all
jultices of peace throughout the kingdom. Being for¬
merly almoft always an ecclefiaftic, (for none elfe were
then capable of an office fo converlant in writings,) and
prefid in g over the royal chapel, he became keeper of the
king’s confidence 5 vifitor, in right of the king, of all
liofpitals and colleges of the king’s foundation, and pa¬
tron of all the king's livings under the value of twenty
anarks a-year in the king’s books. (38 Ed. 3. 3. though
Hob. 214, extends this value twenty pounds.) He is the
general guardian of all infants, ideots, and lunatics ; and
has the iuperintendance of all charitable ufes in the king¬
dom. And all this over and above the vaft and extenfive
jurifdiftion, which he exercifes in his judicial capacity in
the court of chancery. 3 Comm. 47. The ftat. 25 Ed w.
III. c. 2. declares it to be treafon toilay the chancellor (and
certain other judges) being in their places doing their
offices ; and it feems that the lord keeper and commiffion-
ors of the great feal, are within this ftatute by virtue of
ftatutes 5 Eliz. c. 18 5 and 1 W. & M. c. 21. The lord
■chancellor, now there is no lord high fteward, is account¬
ed the firft officer of the kingdom ; and he not only
keeps the king’s great feal, but all patents, commiions,
■warrants, &c.. from the king, are perufed and examined
by him before figned ; and lord Coke fays the lord chan¬
cellor is fo termed a cancellando, from cancelling the
king’s letters patent, when granted contrary to law ;
which is the higheft point of his jurildiftion. 4 Injl. 88.
He by his oath lwears well and truly to ferve the king,
and to do right to all manner of people. See. In his ju¬
dicial capacity, he hath divers afhftants and officers, viz.
The mafter of the rolls, the mailers in chancery, &c.
And in matters of difficulty, he calls one or more of the
chief juftices and judges to affift him in making his de¬
crees j though in fuch cafes they only give their advice
and opinion, and have no ffiare whatever of the judicial
authority. See Chancery.
CHANCELLOR OF A DIOCESE, or of a Bishop.
A perfon appointed to hold the biffiop’s courts, and to
affiil him in matters of ecclefiaftical law- This officer, as
■well as ail other ecclefiaftical ones, if lay or married, muft
be a doftor of the civil law fo created in fome univerfity.
Stat. 37 H. 8. c. 17.
CHAN'CELLOR OF THE DUCHY OF LANCAS¬
TER. An officer before whom, or his deputy, the court
of the duchy chamber of Lancafter is held. This is a
Ipecial jurifdiflion concerning all matter of equity relat¬
ing to lands holden of the king in right of the duchy
•of Lancafter. Hobj. 77. 2 Lev. 24. This is a thing very
diftinid from the county palatine, which hath alfo its le-
arate chanceiy for fealing of writs, and other fpecial
ufinefs. 1 Ventr. 257. This duchy compriles much ter-
ritoiy which lies at a vaft diltance from the county, as
particularly a very large diftrifl furrounded by the city
of Weftminfter. The proceedings in this court are the
fame as on the equity fide in the courts of exchequer and
chancery. 4 Inji. 206. So that it feems not to be a court
of record : and it has been holden that thofe courts
have a concurrent jurifdidlion with the duchy court, and
may take cognizance of the fame caufes. 1 C- R. 55.
45. Hard. 371. This court is held in Weftnun-
C H A 87
fter7hall, and was formerly much ufed. Under the chan¬
cellor of the duchy are an attorne)' of the court, one
chief clerk or regifter, and ieveral auditors, &c. See
Counties Palatine.
CHAN'CELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. A great
officer, who, it is thought by many, was originally ap¬
pointed for the qualifying extremities in the Exchequer
he- fometimfes fits in court, and in the exchequer cham¬
ber; and, with the judges of the court, orders things to
the king’s beft benefit. Hehath; by the ftat. 33.Hen.VIII.
c. 39, power, with others, to compound for the forfei¬
tures upon penal ftatutes, bonds and recognizances en¬
tered into to the king: he hath alfo great authority in
the management of the royal revenue, &c. which feems'
of late to be his chief bufinefs, being commonly the firft.
commifiioner of the treafury; and hence it has become
his province to invent, propofe, and regulate, the taxes
for the current year, and to provide completely for the
national expenditure. And though the court of equity
in the exchequer-chamber, was intended to be holden
before the treafurer, chancellor, and barons, it is now
ufually before the barons only. When there is a lord-
treafurer, the chancellor of the exchequer is the under
treafurer.
CHAN'CELLOR OF A CATHEDRAL, an officer that
hears lectures read in the church, either by himfeLf or
his vicar; to corredt and fet right the reader when he
reads amifs ; to infpeft fchools ; to hear caufes ; apply
the feal ; write and difpatch the letters of the chapter;
keep the books ; take care that there be frequent preach¬
ings, both in the church and out of it ; and affign the
office of preaching to whom he pleafes.
CHAN'CELLOR OF THE ORDER OF THE GAR¬
TER, is an officer who feals the commiffions and mandates
of the chapter and afiembly of the knights, keeps the
regifter of . their proceedings, and delivers adls thereof
under the feal of their order.
CHAN'CELLOR OF AN UNIVERSITY, the head or
fenior officer, who feals the diplomas or letters of de¬
grees, proVifion, &c. given in the univerfity. The chan¬
cellor of Oxford is ufually one of the principal nobility,
chofen by the Undents tliemfelves in convocation. He is
the chief magiftrate of the place ; his office is durante vitas
to govern the univerfity, preferve and defend its rights
and privileges, convoke aftemblies, and do juftice among
the members under his jurifdidlion. Under the chancel¬
lor is the vice-chancellor, who is chofen annually, being
nominated by the chancellor, and deeded by the univer¬
fity in convocation. He is always the head of fome col¬
lege, and in holy orders. His proper office is to execute
the chancellor's power, to govern the univerfity accord¬
ing to her ftatutes, to fee that officers and ftudents do
their duty, that courts be duly called, &c. When he
enters upon his office, he choofes four pro-vice chan¬
cellors from the heads of the colleges, to execute his du¬
ty in his ablence. The chancellor of Cambridge is al¬
io ufually one of the firft of our nobility, and in molt re-
fpedts the lame as that in Oxford; only he does not hold
his office durante vita , but may be elected every three
years. Under the chancellor there is a commifiary, who
holds a court of record for all privileged perfons and
fcholars under the degree of mafter of arts, where all
caufes are tried and determined by the civil and ftatute
law, and by the cuftom of the univerfity. The vice-
chancellor of Cambridge is chofen annually by the fe-
nate, out of two perfons nominated by the heads of the
feveral colleges and halls. See Courts of the Univer¬
sities.
CHANCELLORSHIP, f. The office of chancellor.
CHANCERY, f. [Cancellaria,h at.] The higheft court
of judicature in this kingdom next to the parliament,
and of veiy ancient inftitution. The juril'didfion of this
court is of two kinds; ordinary and extraordinary.
The ordinary jurifdiftion, is that wherein the lord-chan¬
cellor, lord-keeper, &c. in his proceedings and judg¬
ment s4
s£g CHAN
anents, is bound to obferve the order and method of the
common law; and the extraordinary jurifdiction is that
which this court exercifes in cafes of equity. The or¬
dinary court holds plea of recognifances acknowledged
in the chancery, writs of fcire facias for repeal of letters
patent, writs of partition, See. and alfo of all perfonal
aftions, by or againft any officer of the court; and by
a£ts of parliament of Teveral offences and caufes. AH
original writs, commiflions of bankrupt, of charitable
ufes, and other commiflions, as ideots, lunacy, Sec. if-
fue out of this court, for which it is always open; and
fometimes a fuperfedeas, or writ of privilege, hath been
here granted to difeharge a perfon out of prilon. An
habeas corpus, prohibition, & c. may be had from this
in the vacation ; and here a fubpeena may be had to force
witneffes to appear in other courts, when they have no
power to call them. 4 Inf. 79. 1 Danv. Abr. 776.-
The extraordinary court, or court of equity, proceeds
by the rules of equity and confidence, and moderates
the rigour of the common law, confidering the intention
father than the words of the law. Equity being the cor¬
rection of that wherein the law, by real'on of its univer¬
sality, is deficient. On this ground therefore, to main¬
tain a fuit in chancery, it is always alleged that the
.plaintiff is incapable of obtaining relief at common law;
.and this muft be without any fault of his own, as by
having loll his bond, &c. Chancery never adting againft
but in alTiftance of, the common law, fupplying its defi-,
.ciencies, not contradicting its rules. A judgment at
law not being reverfable by a decree in chancery. Cro.
£liz. 220. But a bill in chancery may be brought to
compel the difeovery of the contents of a letter which
would difeharge the plaintiff of an aCtion at law, before
verdiCt obtained. 3 C. Rep. 17.
Early in the hiitory of our jurifprudence, the adminis¬
tration of juitice by the ordinary courts appears to have
been incomplete. To fupply the defeCt, the courts of
.equity have gained an eftablifhment ; affuming the power
of enforcing the principles, upon which the ordinary
courts alfo decide when the powers of thofe courts or
their modes of proceeding are infuflicient for the pur-
pofe; of preventing thofe principles, when enforced by
the ordinary courts, from becoming, contrary to the
purpofe of their original eftablifhment, inftruments of
'mjuftice; and of deciding on principles of univerfal juf-
tice, where the interference of a court of judicature is
neceffary to prevent a wrong, and the politive law is fi-
lent. The courts of equity alfo adminilter to the ends
of juflice, by removing impediments to the fairdecifion
of a quelhon in other courts ; by providing for the lafety
of property in difpute, pending a litigation ; by reftrain-
ing the aflertion of doubtful rights, in a manner pro¬
ductive of irreparable damage; by preventing injury to
a third perfon from the doubtful title of others; and by
putting a bound to vexatious and oppreflive litigations,
and preventing unneceffary multiplicity of fuits; and,
without pronouncing any judgment on the fubjeCt, by
compelling a difeovery which may enable other courts
to give their judgment; and by preferving teflimony,
when in danger of being loft, before the matter to which
it relates can be made the fubjeCt of judicial inveftiga-
tion. This eftablifhment has obtained throughout the
whole fyftem of our judicial policy ; moft of the inferior
branches of that fyftem having their peculiar courts of
equity: [e. g. the court of exchequer, courts of Wales,
the counties palatine, cinque ports, &c.] and the court
of chancery affuming a general jurisdiction in cafes which
are not within the bounds, or which are beyond the
powers, of other jurifdidtions. It is not therefore to be
expeCted that all the cafes within the jurifdiCtion of this
court can be enumerated with any degree of accuracy in
fuch a work as this. What follows may ferve tofhewthe
leadingprinciples of its decifions. They who defire further
and more precife information, will confult Viner’s and the
other Digelts, which enter more fully into the lubjeCt.
1
C £ R Y.
This court gives relief for and againft infants, not*
withftanding their minority : and for and againft mar¬
ried women, notwithftanding their coverture : in fome
cafes a woman may fue her hufband for maintenance;
file may file him when he is beyond fea, & c. and be com¬
pelled to anfwer without her hufband. All frauds and
deceits, for which there is no remedy at common law
may here be redreffed; as alfo unreafonable and deceit¬
ful engagements and agreements entered into, without
confideration. 1 fern. 20 q. All breaches of truft and
confidence; and accidents ; as to relieve obligors, mort¬
gagors, See. againft penalties and forfeitures, where the
intent was only to pay the debt; titles to lands, where
the deeds are loft, or iuppreft, may by this court be con¬
firmed, conveyances rendered defective bymiftake may
be made perfeCt, &c. In this court executors may be
c.vlled upon to give Security and pay .intereft for money
that is to lie long in their hands- Here executors may
fue one another, or one executor alone be fued by the
legatees or others, without the reft; order may be made
for performance of a will : it may be decreed who fhall
have the tuition of achild, andothermatters are regulated
as to the difpofal of the goods of teftators and inteftates. 3
Comm. 437. And here it may be obferved, that money
articled to be laid out in land, final! be taken as land in
equity, and defeend to the heir. 1 Salk. 154. Perfonal
eftate in the hands of executors, fhall be applied in dif¬
eharge of the heir, where there are' fufficient affets to
pay the debts and legacies. 1 Dane), yjo. There fhall be
no bill in equity againft an executor, to difeover alfets
before a fuit commenced at law. Hard. 115. Sed. qu.
Legal affets {hall be applied in a courle of adminiftra-
tion; but equitable alfets amongft all the creditors pro-
portionably, on a bill brought, Sec. 2 Fern. 62. Mortga¬
ges are not relievable in equity after twenty years, where
no demand has been made, or intereft paid, or where
other particular circumftances do not interfere. Copy-
hold tenants may be relieved againft the lords of manors ;
inclofures of common lands may be decreed; aflign-
ments of chofes in aCtion for a good confideration,
though not valid in law, maybe carried into effeCt; ac¬
counts are compelled to be rendered; the limitation of
aCtions by ftatute may be relieved againft.
A deed appearing to be cancelled, has been decreed to
be a good deed, on fpecial circumftances. 1 Cb. Caf. 249.
Articles of agreement upon marriage reduced into wri¬
ting, though not figned by either party, being proved
to be agreed to, were decreed to be performed. 2 Fern.
200. Alfo an agreement in writing made fince the fta¬
tute of frauds, has been decreed to be difeharged by pa¬
rol. 1 Fern. 240. A releafe fhall be avoided for fraud,
where there is fuppreflio veri, or fuggeftio falfi ; and a
releafe may be fet afide in chancery by reafon of mif-
apprehenfion of the party that gave it. 1 Fern. 20, 32.
A will concerning lands, may be avoided in a court of
equity when obtained by fraud, Sec. 2 Cb. Rep. 97. Heirs
may be relieved in equity againft unconfcionable con¬
tracts made during their fathers’ lives to pay large fums
of money on their out-living their fathers, aiid-the fecu-
rities are frequently decreed to be delivered up, on pay¬
ment of the Sum actually advanced. 2 Chan. Rep. 397. 1
Fern. 467. A purchafer of land, without notice of an
incumbrance, fhall not be hurt thereby in equity; and
in pleading a purchafe the defendant ought to deny no¬
tice of incumbrances. See. Indentures of apprenticefhip
have been decreed to be delivered up, and the money
given with the apprentice to be paid back by the matter,
on ill ufage of the apprentice. Finch Rep. 125. Charity
lands being let at a great under-value, as was found by
inquifition, on a commiflion of charitable ufes, the leale
was avoided in equity, and the leftee decreed to pay the ar¬
rears in rent according to the firft value, andto yieldupthe
poffeffion. 2 Fern. 415. Other cafes of relief, with refpeCt
to public charities and charitable corporations, come alio
under the immediate direCtiou of the court of chancery.
It
CHAN
It is common to give relief in chancery, notwithftand-
ing there is an agreement between the parties that there
/hall be no relief in law or equity, i Mod. 141, 3.05. In
cafes which tend to re (train freedom, or introduce cor¬
ruption into marriage contracts, the court are always
moft ready to afford relief. If a portion be given to a
woman, provided (lie marries not without the content of
a certain perfon, although the marries without fuch con-
lent, (lie /hall be relieved in chancery, and have her por¬
tion ; unlefs the portion, on fuch marriage, had been
limited over to another, in which cafe it is otherwife.
1 Danv. 752. 1 Mod. 300. If a father, on the marriage
of his fon, take a bond of the fon that he lhall pay him
fo much, &c. this is void in equity, being adjudged by
coercion while he is under the awe of his father. 1 Salk.
158. Alfo where a fon, w'ithout privity of the father,
treating the match, gives bond to return any part of the
portion, inequity it is void. Ibid. 156. But a man is
not bound to difcover the confideration of a bond gene¬
rally given, which in itfelf implies a confideration. Hard.
200. If a factor to a merchant hath money in his hands,
it lhall be accounted his own ; for equity cannot follow
money : but it may goods, to make them the merchant’s,
which may be known, though money cannot. 1 Salk.
260. Where truftees convert money railed out of land
for payment of debts to their own ufe, the heir lhall have
the land difcharged, which hath borne its burden, and
the truftees are liable to the debts in equity. 1 Salk. 153.
If a lelfee for years, without impeachment of wrafte, about
the end of his term cuts down timber-trees, the court of
chancery may flop him by injunction. 1 Rol. Abr. 380.
And tenant after pofiibility of iffue extinCf, or for life,
difpunilhable of wafte, may be flopped in equity from
pulling down houfes, &c. 1 Dannj. 761.
The following is a general and comprehenlive view of
the nature and reafon of the pleadings in chancery, ex¬
tracted from Mr. Mitford’s treatile. Chancery will not
retain a fuit for any thing under ten pounds value, ex¬
cept in cafes of charity, nor for lands under forty /hil¬
lings per annum. A fuit to the extraordinary jurilctiCtion
of the court of chancery, on behalf of a fubjeCt merely, is
commenced by preferring a bill (ligned by counfel) in
the nature of a petition to the lord chancellor, lord
keeper, or lords commiflioners of the great feal ; or to
the king himfelf, in his court of chancery, in cafe the
perfon holding the feal is a party, or the leal is in the
king’s hand. But if the fuit is inftituted on behalf of
the crown, or of thofe who partakeof its prerogative, or
whofe rights are under its particular proteClion, as the
objeCts. of a public charity, the matter of complaint is
offered by way of information, given by the proper offi¬
cer; ufually the attorney-general. Except in fome few
inftances, bills and informations have been always in the
Englilh language ; and a fuit thus preferred is therefore
commonly termed a fuit by Englilh bill, by w'ay of dif-
tinClion from the proceedings in luits within the ordi¬
nary jurifdiCtion of the court, which, till the flat, of
4 Geo. II. c. 26. were entered and enrolled more anciently
in the French or Roman tongue, and afterwards in the
Latin ; in the fame manner as the pleadings in the other
courts of common law. Every bill mull have for its ob-
jeCt one or more of the grounds upon which the jurif¬
diCtion of the court is founded; and as that jurifdiCtion
fometimes extends to decide on the fubjeCt, and in fome
cafes is only ancillary to the decilion of another court,
or a future luit, the bill may, 1, either complain of fome
injury which the perlon exhibiting it fuffers, and pray
relief according to the injury; or, 2, without praying
relief, may feek a difcovery of matter neceflary to fup-
port, or defend another fuit; or, 3, although no aCtual
injury is fuffered, it may complain of a threatened wrong;
and. Hating a probable ground of poflible injury, may
pray the afliftance of the court to enable the plaintiff,
or perfon exhibiting the bill, to defend himlelf againlt
Von. IV. No. 180.
C E R Y. 89
the injury whenever it /hall be attempted to be com¬
mitted.
As the court of chancery has general jurifdiCtion in
matters of equity which are not within the bounds, or
which are beyond the powers, of inferior jurifdiCtions,
it affumes a controul over thofe jurifdiCtions, by remov¬
ing from them fuits which they are incompetent to de¬
termine. To effeCt this it requires the party injured to
inftitute a fuit in the court of chancery, the foie objeCt
of which is the removal of the former fuit, by means of
the writ of certiorari ; and the prayer of the bill ufed for
this purpofe, is confined to that objeCt. The bill, ex¬
cept it merely prays the writ of certiorari, in which cafe
is does not require any defence, nor can there be any
pleading beyond the bill, requires the anfwer of the de¬
fendant or party complained of, upon oath, unlefs the
party is entitled to privilege of peerage, or as a lord of
parliament, or unlels a corporation aggregate is made a
party. In the firft cafe the anfwer is required upon the
honour of the defendant, and in the latter upon the cor¬
poration feal. In the cafe of exhibiting a bill againlt a
peer, the lord chancellor writes a letter to him, called a
letter miflive ; and if he does not put in his anfwer, a fub-
pcena iffues, and then an order to fhew caufe why a fe-
queftration lhould not iffue ; and if he ftill Hands out,
then a fequeftration is granted ; for there can be no pro-
cefs of contempt againlt the perfon of a peer. The pro-
cefs is the fame againlt a member of the houfe of com¬
mons, except the letter miflive.
An anfwer is thus required in the cafe of a bill, feek-
ing the decree of the court on the fubjeCt of the com¬
plaint, with a view, 1. To obtain an admiflion of the
cafe made by the bill either in aid of proof ; or, 2. to
fupply the want of it. 3. To obtain a dilcovery of the
points in the plaintiff’s cafe, controverted by the defend¬
ant ; and, 4. of the grounds on which they are contro¬
verted. 5. To gain a difcovery of the cafe on which the
defendant relies ; and, 6. of the manner in which he
means to fupport it. If the bill feeks only the afliftance
of the court to proteCt the plaintiff againfl; a future in¬
jury, the anfwer of the defendant, upon oath, may be
required to obtain an admiflion of the plaintiff’s title,
and a difcovery of the claims of the defendant, and the
grounds on which thofe claims are intended to be fup-
ported. When the foie objeCt of the bill is a difcovery
of matter neceflary to fupport or defend another fuit, the
oath of the defendant is required to compel that dif¬
covery ; which oath, however, the plaintiff may, if he
thinks proper, dilpenfe with, by confenting to or ob¬
taining an order of court for the purpofe ; and this is
frequently done for the convenience of parties.
To the bill thus preferred, unlefs it is merely for a
certiorari, it is neceflary for the perfon or perlons com¬
plained of to make defence, or to difclaim all rights to
the matters in queftion. As the bill calls upon the de¬
fendant to anfwer the feveral charges it contains, he mull:
do fo, unlefs he can dilpute the right of the plaintiff to
compel fuch anfwer; either, x, From fome impropriety
in requiring the difcovery /ought ; or, 2, From fome ob¬
jection to the proceeding to which the difcovery is pro-
pofed to be afiiltant ; or, 3, Unlefs by di/claiming all right
to the matters in queftion, he fhews a further aniwer from
him to be unnecelfary. The grounds on which defence
may be made to a bill either by anfwer, or by difputing
the right of the plaintiff to compel fuch anfwer, are va¬
rious. 1. The lubjeCt of the fuit may not be within the
jurifdiCtion of a court of equity. 2. Some other court of
equity may have the proper jurifdiCtion. 3. The plain¬
tiff may not be entitled to fue, by reafon of /ome per-
fonal difability. 4. The plaintiff may not be the perfon
he pretends to be. 5. He may have no intereft in the
lubjeCt ; or, 6. Though he has fuch intereft, he may have
no right to call upon the defendant concerning it. 7. The
defendant may not be the perfon he is alleged to be by
A a the
go c rr a n
the bill ; or, 8. He may not have that interefl: in the
lubjeff to make him liable to the claims of the plaintiff.
And notwithftanding all thefe requifites concur, 9. Still
the plaintiff may not be entitled in the whole, or in
part, to the relief or afliftance he prays ; or, 10. Even if
lie is fo entitled, the defendant may alfo have rights in
the fubjeff which may require the attention of the court,
and call for its interference to adjuff the rights of all
parties. The effeffing complete jullice, and finally de¬
termining, as far as poflible, all queftions concerning
the l'ubjeff, being the conftant aim of courts of equity.
Some of thefe grounds may extend only to entitle the
defendant to difpute the plaintiff’s claim to the relief
prayed by the bill, and may not be fufiicient to proteff
him from making the difcovery fought by it ; and where
there is no ground for difputing the plaintiff ’s right to
relief, or if no relief is prayed, the impropriety or im¬
materiality of the difcovery may proteff the defendant
from making it.
The form of making defence varies according to the
foundation on which it is. made, and the extent in which
it fubmits to the judgment of the court. If it refts on
the bill, and, on the foundation of the matter there ap¬
parent, demand the judgment of the court, whether the
fuit (hall proceed at all, it is termed a demurrer. If on
the foundation of new matter offered, it demands judg¬
ment whether the defendant fliall be compelled to an-
liver further, it afl'umes a different form, and is termed a
plea. If it fubmits to anfwer generally the charges in
the bill, demanding the judgment of the court on the
whole cafe made on both Tides, it is offered in a fhape
ltill different, and is limply called an anfwer. If the de¬
fendant difclaims all interefl: in the matters in quelfion,
hi,s anfwer to the complaint made is different from all
the others, and is termed a difclaimer. And thefe feve-
ral forms, or any of them, may be tiled together, if ap¬
plied to feparate and diftinff parts of the bill.
A demurrer, being founded on the bill itfelf, neceffa-
rily admits the truth of the faffs contained in the bill,
or in that part of it to which the demurrer extends ; and
therefore, as no faff can be in queltion between the par¬
ties, the court may immediately proceed to pronounce
its definitive judgment on the demurrer; which, if fa¬
vourable to the defendant, puts an end to fa much of
the fuit as the demurrer extends to. A demurrer thus
allowed confequently prevents any further proceeding.
A plea is alfo intended to prevent further proceeding at
large, by refting on fome point founded on matter Hated
in the plea ; and it therefore admits, for the purpofes of
the plea, the truth of the faffs contained in the bill, fo
far as they are not controverted by faffs Hated in the
plea. Upon the fufficiency of this defence the court
will alfo give immediate judgment, fuppofing the fluffs
Hated in it to be true : but the judgment, if favourable
to the defendant, is not definitive ; for the truth of the
plea may be denied by a replication, and the parties may
then proceed to examine witneffes, the one to prove, and
the other to dilprove, the faffs -Hated in the plea. The
replication in this cafe concludes the pleadings, though,
if tire truth of the plea is not fupported, further pro¬
ceedings may be had. An anfwer generally controverts
the faiffs Hated in the bill, or fome of them ; and Hates
other faffs to fhew the rights of the defendant, in the
fubjeff of the fuit ; but fometimes it admits the truth of
the cafe made by the bill, and either with or without
Hating additional faffs, fubmits the queffions arifing
upon the cafe, thus made, to the judgment of the court.
If an anfwer admits the faffs Hated in the bill, or fuch
of them as are material to the plaintiff’s cafe, and Hates
no new faffs, or fuch only as the plaintiff' is willing to
admit, no further pleading is neceffary ; the court will
decide on the anfwer, conlidering it as true. So if the
foie objeff of the fuit is to obtain a difcovery, there can
be no proceeding beyond an anfwer by which the dif-
2,
C E R Y.
covery is obtained. But, if neceffary to" maintain the
plaintiff’s cafe, the truth of the anfwer, or of any part of
it, may be denied, and the fufficiency of the bill may be /
afferted by a replication, which in this cafe alfo con¬
cludes the pleadings, according to the prefent praftice
of the court. If a demurrer or plea is over-ruled upon
argument, the defendant muff make a new defence. This
he cannot do by a fecond demurrer of the fame extent
with that over-ruled ; for although, by a Handing order
of the court, a caufe of demurrer muff be fet forth in
the pleading, yet if that is over-ruled, any other caufe
appearing on the bill maybe offered on argument of the
demurrer ; and if valid, will be allowed, the rule of court
aft'effing only the cofts. But after a demurrer has been
over-ruled, new defence may be made by a demurrer lefs
extended, or by plea or anfwer. And after a plea has
been over-ruled, defence may be made by demurrer, by
a new plea, or by an anfwer, and the proceedings upon
the new defence will be the fame as if it had been origi¬
nally made. A difclaimer, neither afferting any faff, nor
denying any right fought by the bill, admits of no fur¬
ther pleading.
Suits thus inffituted are fometimes imperfeff in their
frame, or become fo by accident before their end has
been obtained; and the intereffs in the property in liti¬
gation may be changed, pending the fuit, in various
ways. To fupply the defeffs arifing from any fuch cir-
cumftances, new 1'uits may become neceffary, to add. to,
or continue, or obtain the benefit of, the original fuit.
A litigation commenced by one party, fometimes renders
neceffary a litigation by another party, to operate as a
defence, or to obtain a full decifion on the rights of all
parties : and bills filed for this purpofe are termed crols-
Tills. Where the court has given judgment on a l'uir,
it will in fome cafes permit that judgment to be contro¬
verted, fulpended, or avoided, by a l'econd fuit ; and
fometimes a fecond fuit becomes neceffary to carry into
execution a judgment of the court. Suits inffituted for
any of thefe purpofes are alfo commenced by bill ; and
hence arifes a variety of diftinftions of the kinds of bills
neceffary to anfwer the feveral purpofes; as bills of re¬
view, (which among other cafes may be brought, where
new matter is difcovered, in time, after the decree made,}
bills of revivor, &c. 3 Com. 448, See. and on all the dif¬
ferent kinds of bills there may be the fame pleadings as.
on a bill ufed for inffituting an original fuit.
It frequently happens that, pending a fuit, the parties
difeover fome error or defeft in fome of the pleadings ;
and, if this can be reffified by amendment of the plead¬
ings, the court will in many cafes permit it. This in¬
dulgence is moff extenfive in the cafe of bills ; which
being often framed upon an inaccurate ftate of the cafe,
it was formerly the praffice to fupply their deficiencies,
and avoid the confequences of errors by l'pecial replica ¬
tions ; but this tending to long and intricate pleading,
the fpecial replication,' requiring a rejoinder, in which
the defendant might in like manner fupply defeffs in his
anfwer, and to which the plaintiff might fur-rejoin, the
fpecial replication is now difufed for this purpoie ; and
the court will in general permit a plaintiff to reffify any
error, or fupply any defeft in his bill, either by amend¬
ment or by a lupplemental bill, and will alio permit, in
fome cafes, a defendant in like manner to complete his
anfwer, either by amendment, or by a further anfwer.
If the plaintiff conceives the defendant’s anfwer to he
infufficient to the charges contained in the bill, he may
take exceptions againff it, on which it is referred to a
mailer to report, whether it be fufiicient or not ; to which
report exceptions may be alfo made. The anfwer, repli¬
cation, and rejoinder, &c. being fettled, and-the parties
come to iffue, witneffes are examined upon interrogate-,
ries, either in court, or by commiflion in the country,
wherein the parties ufually join ; and when the plaintiff
and defendant have examined their witneffes, publica¬
tion
CHAN
tion is made of the depofitions, and the caufe is fet down
for hearing, after which follows the decree. If, however,
in the procefs of the caufe the parties come to an ilfue of
fact, which by the common law is triable by a jury, the
lord chancellor, in this cafe, delivers the record into the
king’s-bench to be tried there ; and after trial had, the
record is remanded into chancery, and judgment given
there. Trials and iffues at law are frequently directed
by the court, which in that cafe makes an interlocutory
decree or order, that'after trial the parties lhall refort to
the court on the equity referved. Interlocutory orders
and decrees are alfo made on other occafions ; as for in¬
junctions till a hearing, where the injury fuftained by
the plaintiff requires fuch immediate interference.
If the plaintiff diffniifes his own bill, or the defendant
obtains the difmiffal of it for want of profecution, or if
the decree is in behalf of the defendant, the bill is dif-
tniffed with cofts to be taxed by a mailer. Stat. 4 &“ 5 An.
c. 1 6. If the defendant does not appear, on being lerved
with the procefs of fubpcena, in order to anfwer, upon
affidavit of the fervice of the, writ, an attachment illiies
out againft him ; and if a non ell inventus is returned,
an attachment with proclamation goes forth againft him;
and if he Hands further out in contempt, then a commif-
fion of rebellion may be ifiued for apprehending him,
and bringing him to the Fleet-priion ; in the execution
whereof the perlbns to whom directed may juftify break¬
ing open doors. If the defendant Hands further in con¬
tempt, a ferjeant at arms is to be lent out to take him ;
and, if he cannot be taken, a fequeftration of his land
may be obtained till he appears. And if a decree, when
made, is not obeyed, being ferved upon the party under
the leal of the court, all the afore-mentioned proceffes of
contempt may iffue out againft him for his imprifonment
till he yields obedience to it. The court of chancery,
notwithftanding its very extenlive power, binding the
perfon only, and not the eftate or effects of the defendant.
And in this ’fenfe, we prefume, it is faid that it is no
court of record. 1 Dannj. Ab. 74.9. and Chan. Rep. 193.
Howard v. Suffolk.
Where there is any error in a decree in matter of law,
there may be a bill of review, which is in nature of a
writ of error ; or elle an appeal to the houfe of lords.
Old authorities have been quoted, that a writ of error
lies returnable in the court of king’s-bench; and that a
judgment of chancery may be referred to the twelve
judges. 4 bij}. So. 3 Buljl. 11 6. But it is now ufual to
appeal to the houfe of lords ; which appeals are to be
ftgned by two counlel of eminence, and exhibited by
way of petition; the petition or appeal is lodged with the
clerk of the ho.ule of lords, and read in the lioule, where-
on the appellee is ordered to put in his anfwer, and a day
fixed for hearing the caufe ; and after counfel heard, and
evidence given on both fides, the lords affirm or reverie
the decree of the chancery, and finally determine the
caufe by a majority of votes, &c. Though it is to be
obferved on an appeal to the lords from a decree in chan¬
cery, no proofs will be permitted to be read as evidence,
which were not made ufe of in the chancery. - Preced.
Cane. 212.
No fubpcena, or ether procefs of appearance, lhall iffue
out of chancery, till after a bill is filed, (except bills for
injunctions to flay wafte, or to ftay fuits at law com¬
menced,) and a certificate thereof brought to the fub¬
pcena office. Stat. 4 5 An. c. 16. Perfons in remainder,
or reverfion of any eftate, after the death of another, on
making affidavit in the court of chancery, that they have
caufe to believe fuch other perfon dead, and his death
concealed by the guardian, truftees, or others, may move
the lord chancellor to order fuch guardian, truftees, &c.
to produce the perfon fufpeCted to be concealed ; and if
he be not produced, he lhall be taken to be dead, and
thole in reverfion may ’enter upon the eftate ; and if fuch
perfon be abroad, a commiffion may be ilfued for bis be¬
ing viewed by commiffioners. Stat, 6 An. c. 18, Infants
C E R Y. 91
under the age of tw'enty-one years, feifed of eftates in
trull, or by way of mortgage, are enabled, by ftatute, to
make conveyances thereof; or they may be compelled
thereto, by order of the court of chancery, upon petition
and hearing of the parties concerned. 7 An. c. 9. And,
by ftatute 4 Geo. II. c. 10. ideots and lunatics feifed of
eftates in trull, may make conveyances by order of the
court of chancery. By 12 Geo. I. c. 32. and 33. the
power of the mailers was abridged, with refpeCt to the
iuitor’s money, wdiich is now to be paid into the Bank of
England ; and an additional llamp-duty, on writs, pro¬
ceffes, &c. is granted for relief of the fuitors, and as a
common Hock of the court of chancery.
All orders and decrees made and figned by the mailer
of the rolls, lhall be deemed and taken to be good and
valid orders and decrees of the court of chancery ; but
not to be inrolled till figned by the lord chancellor, and
fubjeCt to reverlal, &c. by him. Stat. 3 Geo.. II. c. 30.
Where a defendant does not appear after fubpcena iffued,
but keeps out of the wray to avoid being ferved with the
procefs, on affidavit that he is not to be found, and fuf¬
peCted to be gone beyond lea, or to abfeond, the court
of chancery will make an order for his appearance at a:
certain day; a copy of which order is to be publi filed in
the London Gazette ; and then, if he do not appear, the
plaintiff’s bill lhall be taken pro confeffo, and the defen¬
dant’s eftate lequeftered. But perfons out of the king¬
dom, returning in feven years, may have a rehearing in
fix months, and be admitted to anfwer, otherwife to be
barred by final decree. 5 Geo. II. c. 25. The following
officers have their appointments in the court of chancery,
as affiftants to the lord chancellor :
The Master of the Rolls, having judicial power, is-
an afiiftant to the lord chancellor when prefent, and his
deputy when abfent ; but he has certain caufes affigned
him to hear and decree, which he ufually doth on cer¬
tain days appointed at the chapel of the rolls, being af-
filted by one or more mailers in chancery ; he is, by vir¬
tue of his office, chief of the mailers of chancery and
chief clerk of the petty-bag office. The twelve mailers in
chancery lit fiome of them in court, and take notice of
fuch references as- are made to them, to be reported to
the court, relating to matters of practice, the Hate of the
proceedings, accounts, &c. and they alio take affidavits,
acknowledge deeds and recognizances, Sec. The fix clerks
in chancery transact and file all proceedings by bill and
anfwer, and alfo iffue out fome patents that pals the great
leal; which bufinefs is done by their under-clerks, each
of whom has a feat there, and whereof every fix-clerk has
a certain number in his office, ufually about ten; the
whole body being called the fixty clerks. The curfitors
of the court, four-and-twenty in number, make out all
original writs in chancery, which are returnable in C. B.
&c. and among thefe the bufinefs of the feveral counties
is feverally dillributed. The regifter is a place of great
importance in this court, and he hath feveral deputies
under him, to take cognizance of all orders and decrees,
and enter and draw them up. The mailer of the.lub-
poena office iffues out all writs of fubpcena. The exa¬
miners are officers in this court, who take the depofitions
of witneffes, and are to examine them, and make out co¬
pies of the depofitions. The clerk of the affidavit s, files all
affidavits ufed in court, without which they will not be
admitted. The clerk of the rolls, fits conllantly in the*
roils to make fearches for deeds, offices, & c. and to make
out copies. The clerks of the petty-bag office, in num¬
ber three, have great variety of bufinefs that goes through
their hands, in making out writs of fummons to parlia¬
ment ; conge d'elires for bifliops ; patents for cuftomers ;
liberates upon extent of ftatute-ftaple, and recovery of
recognizances forfeited ; and alio relating to fuits for and
againft privileged perlbns. The ufher of the chancery,
had formerly the receiving and cuflody of all money or¬
dered to be depofited in court, and paid it back again
by order; but this bufinefs - was afterwards affirmed by
C H A
92
the mailers in chancery; till by Hat. 12 Geo. I. c. 32, a
new officer was appointed, called accountant general, to
receive the money lodged in court, and convey the fame
to the bank, -to be there kept for the fuitors of the court.
There is alfo a fergeant at arms, to whom perfons Hand¬
ing in contempt are brought up by his fubftitute as pri-
foners. A warden of the Fleet, who receives fuch pri-
loners as Hand committed by the court, See. Befides
thele officers, there is a clerk of the crown in chancery ;
clerk and comptroller of the hanaper ; clerk for inrolling
letters patent, &c. not employed in proceedings of equity,
but concerned in making out commiffions, patents, par¬
dons, & c. under the great leal, and collefting the fees
thereof. A clerk of the faculties, for difpenfations,
licences, &c. clerk of the prefentations, for benefices of
the crown in the chancellor’s gift; clerk of appeals, on
appeals from the courts of the archbiffnop to the court of
chancery; and divers other officers, who are conllituted
by the chancellor’s commiffion.
CHAN'CRE,/. [ chancre , Fr.] An ulcer ufually arifing
from venereal maladies. See Medicine.
CKAN'CROUS, adj. Having the qualities of a chancre;
ulcerous. — You may think I am too ftri£l in giving fo
many internals in the cure of fo fmall an ulcer as a
chancre, or rather a chancrous callus. JVifeman.
CHAN'CHA, a town of Egypt : two leagues eaft of
Cairo, at the entrance of a defert whichleadstoMountSinai.
CHAN'DA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Berar : fixty-feven miles fouth of Nagpour, and 218 eaft
of Aurungabad. Lat. 20. 2. N. Ion. 79. 54.. E. Greenwich.
CHANDAIL', a circar or diftridl of Hindooftan, in
the country of Alla-Habad, fouth-weft of the country
of Benares.
CHANDELEU'R ISLANDS, a clufter of iflands in
the Gulf of Mexico, near the coaft of Weft Florida.
Lat. 29. 30. to 29. 4.5. N. Ion. 88. 48. to 88. 58. W. Green¬
wich.
CHANDELIE'R, f. [ chandelier , Fr.] A branch for
candles. This elegant contrivance for light and orna¬
ment has of late years been confiderably improved ; par¬
ticularly by M. Lafount, who has introduced a new me¬
thod of conftru&ing chandeliers, girandoles, luftres, &c.
fo that the upper and lower branches are made to appear
all of one piece. This invention was fandlioned by let¬
ters patent, on the 13th of December, 1796. The me¬
thod he adopts is to unite the upper and lower branches
in a plate concealed by an ornamented hoop. The upper
branches are affixed in fockets which are attached to the
infide of, the hoop; and the lower branches have turns
in the upper end like the top of an S ; the turns pals
through the plate, and their extremity is affixed into
fockets on the upper fide of it. As the fockets on the
hoop and on the plate are both in the fame vertical plane,
the upper and lower branches of the chandelier, which
are affixed into thofe fockets, will of courfe appear to
the eye as of one entire piece, whereby the luminous and
brilliant effect is very much increaled and improved.
CHANDELIE'R, in - fortification, a kind of wooden
parapet, confifting of upright timbers lupporting others
laid acrofs the tops of them, fix feet high, and fortified
with fafeines, & c. They are ufed to cover the workmen
in approaches, galleries, and mines. And they differ
from blinds only in this, that the former ferve to cover
the men before, and the latter over head.
CHANDERE'E, a town of Hindooftan, and capital
of a circar or diftridf in the Malwa country, near the ri¬
ver Betwha. It once contained 14,000 houfes ; and is
now the refidence of a rajah : 148 miles fouth of Agra,
and £92. north of Ougein. Lat. 24. 48. N. Ion. 78. 43. E.
Greenwich.
CHANDERNAGO'RE, a town of Hindooftan, in the
country of Bengal, fituated on the Ganges. It was taken
by the Englifh, under the condudf of colonel Clive and
admiral Watfon, after a moil bloody conflidf, in March,
1757. It formerly contained 80,000 inhabitants ; at this
C H A
time, not half that number : eighty-two miles fouth of
Moorffiedabad, and thirteen north of Calcutta.
CHANDIEU', a town of France, in the department
of theRhone and Loire : one league north of Montbrifon.
CHANDI'GA, a river of Siberia, which runs into the
Adlan. Lat. 62. 10. N. Ion. 153. E. Ferro.
CHANDIRO'BA, f. in botany. See Feuili.ea.
CHAND'LER, f [ chandelier , Fr.] An artifan whofe
trade is to make candles, or a perfon who fells them.
CHAND'LER (Mary), diltinguiffied by her poetical
genius, was the daughter of a diffenting minifter at Bath,
and was born at Malmefbury in Wiltffiire, in 1687. She
was bed a milliner; but from her childhood had a turn
for verfification, and in her riper years applied herfelf to
the ftudy of the poets. Her poems, for which Ihe was
complimented by Mr. Pope, breathe the fpirit of piety
and philofophy. She had the misfortune to be deformed,
which determined her to live fingle ; though Ihe had pe¬
culiar fweetnefs of countenance, and was folicited to
marry. She died in 1745, aged 58.
CHAND'LER (Samuel), an eminent diftenting mini¬
fter, born at Hungerford in Berks, where his father was
pallor of a congregation of proteftant diflenters. Being
by his literary turn deftined to the miniftry, he was firlt
placed at an academy at Bridgewater, and from thence
removed to Gloucefter, under Mr. Samuel Jones. Among
the pupils of Mr. Jones were Mr. Jofeph Butler, after¬
wards bilhop of Durham, and Mr. Thomas Seeker, af¬
terwards archbilhop of Canterbury. With thefe eminent
perfons he contrafted a friendlhip that continued to the
end of their lives, notwithftanding the different views
by which their conduft was afterwards directed, and the
different fituations in which they were placed Having
finilhed his academical ftudies, Mr. Chandler began to
preach about July 1714; and being foon dillinguiffied by
his talents in the pulpit, he -was choften in 1716 minifter
of the Prefbyterian congregation at Peckham near Lon¬
don. Here he entered into the matrimonial ftate, and be¬
gan to have an increafing family, when, by the fatal
South-fea fcheme of 1720, he unfortunately loft the
whole fortune wdiich he had received with his wife. His
circumftances being thereby embarrafled, and his income
inadequate to his expences, he engaged in the trade of
a bookfeller, and kept a Ihop in the Poultry, London,
for two or three years, Hill continuing to dilcharge
the duties of the palloral office. He alfo officiated as
joint preacher with the learned Dr. Lardner of a"win-
ter wreekly evening ledlure at the meeting-houfe in the
Old Jewry, in which meeting he was eftablifhed affiftant
preacher in 1725, and then as the pallor. Here he
miniltered to the religious improvement of a very re-
Ipe&able congregation for forty years with the great-
ell applaufe; and with what diligence he improved
the vacancies of time from his palloral duties, for im¬
proving liimfelf and benefiting the world, will appear
from his many waitings on a variety of important fub-
jefts. While he was thus laudably employed, not only
the univerfities of Edinburgh and Aberdeen gave him,
without any application, teftimonies of their efteem in
diplomas, conferring on him the degree of D. D. but he
alio received offers of preferment from fome of the go¬
vernors of the eftablillied church, which he declined.
He had likewife the honour of being afterwards elected
F. R. and A. SS. On the death of George II. in 1760,
Dr. Chandler publilhed a fermon on that event, in which
he compared that prince to king David. This gave rife
to a pamphlet, intituled “ The Hiftory of the Man after
God’s own Heart;” wherein the author ventured to ex¬
hibit king David as an example of perfidy, lull, and
cruelty, fit only to be ranked with a Nero or a Caligula ;
and complained of the inlult that had been offered to the
memory of the late Britilh monarch, by Dr. Chandler’s
parallel between him and the king of Ifirael. This attack
occafioned Dr. Chandler to publilh “A Review of the
Hiftory of the Man after God’s own Heart j in which the
Falle-
C H A
Falfehoods and Mifreprefentations of the Iliftorian are
expofed and corrected.” He all'o prepared for the prefs a
more elaborate work, In two volumes 8vo. intituled,
« A Critical Hiftory of the Life of David ; in which the
chief Objections of Mr. Bayle and others againlt the Cha¬
racter of this Prince are examined and refuted ; and the
Plaints which refer to him explained.” The greatell
part of this work was printed off at the time of our au¬
thor’s death, which happened May 8th, 1766, aged 73.
Dr. Chandler was a man of very extenfive learning and
eminent abilities ; his apprehenlion was quick and his
judgment penetrating; he had a warm and vigorous ima¬
gination ; he was a very inltruCtive and animated preach¬
er ; and his talents in the pulpit and as a writer procured
him very great and general eiteeni, not only among the
diffenters, but among large numbers of the eltablilhed
church. He was principally inftrumental in the ellablifh-
ment of the fund for relieving the widows and orphans
of poor Proteltant diffenting .minifters : the plan of it
was firft formed by him ; and it was by his interefl and
application to his friends that many of the fubfcriptions
for its fupport were procured. In 1 768, four volumes of
his fermons were publifhed by Dr. Ambry, according to
his own directions in his lalt will ; and in 1777 his Para-
phrafe and Notes on the Epiftles of St. Paul to the Gala¬
tians and Ephefians ; together with a critical and prac¬
tical Commentary on the two Epiftles of St. Paul to the
Theffalonians.
CHANDOR', a town of Hindooftan, in the Baglana
country: fifty-two miles nortli-eaft of Nafluck, and eighty
north-weft of Aurungabad.
CHANDOU'L, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Adirbeitzan : 1 50 miles nortli-eaft of Tauris.
CHAN'FRIN, f. [old French.] The fore part of the
head of a horle, which extends from under the ears,
along the interval between the eyebrows, down tahis nofe.
CHANG, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in the
province of Chen-fi: 495 miles fouth-weft of Peking.
Lat. 33. 50. N. Ion. 127. 17 . E. Ferro.
CHANG-CHE, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in the province of Quang-fi : 403 leagues fouth-fouth-
tveft of Peking. Lat. 22. 6. N. Ion. 124.3. E. Ferro.
CHANG-CHOU'I, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Honan : fifteen leagues fouth-eaft
of Hiu.
CHANG-HA'I, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Kiang-nan: fix leagues fouth-eaft of
Song-kiang
CHANG-HANG, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Fo-kien: fifty miles louth of Ting-
tcheou.
CHANG-HA'I-TONG, a town of China, of the fe¬
cond rank, in the province of Quang-fi ; 400 leagues
fouth-fouth-weft: of Peking. Lat. 22.27.N. Ion. 123. 50.
E. Ferro.
CHANG-HO, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Chang-tong: fix leagues fouth-weft of
Vou-ting.
CHANG-IN, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in
the province of Quang-fi : 385 leagues fouth-fouth-weft
of Peking. Lat. 23. 3. N. Ion. 124. 10. E. Ferro.
CHANG-KA'O, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Kiang-fi : ten leagues weft-fouth-weft
of Choui-tclieou. .
CHANG-LIN, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Quang-fi: fix leagues north-weft of Ping.
CHANG-LING, a town of Alia, in the kingdom of
Corea : five miles fouth-fouth-weft of Hoang.
CHANG-NAN, a towm of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Chen-fi : fourteen leagues fouth-eaft
of Chang.
CHANG-SE, a town of China, of the fecond rank,
in the province of Quang-fi : 1180 miles. fouth-fouth-weft
of Peking. Lat. 22. 18. N. Ion. 125. E. Ferro.
CHANG-SI, a province of China, one of the fmalleft
You IV. No. i8o.
C H A
of the empire, bounded on the eaft by that of Pe-tche-li,,
on the fouth by Ho-non, on the weft by Chen-fi, and on
the north by the great wall. The Chinefe fay, that the
firft inhabitants of China fixed their refidence in this pro¬
vince. Its climate is healthy and agreeable, and the foil
is fruitful. It abounds in mulk, porphyry, marble, lapis-
lazuli, and jafper of various colours: iron-mines, lalt-
pits, and cryftal, are alfo common here. This province
is full of mountains; fome of which are uninhabited,
and have a wild and frightful appearance ; but the reft
are cultivated with care, and cut into terraces from top
to bottom, which prefent a very agreeable profpedl ; on
the tops of fome there are found vaft plains, which are no
lefs fertile than the richeft low lands. Vines grow here,
which produce the belt grapes in this part of Afia : good
wine might be made from them ; but the Chinefe prefer
drying them, and felling them in the other provinces.
The mountains abound in coal, which the inhabitants
pound, and having mixed with water, form into fmall
cakes ; it is not very inflammable, but, when once kind¬
led, affords a ftrong and lulling fire. Chan-li comprehends
in its diftribt five cities of the firft clafs, and eighty-five
of the fecond and third. The capital of the province is
called Tai-yuen-fou.
CHANG-TCHE'OU, a town of Afia, in the kingdom
of Corea: twenty miles weft of Long-kouang.
CHANG-TCHING, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Honan : eight leagues fouth-fouth-eaft
of Kouang.
CHANG-TONG, a province of China, bounded on
the eaft by the province of Pe-tche-li and by part of
Ho-nan, on the fouth by Liang-nan, on the eaft by the
Eaftern Sea, and on the north by the fame and part of
Pe-tche-li. It is divided into fix diftriFts, which contain
fix cities of the firft clafs, and one hundred and fourteen
of the fecond and third. Befides thefe, there are found along
the coaft fifteen or lixteen forts, feveral villages of con-
fiderable note on account of their commerce, and a num¬
ber of fmall iflands, the greater part of which have har¬
bours very convenient for the Cliinefejunks, which eafily
pafs from thence to Corea or Leao-tong. Befides the
grand imperial canal, which traverfes this province, it
contains a great many lakes, ftreams, and rivers, which
contribute no lefs to the ornament than fecundity of its
plains ; however, it has much to fear from drought, as
it feldom rains here. Locufts, alfo, make fometimes
great devaluation. There is no country, perhaps, where
game is more plentiful, or where phealants, partridges,
and quails, are fold cheaper. Befides common filk- worms,
there is found in this province a fpecies of in left much
refembling our caterpillars, which produce indeed, a
coarfer kind of filk, but of which much ftronger fluffs
are made ; as thefe fluffs are very durable, they have an
extenfive fale throughout China. Tfi-nan-fou is the
capital.
CHANG-TSA'I, a town of China, of the third rank:
fix leagues north of Yun-hing.
CHANG-YE'ON, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Kiang-fi : ten leagues north-north-eaft
of Nan-ngart.
CHANG-YU, a town of China, ,of the third rank, in
the province of Tche-kiang : fix leagues eafl-fouth-eaft
of Chao-king.
CHAN'GA, or Xanga, a fmall ifland in the Indian
Sea, near the coaft of Africa, at the mouth of the river
ofthe famename. Lat. 10. 45. N. Ion. 39. 50. E. Greenwich.
CHANGAPRA'NG, a town of Afia, in the country
of Thibet : 242 miles weft of Laffa, and 195 north-north-
eaft of Catmandu. Lat. 31. 6.N. Ion. 86. 52. E. Greenwich.
CHANGASA'RI, a town of Ruflia, in the government
Viborg : eighty miles weft-north-weft of Viborg.
To CHANGE, v.a. [ changer , Fr. carnbia , Lat.] To put
one thin°- in the place of another. — He that cannot
look into°his own ellate, had need choofe well whom he
employeth, and change them often 3 for new are more
B b timorous,,
94 C K A
timorous, and lefs fubtile. Bacon.— To quit any thing for
the lake of another : with for before the thing taken or
received:
The French and we Hill change ; but here’s the curfe,
They change for better, and we change for worfe. Dry den .
To give and take reciprocally : w'itlr the particle with
before the perfon to whom we give, and from whom we
take. — To fecure thy content, look upon thofe thou-
fands, with whom thou wouldff not, for any intereft,
change thy fortune and condition. Taylor. — To alter ; to
make other than it was. — Whatfoever is brought upon
thee, take chearfully, and be patient when thou art
changed to a low effate. Ecclus. — To mend the difpolition
or mind :
I would Ihe were in heaven, fo {he could
Intreat fome pow’r to change this currilh Jew. Shakef.
To difcount a larger piece of money into feveral fmaller.
. — A Ihopkeeper might be able to change a guinea, or a
moidore, when a cuftomer comes for a crown’s worth of
goods. Swift. To change a horfe, or to change hand, is to
turn or bear the horfe’s head from one hand to the other,
from the left to the right, or from the right to the left.
To CHANGE, v. n. To undergo change; to fuller
alteration : as, his fortune may loon change , though he
is now fo fecure :
C H A
lity of exhibiting different appearances. — Now the taylor
make thy doublet of changeable taffeta ; for thy mind is
a very opal. Shakefpeare.
CHANGE' ABLE ROSE,/, in botany. See Hibiscus
Mutabilis.
CHANGE' ABLENESS,/. Inconftancy 5 ficklenefs. — .
There is no temper of mind more unmanly than that
changeablenefs, with which we are too iuffly branded by
all our neighbours. Addifon. — Sufceptibility of change. — •
If how long they are to continue in force, be no where
expreffed, then have we no light to direct our judgment
concerning the changeablenefs or immutability of fucb
laws. Hooker.
CHAN'GEABLY, ad-v. Inconffantly.
CHAN'GEFUL, adj. Full of change ; inconftant ; un¬
certain ; mutable ; fubjedt to variation ; fickle :
Britain, changeful as a child at play.
Now calls in princes, and now turns away. Pope.
CHAN'GELING, f. [from change: the word arifes
from an odd fuperftitious opinion, that the fairies Iteal
away children, and put others that are ugly and ffupid
in their places.} A child left or taken in the place of
another :
And her bafe elfin breed there for thee left :
Such m'en do changelings call, fo chang'd by fairies thefto
Spencer .
One Julia, that his changing thought forgot,
Would better fit his chamber. Shakefpeare.
To change, as the moon ; to begin a new monthly revo¬
lution. — I am weary of this moon 5 would he would
change. Shakefpeare.
CHANGE,'/. An alteration of the date of any thing ;
Since I faw you laft,
There is a change upon you. Shakefpeare*
A fucceffion of one thing in the place of another ;
Hear how Timotheus’ various lays furprife,
And bid alternate paifions fall and rile !
While, at each change, the fon of Libyan Jove
Now burns with glory, and then melts with love. Pope.
The time of tliemocn in which it begins a new month¬
ly revolution. — Take feeds or roots, and fet fome of them
immediately after the change, and others of the fame kind
immediately after the full. Bacon. — Novelty ; a Hate dif¬
ferent from the former :
Our fathers did for change to France repair ;.
And they for change will try our Englifh air. Dryden.
That which makes a variety ; that which may be ufed
for another of the fame kind. — I will now put fortha riddle
unto you ; if you can find it out, then I will give you
thirty fheets, and thirty change of gaiments. Judges. —
Small money, which may be given for larger pieces. —
Wood buys up our old halfpence, and from thence the
prefent want of change arifes ; but, fuppofing not one far¬
thing of change in the nation, five-and-twenty thoufand
pounds would be futlicient. Swift. — Change for ex¬
change ; a place where perfons meet to traffic and tran-
i'adt mercantile affairs. — The bar, the bench, the change,
the fchools and pulpits, are full of quacks, juggler?, and
plagiaries. V Efirange.
CHAN'GE, a town of France, in the department of
the Mayen ne : one league north of Laval.
CHAN'GE, a town of France, in the department of
the Sarte : one league fouth of Le Mans.
CHANGEABLE, adj. Subject to change ; fickle;
inconftant. — A Heady mind will admit Heady methods
and counfels ; there is no meafure to be taken of a change¬
able humour. L’ Ef range. — Poifible to be changed.— The
fibrous or vafcular parts of vegetables feern fcarce change¬
able h\ the alimentary du£t. Arbuthwl.-*- Having the qua-
An idiot ; a fool ; a natural :
Changelings and fools of heav’n, and thence fhut out,
Wildly we roam in difeontent about. Dryden *
One apt to change ; a waverer:
As they had turn’d from fide to fide,
And as they changelings liv’d, they died. Hudibras .
Any thing changed and put in the place of another : in
ludicrous fpeech :
I folded the writ up in form of the other,
Sublcrib’d it, gave the imprefilon, plac’d it fafely,
The changeling never known. Shakefpeare „
CHAN'GER, / One that is employed in changing or
difeounting money ; a money changer. — Alfo an officer be¬
longing to the king’s mint, wbofe office confiffs in exchang¬
ing coin for bullion; brought in by merchants or others.,
CHAN'GES,/. The permutations or variations of any
number of things, with regard to their pofirion, order,
arrangement, &c. as how many changes may be rung on
a number of bells, or bow many different ways any num¬
ber of perfons may" be placed, or how" many feveral vari¬
ations may be made of any number of letters, or any
other things propofed to be varied. To find out fuck
number of changes, multiply continually together all the
terms in a feries of arithmetical progrelfion, whofe firff
term and common difference are each unity or 1, and the
laff term the number of things propofed to be varied, thus
1 X 2 X 3 X 4 X Si &c. till the laff number be the pro-
poled number of things. For, if there be only tvvo things,
as a and b, they admit of a double order of pofition only ;
for they may be placed either thus ab or thus ba, viz. i X a
—a ways. If there be three things, a, b, and c, they will
admit of fix variations — 1 X 2 X 3, as in the a b c
margin, and no more; fince each of the three a c b
may be combined three different ways with b a c
each of the other two. And if there be four b c a
things, each of them may be combined four cab
ways with each order of the other three, that is c b a
four times fix ways, ori X2X 3 X4=H ways. In like
manner, the combinations of five things are 1 x 2 X 3 X
4X5— 120; of fix things are 1 X2X3X4X SX 6 = 72°>
See. So that if it be propofed to allign how many different
ways a company of fix perfons may be placed, at table
for inffance, the anfwer will be 720 ways. Alfo the
number of changes that can be rung on leven bells, are
3X2X3X4X5X6X7>or72oX 7 = 5040 cha£|gN,GEa
3ft
C H A
CHAN'GEWATER, a town of United America, in
the State of New Jerfey : twenty-five miles weft-louth-
welt of Morrifto.wn.
CHANGLOS SE, a town of Afia, in the country of
Thibet, near -the river Sanpoo : 104. miles welt of Lafla,
and 190 north-north-eaft_of Catmunda.
CHANGY', a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone and Loire : three leagues and a half north-weft of
Roanne.
CHANIE'RES, a town of France in the department
of the Gironde: twelve miles eaft of Blaye.
CHANIE WIE'ZE, a town of Lithunia in the palati¬
nate of Novogrodek : fifty-fix miles foutli-weft of Novo-
grodek.
CHANMAN'NING, a town of Afia, in Thibet, where
the grand Lama lometimes refides : 116 miles weft of
Lalfa, and 266 north-eaft of Catmandu.
CHAN'NA,/. in ichthyology, the name of a fifli of the
perch genus, caught in the Mediterranean ; called like-
wife cannadella, or cbannadella , and at Marfeilles by the
name of charina.
CHAN'NEL,/. {canal, Fr. canalis, Lat.] The hollow
bed of running waters. — It is notfoealy, now that things
are grown into an habit, and have their certain courle,
to change the channel, and turn their ftreams another
way. Spenfer. — Any cavity drawn longways :
Complaint and hot defires, the lover’s hell,
And Raiding tears, that wore a channel where they fell.
Dry clen.
A ftrait or narrow fea, between two countries : as the
Britifh Channel, between Britain and France; St. George’s
Channel, between Britain and Ireland. — A gutter or fur¬
row of a pillar.
T 0 CHAN'NEL, <v. a. To cut any thing in channels :
No more {hall trenching war channel her fields,
Nor bruife her flowrets with the armed hoofs
Of hoftile paces. Shahefpeare.
CHAN'NEL, the Englifh name of the department of
France called La Manche. See La Manche.
CHAN'NI OUDOU'C, a town of Cliinefe Tartary, in
the country of Moguls. Lat. 42. 51. N. Ion. 132. E. Ferro.
CHANONA'T, a town of France, in the department
of the Puy de Dome, celebrated for its mineral waters.
CHANSCHE'NA-POU,/. in botany. See Bauhinia.
To CHANT, oj. a. [chantey-, Fr.] To fing :
Wherein the chearful birds of fundry kind
Do chant fweet mufic. Fairy Queen.
To celebrate by fong. — The poets chant it in the theatres,
the ftiepherds in the mountains. Bramhall. — To fing in
cathedral fervice.
To CHANT, <v. n. To fing : to make melody with the
voice. — They chant to the found of the viol, and invent
to t.hemlelves inllruments of mufic, Amos, vi. 7.
Heav’n heard his fong, and haften’d his relief;
And chang’d to Inowy plumes his hoary hair,
And wing’d his flight, to chant aloft in air. Dryden.
CEIANT, f. Song ; melody :
A pleafant grove,
With chant of tuneful birds refounding loud. Milton.
In church-hiftory we meet with divers kinds of chant or
fong. The firft is the Amhrofian , eftablifhed by St. Am-
brofe. The fecond, the Gregorian chant, introduced by
pope Gregory the Great, whoeftabiiftied fchools of chan¬
ters, and ccrredled the church-fong. This is ftill retain¬
ed in the church under the name of plain fong : at firft it
was called the Roman fong. The plain or Gregorian chant ,
is where the choir and people fing in unifon, or all toge¬
ther in the fame manner.
CHANTABOU'N, a feaport town of the kingdom of
Siam, on the frontiers of Camboja,
C H A 95
CHANTA'DA, a town of Spain, in the province of
Galicia : twenty miles north of Orenfe.
CHANTAGIR', a river of Siberia, which runs into
the Eniiei. Lat. 51.50. N. Ion. 109. 20. E. Ferro.
CH ANTAREL'LE, f. in botany. See Agaricus.
CHANTAUNAY', a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Vendee: fifteen miles north of Fontenay-
le-Comte.
CHANTEL'LE lf. CHATEAU, a town of France, in
the department of the Aliier, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftrift of Gannat : three leagues northof Gannat.
CHANTENA'Y, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillridl of Nantes : two miles weft of Nantes.
CHANTENA'Y, a town of France in the department
of the Sarte, and chief place of a canton, in the dillridt
of Sable : fifteen miles weft -foutli-weft Le Mans.
C’HAN'TER, f. a finger in the choir of a cathedral. The
word is almoft obfolete, chorijler being commonly ufed in-
ftead of it. Ail great chapters have chanters and chap¬
lains to aflift the canons, and officiate in their abfence.
Chanter is ufed by way of excellence for the precentor
or mailer of the choir. At St. David’s cathedral in Wales,
where there is no dean, he is next in dignity to the bilhop.
The ancients called the chanter prhnicerius cantorum. To
him belonged the direction of the deacons and other in¬
ferior officers. Chanters- in the temple of Jerufalem, were
a number of Levites employed in finging and playing
upon inllruments before the altar. They had no habits
diftinft from the reft of the people ; yet in the ceremony
of removing the1 ark to Solomon’s temple, the chanters
appeared drefled in tunics of byffus or fine linen, a
Chron. v. 12.
CHANTICLEER'', f. [from chanter and clear, Fr ]
The name given to the cock, from the clearnefs and loud-
nefs of his crow :
And chearful chanticleer, with his note {brill,,
Had warned once, that Plicebus’ fiery car
In hafte was climbing up the eaftern hill. Spenfer .
Hark, hark, I hear
The {train of ftrutting chanticleer ► Shakefpeare.
CHANTIL'LY, a town of France, in the department
of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Senlis. The prince of Conde had a magnificent pa¬
lace here, with beautiful gardens, a menagery, extenlive
park, and curious water-works. The liable was thought
to exceed any thing of the kind in France; and the foreft,
for the purpofe of keeping game, for the chafe, and the
gun, extended many miles in circumference : one league
and a half weft of Senlis, and four fouth-l'outh-eaft of
Clermont.
CHANTONA'Y, a town of France, in the department
of the Vendee, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of La Chataigneraye : four leagues and a quarter weft of
La Chataignexaye. In September, 1793, French re¬
publicans were totally defeated by the royalilts, near this
town, with great lois.
CHAN'TRESS, f. A woman finger :
Sweet bird, that fhunn’ll the ncife of folly,
Mod mufical, mod melancholy !
Thee, chantrefs of the woods among*
I woo to hear thy even-ftmg.. Milton t
CHANTRTGNE, a town of France,. In. the depart¬
ment of the Mayenne, and chief place’of a canton in the
dillrift of Mayenne e two leagues and a half north of
Mayenne.
CHAN'TRY,/- [ cantaria , Lat..] A little church, cha¬
pel, or particular altar in fome cathedral, endow-ed with
lands, or other revenues, for the maintenance of one or
more priefts, daily to mg mats, and officiate divine fer¬
vice for the fouls of the donors,, and fuch others as they
appointed. The flat. 1 Edw. VI. c. 14, put an end to.
thefe chantries, by declaring it not to be lawful for any
perfoii
96 C H A
perfon to enter for non-performance of the conditions on
which they were founded. Of thefe chantries, mention is
made of forty-feven belonging to St. Paul’s church in
London, by Dugdale in his hiltory of that church. Hence
chantry-rents are rents, paid to the crown by the tenants
or purchafers of chantry lands.
CHA70-HING, a city of China, of the firftjrank, in the
province of Tche-kiang: 673 miles fouth-fouth-eaft of
Peking. Lat. 30. 10. N. Ion. 138. E. Ferro.
CHA'O-IM, a town of Chinefe Tartary : eight miles
fouth of Geho.
CHA70-KE70UXNG, a town of China, in the province
of Chang-tong: fifty-five miles fouth-eall of Tci-ngin.
CHA'O-MA-ING, a town of Alia, in Thibet: ten
miles north of Chao-ma-ing-Hotun.
CHA'O-MA-ING-HO'TUN, a town of Thibet : 285
miles eaft of Kami.
CHA70-0U-F0U, a town of China, of the firft rank,
in the province of Fo-kien : 775 miles fouth of Peking.
Lat. 22. N. Ion. 135. 5. E. Ferro.
CHA'O-PA'I, a town of Chinefe Tartary. Lat. 42.
13. N. Ion. 142. z8. E. Ferro.
CHA’O-PING, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Quang-fi : five leagues fouth-eall of Yong-
ngan.
CHAO'NIA, a mountainous part of Epirus, which re¬
ceives its name from Chaon, a fon ot Priam, inadvertent¬
ly killed by his brother Helenus. There was a wood
near, where doves were faid to deliver oracles- The
words Chaonius aiiclus are, by ancient authors, applied to
acorns, the food of the firll inhabitants. Lucan.
CHACFRA, one of the fmaller Cape Verd ifiands.
CHA'OS, f [chaos, Lat. Gr. confufed.] The
mafs of matter, out of which this world was formed, fup-
pofed to be in confufion before it was divided by the cre¬
ation into its proper dalles and elements. — The whole
univerfe would have been a confufed chaos , without beau¬
ty or order. Be?itley. — Confufion ; irregular mixture :
Their reafon fleeps, but mimic fancy wakes.
Supplies her parts, and wild ideas takes
From words and things, ill forted and misjoin’d ;
The anarchy of thought, and chaos of the mind. Dryd.
Any thing where the parts are undiliinguilhed. — We fhall
have nothing but darknefs and a chaos within, whatever
order and light there be in things without us. Locke.
Pleas’d with a work, where nothing’s juft or fit.
One glaring chaos and wild heap ot wit. ' Pope.
Chaos is reprefented by the ancients as the firft princi¬
ple, ovum, or feed, of nature and the world. All the fo-
phifts, luges, naturalifts, philofophers, and poets, held
that chaos was the eldeft and firft principle, to ap^aiw %a.o;.
The Barbarians, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Perfians, See.
all refer the origin of the world to a rude, mixed, con¬
fufed, mafs of matter. The Greeks, Orpheus, Hefiod,
Menander, Ariftophanes, Euripides, and the writers of
the Cyclic Poems, all fpeak of the original chaos; the
Ionic and Platonic philofophers build the world out of
it. The Stoics hold, that, as the world was firft formed
of a chaos, it lhall again return to a chaos ; and that its
periods and revolutions in the mean time are only tran-
fitions from one chaos to another. Ennius, Varro, Ovid,
Lucretius, Statius, &c. all write to the fame efteft. Nor is
there any feft or nation whatever that does not derive
their Siaxo^ncric, ftructure of the world, from a chaos. It
does not appear who firft introduced the notion of a
chaos. Mofes, the eldeft of all writers, derives the origin
of this world from a confufion of matter, dark, void,
deep, without form, which is precifely the chaos of the
Greek and Barbarian philofophers. Moles goes no far¬
ther back than the chaos, nor tells us whence it took its
origin, or whence its confufed Hate; and where Mofes
Hops, there precifely do all the reft Hop. Dr. Burnet en¬
deavours to lliew, that as the ancient philofophers, who
C H A
wrote of the cofmogony, acknowledged a chaos for the
principle of their world ; fo the divines, or writers of the
theogony, derive the origin or generation of their fabled
gods from the fame principle. Mr. Whifton fuppofes
the ancient chaos, the origin of our earth, to have been
the atmolphere of a comet. He endeavours to make it
out by many arguments, drawn from the agreement which
appears to be between them. So. that, according to him,
every planet is. a comet, formed into a regular and laft-
ing conftitution, and placed at a proper dittance from
the fun, revolving in a nearly circular orbit : and a co¬
met is a planet either beginning to be deftroyed or re¬
made ; that is, a chaos or planet unformed or in its pri¬
maeval Hate, and placed as yet in an orbit very eccentric.
But on this fee Astronomy and Earth.
CK AO'TIC, adj. Refembling chaos ; confufed _ When
the terraqueous globe was in a chaotic ftate, and the earthy
particles fubfided, then thofe leveral beds were, in all
probability, repofited in the earth. Derhaml
CHAOUR/CE, a town of France, in the department
of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, jn the diftrift
of Ervy : five leagues fouth of Troyes.
To CHAP, <v.a. [ kappen , Dutch, to cut. This word
feems originally the fame with chop ; nor were they pro¬
bably diftinguithed at firft, otherwife than by accident;
but they have now a meaning fomething different, though
referable to the fame original fenfe.] To break into hia¬
tus, or gapings. — It weakened more and more the arch of
the earth, drying it immoderately, and chapping it in lun-
dry places. Burnet.
Then would unbalanc’d heat licentious reign,
Crack the dry hill, and chap the ruffet plain. Blackmore,
CHAP,/ A cleft; an aperture; an opening; a gaping;
a chink. — What moifture the heat Of the fummer fucks
out of the earth, it is repaid in the rains of the next
winter ; and what chaps are made in it, are filled up a-
gain. Burnet.
CHAP, f. [This is not often ufed, except by anato-
mifts, in the fingular.] The upper or under part of a
bead’s mouth. — The nether chap in the male fkeleton is
half an inch broader than in the female. Grew.
Frotli fills his chaps, he fends a grunting found,
And part he churns, and part befoams the ground. Dryd.
CIIAPATA, a lake of North America, in Mexico,
and the province of Guadalaxara : eighteen leagues in
length, and five in breadth, fifteen miles fouth of Gua¬
dalaxara.
CHAPARA'NGjOi-Disaprong, a town of Afia, in the
country of Thibet, fituated near the head of the Ganges :
140 miles north -north-eaft of Sirinagur. Lat. 33. 10. N.
Ion. 79. 22. E. Greenwich.
CHAPARRAL7, a town of Spain, in the province of
Grenada : five leagues from Antequera.
CHAPE, f. [ chappc , Fr.] The catch of any thing by
which it is held in its place ; as the hook of a fcabbard
by which it fticks in the belt ; the point by which a
buckle is held to the back ftrap. — This is monfieur Pa-
rolles, that had the whole theory of the war in the knot
of his fcarf, and the pra&ice in the chape of his dagger.
Shakefbeare. — A brafs or filver tip or cafe, that ftrength-
ens the end of the fcabbard of a lword. Phillips.
CHAPEAU7, f. in heraldry, an ancient cape of dignity
worn by dukes, being fcarlet-coloured velvet on the out-
fide, and lined with fur. It is frequently borne above an
helmet, inftead of a wreath, under the creft.
CHA7PE L,f. [ capella , Lat. chapelle, Fr.] Is either ad¬
joining to a church, for performing divine fervice, or
feparate from the mother-church, where the parifh is
wide, which is commonly called a chapel of eale. And
chapels of eafe are built for the eafe of thofe parifliioners
who dwell far from the parochial church, in prayer and
preaching only j for the facraments, marriages, and bu¬
rials, ought to be performed in the parochial church.
C H A
a Rol. Abr. 5+0. Thefe chapels are lerved by curates,
provided at the charge of the reftor, &c. and the curates
are therefore removeable at the pleafure of the reft or or
vicar : but chapels of eafe may be parochial, and have a
right to facraments and burials, and to a diitinft minif-
ter, by cuftom ; (though i'ubjcft in fome refpefts to the
mother-church :) and parochial chapels differ only in
name from parifh churches, but they are (mail, and the
inhabitants within the diftrift are few. In fome places
chapels of eafe are endowed with lands or tithes, and in
other places by voluntary contributions ; and in fome
few diftrifts there are chapels which baptize and adrni-
nifter the lacraments, and have chapel-wardens ; but thefe
chapels are not exempted from the vifitation of the ordi¬
nary, nor the parifhioners who refort thither from con¬
tributing to the repairs of the mother-church ; efpecially
if they bury there; for the chapel generally belongs to,
and is, as it were, a part of the mother-church ; and the
parifhioners are obliged to go to the mother-church, but
not to the chapel. 2 Rol. Abr. 289. And hence it is laid,
that the offerings made to any chapel are to be rendered
to the mother-church ; unlefs there be a cuftom that the
chaplain fliall have them.
Public chapels, annexed to parilh churches, lha?l be
repaired by the parilhioners, as the church is, if any
other perfons be not bound to do it. 2 Injl. 4.89. Befides
the afore-mentioned chapels, there are free chapels, per¬
petually maintained and provided with a minilter, with¬
out charge to the reftor or parifh, or that are free and
exempt from all ordinary jurifdiftion ; and thefe are
where feline lands or rents are charitably bellowed on
them. Stat. 37 Hen. 8. c. 4. 1 Ed. 6. c. 14. There are
alfo private chapels, built by noblemen and others, for
private worfhip, in or near their own houfes, maintained
at the charge of thofe perlons to whom they belong, and
provided with chaplains and flipends by them ; which
may be erefted without leave of the bilhop, and need not
be confecrateu, though they anciently were fo, nor are
they fubjeft to the jurifdiftion of the ordinary. There
are likewife chapels in the univerfities belonging to par¬
ticular colleges, which, though they are conl'ecrated,
and facraments are adminiftered there, yet they are not
liable to the vifitation of the bifhop, but of the founder.
2 Injl. 363.
Knights of the CHA'PEL, called a!fo poor knights of
Wind for, were inftituted by Henry VIII. Their number
was firft thirteen, but has been fince augmented to twen¬
ty-fix. They afiift in the funeral fervices of the kings of
England, are fubjeft to the office of the canons of Wind-
for, and live on penfions afligned them by the order of
the garter. They bear a blue or red cloak, with the
arms of St. George on the left fhoulder.
CHATE^-IN-THE-FRITH, a fmatl market-town in
Derbyfhire, diftant from London 163 miles, twenty from
Mancheftcr, and eleven and a half from Macclesfield.
It is fituated on the utmoft confines of the peak, near
the borders of Chelhire. A fmail cotton-manufafture is
carried on here. The church has a fquare tower with
fix bells. Here is a free-fehool for fix boys. A new ca¬
nal is cut from Manchefter to this place. The market
is on Thurfdays; and here are no lei's than twelve fairs,
viz. onfthurfday before Old Candlemas, February 13,
March 29, Thurfday before Ealter, April 30, and Holy
Thusfday, for cattle ; July 7, for wool ; Thurfday before
St. Bartholomew’s-day, Auguft 24, and September 4, for
cheele and fheep ; Thurfday after September 29, and
Thurfday before November 11.
CHAPELAIN' (jo'hn), an eminent French poet, born
at Paris in 1595, and often mentioned in the works of
Balzac, Menage, and other learned authors. He wrote
feveral works, and at length diltinguilhed himfelf by an
heroic poem called La Pucelle, ou France Delivree, which
employed him leveial years; and which, railing the ex-
peSfation of the public, was as much decried by fome as
extolled by others. He was one of the king’s counfel-
Vol. IV. No. 181.
C II A 97
lors ; and died in 1674, very rich, but very covetous and
fordid. He had 50,000 crowns in ready cadi by him;
and his fupreme delight was to have -his ftreng box open¬
ed, and the bags taken out, that he might contemplate his
treafure. In this manner were his bags about him when
he died ; which gave occafion to a certain academician
to fay, “ there is our friend Chapelain juft dead, like a
miiler among his bags.”
CHATELESS, adj. Wanting a chape.- — An old rufty
fword, with a broken hilt, and chap clefs, with two broken
points. Shakefpeare.
CHAPELIE'R (Ifaac Je), one of the leaders of the
French revolution, vvas born at Rennes in Brittany,
where his father was counfellor of the Hates of Brittany ;
his family was refpeftable; and his reputation for pro¬
bity procured him letters of nobility, which were granted
by Louis XV. in conference of the demand of the llates>
The fon, however, of a favourite of the court, and of the
privileged orders, became one of the greateft enemies to
the throne, and to nobility. Young Chapelier was brought
up in a college at Rennes, and diftinguiflied himfelf early
by his extraordinary attainments. He became an advo¬
cate, and maintained the reputation of an accompliftied
orator. His manner abounded in dignity, elegance, and
grace ; and his ftyle united the force of Demofthenes with
the perfuafive eloquence of Cicero: it was equally re¬
markable for the keennefs of its point and fatire. In
1789, he was elefted deputy to the conftituent afiembly.,
and difplayed in it all his powers of oratory from its firlt
commencement. He was foon ranked among its molt
diftinguiflied leaders, and was chofen prefident : his pre-
fidency was diftinguiflied by the remarkable circumftance,
that he was the firlt in that office who affumed a pre-emi¬
nence over the king. In the beginning of the revolution,
many of the country-feats of the nobility were reduced
to allies ; and Le Chapelier was ftrongly fufpefted of hay¬
ing been inftrumental in the deftruftion of them. It ap¬
peared that he employed a man of the name of Vales de
Loyac, who was afterwards imprifoned, and would have
been punilhed with death, if he had not been protefted
by the influence of Le Chapelier. This faft was fo no¬
torious, that the vifeount de Mirabeau, brother to the
great Mirabeau, having a beautiful country-houfe in
Brittany, and alarmed for its fate, threatened Le Cha¬
pelier openly in the affembly, and told him, that, if his
feat were deftroyed, he would make him anlwerable for
the lofs. Le Chapelier experienced the fate of a large
portion of the founders of the republic. An energetic
republican obferves, that “ it is a lamentable faft, that
the liiftorian of the revolution fcarcely mentions any
perfon of importance, whofe bufferings he has not fubfe-
quently to relate.” It was peculiar in the fate of Le
Chapelier; that he, who, during the conftituent affem¬
bly, had conftantly fat on the left fide, and never buffer¬
ed an opportunity to efcape him of humbling the nobles
and privileged orders, ftiould be afterwards accufed of
having conlpired againll the republic with the very men
whofe country-feats he was acculed of having burnt,
and to whom he had alw’ays been a declared enemy.
Under the domination of Robefpierre, he was accufed of
a confpiracy with Depremenil, Malflierbes de Lamoi-
gnon, lady Lepeltier Rofambo daughter to Malflierbes,,
ladies De Chateau Brilliant, De Rochochoir, the cele¬
brated Thouret, and many others, all of them of the firft
diltinftion. They were conducted to the uniparing guil¬
lotine, on the 22d of April, 1794, three months before
the fill of the deteftabie tyrant who fpilled fuch tor¬
rents of the beft blood of his fellow-citizens. Le Cha¬
pelier was of a middle llature, his face was oval and flat,
and his complexion yellow. Being fliort-fighted, he al¬
ways wore fptftacles.
CHAPEL'LAN Y,yi A chapellany Is faid to be that
which does not fubfilt of itfelf, but is buiit and founded
within fome other church, and is dependent thereon.
Ay l iff e,
C c
CHAPEL'LE
98. C H A
CHAPEL'LE (Claude Emanuel Lullier,) a celebrated
French poet, born m 1621. He was the natural fon of
Francis Lullier,. a man of'conliderable rank and fortune,
who gave him a liberal education. He had the great
Galfendus for his matter in philoi'ophy; but he diftin-
guiAied himfeif chiefly by his fine turn for poetry. There
was an uncommon eai'e in all he wrote; and he was ex¬
cellent in compofing with double rhymes. We are obliged
'to him for that ingenious work in verfe and profe, called
Voyage de Bachuumont. Many of the firming parts in
Moliere’s comedies it is but reasonable to aferibe to him ;
for Moliere confulted him upon all occafions, and paid
the higheft deference to his tafte and judgment. He died
in 1686, and his works were reprinted with additions at
Amite rd am, in 1708.
CHAPEL'LE AGNON (La), a town of France, in the
•department of the Puy de Dome: nve miles north of
Ambert.
CHAPEL'LE d’ANGILLON (La), a town of France,
in the department of the Cher, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftridt of Aubigny : lixteen miles north of
Bo urges.
CHAPEL'LE AUBRY (La), a town of Fiance, in
the department of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftridt of St. Florent-le-Vieil : eight
miles fouth of St. Florent.
CHAPEL'LE BA USE (La), a town of Fi ance, in the
department of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diltridt of Cliflon : nine miles north-eaft of
N antes.
CHAJPEL'LE la ERBRF/E, a town of France, in the
department <Jf the Ill e and Vilaine, and chief place of a
canton, in the dillridt of Vitre : oue league and a half
eaft of Vitre.
CHAPEL'LE sur. ERDRE (La), a town of France,
in the department of the Lower Loire, and chief place
of a canton, in the diltridf of Nantes : five miles north
of Nantes.
CHAPEL'LE la MOCHE (La), a town of France,
in the department of the Mayenne, and chief place of a
canton, in the dillridt of Vilaine: four leagues and a
half north-well of Vilaine.
CHAPEL'LE sur OREUSE (La), a town of France,
in the department of the Yonne: two leagues, fouth of
Sens.
CHAPEL'LE de QU INCH AY (La), a town of France,
in the department of the Saone and Loire, and chief place
of a canton, in the diltridt of Macon : two leagues iouth
of Macon.
CHAPEL'LE la RE1NE (La), a town of France, in
the department of the Seine and Marne, and chief place
of a canton, in the diltridt of Nemours : five miles north-
well of Nemours.
CHAPEL'LE Sr. LAURENT (La), a town of France,
in the department of the T wo Sevres, and chief place of
a canton, in the dillridt of Chatillon : eleven mills north-
well of Purtenay.
CHAPEL'LE Sr. MESMIN (La), a town of Fiance,
in the department of the Loiret, and chief place cf a
canton, in the diltridt of Orleans: three miles weft of
Orleans
CHAPEL'LE TAILLIFERET, a town of France, in
the department of the Creufe : one league and a half
fouth of Gueret.
CHAPEL'LE la THIREUIL, a town of Fiance, in
the department cf the Two Sevres, and chief place of a
canton, in the diltridt of Partenay : four leagues and a
half weft- Couth- welt of Partenay.
CHAPEL LE en VERCORS (La), a town of France,
in the department of the Drome, and chief place of a
canton, in the diltridt cf Die : thirteen miles north of
Die.
CPI A'PELRY,/ [capellania, Lat. ] Is the fame thing to
a chapel, as a panlh to a church ; being theprecindt and
mits of the judfdiction thereof.
*
C H A
CHA'PERON,/. [Fr.] A hood or bonnet, anciently
worn by the knights of the garter, as part of the habit of
that noble order : but in heraldry it is a little elcutcheon
fixed on the forehead of the horles that draw a hearfe at
a funeral.
CHAP'FALN, ad]. Having the mouth ftirunk :
A chapfaln beaver loofely hanging by
The cloven helm. Dryden .
CHA'PITER, f. [chapitrati, Fr.] The upper part or
capital of a pillar. — He overlaid their chapiters and their
fillets with gold. Exodus.
CHAPITERS^ f. [ capitula , Lat. chapitres, Fr. i. e.
chapters of a book.] In our common law, import a fum-
mary of fuch matters as are to be enquired of, or pre-
fented before, juftices in eyre, juftices of affife, or of the
peace, in their fdfions. Britton, c. 3. ufes the word in
tli is fignification : and chapiters are now commonly call¬
ed articles, and delivered by the mouth of the jultice in
his charge to the inqueft ; whereas, in ancient times, (as
appears by Bradton and Britton,) they were, after an ex¬
hortation given by the jultices for the good o'ofervation
of the laws and the king’s peace, firft read in open court,
and then delivered in writing to the grand inqueft for
their better obfervance ; and the grand jury were to an-
fwer upon their oaths ,to all the chapiters thus delivered
tfiem, and not put the judges to long and learned charges,
to little purpole, for want of remembering the lame, as
they do now, when they think their duty well enough
performed if they only pfefent thole few of many mif-
demeanors which are brought before them by way of
irididtment. It were to.be wilhed that this order of de¬
livering written articles to grand juries were ftilL ob-
ferved, whereby crimes would be -more effectually punch¬
ed. In lbme inferior courts, as the court leet, &c. it is
ufual at this day for ftewards of thole courts to deliver
their charges in writing to the juries lworn to enquire of
offences. Horne, in his Mirror 01 Juftices, exprefi'es what
thole chapiters were wont to contain. Lib. 3.0 des Arti¬
cles tit Eyre. And an example of them may be found in
the hook of affiles. F. 138.
CHAP'LAIN,/. [ccpellanus, Lat.] One who performs
divine fervice in a chapel; but it is commonly under-
Itood of clergymen who have appointments under the
king, or other noble perfon, to infirudt him and his fa¬
mily, and fay divine fervice in his houfe, where there is
ufually a private chapel for that purpofe The king,
queen, prince, princefs, &c. may retain as many chap¬
lains as they pleafe ; and the king’s chaplains may hold
any fuch number of benefices of the king's gift, as the
king fhali think fit to beftosv upon them. An archbi-
fhop may retain eight chaplains ; a duke or a bifhop, fix ;
marquis or earl, five; vifeount, four; baron, knight of
the garter, or lord chancellor, three ; a duchefs, mar-
chionefs, counters, baronefs, (being widows,) the trea-
furer and comptroller of the king’s houfe, the king’s fe-
cretary, dean of the chapel, almoner, and mailer of the
rolls, each of them two; the chief jultice of the king’s-
bench, and warden of the cinque ports, one ; all which
chaplains may purchafe a licence or difpenfation, and
take two benefices with cure ol fouis. S/at. 21 Hen. VIII.
c. 13. But both the livings mult have cure ot fouis j
and the ftacute exji^sly excepts deaneries', archdeacon¬
ries, chancellor IhlpsV tredfurerfhips, chanterlhips, pre¬
bends, and finecurc rectories. A difpenfation in this cafe
can only be granted to hold one benefice more, except
to clerks who are of the privy council, who may hold
three by difpenfation. By the canon law, no perion can
hold a lecond incompatible benefice, without a dilpenla-
tion : and in that cafe, if the firft is under eight pounds
per annum in the king’s book, it is fo far-void, that the
patron may prefent another clerk, or the b'tihop may de¬
prive ; but, till deprivation, no advantage can be taken
by lapfe. But, independent of the llatute, a clergyman,
by dilpenlations, may hold any number of benefices, if
C H A
they are all reputed under eight poqnds per annum, ex¬
cept the laft, and then by a difpenfation under the lta-
tute he may hold one more, i Comm. 392. By the forty-
firft canon of T603, the two benefices nuift not be further
diltant from- each other than thirty miles; and the per-
fon obtaining the diljpenlation, muft at leaft be a matter
of arts in one of the univerfities. But the provifions of
this canon are not enforced or regarded in the temporal
courts. 2 Bl. Rep. 968. Alfo every judge of the king’s-
bencii and common pleas, and chancellor and chief ba¬
ron of the exchequer, and the king’s attorney and foli-
citor-general, may each of them have one chaplain, at¬
tendant on his perfon, having one benefice with cure,
who maybe non-refidenton the fame, by feat. 2 5 Hen. Cl II.
c. 16. And the groom of the Hole, treai'urer of the king's
chamber, and chancellor of the duchy of Lancafter, may
retain each one chaplain. Stat. 33 Hen. Fill c. 28. But
the chaplains under thel'e two laft ftatutes, are not enti¬
tled to difpenfations under flat. 21 Hen. VIII. If a no¬
bleman hath his full number of chaplains allowed by
latv, and retains one more, who has difpenfation to hold
plurality of livings, it is not good. Cro Eliz. 723.
If one perfon has two or more of the titles or charac¬
ters mentioned in ftat. 21 Hen. VIH. c. 13, united in
himfelf, he can only retain the number of chaplains limit¬
ed to his higheft degree. 4 Co. 9c. The king may prelent
his own chaplains, i. e. waiting chaplains in ordinary, to
any number of livings in the gift of the crown, and even
in addition to what they hold upon the prefentation of
a llihjeft without difpenfation ; but a king’s chaplain, be¬
ing beneficed by the king, cannot afterwards take a liv¬
ing front a fubjeft, but by a difpenfation according to the
ftat. 29. 1 Salk. 1 6 1. A perfon retaining a chaplain, muft.
not only be capable thereof at the time of granting the
inftrument of retainer, but he mull: continue capable of
qualifying till his chaplain is advanced : and therefore
if a duke, earl, &c. retain a chaplain, and die ; or if fuch
a noble perion be attainted of treafon ; or if an officer,
qualified to retain a chaplain, is removed from his office,
the retainer is determined : but where a chaplain hath
taken a fecond benefice before his lord dieth, or is at¬
tainted, See. the retainer is in force to qualify him to en¬
joy the benefices. And if a woman that is noble by mar¬
riage, afterwards marries one under the degree of nobility,
her power to retain chaplains will be determined ; though
it is otherwife where a woman is noble by defeent, if Ihe
marry under degree of nobility, for in fuch cafe her re^
tainer before or after marriage is good. A baronefs, &c.
during the coverture, may not retain chaplains ; if fhe
doth, the lord, her hulband, may difeharge them, as like-
wife her former chaplains, before their advancement.
4 Rep. 1 1 8. A chaplain muft be retained by letters tef-
timonial under hand and feal, or he is not a chaplain
within the ffatute ; fo that it is not enough for a fpiritual
perfon to be retained by word only to be a chaplain, by
Inch perfon as may qualify by the ftatutes to hold livings,
&c. although he abide and ferve as chaplain in the family.
And where a nobleman hath retailed and thus qualified
his number of chaplains, if he difmifies them from their
attendance upon any difpleafure, after they are preferred,
yet they are hrs chaplains at large, and may held their
iivings during their lives ; and luch nobleman, though
he may retain other chaplains in his family, merely as
chaplains, he cannot qualify any others to hold plurali¬
ties while the firft are living : for if a nobleman could
difeharge his chaplain when advanced, to qualify another
in his place, and qualify other chaplains during the lives
cf chaplains diicharged, by thefe means he might advance
as many chaplains as he would, whereby the ftatutes
would be evaded. 4 Rep. 90.
CHAP'LA:NSHIP,y. The office or bufinefs of a chap¬
lain. The pofleifion or revenue of a chapel.
CHAP'LESS, adj. Without any flefh about the mouth:
Shut me nightly in a charnel-houfe,
With reeky lhanks and yellow chaplcfs bones. Shake/.
C H A 99
CHAP'LET,/. {chape let, Fr.] A garland or wreath to
be worn about the head :
All the quire was grac’d
With chaplets green, upon their foreheads plac’d. Drydcn.
[In architecture.] A little moulding carved into round
beads, pearls, or olives. [In horfemanfhip.] A couple
of ltirrnp leathers, mounted each of them with 9 ftirrup,
and joining at top in a fort of leather buckle, which h>
called the head of the. chaplet, by which they are fattened
to the pummel of a faddle, after they have heen admitted to
the length and bearing of the rider. — A tuft of feathers on
the peacock’s head. — A firing of heads ufed in the Romilh
church for keeping an account of the number reheai-lcd
of paterno Hers and ave-marias. A different fort is alio
uftd by the Mahometans. The invention of religious
chaplets is aferibed to Peter the hermit, who probably
learnt it of the Turks, who owed it to the Eaft-Indians.
Chaplets are fometimes called pater-no/ers ; and are made
of coral, of diamonds, of wood, See. according to the
rank and fortune of the owner. The cpmnaon chaplet
contains fifty ave-marias, and five pater- nofters. There
is alio a chaplet of our Saviour, confiding of thirty-three,
beads, in honour of his thirty-three years refidence on
earth, inftituted by father Michael the Camaldufian.
The Oriental chaplets are a kind of chains, which they
ule in their prayers, rehearfing one of the perfections of
God on each link or head. The Great Mogul is laid to
have eighteen of thefe chains, all in precious ftones ;
fome diamonds, others rubies, pearls, &c. The Turlys
have chaplets, which they bear in the hand, or hang at
the girdle : but father Dandini obferves, they differ from
thole ufed by the Romanifts, in that they are all of the
fame bignefs, and have not that diftinftion into decads,
though they confift of iixty heads. He adds that the
Muffuimans run ever the chaplet almoft in an inftant, the
prayers being extremely Ihorf, containing only thefe
words, “ praiie to God,” or “ glory to God,” lor each
bead. Belides the common chaplet they have a larger
one, confiding of a hundred beads, divided by little
threads into three parts ; on one of which they repeat
thirty times foubban Allah, i. e. <! God is. worthy to be
prailed;” on another, ellamb Allah, “glory be to God;”
and on the third, Allah ccher, “ God is great.” Thefe
thrice thirty times making only ninety ; to complete the
hundredth, they add other prayers for the beginning of
the chaplet. He adds that the Mahometan chaplet
appears to have had its rile from the mea beracoth, or
“ hundred benedictions ;” which the jews are obliged to
repeat daily, and which we find in their prayer-books ;
the Jews and Mahometans having this in common, that
they fcarcely do any thing without pronouncing fome
formula or benediction.
CHAP'MAN,/. [ceapman, Saxon.] A cheapner; one
that offers as a purchafer :
Fair Diamede, .you do as chapmen do,
Difpraife the thing that you intend to buy. Shakefpeare,
CHAP'MAN (George), born in 1557, was a man
highly celebrated for his dramatic writings and poetry.
In 1574 he was lent to' one of the univerfities, where he
attained a liberal' education. After this he went to Lon¬
don, and became intimate with Shakefpeare, Johnlon,
Sidney, Spenfer, and 'Daniel. Sir Thomas Waliingham
was his patron, and after him his fon. He was alio pa
tronized by prince Henry, and Robert earl of Somerfetf
Befides dramatic pieces, Chapman was the author of
many other works. He tranilated Homer’s Iliad, and
dedicated it to prince Henry : it is yet looked upon with
fome refpeCt. He tranilated his Odyffey, which was pub-
lilhed in 1614, and dedicated it to the earl of Someriet,
Pope calls him an enthufiaft in poetry. He attempted
alio fome part of Hefiod, and began a tranilation of
Mufteus de amoribus Herois et Leandri. He died irv
1634, aged 77, and was buried at St. Giles’s in the Fields
after
100
C H A
after which a monument was erefted over his grave, at
the expence and under the direction of the famous archi¬
tect Inigo Jones. He wrote feventeen dramatic pieces;
and among them a m atone, called the Temple. This was
compofed at the requell of the gentlemen of the Middle
Temple and Lincoln’s Inn,. on the marriage of the prin-
cefs Elizabeth, only daughter of James I. and Frederic
V. count palatine of the Rhine, afterwards king of Bo¬
hemia : and it was performed before the king at White¬
hall in February 1614, at the celebration of their nuptials.
CHAP'MAN (John), reftor of Merlham and Alding¬
ton in Kent, and domeftic chaplain to archbifhop Potter.
He was alio archdeacon of Sudbury, and treafurer of
Civichefter. Being educated at Eton, and elefted to
King’s in 1723, lie was a candidate for the provoftlhip
of that college, and loll it but by a fmall majority. Among
his piipils he had the honour to clafs the firlt lord Cam¬
den, Dr. Alhton, Horace Walpole, and others who after¬
wards attained to confiderable dillinftion in literature.
His Remarks on Dr. Middleton’s celebrated letter to Dr.
Waterland were publilhed in 1731, and palled through
three editions. In his Eufebius, 2 vols. 8vo. he defended
Chrillianity againll the objections of Morgan, and againtt
thole of Tindal in his Primitive Antiquity explained and
vindicated ; being remarks on a book intituled Chrilli¬
anity as old as the Creation. He was now honoured with
the diploma of D.D. by the univerfity of Oxford; and
publilhed the Hillory cf the Antient Hebrews Vindicated,
Svo. He publilhed alfo two traCls relating to Phlegon,
in anfwer to Dr. Sykes, who had maintained that the
eclipfe mentioned by that Writer had no relation to the
wonderful darknefs that happened at our Saviour’s cru¬
cifixion. In a Differtation written in elegant Latin, and
addreffed to Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Tunflall, then public
oratorof the univerfity of Cambridge, and publilhed with
his Latin Epillle to Dr. Middleton concerning the Ge-
nuinenefs of lome of Cicero’s Epiltles, Dr. Chapman prov¬
ed that Cicero publilhed two editions of his Academics ;
an original thought that had efcapedall former commen¬
tators, and which has been applauded by the bilhop of
Exeter in his edition of Cicero’s Epillolse ad Familiares.
Dr. Chapman alfo publilhed a few fermons, and died the
14th of Oftober 1784, in the 80th year of his age.
CHAPPE', f. in heraldry, the dividing an efcutcheon
by lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to the
angles below, into three parts, the feClions on the fides
being of different metal or colour from the red.
CHAF'PE (Jean d’Autercche), a French allronomer,
born at Manriac, in Auvergne, March 2, 1728. A tafte
for drawing and mathematics appeared in him at a very
•tender age; and he owed to Dorn Germain a knowledge
of the firlt elements of mathematics and aftronomy. M.
•Caffini, after alfuring himfelf of the genius of this young
man, undertook to improve it. He employed him upon
the map of France, and the tranflation of Halley’s tables,
to which he made confiderable additions. The king
charged him in 1753, with drawing the plan of the county
of Bitche, in Lorraine, all the elements of which he de¬
termined geographically. He occupied himfelf greatly
with the two comets of 1760 ; and the fruit of his labour
was his elementary treatile on the theory of thofe comets,
enriched with obfervations on the zodiacal light, and on
the aurora borealis. He foon after went to Tobollk, in
Siberia, to obferve the tranlit of Venus over the fun; a
journey which greatly impaired his health. After two
years abfence be returned to France, where he occupied
himlelf for lome time in putting in order the great quan¬
tity of obfervations he had made. M. Chuppe alio went
to obferve the next tranlit of Venus, viz. that of 1769,
at California, on the well fide of North America, where
he died of a dangerous epidemic difeafe, the ill of Augull
1769. He had been named adjunft allronomer to the
academy the 17th of January 1739. The publilhed works
of M Chappe, are, 1. The Altronomicai Tables of Dr.
Ilalley, with Obfervations and Additions, Svo. 1754.
C H A
2. Voyages to California, 4to. 1772. 3. A confiderable
number ol papers inferted in the Memoirs of the Aca¬
demy, for the years 1760, 1761, 1764, 1765, 1706, 1767,
and 1768 ; chief, y on aftronomy.
_ CHAP'PEL (William), a very learned and pious di¬
vine, bilhop of Cork, Cloyne, and Rofs, in Ireland, was
born at Lexington in Nottinghamlhire, December 10,
1512. He was lent to Chriil’s college in Cambridge ; of
which he was elefted fellow in 1607. He became an emi¬
nent tutor; and was alfo remarkable for his abilities as a
difputant. In 1624, king James vilited the univerfity of
Cambridge, lodged in Trinity college, and was entertain¬
ed with a philofophical aft, and other academical per¬
formances. At thefe exercifes, Dr. Roberts, of Trinity,
was refpondent at St. Mary's ; where Chappel as oppo¬
nent pulhed him fo hard, that, finding himfelf unable to
keep up the difpute, he fainted. Upon this the king un¬
dertook to maintain the queilion ; but with no better
fuccefs than the doftor; for Chappel was fo much his
fuperior at thefe logical weapons, that his majefty open¬
ly profelfed his joy to find a man of fuch talents. He was
inltalled dean of Calhel, Augull ao, 1633. Soon after
he was made provoll of Trinity college in Dublin, by
Laud, then archbilhop of Canterbury, and chancellor of
the univerfity of Dublin ; who, deiirous of giving a new
form to the univerfity, looked upon Chappel as the fittell
perfon to fettle the new eitablilhment. Chappel took vail
pains to decline this charge, the burthen of which lie
thought too heavy for his Ihoulders. Yet he eventually
complied, and fucceeded admirably in regulating and re-
floringfcholaltic dilcipline; but, that he might mix fotne-
thing of the pleafantwith the profitable, and that young
minds might not be opprefied with too much leverity,
he inllituted among the juniors, a Roman common¬
wealth, which continued during the Chrillmas vacation,
and in which they had their diftators, confuls, cenfors,
and other officers of Hate in great fplendour. And this
fingle circumltance may ferve to give us a true idea of
the man, who was remarkable for uniting in his difpo-
fition two very different qualities, fweetnefs of tem¬
per, and leverity of manners. In 1638, his patrons, the
earl of Strafford and the archbilhop of Canterbury, pre¬
ferred him to the bilhoprics of Cork, Cloyne, and Rol'sj
and he was confecrated at St. Patrick’s, Dublin, Novem¬
ber ii, though he had done all he could to avoid this
honour. By the king’s command, he continued in his
provoltlhip for fome time, but at lalt refigned it, July
20, 1640 ; before which time he had endeavoured to ob¬
tain a fm all bifhopric in England, that he might return
to his native country, as he tells us, and die in pence.
But his endeavours were fruitlefs ; and he was left in Ire¬
land to feel all the fury of the itorm, which he had long
forefeen. He was attacked in the'Irilh houfe of commons
with great bitternefs by the puritan party, and obliged
to come to Dublin from Cork, and put in fureties for
his appearance. June 1641, articles of impeachment were
exhibited againll him to the houfe of peers, founded on
dd'continuing the Irilh lefture during the time of his be¬
ing provoll. The profecution was urged with great vio¬
lence, and for no other reafon but becaufe he bad enforc¬
ed uniformity and llrift church dilcipline in the college,
in oppofition to thefanaticifin of thofe times. His fate was
peculiar ; he was abufed at Cambridge for being a puri¬
tan, and in Ireland for being a papill. He was under a
kind of confinement at Dublin, on account of the im¬
peachment ; but at length obtained leave to remove to
Cork. He however found an opportunity to embark for
England, December 26, 1641, and the next day landed
at Milford Haven, after a double efcape, as himfelf phrafes
it, from the Iriffi wolves and the L illi lea. He went from
Milford to Pembroke, and thence to Tenby, where in¬
formation was made of him to the mayor, who commit¬
ted him to goal. After lying there feven weeks, he was
let at liberty by fir Hugh Owen, a member of parliament,
upon giving bond in ioool. for his appearance; and,
March
C I-I A
ioi
March 16, fet out for Briftol. Here he learnt that the
fliip bound from Cork to England, wherein were a great
part of his effedts, was loft near Minehead } and therein,
among other things, perifhed his choice collection of
books. After inch a feries of misfortunes, he withdrew
to his native foil , where he fpent the remainder of his life
in retirement and ftudy ; and died at Derby, upon
Whitfunday, 164.9. De publifhed, the year before his
death, Methodus Conclonandi, that is, the Method of
Preaching; which for its ufefulnefs was tranflated into
Englifli. His Ufe of Holy Scripture was printed after¬
wards in 1653. He left behind him alio his own life,
written by himfelf in Latin, which has been twice print¬
ed; lirft from a MS. in the hands of fir Philip Sydenham,
bai t, by Hearne, and a lecond time by Peck, from a MS.
ftill prefet vedin Trinity hall, Cambridge.
CHAP'PEL HILL, a town of United America, in
Orange county, North-Carolina, fituated on Newhope
creek, which empties into Cape Fear River. This is the
fpot chofen for the feat of the Univerfity of North -Ca¬
rolina ; and ftudents were admitted, and education com¬
menced, in January 1796. The beautiful and elevated
fcite of this town commands a pleafing and exteniive
view of the furrounding country : twelve miles fouth by
eaft of HilKborough, and 472 fouth-weft of Philadelphia.
Lat. 35.40. N. Ion. 79. 6. W.
CHAP'PES, a town of France, in the department of
the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriCt of
Bar-fur-Seine : ten miles fouth-ealt of Troyes.
CHAPPOY', a town of France, in the department of
Jura: two leagues and a half fouth-fouth-eaft of Saiins.
CHAPRARAL', a town of South America, in the coun¬
try of Chili, and jurifdiftion of Coquimbo.
CHAPS, f. The mouth of a beaft of prey :
Their whelps at home expeCt the promis'd food,
And long to temper their dry chaps in blood. Drjdcn.
It is ufed in contempt for the mouth of a man.
CHAPT, or Chapped, part. Like a table upon which
you may run your finger without rubs, and your nail
cannot find ajoint; not horrid, rough, wrinkled, gaping,
or ebapt. Ben. Jonfon.
Cooling ointment made,
Which on their fun-burnt cheeks and their cha.pt fkins
they laid. Drjdcn.
CHAP'TER, f. [chapitre, Fr.] Adivilion of a book. —
The lirft book we divide into three fedtions ; whereof the
fifft is thefe three chapters. Burnet. — From hence comes
the proverbial phrafe, to the end of the chapter ; through¬
out : to the end. — Money does all things; for it gives
and it takes away, it makes honeft men and knaves fools
and plulolophers ; and lo forward, mutatis mutandis , to
the end of the chapter. L’Ef range.
CHAP'TER, f [capitulwn, Lat.] A congregation of
clergymen under the dean in a cathedral church : congre-
gatio clericorum in ecclcjia cathedrali , conventual i, regitlari,
vel collegiata. T his collegiate company is metaphorical¬
ly termed capitulum, fignifying a little head, it being a
kind or head, not only to govern the diocefe in the va¬
cation of the bilhopric, but alfo in many things to advife
and affift the bifliop when the fee is full, for which, with
the ,dean, they form a council. Co. Lit. 103. The chapter
confifts of prebendar ies or canons, which are fome of the
chief men of the church, and therefore are called capita
ecclrfte : they are a fpiritual corporation aggregate, which
they cannot furrender without leaveofthe bifnop, becaufe
he hath an intereft in them ; they, with the dean, have
power to confirm the bifhop’ s grants ; during the vacan¬
cy of an archbifhopric, they are guardians of the fpiri-
tiwlties, and as fuch have authority, by the flat. 25 Hen.
. ZJ> t0 grant difpenfations ; likewife as a corpora¬
tion they have power to make leafes, &c. When the dean
and chapter confirm grants of the bifliop, the dean joins
wnh the chapter, and there mull be the confent of the
Vol. IV. No. i8i.
C II A
major part ; which confent is to be exprefled by their affix¬
ing their feal to the deed, in one place, and at one time,
either in the chapter-houfe, or fome other place ; and
this confent is the will of many joined together. Dyer 233.
They had alfo a check on the bifliop at common law ; for
till ltat. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 28, his grant or leafe would
not have bound his fuccellors, unlefs confirmed by the
dean and chapter. 1 Infl. 103.
A chapter is not capable to take by purchafe or gift,
without the dean, who is the head of the body : but there
may be a chapter without a dean, as the chapter of the
collegiate church of Southwell ; and grants by or to them
are as effectual as other grants by dean and chapter. Yet
where there are chapters without deans, they are not pro¬
perly chapters : and the chapter in a collegiate church,
where there is no epifcopal fee, as at Weltminfter and
Windfor, is more properly called a college. Chapters
are faid to have had their beginning before deans ; and
formerly the bifhop had the rule and ordering of things
without a dean and chapter, which were conftituted af¬
terwards ; and all the minifters within his diocefe were as
his chapter, to affift him in fpiritual matters, a Rol. Rep.
454. 3 Co. 75. The bifliop hath a power of vifiting the
dean and chapter : but the dean and chapter have nothing
to do with what the bifliop tranfafts as ordinary. 3 Rep.
75. Though the bifhop and chapter are but one body,
yet their poffeffions are for the 1110ft part divided ; as the
bifliop hath his part in right of his bilhopric ; the dean
hath a part in right of his deanery ; and each prebendary
hath a certain part in right of his prebend ; and each too
is incorporated by himlelf. Deans and chapters have
alfo fome of them ecclefiaftical jurifdiCtion in feveral pa-
rifhes, (befides that authority they have within their own
body,) executed by their officials; alfo temporal jurif¬
diCtion in feveral manors belonging to them, in the fame-
manner as bifhops, where their ltewards keep courts, &c.
2 Rol. Abr. 229. It has been obfervrd, that though the
chapter have diflinCt parcels of the bifhop’s eftate affigned
for their maintenance, the, bifliop hath little more than a
power over them in his vifitations, and is fcarce allowed
to nominate half of tliofe to their prebends, who were
originally of his family : but of common right it is faid
he is their patron. They are now fame times appointed
by the king, fometimes by the bifhop, and fometiines
eleCted by each other. 1 Comm. 383.
CHAP'TER-HOUSE,/! The place in which affemblies
of the clergy are held. — Though the canonical conftitu-
tion does ItriCtly require it to be made in the cathedral,
yet it matters not where it be made, either in the choir
or chapter-houfe. Ayliffe.
CHAP'TREL, f. The capitals of piilars, or pilafters,
which fupport arches, commonly called impofts. — Let the
keyftone break without the arch, fo much as you projeCt
over the jaunts with the chaptrels. Moxon.
CHAQUILOiV, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segeftan, in ruins: ninety miles north-eaft of Zareng,
CHAR, /. A fifli found only in Winander-meer, in
Lancafliire ; i t is a fpecies of falmon. See Salmo.
To CHAR, v. a. To burn wood to a black cinder. —
Spraywood, in charring, parts into various cracks. JVcod-
vua.rd.
CHAR,yi [cyppe, work, Sax. Lye. It is derived by
Skinner, either from charge, Fr. bufinefs ; or cape, Sax.
care ; or keeren, Dutch, to lweep. ] Work done by the day ;
a fingle job or talk :
She, harveft done, to char- work did afpire;
Meat, drink, and tw'opence, were her daily hire. Dryden.
Do CHAR, v. n. To work at other houfes by the day,
without being a hired fervant.
CHAR-WOMAN, f. A woman hired occafionally for
odd works, or fingle days. — Get three or four char-women
to attend you conftantly in the kitchen, whom you pay
cnly with the broken meat, a few coals, and all the cin¬
ders, Swift.
CHAR, a town of Arabia: i4omilesnorth-w-eftofMecca,
Dd CHAR,
ica C H A
CHAR, a river of France, which, runs into the Bou-
tonne, near St. Jean d’Angeli.
CHA'RA, /. [xafay the joy or delight of the water.]
In botany, a genus of the clalsmonoecia, order monandria,
natural order inundatse. The generic characters are — I.
Female flower. Calyx: perianthium four-leaved : leaflets
fubuiate, ereCt, .permanent : the two oppofite exterior
ones longer than the.others. Corolla: none. Piftiilum ;
germ turbinate. Style: none. Stigma: flve-cleft, ob¬
long, deciduous. Pericarpium : emit ovate, unilocular,
adhering; Seed : Angle ovate, fpirally ftriated. II. Male
flower at the bale of the germ, beyond the calyx. Calyx :
none.. Corolla: none. Stamina: filament none. An¬
ther : globofe, before the germ, beyond the calyx, beneath.
EJfcntial Charafter. Male : Calyx and corolla none ; an¬
ther before the germ, underneath. Female : Calyx four-,
leaved ; corolla none ; fligma five cleft ; feed one.
Species, i. Chara tomentofa, or brittle chara or ftone-
wort :. prickles on the Item ovate. Thefe plants, which
were ranged by Linnaeus among the cryptogamia alga;,
have in his latter works, on more accurate ’infpeCtion,
been removed to momec'm monandria. The firft fpecies is
always flelh-coloured when alive, but when dry it becomes
afh- coloured. Stem twifted, brittle and gritty in the
mouth. Low and creeping in marflies and where there
is little water, but in deep waters growing out in length
and ereCt. The briftles at the joints fometimes naked,
fometimes rough with little fpines, efpecially towards tire
top. According to Weis, the ftems much branched; flexi¬
ble when young, but growing veiy ftiff as they advance
in age, and covered with a gritty tufo; when dry they
are lo brittle as to fly with the leaft touch. In fummer
this plant abounds in oblong berries, growing yellow
when ripe, and having very final 1 black feeds in them.
Grows in fait marihes, ditches, pools, lakes, &c. in many
parts of Europe. In England, Mr. Leonard Buckner firft
found it three miles beyond Oxford, near Evan (bain-ferry,
in 1632 ; Mr. Bowles found it afterwards on a bog near
ChiflehurftinKent. Foundalfo nearBath ; Beforfleigh ; in
the rivulet that runs from Malham Tarn ; and common
in peat ditches in Lancalhire and Weftmoreland. An¬
nual ; flowering from June to October.
2. Chara vulgaris, or common or {linking chara or
flonewort : ftems glofly ; leaves toothed on the infide.
The whole plant is yellowifh or reddilh green. Flowers
in the divifions of the ftem ; green when frefti, and ex¬
tremely fetid; glaucous when dry, and very brittle. Stem
but little branched, fix to nine inches long, flexible. Found
in ditches and pools. Annual, floweringin j uly and Auguft.
3. Chara hifpida, or prickly chara or flonewort:
prickles on the ftem capillary crowded. Whitifli or pale
green when frefh; with fpines or prickles ufually bent
down. Stem twifted fpirally, its lower part, branches, and
lower leaves, frequently naked ; upper part thick fet with
prickles. The whole plant has a ftrong feent of garlic.
It is foUnd in feveral parts of Europe, on the fea-coafts,
&c. with us by Hinton-moor near Cambridge; Elling-
harn, Norfolk; near Gavton, Stafrordfhire ; in Yorklhire,
Lancafliire and Weftmoreland ; Eaft-Lothian, Scotland;
and on the turf bogs of Ireland. Annual, flowering from
June to OCtober.
4. Chara flexilis, or fmooth chara or flonewort : joints
of the ftem unarmed, diaphanous, broader upwards.
Stems eight or ten inches long, fiftular, tender, fmooth,
flexible, dull green, pellucid. Place ^and time of growth
as in the preceding.
Propagation amiCulture. Thefe plants haying no beauty,
nor any ufe that we are acquainted with, and growing
only in water, are not cultivated in gardens.
CHARABAUN', or Tsier iron, a 'feaport town, on
the north coaft of the Eland of java, fituated in a coun¬
try which produces plenty of rice, fugar, coffee, pepper,
cotton, &c. which the Dutch purchafe at a low price :
about 1 30 miles eall of Batavia. Lat, 6.5.S. Ion. 109,4. E.
CH ARABEY', a town of Perfia, in the province of
Mazanderan : fixty miles weft- of Afterabat.
C H A
CHARACE'NE, See Ckorasah,
CHARA'CIAS, f. in botany. See Euphorbia.
CH A'RACTER, f. [char after, Lat. xa-ia>'-rr‘i> Gr. from
Xcipa-o-w, to engrave.] A mark; aftamp; areprefentation ;
Imputward alfo herrefembling lefs
His image, who made both ; and lefs exprefling
The character of that dominion giv’n
O’er other creatures. Milton.
A letter u.fed in writing or printing. — It were much to be
wifhed, that there were throughout the world but one fort
of character for each letter, to exprefs it to the eye ; and
that exaCtly proportioned to the natural alphabet formed in
the mouth. Holder . — The hand or manner of writing. —
I found the letter thrown in at the cafement of ray-clo-
fet. You know the char aider to be your brother’s. Shake-
fpeare.—A representation cf any man as to his perfonal
qualities. — Homer has excelled all the heroic poets that
ever wrote, in the multitude and variety of his charac¬
ters-, every god that is admitted into his poem, aCts a
part which would have been fuitable to no other deity.
Addifon. — An account of any thing as good or bad. — This
fubterraneous paffage is much mended, fince Seneca gave
fo bad a character of it. Addifon. — The perfon with his
aflemblage of qualities; a perfonage. — In a tragedy or
epic poem, the hero of the piece mult be advanced
foremoft to the view of the reader or fpeCtator; he muft
outfhine the reft of all the charallers ; he muft appear
the prince of them, like the fun in the Copernican lyf-
tem, encompafied with the lefs noble planets. Dryden. — ■
Perfonal qualities; particular conftitution of the mind:
Nothing fo true as what you once let fall.
Molt women have no characters at all. Pope.
Adventitious qualities impreffed by a poll or office. — .
The chief honour of the magiftrate coniifts in maintain¬
ing the dignity of his charafter by fuitable aCtions. At-
terbury.
CHARACTER, in refpect to poetical compofition, or
the drama, is the refill t of the manners or peculiarities
by which each perfon or part is diftinguifhed from others.
The poetical character, fays M. Boflu, is not properly
any particular virtue or quality, but a compofition of
feveral which are mixed together, in a different degree,
according to the neceflity of the fable and the xmity of
the aCtion: there muft be one, however, to reign over
all the reft; and this muft be found, in fome degree, in
every part. The firft quality in Achilles, is wrath; in
Uly lies, diffimulation ; and in EEneas, mildnefs: but,
as thefe characters cannot exift alone, they muft be ac-
companied-with others to embellilh them, as far as they
are capable, either by biding their defeCts, as in the an¬
ger of Achilles, which is palliated by extraordinary va¬
lour; or by making them centre in fome folid virtue, as
in Ulyfles, whole difiimulation makes a part of his pru¬
dence; and in EEneas, whofe mildnefs is employed in a
fubmiflion to the will of the gods. In the making up of
this union, it is to be obferved, the poets have joined
together fuch qualities as are by nature the molt compa¬
tible; valour with anger, piety with miidnels, aud pru¬
dence with difiimulation. The fable required prudence
in Ulyfles, and piety in EEneas; in this therefore the
poets were not left to their choice,: but Homer might
have made A.chilles a coward, without abating any thing
from the juftnefs of his fable: fo that it was the neceflity
of adorning his character that obliged him to make him
valiant. The character then of a hero in an epic poem is
compounded cf three forts of qualities; the firft, elfen-
tial to the fable; the fecond,- an embellifhment of the
firft; and valour, which fuftains the other two, makes
the third. Unity of character, is as neseflary as the
unity of the fable. For this purpofe a perlon IhouUl be
the fame from the beginning to the end ; not that he is
always to betray the fame ienciments, or one paflion,
but that he fliould never fpeak or aCt inconfiftentiy with
his fundamental character. Forinftance, the weak may
tally
C H A
fully into a warmth, and the bread of the paffidhate be.
calm, a change which often introduces in the drama a
very affe&ing variety; but if the natural dilpofition of
the former was to be reprefented as boifterous, and that
of the latter mild and foft, they would both aft out of
character, and contradict probability. True charafters
are fuch as we truly and really fee in men, or may exift
without any contradiction to nature. No man quedior.s
but there have been men as generous and as good as
/Eneas, as paffionate and as violent as Achilles, as pru¬
dent and wile as Uiylfes, as impious and atheiilical as
Mezentius, and as amorous and paffionate as Dido; all
tliel'e charafters, therefore, are true, and nothing but
juft imitations of nature. On the contrary, a character
is -falfe, when an author fo feigns it, that one can fee
nothing like it in the courfe of nature, which fhould be
his conltant pattern and guide.,
CHARACTER, inhumanlife, isthatwhich is peculiar
to the manners and conduit of each refpeftive indivi¬
dual. The importance of a good character, to. thole who
are to make their way either to wealth or honours, is no
lefs neceliar-y thanaddrefs and abilities. Taough human
nature is degenerate, and depraves itfelf Hill more by its
own follies; yet it uliially retains to the hut an efteem
for excellence. But even if we are arrived at fucli an ex¬
treme degree of depravity as to have Alt our native reve¬
rence for virtue, yet a regard to our . own mterelt and
fafety, which we leldom lofe, will lead us to ..pply for
aid, in all important tranfaftions, to men whole integrity
is unimpeached. Wlien we choole an affi hint, a puit-
ner, a lervant, our fiilt enquiry is concerning his cha¬
racter- When we have occalion for a counfellor or at¬
torney, a phyfician or apothecary, whatever we may be
ourfelves, vve always choole to trull our property and
perfons to men of the belt character. When we iix on
tradel'men who are to hup ply us with neceffaries, we are
not determined by the fign of the lamb, or the wolf, or
the fox, nor by a /hop fitted up in external elegance of
tafte, but by the internal reputation. Look into the
daily prints, and we lhall fee, from the liigheft to the
lowelt rank, how important the charafters of the em¬
ployed appear to the employers. After the enumeration of
the qualities required in aperlon wanted, there condantiy
follows, that nrneneed apply who cannot bring- an un¬
deniable charafter. Of luch importance then, is the
prefervation of a good charafter to all kinds of fervants,
that few perfons will, and none ought ever to engage them
without a written certificate of their good conduft and
behaviour. And to prevent fraud or impofition on mat¬
ters or miftreffes by the fabrication of faile or forged cha¬
rafters, it is enafted, by fiat. 32 Geo. III. c. 56, that if
any perfon lhall give a falfe charafter of a lervant, or a
falfe account of his former l'ervices; or if any fervant
lhall give fuch falfe account, or lhall bring a falfe or
forged charafter, or (hall alter any written certificate of
a charafter; he, or they, lhall, upon conviction before
ajufticeof the peace, forfeit twenty pounds, with ten (hil¬
lings cofts. An aftion on this ftatute was tried in Guild¬
hall, in 1792, at the fuit of a perfon whole fervant had
robbed him to a confiderable amount, and who was con¬
victed thereof, and executed; after which, the mailer,
to recover the amount of his property, brought an aftion
again It the perion who had given him a good charafter
to the fervant, yet knowing; he did not defer-x/e fuch good
charafter ; and the plaintiff- recovered the whole of his
lofs*, with all colts. See the article Servant.
To CHARACTER, v.a. To inlc/ibe ; to engrave. It
feems to have had the accent formerly on the iecond ■ Rel¬
iable :
The pleafing poifon
The vifage quite transforms of him that drinks.
And the inglorious likenefs of a bead
Fixes inftead, unmoulding realbn’s mintage,
Character'd in the face. Milton.
CHARACTERIS' LIC, / That which conllitutes the
charafter ; that which diftmguifnes any thing or perlbn
C H A 103
from others. — This vaft invention exerts Itfelf in Homer,
in a manner fuperior to tdiat of any poet; it is the great
and peculiar charaCleri/ljc which diiiinguiflies him from
all others. Pope,
CHAR AC I ERIS'TIC of a logarithm. The fame with
the index or exponent. See Logarithm.
CHAR ACTERIS' J ICAL, adj. That which conlti-
tutes the charafter, or marks the peculiar properties, of
any perfon or thing. — The filming quality of an epic
hero, his magnanimity, his cohltancy, his patience, his
piety, or whatever cbaraCleriJlical virtue his poet gives
'him, raifes our admiration. Dryden.
CHARACTER IS' LIC ALNESS,/ The quality of be¬
ing peculiar to a charafter; marking a charafter.
To CHAR AC'TERIZE, *y. a. To give a charafter or
an account of the perfonal qualities of any man. — It is
fome commendation that we have avoided publicly to
charaCleri-ze any perlbn, without long experience. Swift.
To engrave, or imprint. — They may be called anticipa¬
tions, prenotions, or ientiments, characterized and en¬
graven in the foul, born with it, and growing up with
it. Plate. To mark with a particular (lamp or token. —
There are faces not only individual , but gentiiitious and
national; European, Afiatic, Chinefe, African, and Gre¬
cian, faces are characterized. Arbuthnot.
CHARACTERLESS, adj. Without a charafter :
When water-drops have worn the Hones of Troy,
And blind oblivion fwaliow’d cities up,
And mighty Hates charaCierlefs are grated
To dufty nothing. Shakcfpeare.
CHARACTERS,/. In the different departments of
literature and fcience, thefe are certain marks, figns, or
fymbols, of things, invented by artids and authors in dif¬
ferent ages, and ufiialiy employed in the feveral branches
of the mathematics, and in various profeffions ; either to
reprefent certain objefts or fubdances, or as abbrevia¬
tions ; or, as the l-eprefentatives of number, quantity,
fpace, words, or leniences, in language ; or, as feftions
and divisions in the arrangement and clalfification of dif->
fei'ent fubjefts in books ; as in natural bidory, where
characters imply the didinguilhing marks of genera and
fpecies ; and which are very often arbitrary, as in the
works of Linnaeus and others.
Algebraical Characters, are the marks or figns by
which calculations or mathematical problems in that fei-
. ence are written or expreffed ; for which fee Algebra.
Agronomical Characters, are certain devices which
reprefent the fun, moon, and planets; the figns of the
zodiac ; the condellations ; the alpefts of the dars and
planets, with their motions, didances, & c. for which lee
Astronomy.
Chemical Characters, are certain fymbols or figures
which denote the different metals, minerals, and other
fubdances, with their combinations ; for which fee Che¬
mistry.
Emblematical Characters, are fuch as the hierogly¬
phics of the ancient Egyptians ; or a mode of writing by
the combination of figures of various animals, or parts
of human bodies, mechanical inftruments, &c. connect¬
ed by letters and words,. See Hieroglyphics.^
Mathematical Characters, are marks or figns ufed
to exprefs quantity, form, proportion, See. in Geome¬
try, Trigonometry, Sec. for which fee under thole
heads.
Medical and Pharmaceutical Characters, are calcu¬
lated principally to denote the quantities and propor¬
tions in the admixture of drugs; for which fee Medi¬
cine, and Pharmacy.
Mufical Characters, are the notes and figns ufed in
compofition, and to regulate time, the modulation ot the
voice, &c. for which lee Music.
National , and Oriental, Characters, are the types or
letters of which the alphabets of different nations are
formed ; or in which their primitive language is written
or printed, as the ancient SaxOn, German, Norman,
1 Iriih
i04
C H A
Irifli, Gothic, &c. Oriental characters are thofe peculiar
to the eailern nations, and are commonly underftood of
the Hebrew, Chaldean, Armenian, Coptic, Arabic, Per-
iic, &c. See Language, and Pantography.
Numeral Characters, are thofe ufed in notation, as
the ligns of given numbers, quantities, &c. for which fee
Arithmetic.
P af, graphical Characters, are marks or figures lately
introduced by feveral modern philologilts, with a view
to ettablifli an uninjerfal language. See Pasig raphy,
and Language.
CHA'RACTERY, f Impreffion, mark, diftinblion ;
accented anciently on the fecond Jyllable :
All my engagements I will conftrue to thee.
Ail the ckarafiery of my fad brows. Shakefpeare.
CHARA'DE,/. A fpecies of compofition or literary
amulement in the nature of an enigma. Its fubjeCt mult
be a word of two fyllables, each forming a diftinCt word;
and thefe two fyllables are to be concealed in an enig¬
matical defeription, firft (eparately, and then together ;
as in the following examples, one in prole, and the other
in verle :
My firft, with the molt rooted antipathy to a French¬
man, prides liimfelf, whenever they meet upon flicking
clofe to his jacket. My fecond has many virtues, nor is
it its leaft that it gives name to my firft. My whole, may
I never catch thee ! Tar-tar.
My firft is called bad or good,
May pleafure or offend ye ;
My fecond in a thirlty mood,
May very much befriend ye.
My whole, tho’ ftyl’d “ a cruel word,”
May yet appear a kind one ; i
It often may with joy be heard,
With tears may often blind one. Fare-well.
CHARA'DRIUS, f [from xapatya, an excavation or
fiffure.] In ornithology, the Plover, a genus of birds
belonging to the order of grallas, and of which there are
thirty fpecies, befides varieties. It received its generic
name from its fleeping in the clefts or fiffures of rocks.
The charafters are : Bill fomewhat taper, obtule ; nof-
trils linear. Feetcurfory; three-toed. Plovers are found
in England all the year; but in greatell plenty during
the autumnal rains. They frequent the wet bottoms and
ilimy grounds, where they fearch for worms and infe&sa
they go into the water in the morning to wafh their bill
and feet ; a habit which is common ajfo to the wood¬
cocks, the lapwings, the curlews, and many other birds
which feed on worms. Though they are ufually very
fat, their inteftines are generally found to be empt)' ; lo
that it has been fuppofed the foft lubftance of the worms
turns wholly into nourilhment, and leaves little excre¬
ment. They feem, however, capable of l'upporting a
long abftinence : Schwenckfeld fays, that he kept one
fourteen days, which, during the whole time, only drank
fome water, and fwallowed a few grains of land. They
feldom remain more than twenty-four hours in the fame
place, being fond of removing to other paftures. The
firft fnows compel them to leave our climates ; however,
a confiderable number of them remain till the hard frofts.
They return in fpring, and always in flocks; a Angle
plover is never to be feen. When on the ground they
are incefiantly engaged in fearch of food ; they are al-
moft perpetually in motion, and are remarkably fhy and
wary; feveral keep watch while the reft of the flock are
feeding, and on the leaft fymptom of danger they utter
a (brill fcream, which is the fignal of flight. On wing,
they follow the wind, and maintain a Angular ar¬
rangement. Advancing in front, they form in the
air tranfverfe zones, very narrow and exceedingly
long : lometimes there are feveral of thefe zones pa¬
rallel, of fmall depth, but wide extended in crofts lines
When on -the ground they run much, and "very Iwift-
i
C H A
ly ; they continue in a flock the whole day, and only
feparate to pafs the night : they difperfe in the evening
to their haunts, wdrere each repoles apart ; but at day¬
break, the one firft awake, or the mod watchful, which
fowlers term the caller, gives a (brill cry, and in an in-
ftant they all obey the lummons, and collect together.
This is the time cholen for catching them : a clap-net
is ftretched before dawn, facing the place where they
deep ; a number of fowlers encircle it, and as foon as
the call is heard, they throw themfelves flat on the
ground till the birds gather; then they rife up, (bout,
and throw flicks into the air; lo that the plovers are
frightened, and, (kimming along with a low flight, they
ftrike againft the net, which drops upon them, and
numbers are taken. This plan is ufually attended
with great fuccefs ; but a Angle bird-catcher can in
a more fimple way enfnare confiderable numbers : he
conceals himfelf behind his net, and attracts the birds
by means of a call. They are efteemed in mod coun¬
tries as excellent game. We know but little of their
natural hiftory. Tranfient guefts rather than inhabitants
of our fields, they difappear on the fnow’s falling; re-
pafs without halting in the fpring, and leave us when
the other birds arrive. It would feem that the gentle
warmth of that feafon, which awakens the dormant fa¬
culties of the other birds, makes a contrary imprefliou
on the plovers : they proceed to the more northern coun¬
tries to breed, and rear their young, for, during the whole
fummer, wre rarely fee them. Then they inhabit Lap-
land, and other parts of the north of Europe, and pro¬
bably thofe of Afia. Their progrefs is the fame in A-
merica ; they are obferved in the fpring at Hudfon’s Bay
advancing farther north. After arriving in flocks in
thofe arbtic trafts, they feparate into pairs ; and the
more intimate union of love breaks, or rather fufpends
for a time, the general fociety. Hence Klein, an inha¬
bitant of Dantzick, was led to remark, that the ployers
live folitary in low' grounds and meadows.
i. Charadrius Pluvialis, the golden plover; length
ten inches and a half ; bill one inch ; the upper part of
the plumage du(ky, (potted with golden yellow ; round
the eyes and the chin almofl white ; fides of the head,
the neck, and fides of the body, the fame as the upper
parts, but much paler ; middle of the belly dufley wdrite;
tail barred with yellow ; legs black. Individuals of this
fpecies often vary in colour; in fome the belly is black,
in others (potted ; and a fmall claw' is fometimes ob¬
ferved inftead of an hind toe. The male and female dif¬
fer very little. In young birds the fpots are not of a
full yellow colour, inclining more to grey. This elegant
fpecies is found in England the whole year, and breeds
on feveral of our unfrequented mountains ; is very com¬
mon on thofe of the Ifle of Rum, and the loftier Hebrides.
Alfo on the Grampian, and all the heathy hills of the
highlands of Scotland. They make a thrill whittling
noile, and may be inticed within gun-fhot by a fkilfui
imitator of their voice. Their eggs are four in number,
two inches and one-eighth in length, pointed infliape, of
a pale cinereous olive, marked with blackiih fpots. On
the continent they are met with in Sweden, Denmark,
Lapland, Iceland, and other northern parts ; to the fouth
as far as Aleppo ; and, if the fpecies be not miftaken,
in the ifland of Batavia, as well as in China : our laft
voyagers met with them at Owhyhee, and York Iflands,
in the South Seas, but of a fmaller fize. In America
they inhabit the coaft of Labrador, and Hudfon’s Bay;
from thence to New York, as low as Carolina; migrat¬
ing from one to the other according to the fealons ; and
often to the ifland of St. Domingo and Cayenne. There
is a fmaller variety of this fpecies, which feems to differ
only in fize.
2. Charadrius Rubidus, or ruddy plover; bill ftrait,
one inch long, and black ; head, neck, bread, wing co¬
nverts, and thofe of the tail of a ruddy colour, lpotted
with black, and powdered with white ; in the fcapulars
and
C H A R A
and wing-coverts the black prevails. It inhabits Hud¬
son's Bay, where it is known by the name of Miltchay-
chekilkawelhilh.
3. Charadrius Himantopus, or long-legged plover;
which is a very Singular fpecies, on account of its great
length of legs ; it meafures, from the end of the bill to
that of the tail, thirteen inches, but to the claws nearly
one foot and a half. The bill is two inches and a half
long, Sender, and black ; the crown of the head, back,
and wings, gloffy black ; the hind part of the neck
marked with dulky fpots ; rump and tail white; legs red.
This is met with in England, but very feldojn. Sir R.
Sibbald mentions two being Slot in Scotland ; Mr. Pen¬
nant, one killed near Oxford; and Mr. White another,
which was fhot at Frencham Ponds, in Hamplhire. The
plumage of this bird was wholly white, except the wings,
and the back as far as the rump ; this difference is attri¬
buted to fex. They are common’ in Egypt, and on the
fhores of the Cafpian lea, as well as the rivers which run
into it ; alio in the louthern defects of Independent Tar¬
tary, in China, and at Madras in the Eaft Indies. In the
warmer parts of America it is plentiful, as far north as
Connecticut ; and is found in Jamaica.
4. Charadrius Calidris, or fanderling plover; fmall
and llender; length eight inches; bill one inch, and
black; the fore-part of the head and fides, from chin to
vent, white ; through the eyes runs a greyilh itreak ;
the upper part of the head, neck, and body, ftreaked
with black; tail alh-colour, with pale margins'; legs
black. This fpecies is found in flocks on the lea-coalts
of Cornwall, and has alfo been fliot in Lancalhire. It is
not frequent on the continent, except in the neighbour¬
hood of Lake Baikal ; but is more plentiful in North
America, and abounds in the Seal Iflands on the coaft
of Labrador. There is a variety of this fpecies at New¬
foundland, about the fize of a fnipe; and is gregarious.
5. Charadrius Apricarius, the alwargrim, Or fpotted
plover ; fize of the golden plover ; bill one inch long,
and black ; eyes large ; the plumage on all the upper
parts is black, fpotted with orange ; the forehead be¬
tween the eyes white, which paffes over each eye in a
line, down the fides of the neck, to the breaft, uniting
to form a band acrofs the breaft ; all the fore parts of
the neck, breaft, and under parts, are black, except
where the white band croffes ; the tail barred with brown
and black. This inhabits the northern parts of Europe,
Sweden, Denmark, the Ille of Oeland, Iceland, and Green¬
land ; where it feeds on mollufca, and the buds of black-
berried heath ; it arrives in fpring, and after breeding
retires fouthward. It inhabits all the ardlic parts of
Ruflia and Siberia. In America, at Hudfon’s Bay, it is
known by the name of Hawk’s Eye ; comes to New
York in May ; breeds there, departing in collected
flocks about the end of Odlober. The flefli is delicious.
6. Charadrius Vociferus, the noify plover ; a fmall
fpecies ; fize of a fnipe ; bill above an inch long, and
black ; eyelids red, the forehead white ; between the
eyes, and acrofs the head, a bar of black paffes on each
fide to the hind head ; the chin and fore part of the neck
is white, at the lower part of which the white encircles
it like a ring, and is accompanied by a bar of black all
round; on the breaft is another black bar; and, except
thele, all the under parts are white ; the hind part of the
head, neck, and upper part of the body and wings, are
•duflcy brown ; rump nifty orange ; the feathers very long ;
fome of the feathers which fall over the greater quills
are fringed with white; legs pale yellow. This fpecies
is confined to America, and is found at New York, Vir¬
ginia, and Carolina, where it is called Kill-deer ; it lays
three or four eggs; is very clamorous and reitlefs; anq,
like the jay in England, let6 up its cry the moment any
one approaches, to the great dilappointment of thole
who carry a gun.
7. Charadrius Torquatus, the collared plover of St.
Domingo; rather fmalier than the laft; bill blue grey,
Vol. IV. No. 181.
D R I U S. 105
with a black tip; the forehead white, paffmg over the
eyes on each fide, and ending at lome diftance behind
them ; on the forehead is a black fpot; the chin, throat,
and lore part of the neck, white, paffmg round the laft
as a collar ; beneath this is a collar of black, bioadonthe
fore part ; the reft of the under parts white, except a
bar of black mixed with white on. the breaft ; the back
and fcapulars grey brown, like the head; legs blue grey;
found abundantly at St. Domingo. A variety of this
collared fpecies is alfo found at Jamaica, where it fre¬
quents the banks of rivers.
8. Charadrius Hiaticula, the ringed plover; length
from fix to feven inches and upwards; bill orange; the
bale of the upper mandible, and from thence through
the eyes, and behind them to the ears, black; forehead
white; behind this, from eye to eye, black; the reft of
the head pale brown, chin and throat white, palling
round the neck in a broad collar; beneath this, on the
lower part of the neck, is a fecond collar of black, encir¬
cling the neck behind, but growing narrow as it paffes
backward; breaft and all the under parts white; back
and wing coverts pale brown. Thefe birds migrate into
England in the fpring, and depart in autumn, but fre¬
quent our lhores during the fummer. They lay four eggs,
an inch and a half in length, of a pale alh-colour, fpot-
ted with black; thefe they lay on the ground, under lome
Ihelter, but make no neft. They run very fall, fome-
times taking fhort flights, twittering loud at the fame
time, then alight and run again, and, if much diiturped,
fly quite off. They inhabit feveral parts of the conti¬
nent, Greenland, and America. A variety of this ipe-
cies, but much paler in its plumage, is found at Hud-
Ion’s Bay and Cayenne.
9. Charadrius Alexandtinus, the Alexandrine plover;
very fmall, the fize only of a lark;1 bill black ; forehead
white, paffmg backwards in a ftreak over the eye ; from
the bafe of the bill a ftreak of black runs through the
eye, and reaches behind to the ears ; the top of the head,
the back, and wings, brown; round the neck a collar of
white; belly white ; the quills blackilh grey. It inha¬
bits Egypt, on the canal of the Nile; where it feeds on
infedls and fmall frogs.
10. Charadrius Aigyptius, the Egyptian plover; fize
of athrufh ; aline of white paffes over the eye to the hind
head; the crown, fides of the head, and middle of the
back, black; on the breaft a band of black palles -back¬
wards, and ends in a point on the back; the breaft, fides
of the belly, thighs, and vent, yeliowifii white; throat
and middle of the belly white. Inhabits the lunny plains
of Egypt, and feeds on infects. There are two varieties
of this fpecies; one found at the Cape of Good Hope,
the other in the ifland of Lugon ; both feed on infects and.
frogs.
11. Charadrius Novae Zealandite, the New Zealand
plover; a trifle bigger than the preceding; bill one inch
long, red, with a black tip; eye-lids red; the fore part
of the head, taking in the eye, chin, and throat, black,
palling backwards in a collar at the hind head; ah the
back part of the head, behind the eye, green and alh-co¬
lour, divided by white ; the plumage on the upper parts .
of the body the fame colour as the back or the head, and
forming a bar on the wing; the under par ts of the body
white ; legs red. It inhabits Queen Charlotte’s Sound,
and is in the colledlion of Sir Joseph Banks.
12. Charadrius Gregarius, the gregarious plover;
length thirteen inches or more; bill one inch, and black;
crown of the head brown, mottled with white ; forehead
white, palling in a ftreak over each eye to tire hind head;
through the eyes a black ftreak; body alh-colour, fome-
what approaching to-that of the turtle-dove; at the lower
part of the breaft a large crefcent of black, and behind
it a rufous one ; tail white, crofted with a black band,
which is not confpicuous in the tide feathers; legs fur-
niflred with an imperltdt back toe. This frequents the
fields about the Volga, Jaick, and Samara, in flocks.,
E e but
ioS C H A R A
but is not Teen Tirther north than fifty-four degrees. It
is called by feme the hen of the fteppes.
13. Charadrius Afiaticus, the Afiatic plover; a little
bigger than the ringed plover; bill as in that bird; crown
of the head, the back, and wings, alh-coloured brown ;
forehead, and fides of the head, white; from thence to
the middle of the neck ferruginous, bounded by a tranf-
verfe band of brown ; the reft of the under parts white;
tail brown, the feathers whitifh on the edges, and tipped
with black ; legs red. Inhabits the fait lakes of the fouth-
ern delerts of Tartary, and is a very rare and folitary
fpecies.
14. Charadrius Mongolus, the Mongolian plover;
fize of the dotterel ; forehead white, crown black; from
the bill arifes a ftreak of black, which encircles its white
throat; the fore part of the neck is ferruginous; breaft
the fame, but paler; belly white; back cinereous brown.
Inhabits the fait lakes on the confines of the Mongolian
country, and is a folitary fpecies.
15. Charadrius Morinellus, the dotterel ; length from
nine to ten inches ; bill lefs than an inch long, and black ;
the forehead is dufky and grey mixed ; over the eye is a
white band, which bends downwards, and palfes to the
hind head ; fides of the head and throat white ; the hind
part of the neck, the back, and wings, greyilh brown ;
lore part of the neck, cinereous olive, bounded with a
line of black, and beneath it another of white; the breaft
and fides of a pale dull orange; tail olive brown, and
near the end a bar of dufky, the tip white; legs black.
Thefe birds are common in f'ome parts of England, but are
notknWn in others ; they are plentiful in Cambridgeshire,
Lincolnfhire, and Derbyfhire. They appear in flocks of
eight or ten the latter end of April, and ftay all May
and June, when they grow fat, and are much efteemed
for the table. In April and September, they are taken
on the Wiltfhire and Berkfhire downs; they are alfo feen
on the fea-fide in Lancafhire about three weeks in April;
from thence they remove northward to Leyton Haws,
where they ftay about a fortnight; and at the fame time
are in plenty about Iloldernefs, and upon the Yorkfhire
wolds. It is probable that they breed in the mountains
of Cumberland and Weftmoreland, as they appear there
in May, but are not obferved there after the breeding
fea’fon. They inhabit the northern parts of Europe,
where they likewife breed. Linnaeus fays, that they are
very frequent in Dalecarlia, and the Lapland Alps; and
that they vifit Sweden in May. They are known to
breed in the northern parts of Ruffin and Siberia; ap¬
pearing fouthward only in their migrations. They are
very tame, and eafily enticed into a net, or deftroyed by
the gun. There are two varieties of this fpecies, differ¬
ing only in a trifling variation of the plumage.
16. Charadrius Atricapiilus, the black-crowned plo¬
ver; length ten inches; bill an inch long, red,. with the
end black; head black, furrounded with a circle of white;
throat white; breaft light afh-coloured brown, divided
from the belly by a dufky tranfverle line ; back and wing
coverts, cinereous brown ; tail white at the bale, and
black towards the end; the tip white; legs very long;
naked an inch above the knees, and of a blood red. It
chiefly inhabits the province of New York, and has much
the habit of the European dotterel.
17- Charadrius Obfcurus, the dufky plover; fomewhat
larger than a fnipe ; bill black ; forehead pale reddifn
white; plumage on the upper part of the bird, and fore
part of the neck, dufky ; lower part of the neck, bieaft,
and under parts, yellow oker-colour, with a tinge of red ;
the neck marked with pale and dufky ftreaks, and tranf-
verfely mottled on the fides with narrow lines; legs blue.
Inhabits New Zealand, and found at Dufky Bay. It is
in the collection of Sir lofeph Banks.
18. Ciiaradrius Ful\us, the fulvous plover; length
twelve me lies and a half; bid dufky; the plumage above,
from the crown of the head to the rump, black, margined
with fulvous yellow ; the forehead and throat dufky white ;
D R I U S.
breaft fulvous, fpotted with black ; the wing-coverts ara
black, fpotted with fulvous; tail brov.'nifh black, crofted
with whitifh bands ; legs blue. It inhabits the fhores and
marfhy places of Otaheite, where our late navigators firft
found it. There is a variety of this fpecies confiderably
fmaller, but correfponding in every other refpedh
19. Charadrius Leucogafter, the white-bellied plover;
length fix inches ; bill one inch; the plumage on the up¬
per parts dirty brown; the forehead white; above and
beneath the eye a ftreak of the fame, and the under part*
entirely white; fix of the middle tail-feathers brown;
the outer ones white juft at the tip and bafe; the three
exterior ones white; legs pale blue. Native country un¬
certain.
20. Charadrius Rubricollis, the red-necked plover;
length feven inches or more ; bill ilefh-coloured, the head
and neck black; on each fide of the neck a fquare chef-
nut fpot, the fize of a filver penny, almoft meeting toge¬
ther at the back part; the upper part of the body afh-
colour, with a little mixture of white about the baftard
wing; the breaft and under parts white; quills and tail
dufky; legs flefh-colour. Inhabits the South Seas, and
was found in Adventure Bay, Van Diemen’s Land.
21. Charadrius Spinofqs, the fpur-winged plover; a-
bout the fize of the golden plover: bill an inch long,
and black ; the crown of the head and throat are black,
palling a little way down the neck before ; the hind head
a little crefted ; the back part of the neck, and upper
part of the body, and fcapulars, reddilh grey; fides of
the head, and all the under part, from throat to vent,
yellowifli white, except a crefcent of black on the breaft;
on the fore part of the wing, juft within the bend, is a
fpur half an inch in length, a little bent, and black; tail
yellowifli white, tipped with black. This fpecies inha¬
bits the marfhy places of Lower Egypt, in the month of
September, where it goes by the name of dominican; the
neck being black, with white fides, is analagous to the
habit of that order. There is a variety of the fpur-wing¬
ed fpecies, very fimilar to the preceding in all refpedl3,
except a trifling variation in the plumage. It inhabits
Ruftia, and is found near Aleppo, about the liver Coic.
22. Charadrius Cayanus, or Cayenne plover; in length
about nine inches ; bill one inch ; the back part of the
head, and nape of the neck, are white, mixed with grey ;
the fore part and fides black, pafling back to the nape,
and occupying all the hind part of the neck; and then
comes forward on the fore part, above the breaft; be¬
tween this and the chin it is white; the middle of the
back and wings is rufous grey ; near the bend of the
wing is a fliarp bent fpur; fcapulars and quills black;
the under parts from the breaft white; the bale part of
the tail is white, the reft black; legs yellowifh. Inha¬
bits Cayenne.
23. Charadrius Pileatus, the hooded plover; fome¬
what larger than the preceding; bill yellow, red towards
the end, and black at the tip ; the forehead covered with
a carunculated yeilow membrane, pafling round the eyes ;
the head and part of the neck black; the hind head fur-
nifhed with a few fhort pointed feathers, hanging like a
iinall creft; beneath this the hind head is white ; the up¬
per parts of the body are rufous grey ; the under parts
white, with a few dufky fpots down the fore part of the
neck; the quills and end of the tail black; legs red.
Native of Senegal.
24. Charadrius Coronatus, the wreathed plover;
twelve inches in length ; the bill is red, and towards
the point dufky ; the top of the head black; round the
crown runs a lift of white, encircling the head like a
wreath; the hind part of the neck, and upper part of the
body, are brown, with aglofs of greenifh purple, changing
with different lights; the fame on the breaft, which is
marked with a few fpots of black; the neck, as far as
the breaft, is grey ; the belly white ; as are the greater
coverts; the tail white, with a broad band of black near
the end. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.
25. Charadrius
C H A
15. Cft'afadrius Bilobus, the wattled plover; about
the flze of the golden plover; length nine inches and a
half. The bill is yellow; on the forehead is a naked
bare (kin, hanging down in a pointed flap on each tide
of the jaw; crown of the head black; through the eye
runs a white ftreak ; the neck and upper parts of the bo¬
dy yellowifli grey, deeped on the back; the under parts,
from the bread:, white ; acrofs the greater wing coverts a
band of white ; quills black; the tail is eroded with a black
bar at the end; legs pale yellow. Found on the coad of
Malabar.
26. Charadrius Melanocephalus, the black-headed
plover; length feven inches; bill black, and one inch
long; the top of the head, taking in the eyes, is black;
the forehead yellowith, pafling over each eye in a broad
flreak; the hind part of the neck and back are black ; the
wings, rump, and tail, greyifli alh-colour; the quills
black, mottled with white on the outer part of the wing :
all the tail feathers except the two middle ones are mark¬
ed with black near the ends ; the tips white ; the under
part of the body pale rufous, deeped on the bread,
where it is mottled with tranfverfe dulky markings; legs
cinereous grey. Native place not known.
27. Charadrius Lacflaea, the cream-coloured plover;
length ten inches ; bill three quarters of an inch, (len¬
der, and bent at the tip; plumage in general cream-co¬
lour, paled beneath ; behind the eyes a patch of black ;
through them runs a pale dreak, pafling to the hind
head, and dividing the black; tail marked with black
near the tip; legs yellowifli white. This fpecies is very
rare; one was killed in France, and another was (hot in
England, near St. Alban's in Herts, which had a curved
bill. Tliefe wereobferved to run very fwiftly, and were
remarkably tame.
28. Charadrius Coromandelenfis, the Coromandel plo¬
ver; flze of the preceding; top of the head, and fore
parts, as far as the bread, reddilh chefnut; behind the
eye a white dreak, and through the eye a black one,
pafling to the hind head, the white entering a little way
into the black ; upper part of the neck, the back, wings,
and tail, brown ; belly dufky ; upper tail coverts, and
tip of the tail, white; quills black; legs yellowifli white.
Native of the coad of Coromandel. Tliefe two lad dif¬
fer much from the plovers in the fliape of the bill; but
have fo great an affinity to them on account of the toes,
which are only three in number, and all placed forward,
that they cannot with propriety be ranked in any other
genus.
29. Charadrius Indicus, the Indian plover ; nearly the
flze of a lark; length fix inches ; bill nine lines long, and
blackifli ; the upper part of the body is brown ; the un¬
der, dufky white; on the bread are two tranfverfe brown
bands; the prime quills brown, the fecondaries dulky;
tail feathers white at the bafe, the red of their length
brown; wings and tail of equal length when doled; legs
black. Inhabits the Ead Indies.
30. Charadrius CEdicnemus, the thick-kneed plover;
a large fpecies, from fixteen to eighteen inches in
length ; bill almofl two inches long ; yellow at the bafe,
and black towards the tip; eyes large; irides and eyelids
pale yellow ; the head is of a faffron colour ; the neck,
and upper parts of the body, are of a pale tawny brown,
with a dafh of blackifli down the (haft; the under parts
much the fame, but very pale, except the- belly, thighs,
and vent, the feathers of which are of a pale yellowifli
white; above and beneath the eye is a pale band, and
another on the wing coverts parallel to the edge; the tail
is coynpofed of twelve feathers ; the fix middle ones band¬
ed with brown; the three outer ones on each fide white,
barred with dufky; all but the two middle ones marked
more or lefs at the end with black ; legs yellow ; knees
very thick, as if lwelled ; the outer toe united to the
middle as far as the firfl joint. This bird is common to
three parts of the globe, being found in Europe, Africa,
and Afia ; but not farther north than England, of which
C H A r 07
Norfolk, Hampfhire, and Lincolnfliire, feem the places
mod frequented by it. It is alfo teen in fome parts of
Kent, frequenting the rifing Hopes and hills on each fide
of the vale between Dartford and Farningham, efpecially
the parts which are dony and dry ; whence it is called
the jflone curlew. It makes no nefl, but lays two or three
cinereous white eggs, two inches and a quarter long,
blotched with blackifli brown ; tliefe it places on the bare
ground, or in a fmall excavation of the earth, or fhelter-
ed by a done, and fits thirty days. The cry of this bird
is Angular, being an hoarfe kind of whifile three or four
times repeated, and heard more than a mile; fomewhat
refembling the creaking of a well-handle, or that [of a
grinddone wanting greafe. This noile it makes in the
evening and night only. Bu don fays this bird is com¬
mon in feveral parts of France; and, if the fame with
the Kervan of Haflelquid, it is found in Arabia. The
Turks and Egyptians, he fays, keep it alive in cages for
the fake of the noife, which to them is agreeable. He
likewife adds, that it is ufeful in deflroying mice, too
common in Paledine; with us it is fuppol'ed to live on
worms, caterpillars, toads, and frogs. It inhabits the
Cape of Good Hope, and is alfo a native of Owhyhee.
This bird is placed by Pennant and Latham in the ge¬
nus Otis, or budards; but by Linnaeus and Gmelin,
among the plovers.
CHARAG/, /. the tribute which Chrifiians and Jews
pay- to the grand fignior, or emperor of the Turks. It
coniids of ten, twelve, or fifteen, francs per annum, ac¬
cording to the edate of the party. Men begin to pay it
at nine or at fixteen years old ; women are dilpenfed with,
as are alfo priefls, rabbins, and religious.
CHARA'GIO, a town of the ifland of Corfica: two
miles fouth of Cervione.
CHA'RAIMS, a particular fe6t of the Jews in Egypt.
They live by themfelves, and have a feparate fynagogue.
Thefe are the ancient Ellenes. They dridtly obferve the
five books of Mofes, according to the letter; and receive
no written traditions.
CHARAMOKOTAN', one of the final: Kuruleiflands,
in the Northern Pacific Ocean. Lat. 49. 50. N. Ion. 172.
40. E. Ferro.
CHARAN'CY, a town of France, in the department
of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Longw'y : three leagues and a half wed-fouth-
wefl of Longwy.
CHARAN'TIA, / in botany, See Momordica.
CIIA'RAS (Mo(es), a (kiltul apothecary, born at
Ufez, follow'ed his profeflion at Orange, from whence
he went and fettled at Paris. Having obtained a confi-
derable (hare of reputation by hisTreatife on the Virtues
and Properties of Treacle, he was chofen to deliver a
courfe of chemiflry at the royal botanical garden at Pa¬
ris, in which he acquitted himfelf with general applaufe
during nine years. His Pharmacopoeia, 1653, a vols.
4to. was the fruit of his lectures and his dudies. It has
been mandated into all the languages of Europe, and
even into the Chinefe, for the accommodation of the em¬
peror. The edidts againd the Calvinids obliged him to
quit his country in 1680. He w'ent to England, from,
thence to Holland, and afterwards into Spain with the
ambaflador, who took him to the aflidance of his maker
Charles II. then languifliing in ficknefs. Every good
Spaniard was at that time convinced, that the vipers for
twelve leagues round Toledo were innoxious, ever fince
they were deprived of their venom by the fiat of a famous
archbilhop. The French doctor let himfelf to combat
this error. The phyficians of the court, envious of the
merit of Charas, failed not to take advantage of this im¬
piety : they complained of him to the inquifition, fr.om
whence he was not difmifled till he abjured the proteflant
faith. Charas was then leventy-two years old. He re¬
turned to Paris, was admitted of the academy of fciences,
and died in 1698, aged 80.
CHA'RASM, or Kharasm, a country of Afia, bor¬
dered.
ro8 C H A
dered on the north by Turkeftan, on the eaft by Grand
Bukharia, on the fouth by Chorafan, and on the weft by
the Gafpian Sea; about 320 miles from north to fouth,
and about as much from eaft to weft. The country is
in general fertile, and is divided among feveral Tartarian
princes, of whom one takes the title of Khan, with a
degree of pre-eminence over the reft. Urgens is the ca¬
pital, and the ufual refidence of the khan in the winter,
but during the lummer he generally encamps on the Tides
of the river Amol ; and, as his camp is called Khiva, the
people have generally been called the Tartars of Khiva.
The khan is laid to be able to raife an army of forty or
fifty tlioufand hoiTemen.
CHAR ATZAIS'KA, a fortrefs of Siberia, on the bor¬
ders of China, eighty-four miles fouth-weft of Selengific.
CHARAVEND', a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak Agemi : izo miles fouth -eaft of Ifpahan.
CHAR'SON, /. a little black fpot or mark which re¬
mains after a large fpot in the cavity of the corner teeth
of a horfe : about the feventh or eighth year, when the
cavity fails up, the tooth being fmooth and equal, the
horle is faid to be aged.
CHABUISOV'KA, a river of Kamtcliatka, which
runs into the Penzinlkoi Gulf: feventy miles fouth-fouth-
weft of TigiKkoi.
CHAR'CAS (Los), a province of South America, in
Peru, near thecoaft of the Pacific Ocean : one of the rich-
eft provinces in the world for mines. La Plata is the capital.
CH AR'COAL, f. [imagined by Skinner to be derived
from char, bufinefs ; but, by Mr. Lye, from to chark,
to burn.] Coal produced by charring wood, an operation
very fimilar to that of diftiilation. It conlifts in forming
pyramids of wood, or cones truncated at their fummit.
The whole is clofely covered with earth, well beaten,
leaving a lower and upper aperture. The pile is then
kindled, and the fire continued till the ftnoke has wholly
Tub Tided, at which time the wood is thoroughly red hot.
The external air is then totally excluded, by clofing the
apertures through which it palled, and thus the fire is
extinguifhed. By this means the water, the oil, and all
the principles of the vegetable, are diftipated, except the
fibre. The wood in this operation lofes three-fourths of
its weight, and one-fourth of its bulk. The futurbrand
of the Icelanders is faid by Von Troil to be nothing but
wood converted into charcoal by the burning lava which
has furrounded it.
Charcoal, in the modern chemiftry, is known by the
name of carbon. It confifts of the vegetable fibre very
llightly changed j and moft commonly preferves its ori¬
ginal form. The primitive texture is not only dillin-
guiftiable, but ferves likewife to indicate theftate and na¬
ture of the vegetable which has afforded it. It is black,
hard, fonorous, and brittle j in fome cafes light, fpongy,
and friable. The charcoal of oily or bituminous fub¬
ftances is of a light pulverulent form, and rifes in foot :
this charcoal of oils is called lamp-black. Charcoal well
made has neither tafte nor fmell ; and it is one of the
moft indecompofable fubftances hitherto known. All
the metallic fubftances are more combuftible than char¬
coal, and conlequently are revived or reduced to the
metallic ftate, by being heated with it. An important
confequence Teems to follow from this circumftance,
namely, that there may exilt many metallic fubftances
whofe combuftibility may be greater than that of char¬
coal, and which confequentiy are unknown to us as fuch,
becaufe we poffefs no means of reducing them. Thus the
alkalis and earths may confift of peculiar combuftible or
metallic fubftances, dephlogifticated or combined with
vital air, by an union which the art of chemiftry has not
yet found means to break.
The va'pours that a rife from charcoal are extremely per¬
nicious, producing a fpecies of apoplexy in thole perfons
who are expofed to them. They produce at firft\a fenfe
of uneafmefs, then a chilinefs, lickiflmefs, and kind of
head-ach, which ufher in a lofs of fenfe, a fixednCfs of
j
C H A
the eyes, a rigidity of the whole body, a ghaftly counte-
nance, a fmall, frequent, and irregular, pulfe, feverilhnefs,
See. In this cafe the noxious vapours aft on the brain and
nerves, and not, as has been generally faid, on the lungs;
thefe vapours, and thofe from fermenting vegetables, pu¬
trefying animal fubftances, or from caverns, operate in
the fame manner; and, as accumulated and confined,
their effeft is more or lefs inftantaneous. They attack
the vital principle, and extinguifh it if they are copious ;
and a lefs quantity produces the fymptoms of a debility
in the nervous fyltem. To prevent fuftering from this
caufe, ayoid clofe rooms where thefe fubftances are burn¬
ing, and never enter their repofitories but when a candle
wiil continue to burn there. In order to the cure, ex-
pofe the patient to the open air ; if the patient can fwal-
low, give him acidulated liquors j if he is infenfible,
throw cold water on liis fa e ; ftrong vinegar may be
rubbed about his noftrils, and held under them; blood
may betaken from the arm ; as loon as pollible make him
fwallow cold water with vinegar in it ; ftimulating clyf-
ters are ufeful : to remove the fpafms, the fps. aetheris
vitriolicus compofitus, with fmall doles of opium, will
be proper. If thefe fail, let a ftrong healthy perfon
breathe forcibly into the mouth of the patient, fo as to
diftend his lungs For the chemical properties of char¬
coal, fee the article Chemistry.
CHARCUO'N, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Fariiftan: leventy miles louth-eaft of Schiras.
CHARD, f [ charde , French ] Chards of artichokes,
are the leaves of artichoke plants, tied and wrapped up
all over but the top, in ftraw, during the autumn and
winter ; this makes them grow white, and lofe fome of
their bitternefs. — Chards of beet, are plants of white beet
tranfplanted, producing great tops, which, in the midft,
have a large, white, thick, downy, and cotton-like, main
fh jot, which is the true chard. Mortimer.
CHARD, a market-town in Somerfetlhire, pleafantly
fituated on the fouthern verge of the county, a few miles
only from the counties of Dorfet and Devon. It ftands
on the lower road from London to Exeter, between
Crewkherne and Axminfter, feven miles from each ; dif-
tant alfo from Taunton fifteen miles, from Honiton four¬
teen miles, and 141 from London. The ftreets are fpa-
cious, clean, and commodious ; the buildings good. In
the reign of Henry III. Chard was made a free borough,
and Tent members to parliament; but has fince loft that
privilege : the aflizes were alfo held here formerly. Se¬
veral ftreams run through the town, which keep it clean.
A manufacture of linen cloth is carried on here ; but the
principal fupport of the place is the clothing trade. At
the entrance from the fouth-eaft, is a large building,
ufed as a fchool, which was anciently a palace of Cer-
dic, king of the Weft Saxons. The town being with¬
in a moderate diftance of the fruitful corn-fields of II-
minfter, South Petherton, Martock, &c. is well fupplied
with wheat, barley, oats, beans, See. Market-day is on
Mondays. Fairs for cattle and pedlary- wares on 4th of
May, .3d of Auguft, and 2d of November.
CHARDIN (Sir John), a famous voyager, the fon of
a proteftant jeweller at Paris, w’as born there in 1643;
but quitted his native country, and removed to London,
upon the revocation of the edift of Nantz in 1685. He
went to Perfia and the Eaft-Indies to traffic in jewels.
Charles II. king of England, conferred upon him the
honour of knighthood. He died at London in 1713. His
Voyages, tranflated into Englith, Flemifh, and German,
have always been much efteemed. He gives a very good
idea of Perfia, its religion, cuftoms, and manners; and
his defeription of the other oriental countries, which he
vilited, is no lefs exaft.
CHARDO'GNE, a town of France, in the department
of the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Bar-le-Duc : four miles north of Bar-le-Duc.
CHA'RE CULfLOQ, a town of Afia, in the province
of Cabul; forty-two miles iouth-weft of Cabul,
CHARE'NTB,
I
C H A
CHARE'NTE, a river of France, winch rifes In the
■department of the Upper Vienne, paffes by, or near to,
“Civray, RufFec, Verteuil, Mantle, Angoulefme, Jarnac,
Cogiiac, Saintes, Rochefort, &c. and runs into the fea,
about eight miles below Rochefort, oppolite the Ille of
Oleron.
CHARE'NTE- (department of), one of the new divi-
iions of France, bounded on the north by the depart¬
ment of the Vienne, on the eaft by Upper Vienne, on the
fouth by the department of the Dordogne, and on the welt
by the department of the Lower Charente. It takes its
.name from the river Charente, which paffes through it :
above fifty-fix miles in length from north-eaft to fouth-welt
and thirty wide on an average. Angoulefine is the capital.
CHARE'NTE (Lower, department of), one of the
new divifions of France, fituated on the fea coaft, north
of the river Gironde, taking its name from the river Cha¬
rente, which erodes it nearly in its centre : rather more
than eighty miles in length ; the breadth is very un¬
equal, towards the fouth about ten miles, towards the
north twenty, and in lome parts nearly forty. Saintes
is the capital.
CHARENTENAY', a town of France, in the depart¬
ed the Yonne : feven miles fouth of Auxerre.
CHARENTON', a town of France, in the department
of Paris, and chief place of a canton, in the diltridt of
Bourg-la-Reine : one league fouth-eaft of Paris.
CHARENTON', a town of France, in the department
of the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict
of St. Amand : five miles eaft of St. Amand, and twen¬
ty-one fouth-fouth-eaft of Bourges.
CHARE'RA (La), a town of the illand of Cuba : five
miles weft of Havannali.
CHARE'RI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Calabria Ultra : nine miles fouth
of Girace.
CHARE'RI, a river of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, which runs into the lea, ten miles fouth-fouth-eaft
of Girace.
CHA'RES,/. An ancient ftatuary and difciple ofLy-
fippus, who immortalized himfelf by the colofs of the
fun at Rhodes, which has been reckoned one of the feven
wonders of the world. This ftatue was of brafs, and
above a hundred feet high; and was placed at the en¬
trance of the harbour at Rhodes, with the feet upon two
rocks, in fuch a manner, that Ihips could pafs in full fail
betwixt its legs. Chares employed twelve years in credit¬
ing it ; and, after Handing forty-fix, it was thrown down
by an earthquake. Moavius, a caliph of the Saracens,
who invaded Rhodes in 667, fold it to a Jew merchant,
who' is faid to have loaded nine hundred camels with the
fragments of it.
CHARET'TE (M.), the celebrated leader of the
French royalilts in La Vendee. He was born at Mache-
could, near Nantz ; where, on the 10th of March 1792,
he let up the royal ftandard, and proclaimed Louis XVII.
At this time he was only twenty-eight years of age ; he
had been brought up to the lea, and was, at the time of
the revolution, a lieutenant in the royal navy. His army
confifted at firft of a rude and hardy race of men, called
the Chouans , who took their name from three fons of a
blackfmith of the name of Chouan, near Fougeres. They
had been for many years no better than highway rob¬
bers, a kind of banditti, who Iheltered themfelves in the
vaft Forefts of La Vendee, and, as they increafed, they fup-
ported themfelves by fmuggling. The rugged face of the
country, full of impenetrable woods, interfperled with
bogs and fwamps, always afforded them a lecure retreat ;
and it js faid, that under the fanguinary government of
Robefpierre, fo many flew to the woods for lafety, and
joined the Chouans, that they were foon 30,000 ltrong,
and afterwards increafed to ji. prodigious number. We
cannot, in this place, follow Charette through his ar¬
duous and interefting campaigns, it being a lubjeft that
comes more properly under the article France ; but we
Vox.. IV. No- 182,
C H A 109
muft obferve that, fince the beginning of the war, in no
part whatever have the battles been fo dreadful as in
La Vendee. Many obftinate contentions on the fron¬
tiers were but (kirmilhes compared with thefe : fcarcely
did a Angle action take place, in which one or other of
the contending armies was not almolt wholly deftroyed.
The battle of Mortagne coft both'fides 30,000 men, in
that of Saumur 10, coo republicans were killed, and
15,000 made prifoners ; and in that of Mons the royal-
ifts left 15,000 dead on the field of battle, while the lofs
of the republicans was not much lefs. Reports made to
the directory have ftated that the war in La Vendee coft
the republic upwards of 200,000 men. The failure of
our co-operation at Quiberon, gave a death blow to the
exertions of Charette ; and his lubfequent defeat at St.
Chriltopher’s, by Traveaux, put an end to the Vendeait
war, and haftened his fate. The pealants who ef-
caped from the adtion, abandoning him entirely, he re¬
mained with about forty men, who would not quit him,
either becaufe they were deferters from the enemy, or
becaufe their confcience would not fuffer them to break
the oath they had taken not to leave him in any extre¬
mity. Charette now came to a relblution to taxe refuge
in the woods, out of which he never ventured more.
The republicans, who purfued him, marched in fmall
columns of from fifty to lixty men, beating about, par¬
ticularly in the forefts of Jauvoye, of Grala, the woods
of Des Effarts, and all thole that exift in the commune
of Leger. His great knowledge of the country often
contributed to fave him, no lefs than the excellent fyf-
tem of tadtics he had adopted. He knew, by means of
his fpies, the place at which his purfiuers were to halt for
the night. The next morning he watched the moment
of their departure, and the road they took, and in that
manner followed them till they halted again, fo that
when they believed they had him in front of them, he
was almolt always in their rear. It fometimes happened
that they purfued him a whole day in the foreft of Jau¬
voye, without being able to difcover him, although per¬
fectly fure he was there, while the only way. he took to
efcape, was by keeping the lame path as they. The pea-
fants always concealed him, fome out of fear, and others
from a principle of attachment. He was however grown
cruel, even towards thole who had ferved him ; and
more than once killed peafants w'ho were ploughing their
grounds, left they fhould betray him and indicate his
noute. In the commune of St. Hillaire, near Paluan, he
put to death, with his own hand, the father, the Ion, and
the fon-in-law, upon mere fufpicion. He was alio grown
melancholy; the idea of his deftrudlion inceffantly haunt¬
ing his mind. At length his evil deftiny overtook him.
A republican column was returning to their canton¬
ment at the Chateau de Pont-de-vie, near the town of
Poires, four days after they had left it, in order to pro¬
cure provifions, and take a little reft, when two horfe-
men, upon the look-out, law the gleam of arms break
through the trees. Of this they immediately informed
the general, who advanced, without lofing a moment, at
the head of the few troopers he had with him, and foon
perceived that it was the band of Charette, which was
defiling two a-breaft acrofs a heath of fmall extent. The
general rode through the two ranks, in order to difcover
if their chief was among them, while they, more eager
to fave than to defend themfelves, fired only two or three
fliot, which took no ertedh The general ordered the
infantry to attack them, when, out of thirty-feven,
four only efcaped. The cavalry being difperfed along
the different roads in learch of the principal chief, a
young man without arms, and in the livery of a fervant,
was perceived by two horfe chaffeurs coming out of a
morals. They rode up to him, and requelted him to
tell them where Charette was to be found. The young
man at firft denied having feen him, but a few Itrokee of
the labre made him confefs that the renowned comman¬
der of the royalilts was in the very morals that he had
F f juft
I IO
C H A
juft left. The chafleurs immediately rode back to con¬
vey this information to the general, who ordered three
or four foidiers to fenrch the lufpefted place ; and at laft
Charette was difcovered by a corporal of the chafleurs.
Traveaux alfo perceived him, and gave orders that not a
fhot fliould be fired. The corporal caught hold of him
by the Ikirts of his jacket and endeavoured to ftop him,
but Charette, who, at that fatal moment had loft his cuf-
tornary prefence of mind, kept running, and dragged the
corporal after him till he came to a hedge, over which
he attempted to leap, but fell into the midft of it, and
was taken out in a ltate of infenfibility ; being entirely
exhaufted by his long-continued efforts to elcape. A
little water thrown in his face having reftored him to his
ienles, the flrft words he fpoke, were, “ Whofe priloner
ami?” “ Traveaux,” was the anfwer. “ So much the
better,’' faid he, “he is the only man worthy to take
me.” He was armed with a carbine and two piftols,
which he had difcharged in the previous adtion. His
drefs was a green jacket, with the fkirts turned back, and
embroidered with fleur-de-lis in gold; a pink waiftcoat,
a lath of white filk with gold fringe at the ends ; half
boots, and around hat with a handkerchief over it. He
had been ftruck by a ball, which had grazed his forehead
over the left eye; and had been wounded in the left arm
by the burfting of his carbine. As he was too w’eak to
walk, he was put on a horfe, and conduced to the Cha¬
teau de Pont-de-vie, where he pafled the night in the
general’s room, under a ftrong guard. He ate, and chat¬
ted all the night, and, in fhort, fup'popted that character
of fortitude, wdrich he had acquired in fo many trying
fltuations. Tiie next day he was taken to Angers,
whence he w'as conveyed to Nantz, and there tried and
fhot. Before his puniflnnent, the executioner alked him
if he would permit him to tie a bandage over his eyes.
<! No,” anfw'ered Charette; “ I have looked death often
enough in the face to be able to brave him.” Being
alked by general Tiaveaux, why he had not emigrated
when he had found an opportunity ? “ I had fworn,”
laid he, “ to put the king upon the throne, or perifh in
the attempt. I have kept my oath.”
Ho CHARGE, v. a. [ charger , Fr. caricare , I tab from
carrus, Lnt.] To entruft ; to commiflion for a certain
purpofe : it has with before the thing entrufted. — And
the captain of the guard charged joleph with them, and
he ferved them. Gene flu. — To impute as a debt : with on
before the debtor :
My father’s, mother’s, brother’s, death I pardon :
That’s fomew'hat lure ; a mighty lum of murder,
Of innocent and kindred blood, ftruck off :
My prayers and penance iliall difcount for thefe,
And beg of Heav’n to charge the bill on me. Dryden.
To impute, with on before the perfont o whom any thing
is imputed. — It is not barely the ploughman’s pains,
the reaper’s and threlher’s toil, and the baker’s fweat, is
to be counted into the bread we eat ; the plough, mill,
oven, or any other utenlils, mult all be charged on the ac¬
count of labour. Locke.
Perverle mankind ! whofe wills, created free,
Charge all their woes on abfolute decree ;
All to the dooming gods their guilt tranflate.
And follies are milcall’d the crimes of fate. Pope.
To impute to, as coft or hazard.: — He was fo great an en-
courager of commerce, that he charged himlelf with all
the fea rifle of Inch veflels, as carried corn to Rome in
winter. Arhuthnol. — To impofe as a talk : it has with be¬
fore the thing impofed. — The golpel chargeth us with
piety towards God, and juftice and charity to men, and
temperance and chaftity in reference to ourlelves. Tillot-
fon. — To accule; to confine. — Speaking thus to you, I
am fo far from charging you as guilty in this matter, that
I can fincerely fay, I believe the exhortation wholly
needlels. Wake. — To accule : it has with before the crime.
C H A
— And his angels'he charged with folly. Job.~—T o chal¬
lenge. — The prielt lhall charge her by an oath. Numbers *
— To command ; to enjoin :
I charge thee, Hand,
And tell thy name, and bufinefs in the land. Dryden.
To fall upon; to attack:
The Grecians rally, and their pow’rs unite;
With fury charge us, and renew the fight. Dryden -
To burden ; to load. — Meat fwailowed down for plea-
fure and greedinels, only charges the ftomach, or fumes
into the brain. Temple. — To cover with fomething ad¬
ventitious. — It is pity the obelilks in Rome had not been
charged with feveral parts of the Egyptian hiftories, in-
Head of hieroglyphics. Addij'on. — To fix, as for fight.
Obfolete. — He rode up and down, gallantly mounted, and
charged and difcharged his lance. Knolles. — To load a gun
with powder and bullets.
To CHARGE, v. n. To make an onfet. — Likeyour he¬
roes of antiquity, he charges in iron, and feems to de-
lpife all ornament but intrinfic merit. Granville.
CHARGE,/. Care ; cuftody ; truft to defend. — He en¬
quired many things, as well concerning the princes which
had the charge of the city, whether they were in hope to
defend the fame. Knolles. — Precept ; mandate ; command ,*
He, who requires
From us no other fervice than to keep
This one, this eafy charge ; of all the trees
In Paradife, that bear delicious fruit
So various, not to talle that only tree
Of knowdedge, planted by the tree of life. Milton.
Commiflion ; truft conferred ; office. — If large pofieffions,
pompous titles, honourable charges, and profitable coni-
mifllons, could have made a proud man- happy, there would
have been nothing wanting. L'Eflrange. — It had ancient¬
ly fometimes over before the thing committed to truft. —
I gave my brother charge over Jerufalem ; for he was a.
faithful man, and feared God above many. Nehentiah. — <
It has of before the fubjedt of command or truft:
Haft thou eaten of the tree,
Whereof l gave thee charge thou fhould’ft not eat? Milton,
It has upon before the perfon charged. — He loves God
with all liis heart, that is, with that degree of love, which
is the higheft point of our duty, and of God’s charge upon
us. Taylor. — Accufation ; imputation. — Thefe very men
are continually reproaching the clergy, and laying to their
charge the pride, the avarice, the luxury, the ignorance,
and fuperftition, of popilh times. Swijt. — The perfon or
thing entrufted to the care or management of another :
More had he faid, but, fearful of her flay.
The ftarry guardian drove his charge away. Dryden.
An exhortation of a judge to a jury, or bilhop to his
clergy. — The bilhop has recommended this author in his
charge to the clergy. Dryden. — Expence ; coft ;
He liv’d as kings retire, though more at 1-arge,
From public bufinefs, yet of equal charge. Dryden.
It is in later times commonly ufed in the plural, charges. — .
A man ought warily to begin charges, which, once be¬
gun, will continue. Bacon. — Onfet. — Honourable retreats
are no ways inferior to brave charges-, as having lefs of
fortune, more of difeipline, and as much of valour. Ba¬
con. — The fignal to fall upon enemies. — Our author feems.
to found a charge, and begins like the clangour of a
trumpet. Dryden. — The polture of a weapon fitted for
the attack or combat:
Their neighing couriers daring of the fpur,
Their armed Haves in charge, their beavers down. Shake/.
A load, or burthen. — Afles of great charge. Shake -
fpeare
C H A
nr
C H A
fpeari. — What any thing can bear. — Take of aqua-fortis
two ounces, of quickfilver two drachms, for that charge
the aqua-fortis will bear, the diffolution will not bear a
flint as big as a nutmeg. Bacon. — The quantity of pow¬
der and ball put into a gun or cannon ; for the adjufi-
ment whereof, fee the articles Gunnery, and Shoot¬
ing. — Among farriers, charge is a preparation, or a
fort of ointment of the confiltence of a thick decofrion,
which is applied to the fhoulder-fplaits, inflammations,
and fprains of horfes. A charge is of a middle nature,
between an ointment and a plaiter, or between a plafter
and a cataplafm. — In heraldry; the charge is that
which is borne upon the colour, except it be a coat
divided only by partition. Peacham.
CHARGE, in electricity. See Electricity.
CHARGE of Juftices in Seffions, See. See Chapiters.
CHARGE and DISCHARGE, in law, are defined as
follows : A charge is faid to be a thing done that bind-
eth him that doeth it, or that which is his, to the per¬
formance thereof: and difeharge is the removal, or
taking away, of that charge. Land may be charged di¬
vers ways ; as by grant of rent out of it, by ltatutes,
judgments, conditions, warrants, &c. Lands in fee-
flmple may be charged in fee: and where a man may
difpofe of the land itfelf, he may charge it by a rent, or
ftatute, one way or other. Lit. 648. If one charge land
in tail, and land in fee-fimple, and die, the land in fee
only ihall be chargeable. Bro. Cha. 9. Lands intailed
may be charged in fee, if the eftate-tail be cut off by re¬
covery : if tenant in tail charge the land, and after levy
a fine, or fuffer a recovery of the lands, to his own ufe,
this confirms the charge, and it fiiall continue. 1 Rep. 6 1.
A tenant for life charges the land, and then makes a feoff¬
ment to a ftranger, or doth walte, & c. whereby it is for¬
feited, he in reveriion fhall hold it charged during his
(.the tenant’s) life : and if one have a leafe for life, or
years, of land, and grant a rent out of it ; if after he fur-
renders his ellate, yet the charge ihall continue fo long
as the eflate had endured, in cafe it had not been fur-
rendered. 1 Rep. 67, 145. Dyer 10.
If one jointenant charge land, and after releafe to his
companion and die, the furvivor ftiail hold it charged ;
but, if it had come to him by furvivorfhip, it would be
othenvife. 6 Rep. 76. 1 Shep. Abr. 325. He that hath a
remainder or reverfion of land may charge it, becaufe of
the pofhbility that the land will come into polfeflion, and
then the pofleflion fhall be charged. But where one leales
land for life, and grants the reverfioil or remainder over
to A. B. who charges the land, and dies, and the tenant
for life is heir to the fee, in this cale he fhall hold it dif-
charged, for he had the polfeflion by purchafe, though
he had the fee by del’cent. Bro. 11, 16. 1 Rep. 62, If a
rent be ifl'uing out of a lioufe, &c. and it falls down, the
charge fhall remain upon the foil. 9 Ed. 4, 20. But
when the eftate is gone upon which the charge was
grounded, there, generally, the charge is determined^
Co. Lit. 349. And in all cafes where any executory thing
is created by deed, there, by content of all the parties, it
may be by deed defeated and difeharged. 10 Rep. 49.
CHAR'GEABLE, adj. Expenfive; coltly. — Divers bul¬
warks were demolifhed upon the fea-coafts, in peace
chargeable, and little lerviceable in war. Hayward. — Im¬
putable, as a debt or crime: with on. — Nothing can be
a reafonable ground of delpifing a man, but fome fault
or other chargeable upon him. South. — Subjeft to charge
or accufation ; accufable : followed by with. — Your pa¬
pers would be chargeable with lomething worfe than in¬
delicacy ; they would be immoral. Speftator.
CHAR/GEABLENESS, f. Expence; coft; coftlinefs.
— That which molt deters me from fuch trials, is not
their chargeablenefs, but their unfatisfactorinefs, though
they they Ihould lucceeci. Boyle.
CHAK/GEABLY, adaj. Expenfively ; at great colt. —
He procured it not with his money, but by his wilidom ;
not chargeably bought by him, but liberally given by
others by his means. Afcham.
CHAR'GEFUL, adj. Expenfive; coltly. Not in ufe:
Here’s the note
How much your chain weighs to the utmolt carat,
The finenefs of the gold, the chargeful fafhion. Shakef
CHAR'GER,/. A large difli :
This golden charger, fnatch’d from burning Troy,
Anchifes did in l'acrifice employ. Dryden .
CHAR'GEY, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Champlitte : one league north of Gray.
CHARIENTIS'MUS,/. Gr.] Graceful-
nefs ; a good grace in ipeaking. Alio a figure in rhetoric,
in which a taunting expreflion is l'oftened with a jelt.
CHARIL'LOS (Los), a town of South America, in
Peru, and jurildiftion of Lima.
CFIA'RILY, Warily; frugally. — What paper do
you take up fo charily ? Shakefpeare.
CHA'RINESS,/. Caution ; nicety ; fcrupuloufnefs. — -
I will content to aft any villany againft him, that may
not fully the charinefs of our honefty. Shakefpeare.
CHA'RING, a fmall town in Kent, diftant from Lon¬
don fifty miles, Canterbury fifteen, Faverfham ten, and
Maidltone, fifteen. It lies between Lenham anti Weltweli,
on the louth of the road from Maidflone to Canterbury,
and Hands on a fpring-head of the river Len, and has the
ruins of a caftellated palace of the archbifhops, given them
by fome of the firft Saxon kings. The fairs are April 29
and October 29. Mr. Ludwell left by wall to this pariflx
2550I. liock for a free fchool, and other charitable ules ;
and to which purpofes the money hath been advantage -
oully applied.
CHA'RING-CROSS (near Weftminlter), a crofs erec¬
ted by king Edward I. in memory of queen Eleanor, who
lucked the poifon out of his wounds, made by a Moor’s
envenomed l’word in the holy war.
CHA'RIOT,/. \_car-rhod, Welfli, a wheeled car; char
riot, French; carretta, Ital.] A wheel-carriage of plea-
lure, or Hate ; a vehicle for men rather than wares :
Thy grand captain Anthony
Shall fet thee on triumphant chariots, and
Put garlands on thy head. Shakefpeare,
A car in which men of arms were anciently placed ;
He fkims the liquid plains
High on his chariot, and with loofen’d reins
Majellic moves along. Dryden-
A lighter kind of modern coach, with only front feats.
Do CHA'RIOT, n>. a. To convey in a chariot. This-
word is now rarely ufed:
An angel all in flames afeended.
As in a fiery column charioting
His godlike prefence. Milton.
The chariots of the ancients were chiefly ufed in war.
By the Greek and Roman hiftorians, there are deferibed
the fix following, viz. Benna, Petoritum, Currus or Car-
rus, Covinus, Efiedum, and Rheda. The benna feems to
have been a chariot defigned rather tor travelling than
war : it contained two perlons, who were called com-
bennones, from their fitting together in the fame machine.
The petoritum feems to have been a larger kind of
chariot, and is thought to have derived its name from
the Britifh word pedwar, fignifying four; this kind of
chariot having four wheels. The carrus, or currus, was
the common cart or waggon : this was ufed by the an¬
cient Britons, in time of peace, for the purpofes of agri¬
culture and merchandize,- and, in time of war, for carry¬
ing their baggage, and wives and children, who com¬
monly
112
C H A
monly followed the armies of all the Celtic nations;
The covinus was a war-chariot, and a very terrible in-
ftrument of deftrudtion ; being armed with fcythes and
hooks for cutting and tearing all who ftood in its way.
The effedum and rheda were alfo war-chariots, probably
of a larger iize, defigned for containing a charioteer, and
two warriors for fighting. The far greater number of
the Britiffi war-chariots feem to have been of this kind ;
and, as Csefar relates, were found in fuch numbers among
the Britons, that Caffibelanus, after difmifling all his
other forces, retained no fewer than 4.000 war-chariots
about his perl’on. The fame author relates, that, by con¬
tinual experience, they had arrived at fuch perfec¬
tion in the management of their chariots, that, “ in the
mod; fteep and difficult places, they could flop their
horles upon full ftretch, turn them which way they
pleafed, run along the pole, reft on the harnefs, and
throw themlelves back into their chariots, with incredible
dexterity. .We find, in the heathen mythology, that
chariots were fometimes confecrated to the fun j and the
lcripture informs us, that Jofiah burnt thofe which had
been offered up to the fun by his predeceffors. This fu-
perftitious cuftom was in imitation of the heathens, and
principally of the Perfians, who had horfes and chariots
confecrated in honour of the fun. Herodotus, Xeno¬
phon, and Quintus > CUrtius, lpeak of white chariots
crowned, that were, confecrated to the fun, among the
Perfians, which, in their . ceremonies, were drawn by
white horfes confecrated to the fame luminary.
Triumphal CHA'RIGT, was one of the principal orna¬
ments of the celebration of a vidtory. The Roman tri¬
umphal chariot was generally made of ivory, round like
a tower, or rather of a cylindrical figure ; it was gilt at
the top, and ornamented with crowns 5 and, to reprefent
a vidtory more naturally, they often ftained it with blood.
It was ufually drawn by four white horfes; but often-
timesby lions, elephants, tygers, bears, leopards, dogs, &c.
CH ARIQUIL', a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak Agemi : ninety miles fouth-eait of Amadan.
CHARISA'SAR, a town of Alia in the country Can-
daliar: fifteen miles north-eaft of Candahar.
CHARIOTE'ER, f He that drives the chariot. It is
ufed onlyun fpeaking of military chariots, and thofe in
the ancient public games :
The burning chariot, and the charioteer ,
In >bright Bootes and his wane appear. Addifoii.
CHA'RIOT RACE, f. A fport anciently ufed, where
chariots were driven for the prize, as now horles run. —
There is a wonderful vigour and fpirit in the defcription
of the horfe and chariot race. Addifon.
CHA'RIS, a goddels among the Greeks, furrounded
with plealures, graces, and delight. She was the miftrels
of Vulcan. Homer.
CHARI'SIA,/. in the heathen theology, a feftival in-
ftituted in honour of the graces. It continued the whole
night, moft of which time was l’pent in dancing ; after
which, cakes made of flour mixed with honey were
diftributed among the guefts.
CHARPSIUS, a furname of Jupiter. The word is
derived from gratia, gtace, or favour; and the
Greeks ufed at their meals to make a libation to Jupiter
Charifius.
CHARIS'TICARY, /. A perfon to whom is given the
enjoyment of the revenues of a monaftery, hofpital, or
benefice. The charifticaries among the Greek Chriftians,
were a kind of donatories, or commendatories, who en¬
joyed all the revenues of hofpitals and monafteries, with¬
out giving an account thereof to any perfon. The origin
of this abufe is referred to the Iconoclaftse, particularly
Conftantine Copronymus, the avowed enemy of the
monks, whole monafteries he gave away to ftrangers.
CH A'RIT, a town of Arabia : twenty-four miles north
of Sana.
CHARITABLE, adj. [ charitable , Fr. from charite'.]
C H A
Kind in giving alms ; liberal to the poor. — How fhall we
then wilh, that it might be allowed ustolive over our lives
again, in order to fill every minute of them with charit¬
able offices. Attcrbury . — Kind in judging of others ; dif-
pofed to tendernefs ; benevolent.
CHARITABLE CORPORATION, f. A fociety in
the reign of Geo. II. who obtained a ftatute to lend mo¬
ney to induftrious poor, at 5I. per cent, intereft on pawns
and pledges, to prevent their falling into the hands of
the pawnbrokers, arid therefore they were called the cha¬
ritable corporation: but they likewife took 5I. percent,
for the charge of officers, warehoufes, &c. But the chief
officers of this corporation, by connivance of the princi¬
pal directors, abfconded and broke, and defrauded the
public proprietors of great fums ; for relief of the fuffe-
rers, feverah ftatutes were made. See 5 Geo. 2. c. 31, 32,
7 Geo. 2. c. 11.
CH A'RIT ABLE U'SES, f. The laws againft devifes
in mortmain do not extend to any thing but fuperftitious
ules ; it is therefore held, that a man may give lands for
the maintenance of a fchool, an hofpital, or any other
charitable ufes. But as it was apprehended, from recent
experience, that perfons on their death-beds might make
large and improvident difpofitions, even for thefe good
purpofes, and defeat the political end of the ftatutes
of mortmain, it is therefore enadted by ftat. 9 Geo.
II. c. 36, that no lands 01 tenements, or money to be
laid out thereon, (hall be given for, -or charged with, any
charitable ufes whatlbever, unlefs by deed indented, exe¬
cuted in the prefence of two witneffes, twelve calendar
months before the death of the donor; and enrolled in
the court of chancery, _wi thin fix months after its execu¬
tion ; (except llock in the public funds, and which muft
be transferred at leaft fix calendar months previous to the
donor’s death ;) and unlefs fuch gift be made to take ef-
fedt immediately, and be v/ithout power of revocation;
and that all other gifts fhall be void. The two Univer-
fities, their colleges, and the fcholars on the foundation
of the colleges of Eaton, Winchefter, and Weftminfter,
are exempted out of this adt ; but with this provifo, that
no college fhall be at liberty to purchafemore advowfons
than are equal in number to one moiety of the fellows or
ftudents on their foundations. Corporations are except¬
ed out of the ftatutes of wills (32 H. 8. c. 1. 34 H. 8.
-t. 5), to prevent theextenfion of gifts in mortmain; but
now, by conftrudtion of ftat. 43 Eliz. c. 4, it is held that
a devife to a corporation for a charitable ufe is valid, as
operating in the nature of an appointment, rather than
of a bequeft. And indeed the piety of judges hath for¬
merly carried them great lengths in fupporting fuch cha¬
ritable ufes : it being held that the ftat. of Eliz. which
favours appointments to charities, fuperfedes and repeals
all former ftatutes : (Gilb. Rep. 45. 1 P. Wms. 248 :) and
fupplies all defedts of affurances. And therefore not only
a devife to a corporation, but a devife by a copyhold te¬
nant, without furrender, to the ufe of his will, and a
devife, nay even a fettlement by tenant in tail, without
either fine or recovery, if made to a charitable ufe, is good
by way of appointment. Moor 890, 2 Tern. 453. Pre. Ch .
a 6. 2 Comm. 375.
The king as parens patri* has the general fuperintend-
ance of all charities, which he exercifes by the lord chan¬
cellor. And therefore, whenever it is neceffary, the at¬
torney-general, at the relation of fome informant, who
is ufually called the relator, files, ex officio, an information
in the court of chancery, to have the charity properly
eftabliffied. Alfo by ftat. 43 Eliz. c. 4, authority is gi¬
ven to the lord chancellor or lord keeper, and to the chan¬
cellor of the Duchy of Lancafter, refpedtively, to grant
commiifions under their leveral feals, to enquire into any
abufes of charitable donations, and redtity the fame by
decree ; which may be reviewed in the refpedtive courts
of the feveral chancellors, upon exceptions taken there¬
to. But, though this is done in the petty bag office in the
court of chancery, becaufe the commiffion is there re¬
turned.
C H A
turned, it is not a proceeding at common law, but treat¬
ed as an original caufe in the court of equity. The evi¬
dence below is not taken down in writing, and the re-
fpondent in his anfwer to the exceptions may allege what
new matter he pleafes-; upon which they go to proot,
and examine witnefles in writing upon all the matters in
iil'ue : and the court may decree the refpondent to pay
all the colts, though no fuch authority is given by the
ilatute. An appeal lies from the chancellor’s decree to
the houfe of peers, notwithftanding any loofe opinion to
the contrary. 3 Cojnm. 427. Lands given to alms and
aliened, may be recovered by the donor. 1 3 Ed. x. c. 41.
Lands, See. may be given for the maintenance of lioufes
of correction, or of the poor; flat. 35 Eliz. c. 7.
CHA'RITABLY, adv. Kindly; liberally; with incli¬
nation to help the poor. — Benevolently ; without malig¬
nity. — Nothing will more enable us to bear our crofs pa¬
tiently, injuries charitably , and the labour of religion com¬
fortably. 'Taylor.
*Tis belt fometimes your cenfure to rellrain,
And charitably let the dull be vain. Pope.
CHARITE' (La), a town of France, and principal
place of a diftriCt, in the department of Nyevre, on the
Loire, containing about 4000 inhabitants. Here are ma¬
nufactures of woollen and hardware : thirteen miles north,
north-weftof Nevers. Lat. 47.11.N. Ion. 20. 41. E. Ferro.
CHA'RITES, or Gratis, the Graces, daughters of
Venus by Jupiter or Bacchus, are three in number, Ag-
laia, Thalia, and Euphrofyne. They were the conftant
attendants of Venus, and they were reprefented as three
young, beautiful, and modeft, virgins, all holding one
another by the hand. They prelided over kindnefs and
all good offices, and their worffiip was the fame as that of
the nine Mufes, with whom they had a temple in com¬
mon. They were generally reprefented naked, becaufe
kindnefles ought to be done with fincerity and candour.
The moderns explains the allegory of their holding their
hands joined, by obferving, that there ought to be a per¬
petual and never-cealing intercourfe of kindnefs and be¬
nevolence among friends. Their youth denotes the con-
itant remembrance that we ought ever to have of kind¬
nefles received , and their virgin purity and innocence
teaches us, that aCfs of benevolence ought to be done
■without any expectations of reftoration, and that we ought
never to fuffer others or ourfelves to be guilty of bafe or
impure favours.
CHA'RITON, a writer of Aphrodifium, at the latter
•end of the fourth century. He compoled a Greek ro¬
mance, called The Loves of Chaereas and Callirhoe, which
has been much admired for its elegance, and the origi¬
nality of the characters it deferibes. There is a very
learned edition of Chariton, by Reilke, with d’Orville’s
notes, 2 vols. 4to. Amlt. 1750.
CHA'RITY, f. [ charile , Fr. charitas , Lat.] Tender-
nefs ; kindnefs ; love :
Founded in reafon, loyal, juft, and pure,
Relations dear, and all the charities
Of father, fon, and brother, firft were known. Milton.
Godwill, benevolence ; difpofition to think well of others.
—My errors, I hope, are only thofe of charity to mankind ;
and fuch as my own charity has caufed me to commit,
that of others may more eafily excufe. Dryden. — The
theological virtue of univerfal love :
But lafting charity's more ample fway.
Nor bound by time, nor fubjeCt to decay,
In happy triumph lhall for ever live. Prior.
Alms ; relief given to the poor. — The ant did well to re¬
prove the gralshopper for herflothfulnels ; but flie did ill
then to refufe her a charity in her diftrefs. L'EJi range.
“CHARITY begins at home.” This proverb was
grounded upon the paflage of that apoftle, which fays,
That he who provides not for 1 bis own houfeholdis worfe than
Vol. IV. No. 182,
C H A 113
an infidel : but, as the beft inftitutions havebeen abufed, fo
this proverb is become an exculatory reply by the uncha¬
ritable, who have not the natural affeClion to relieve the
neceffitous poor out of their abundance, thereby intimat¬
ing, moft unchriftianly, that felf-love is the meafure of
our love to our neighbour. It is the fame in fenfe with
Terence, Proximus fium egomet mihi, Lat. and the Greeks,
eavre j uxT'.Mq Ucieis ooeva..
CHARITY is generally reprefented in painting and
fculpture by a beautiful woman of a friendly afjieCt, clad
in red, a flame proceeding from the crown of her head;
a child fucking at her breaft, and one on each fide of her,
embracing her with feemingly pleafed countenances.
Beautiful, becaufe no character is more fo in either fex ;
of a friendly afpeCt, becaufe true charity and friendlinefs
are infeparable ; the garment of red fhews her fprightli-
nefs, as the flame does her activity. The number of
children are limited to three, to fignify the triple power
of charity, for, without her, we are taught, that faith
and hope are nothing.
Brothers of C harjty, afocietyof religious hofpitallers,,
founded about the year 1297, fince denominated Billetins.
They took the third order of St. Francis, and the fca-
pulary, making three ufual vows, but without begging.
There is alfo an order of hofpitallers of this name, ftill
fubfifting in Rornifh countries, whofe bufinefs is to attend
the lick poor, and minifter to them both fpiritual and
temporal fuccour. They are laymen, except a few priefts
for adminiftering the facraments to the fick in their hof-
pitals. The brothers of charity ufually cultivate botany,
pharmacy, furgery, and chemiftry, which they praCtife
with fuccefs. They were firlt founded at Granada, by
St. John de Dieu ; and a fecond eftablifhment was made
at Madrid in 1553 : the order was confirmed by Gregory
XIII. in 1572: Gregory XIV. forbad them to take holy
orders ; but by leave of Paul V. in 1609, a few of the bro¬
thers were admitted to orders. In 1619, they were ex¬
empted from the jurildiClion of the bifliop.
CHARITY of St. Hippolitus, a religious congre¬
gation founded about the end of the 14th century, by
Bernadin Alvarez, a Mexican, in honour of St. Hippoli¬
tus the martyr, patron of the city of Mexico ; and ap¬
proved by pope Gregory XIII.
To CHARK, v. a. To burn to a black cinder, as wood
is burned to make charcoal. — Excels either with an apo¬
plexy knocks a man on the head, or with a fever, like
fire in a ftrong-waterfhop, burns him down to the ground ;
or, if it flames not out, charks him to a coal. Grew.
CHARKI'NA, a fortrefs of Ruffian Tartary, on the
Don, in the government of Caucalus : 200 miles north-
eaft of Altrachan.
CHARKLIQUEIF, a town of Afiatic Turkey,, chiefly
inhabited by tanners, who manufacture the beautiful
Morocco leather: the caravans flop here two or three
days : it is fituated between Erzerum and Tocat.
CHAR'KOV, a city of Ruffia, and capital of a govern¬
ment of the fame name, containing ten churches, two
convents, and feveral public feminaries: 352 miles fouth
of Mofcow, and 640 fouth-fouth-eaft of Peterfburgh
Lat. 50. N. Ion. 53. 40. E. Ferro.
CHAR'KOV, a government of Ruffia, bounded on the
north by Kurfk, on the eaft by Voronetz, on the fouth
by Ekaterinoflav, on the weft by Tchernigav and Kiov ;
Charkov is the capital : about 180 miles in length, and
from forty to eighty in breadth.
CHAR'LATAN, f. [ charlatan , Fr. ciarlatano, ItaL
from ciarlare, to chatter.] A quack; a mountebank ; an
empiric. — Saltimbanchoes, quackfalvers, and charlatans#
deceive them in lower degrees. Brown.
CHARLATA'NICAL, adj. Quackifh; ignorant,— A
cowardly foldier, and a charlatanical doClor, are the prin¬
cipal fubjeCts of comedy. Cowley.
CHAR'LATANRY, f. Wheedling; deceit; cheat¬
ing with fair words.
G g CHARL'BURY,
ii4 C H A
CHARL'SURY, a fmall town in Oxford (hire, fitua-
ted on a healthy dry foil, nearly in the centre of VVood-
Itock, Whitney, Cliipping-Norton, and Burford. It has
live large fairs annually, for horles, cows, and all forts of
cattle, on the following days, viz. the firft of January,
the fecond Friday in Lent, the fecond Friday in May,
the fecond Friday in July, and the tenth of Oftober.
Here was formerly a confiderable market on Fridays, and
a manufactory of locks, both which have been for
Lome years on the decline. In the vicinity of Charlbury,
about a mile fouth-weft, are Blandford-houfe, and park,
belonging to his grace the duke of Marlborough. A-
bout two miles eaft, is Ditchley, anoblehoule, built by
the late earl of Litchfield, now belonging to lord Dillon,
with an elegant park ; and at a mile on the north fide of
the town, is Spelfhury, where the celebrated earl of Ro-
chefter, and the Litchfield family, are interred.
CHARLEMA'GNE, or Charles I. king of France by
fucceffion, and emperor of the weft by conqueft in 800,
which laid the foundation of the dynalty of the weftern
Franks, who ruled the empire 4.72 years till the time of
Radolphus Aufpurgenfis, the founder of the lioufe of
Auftria. Charlemagne was as illuftrious in the cabi¬
net as in the field; and, though he could not write his
name-, was the patron of men of letters, the reftorer
of learning, and a wile legiflator. France had nine fo-
vereigns of this name, for particulars of whom, lee
France.
CHARLEMO'NT, a town of the Netherlands, in the
county of Namur, ceded to France by the treaty of Ni-
meguen. It was built by Charles V. in 1555, not far
from Giver, on a mountain near the Meufe. It is fmall
but well fortified : eight leagues fouth-weft of Namur,
and leven north-eaft of Rocroy.
CHARLEMO'NT, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Armagh. It is a garrifon, with barracks for three
companies of foot. This town furrendered to kingWil-
liam in 1690 : eight miles north of Armagh.
CHARLEMO'NT, a town of the United States
in Hamplhire county, Maftacliufetts, iixteen miles weft
of Deerfield, having, befides ftate conluls, 665 inhabi¬
tants.
CHAR'LEROY, or Charles-sur-Sambre, a town
of the Netherlands, in the county of Namur, fituated on
the confines of Hainault, and built on the north fide of
the river Sambre, in a place formerly called Charnoy,
which was a village and ligniory belonging to the prince
of Ifenghein. The marquis de Caftel-Rodrigo, governor
of the Netherlands, fortified and made it a city in the
year 1666, changing its name to Charleroi, in honour of
Charles II. king of Spain. In 1792, it again changed
its name to Charles-fur-Sambre. It was given to France
at the peace of Aix-la-Chappelle, in 1668. In the year
3672, it was befieged by the prince of Orange, who in-
velted the place the 13th of December, with a defign to
draw the French from Holland, but the bravery of Comte
de Montal, the governor, and a report of the king of
France advancing in perfon, with an army to fuccour
thst place, obliged the prince to retire before he had
opened the trenches. 1.01677, the fame prince invefted
it again, with an army of 60,000 men, but was foon
obliged to retire. By the treaty of Nimeguen it was ce¬
ded "to Spain ; in 1698, it was taken by the French, af¬
ter the battle of Landen. In 1697, it was given to the
emperor by the barrier treaty; and again, in 1746, fur-
rendered to France. It was taken by the French repub¬
lican army, under general Valence, in the month of No¬
vember, 1792, with 4000 prifoners. It was recovered by
the Auftrians, in the month of June, 1793, when the
French were twice defeated, once with the lofs of 4000
met), and again of 7000. On the 25th of July, 1794,
it again furrendered to the French at difcretion, with
the garrifon of 3000 men, and fixty pieces of cannon.
It carries on confiderable trade in iron-works and foun¬
dry : twenty miles eaft-nortlveaft of Mons, and twenty
C H A
north-eaft of Maubeuge. Lat. 50. 26. N. Ion. 22. 2. E,
Ferro.
CHARLES, [of Cap, Sax. ftout] a proper name of
men.
CHARLES I. and II. kings of England ; for the events
of their lives and reign, fee England.
CHARLES V. (emperor and king of Spain), was fon
of Philip I. archduke of Auftria, and of Jane queen of
Caftile. He was chofen emperor at Francfort after the
-death of Maximilian his grandfather. He was a great
warrior and politician: and his ambition was not latisfied
with the many kingdoms and provinces he polfeffed; for
he is fuppoled to have afpired at univerfal empire. For
particulars of the reign of this monarch, and the other
lovereigns of Spain, fee Spain.
CHARLES XII. king of Sweden; for particulars of
his extraordinary life and reign, fee Sweden.
CHARLES-COUNTY CITY, in Virginia, North A-
merica, between Chickahominy and James rivers. It
contained formerly part of what now forms Prince
George’s county. It has 5588 inhabitants.
CHARLES COUNTY, on the weftern fhore of Mary¬
land, in the United States, between Potowmack and Pa¬
tuxent rivers. Its chief town is Port Tobacco, on the
liver of that name. Its extreme length is twenty-eight
miles, its breadth tiventy-four, and it contains 20,613
inhabitants. The country has few hills, is generally
low and Tandy, and produces tobacco, Indian corn, po¬
tatoes, See.
CHARLES FORT, a fort of Ireland, at the eaft fide
of the entrance into Kinfale harbour, in the county of
Cork : one mile and a halffouth of Kinfale.
CHARLES FORT, a fort on the weft coaft of the
ifland of St. Chriftopher: one mile fouth-eaft of Sandy
Point Town.
CHARLES ISLAND, or Island of Dogs, at the
mouth of the river Gambia, in Africa, where the En~
glifii had a fettlement, but were driven from it ; fince
which time the ifland has been uninhabited.
CHARLES ISLAND, an ifland in Hudfon’s Straits.
Lat. 62. 40. N. Ion. 79. 55. W. Greenwich.
CHARLES ISLAND, a fmall ifland in that part of
the Straights of Magellan called Royal Reach.
CHARLES RIVER, in Maffachuffetts, in tire United
States, called anciently Qujnobequin, the principal
branch of which rifes from a pond bordering on Hopkiti-
ton. It pafles through Hollinfton and Bellingham, and
divides Medway from Medfield, Wrentham, and Frank¬
lin, and thence into Dedham, where by a curious bend
it forms a peninfula of 900 acres of land. A ftream cal¬
led Mother Brook, runs out of this river in this town,
and falls into Neponfit river, forming a natural canal,
uniting the two rivers, and affording a number of excel¬
lent mills. From Dedham the courfe of the river is
northerly, dividing Newton from Needham, Wefton,
and Waltham, palling over romantic falls ; it then bends
to the north-eaft, through Watertown and Cambridge,
and, paffmg into Bofton harbour, mingles with the wa¬
ters of Myltic river, at the point of the peninfula of
Charleftown. It is navigable for boats to Watertown,
feven miles. The moft remarkable bridges on this river
are thole which connect Bofton withCharleftown and Cam¬
bridge. There are feven paper-mills now on this river.
CHARLES’S WAIN, a name by which aftronomicaj
writers have called Urla Major, or the great bear ; though
fome fay it is the leffer bear. Indeed both of the bears
have been called waggons or wains, and by the Latins,
who have • followed the Arabians, two biers, Feretrum
majus and minus.
CHAR'LESTON, a diftriift in the lower countrv of
South Carolina, lubdivided into fourteen parilhes. This
diftrifif, of which the city of Charlelton is the chief town,
lies between Santee and Combahee rivers. It pays
21,47 31. 14s. 6d. fterling to the taxes. It fends to the ftate
legillature forty-eight reprefentatives and thirteen fena-
tors.
C H A
tors, and one member to Congrefs. It contains by the
slate cenfus 66,986 inhabitants.
CHAR'LESTON, the metropolis of South Carolina,
in the United States of America, fituated in the diftriCl
of the fame name, and on a tongue of land formed by
the confluent Areams of Afliley and Cooper, which are
ihort rivers, but large and navigable. Thefe waters
unite immediately below the city, and form a fpacious
and convenient harbour ; which communicates with the
ocean juft below Sullivan’s Ifland; which it leaves levels
miles fouth-eaft of Charleftown. In thefe rivers the tide
rifes about iix feet and a half ; but uniformly ten or
twelve inches snore during a night tide : this fait is cer¬
tain, but the caufe unknown. The continual agitatiois
which the tides occafion in the waters furrounding
Charlefton, the refrefliing fea-breezes which are regularly
felt, and the frnoke arifing from fo many chimneys, ren-
der this city more healthy than any part of the low coun¬
try in the fouthern Hates. On this account it is the refort
of great numbers of valetudinarians from the Weft Indian
illands, and of the rich planters from die country, who come
here to fpend the fickly months, as they are termed, in
quell of health and of the locial enjoyments which the city
affords. And in no part of America are the focial blel-
fings enjoyed more rationally and liberally than here.
Unaffeiled hofpitality; affability ; eafe of manners and
addrefs; are charaCteriftics of the people of Charlefton.
Infpeakingof the capital, it ought to be obferved, for
the honour of the people of Carolina in general, that
when in common with the other colonies, in the contell
with Britain, they refolved againll the ufe of certain lux¬
uries, and even neceflaries of life ; yet thofe articles
which impi-ove the mind, enlarge the underllanding, and
•correCl the tafte, were excepted; and the importation of
books was permitted as before.
The land on which the town is built, is flat and low,
and the water brackilh and unwholefome. The llreets
are pretty regular, and open beautiful profpefls, and
have fubterranean drains or fhores to cany off filth, and
keep the city clean and healthy. The houfes are of
brick, with tiled roofs. The buildings in general are
elegant, and molt of them are neat, airy, and well fur-
nilhed. The public buildings are, an exchange, aftate-
houfe, an armory, a poor-houfe, and an orphan’s-houfe.
Here are feveral refpe&able academies. Part of the old
barracks has been handfomely fitted up, and converted
into a college; and there are a number of lludents. Lit¬
tle attention is paid to the public markets ; a great pro¬
portion of the moll wealthy inhabitants having planta¬
tions from which they receive fupplies of almolt every
neceflary of life. The country abounds with poultry
and wild ducks. Their beef, mutton, and veal, are not
generally of the bell kind; and few filh are found in the
market. In 1787, it was computed that there were 1600
houfes in the city, and 15,000 inhabitants; and what
evinces the healthinefs of the place, upwards of 200 of
the white inhabitants were above fixty years of age. By
the cenfus of 1791, there were 16,359 inhabitants. This
city has often fuffered much by fire, the lall and moll
deltruClive happened as late as June, 1796.
Charlefton was incorporated in 1783, and divided into
three wards, which chofe as many wardens, from among
whom the citizens eleCt an intendant of the city. The
intendant and wardens form the city-council, who have
power to make and enforce bye-laws for the regulation
of the city. The value of exports from this port, in the
year ending November 1 7 87, amounted to 505, 27 91. 19s. 5ft.
ilerling. The number of veflels cleared from the cuftom-
houfe the fame year, was 947, meafuring 62,118 tons;
735 of thefe, meafuring 41,531 tons, were American ;
the others belonged to Great Britain, Ireland, Spain,
France, and the United Netherlands. In 1794, the value
of exports amounted to 3,84.6,392 dollars. It is fixty
miles fouth-wellby fouth of George-town; 150 ealt by
fouth of Augufla; 497 fouth by weft of Richmond; 630
C H A 1 1 5
fouth-weft by fouth of Wafhington city ; 763 fouth-weft
by fouth of Philadelphia; and mo fouth-weft of Bol¬
ton. The light-houfe lies in lat. 32. 41. 52. N. White
Point at the fouth end of the town, lat. 32. 44. 30. N.
Ion. 80. 39.45. W. Knoxville, the capital of the ftate
of Tenneflee, is much nearer to this than to any lea-port
in the Atlantic Ocean. Charlefton was befieged by the
Britilh army, the latter end of March, 1780, and fur-
rendered on the 13th of May, with 6000 troops, pri-
foners of war.
CHAR'LESTO WN, a townfhip in Montgomery coun¬
ty, New York, on the fouth fide of Mohawk river, about
thirty-two miles weft of ScheneClady.
CHAR'LESTO WN, a townlhip in Mafon county,
Kentucky, fituated on the Ohio at the mouth of Lau¬
ren’s creek. It contains but few houfes, and is fix miles
north of Waftiington, and fixty north-eaft of Lexington.
Lat. 38. 43. N.
CHAR'LESTO WN, a townlhip in Chefter county,
Penniylvania.
CHAR'LESTO WN, a poll town in Chelhire county,
New Hamplhire, on the eall fide of Connecticut river,
thirty miles fouth of Dartmouth college ; upwards of fe-
venty north of Northampton, 116 north-well of Rollon,
120 well by north of Portfmouth, and 431 north-
north-eaft of Philadelphia. It was incorporated in 1753,
and contains 100 houfes, a congregational church, a
court-boufe, and an academy. The road from Bofton
to Quebec partes through this town. Lat. 43. 16. N.
Ion. 72. 19. W.
CHAR'LESTOWN, the principal town in Middle-
fex county, Maffaclui lefts, called Milhawun by the abo¬
riginal inhabitants, fituated north of Bofton, with which it
is connected by Charles-river bridge. The town, properly
focalied, is built on a peninfula, formed by Myllic river
on the eall, and a bay letting up from Charles-river on the
weft. It is very advantageoUrty fituated for health, na¬
vigation, trade, and manufactures- of almoft all the vari¬
ous kinds. Bunker’s, Breed’s, and Cobble, hills, which
overlook the town, are celebrated in the hiftory of the
American revolution. The fecond hill has upon its fum-
mit a monument ereCted to the memory of major-gene¬
ral Warren, near the fpot where he fell. All thefe hills
afford elegant and delightful profpects of Bofton, and
its charmingly variegated harbour, of Cambridge and
its colleges, and of an extenfive traCl of highly cultivated
country. It contains within the neck or parilh aboul
250 houfes, and about 2000 inhabitants. The only-
public buildings of confequence are a handfome congre¬
gational church, with an elegant fteepie and clock, and
an alms-houle, very commodious, and pleafantly fitu¬
ated. Before the delrruCtion of this town by the Bri¬
tilh, who burnt it to the ground on the 17th of June,
1775, feveral branches of manufactures were carried on
to great advantage, fome of which have been fince revi¬
ved ; particularly the manufacture of pot and pear! allies,
fhip-building, rum, leather in ail its branches, filver,
tin, brafs, and pewter. This town is a port of entry in
conjunction with Bofton. At the head of the neck there,
is a bridge over Myllic river which conneCls Charleftown.
with Malden.
CHAR'LESTOWN, a town in Berkley county, Vir¬
ginia, fituated on the great road leading from Philadel¬
phia to Winchefter; eight miles from Shepherdflown,
and twenty from Wincheller.
CHAR'LESTOWN, atownfhip in Wafliington coun¬
ty, ftate of Rhode Ifland, having the Atlantic ocean on
the fouthward, and feparated from Richmond on the
north by CharJes-river. Some of its ponds empty into
Pawcatuck river, others into the fea. It is nineteen
miles north-weft of Newport, and contains 2022 inhabi¬
tants. A few years ago there were about 500 Indians in
the ftate; the greater part of whom refided in this town-
fhip. They are peaceable and well difpofed to the go¬
vernment, and lpeak the Englilh language^
CHAR'LESTOWN,
2 1 5 C H A
CHAR'LESTOWN, the only town in the ifland of
Nevis, one of the Caribbees, belonging to Great-Britain.
In it are large houfes, and well-furniihed (hops, and it
is defended by Charles fort. In the parilh of St. John,
on the fouth fide of the town, is a large fpot of t'ulphu-
reous ground, at the upper end of a deep chafin in the
earth, commonly called Sulphur Gut, which is fo hot
as to be felt through the foies of one’s (hoes. A fmall
hot river, called the Bath, is thought to proceed from
this gut ; and, after running half a mile, loies itfelf in the
lands of the lea. Black-Rock pond, about a quarter of
a mile north from the town, is milk-warm, owing to the
mixture of hot and cold l'prings, yet it yields excellent
filh. A prodigious piece of Nevis mountain, falling in
an earthquake a few years ago, left a large vacuity,
which is Hill to be feen. The altitude of this mountain,
taken by a quadrant from Charleftown bay, is faid to be
a mile and a half perpendicular; and from the bay to
the top, four miles. The declivity is very fteep half¬
way, but afterwards eafy of afcent. Lat. 16. 55. N,
Ion. 62. 42. W.
CHAR'LESTOWN, a townlhip in Maryland, a few
miles diftant from Elkton, and about thirty from Wil¬
mington, chiefly inhabited by people who carry on a
herring flfliery. Here the country is Angularly diverlified
with hill and dale ; and the foil being but of an indiffer¬
ent quality, the lands are fo little cleared, that in many
parts the roads wind through uninterrupted wosds for
many miles together. The l'cenery in this part of North
America is extremely interefling. From the tops of the
hills we meet with numberlefs bold and extenlive prof-
pedts of the Chefapeak bay, and of the Sufquehannah ri¬
ver ; and fcarcely do we crofs a valley without beholding,
in the depths of the woods, many creeks and rivulets
ruffling over ledges of rocks in beautiful cafcades. Near
the town is a fmall foundery for cannon, where they are
bored by water; and the iron is fo extremely tough, that
very few' of the guns everburft in proving.
CHAR'LESTOWN, or Ostins, one of the four
principal towns in the ifland of Barbadoes.
CHAR'LETON (Walter), a learned phyfician, fon
of Walter Charleton, redtor of Shepton Mallet in So-
merfetlhire, born February 2, 1619. He was in 1635 en¬
tered at Magdalen-hall, Oxford. He very early applied
himfelf to Medicine, and had the degree of dodtor con¬
ferred on him in February, 1642. Soon after, he was
made one of the phyficians in ordinary to Charles I.
Upon the decline of that prince’s affairs, he removed to
London, was admitted into the college of phyficians,
and acquired confiderable practice. In the fpace of ten
years before the relloration, he wrote and publilhed fe-
veral treatifes on various fubjedts. He became phyfician
in ordinary to Charles II. while in exile, and retained
that honour after the king’s return. Upon the founding
of the royal lbciety, he was made one of its firft mem¬
bers. In 1689, he was cholen prefident of the college of
phyficians. Soon after, the narrownefs of his circum-
Itances obliged him to retire to the ifland of Jerley, where
he died in 1707, aged 87.
CHAR'LETON, a townlhip in Saratoga county, New
York. By the Hate cenlus of 1796, 268 of its inhabitants
■were eledtors.
CHAR'LETON, a townlhip in Worcefter county,
Maffachufetts, incorporated in 1754, and, until then,
•formed the wefterly part of Oxford. It is fixty miles
iouth-weft of Bolton, fifteen fouth-weft of Worcefter,
..and contains 1965 inhabitants.
CHAR'LETON ISLAND, or Charles Island, is
fituated at the bottom of James’s bay, in New South
Wales, on the coalt of Labrador, and yields a beautiful
profpedt, in lpring, to thole who are near it, after a
voyage of three or four months in the moll uncomforta¬
ble leas on the globe, and that by the valt mountains of
ice in Hudlon’s-bay apd ftraights. The whole ifland,
Jpread with trees and branches, exhibits, as it were, a
.i
C H A
beautiful green tuft. The air, even at the bottom of
the bay, though in fifty-one degrees, a latitude nearer
the fun than London, is excefiively cold for nine months,
and very hot the other three, except on the blowing of a
north-weft wind. The foil on the eaftfide, as well as the
weft, bears all kinds of grain ; and fome fruits, goofeber-
ries, ftrawberries, and dewberries, grow about Rupert's
bay. Lat. 52. 30. N. Ion. 82. W.
CHARLEVAL' (Charles Faucon de Ry, lord of), was
born with a very delicate body, and a mind of the fame
quality. He was fond of polite literature, and gained
the love of all that cultivated it. His converfation was
mingled with gentlenefs and ingenuity; which form. the
character of his writings both in profe and verfe. Scar-
ron, who was ludicrous in all he laid, fpeaking of the
delicacy of his genius and tafte, faid, “ that the mules
had fed him upon blanc-manger and chicken broth.”
The qualities of his heart relembled thole of his mind.
Having learnt that M. and madame Dacier were about to
leave Paris, in order to retrieve their affairs by retire¬
ment in the country, he went immediately, and offered
them ten thoufand francs in gold, and infilled on their
acceptance of it. By ftridtly adhering to regimen, he
fpun out his life to the age of 80. The frequent ufe of
rhubarb heated him fo much, that it brought on a fever.
The phyficians thought of curing him by copious bleed¬
ing, and one of them faid to the reft : “There, the fever
is now going off.” “I tell you,” replied Thevenot, “ that
it is not the fever, but the patient, that is going off;” and
Charleval died in an hour after; which was in 1693. His
poetical pieces fell into the hands of the prefident de Ry,
his nephew, who never would confent to publilh them.
A fmall colledtion however was printed in 1759, nmo.
Several of his epigrams are frequently quoted. Th#
converfation of the marech.il d’Horquincourt and father
Canaye, printed in the works of St. Evremond, a piece
full of originality and humour, is the compofition of
Charleval.
CHARLEVAL', a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridl of Grand Andelis : ten miles fouth-eaft of Rouen.
CHARLEVIL'LE, a town of France, and principal
place of a diltridt, in the department of the Ardennes,
on theMeule, which feparates it from Mezieres, with a
bridge of communication. It was built in 1660, by Gon-
zagu, duke of Nevers; and before the revolution be¬
longed to the prince of Conde, being exempt from the
general taxes of the kingdom.
CHARLEVIL'LE, a borough town of Ireland, in the
county of Cork : twenty-two miles fouth of Limeric,
and thirty-one north of Cork.
CHARLEVOI'X (Peter Fr. Xavier de), a learned
French jefuit, born at St. Quintin in 1684, and died in
1761, aged 78, memorable for the hiftories of his travels,
which were prodigioufly extenlive, and his accounts in
general are reckoned very good authority. They conlift
of; 1. Hiftoire du Chriftianifme dans le Japon, nmo.
9 vols. 1715. 2. Hiftoire et Defcription generale du Ja¬
pon, 4-to. 2 vols. 1738, and i2mo. 6 vols. 1754. 3. Hif¬
toire de lTlle de St. Dominique, 4to. 2 vols. 1720. 4.
Hiftoire generale de la Nouvelle France, 4to. 3 vols. 1744,
and i2mo. 6 vols. 5. Hiftoire generale du Paraguay,
nmo. 6 vols.
CHAR'LEY, a town in Lancalhire. See Chorley.
CHARLIEU', a town of France, in the department
of the Rhone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridl of Roanne •. twelve miles north-weft of Lyons,
and three north of Roanne.
CHAR'LOCK,/ in botany. See Sinapis Arvensis.
CHAR'LOTTE, a confiderable townlhip of the Ame¬
rican States, on the eaft fide of Lake Champlain, and on
the fouth weftermoft in Chittenden county, Vermont.
Shelburne on the north feparates this town from Burling¬
ton. It contains 635 inhabitants. Split Rock, in Lake
Champlain, lies oppofite this town,
CHAR'LOTTE
U7
C H A
CHAR'LOTTE, ox- Charlottesville, apoft-town
hi Salifbury diftrif!, North Carolina, and chief town of
Mecklenburg county, fituated on Steel creek, which joins
the Sugaw, and falls into Catabaw river about ten miles
north of the South Carolina boundary, and forty-four
foutb of Salifbury.
CHAR'LOTTE, a county of United Ameiica, in. Vir¬
ginia, lies fouth-weft of Richmond, on the head waters
of Staunton x'iver, and contains 10,078 inhabitants. The
couxt-houfe is twenty-one miles fouth-fouth-weft of Prince
Edward court-houfe, and 379 about the fame courle fi'om
Philadelphia.
CH AR'LOTTE FORT, in South Cax-olina, is fituated
on the point of land where Tugloo and Broad rivers
uniting their waters, form Savannah river. According
to Bartram, it is one mile below Fort James, Dartmouth.
Lat. 34. N. Ion. 82. 35. W.
CHAR'LOTTE HA'VEN, is fituate at the mouth of
Charlotte river in Eaft Florida ; having Caidos bay on
the fouth, and Rock point on the north, in lat. 2.7. N.
Ion. 82. 40. Charlotte lfiver is fed by Spiritu Santo La¬
goon, which communicates by Delawai-e river with Chat¬
ham or Punjo bay, which is ninety miles fouth-eaft from
Charlotte Haven.
CHAR'LOTTE TOWN, a town of the ifland of Do¬
minica, on the weft, formerly called Rofeau. Lat. 15.
25. N. Ion. 69. 24. W. Greenwich.
CHAR'LOTTE TOWN, a town of St. John, in the
Gulf St. Lawrence, fituated about the centre of the iftand,
towards the fouth coaft. Lat. 46. 15, N. Ion. 62. 50. W.
Greenwich.
CHARLOT'TEBURG, a town of United America, in
Brunfwick county, North Carolina. It ftands on an ifland,
and has an inlet and found of the lame name a little
fouth of it.
CHARLOT'TENBURG, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, and county of Holzapfel, built by
the French refugees: four miles fouth-weft of Holzapfel.
CHARLOT'TENLUND, a town of Denmark, in the
ifland of Zealand : four miles north of Copenhagen.
CHARLOTTESVIL'LE, the capital of Albemarle
county in Virginia, in United America, fituate on the
poll: road from Richmond to Danville, in Kentucky,
eiglity-fix miles weft- north-weft of the former, and 557
eaftward of the latter, and forty fouth-eaft by eaft of
Staunton. It contains a court-houfe and a goal, and is
about half a mile north from a water of Rivanna river.
CHARLOT'TIA, a town of United America, on the
eaft Ihore of St. John’s river, Eaft Florida, were that ri¬
ver is about half a mile wide. It was founded by Dennis
Rolle, efq. and is fituated on a high cliff, fifteen or twen¬
ty feet perpendicular from the river. The aborigines of
America had a large town in this place, as appeai-s from
the great tumuli and conical mounts of earth and fhells,
and other traces of a lettlement which yet remain. The
river, for near twelve miles above Charlottia, is divided
into many channels, by a number of iflands.
CHARL'TON, an ifland in the fouthern part of Hud-
fon’s Bay. Lat. 52. 8. N. Ion. 80. W. Greenwich.
CHAR'LY, a town of France, in the department of
Aifne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of Cha¬
teau Thierry: two leagues fouth-weft of Chateau Thierry.
CHARM, f. [ chartne , Fr. carmen, Lat.] Words, or
philtres, or characters, imagined to have fome occult or
unintelligible power. See Magic. — There have been
uled, either barbarous words, of no fenfe, left they Ihould
difturbthe imagination ; or words of fimiiitude, that may
iecond and feed the imagination : and this was ever in
heathen thanns, as in charms of later times. Bacon.
Antaeus could, by magic charms,
Recover ftrength whene’er he fell. Swift.
Something of power to fubdue oppofition, and gain the
affections ; fomething that can pleafe irrefiftibly ;
Vol.-IV. No. 182,
C H A
Well-founding verfes are the charm we ufe,
Heroic thoughts and virtue to infufe. Rofcommon.
To CHARM, cv. a. To fortify with charms againft evil:
Let fall thy blade on vulnerable crefts ;
I bear a charmed life which mull not yield
To one of women born. Shakefpeare .
To make powerful by charms. — To fummon by incan¬
tation :
I chartn you by my once commended beauty.
By all your vows of love, and that great vow
Which did incorporate and make us one. Shakefpeare.
To fubdue by fome fecret power ; to amaze ; to overpower e
Mufic the fierce!! grief can charm . Pope .
To fubdue the mind by pleafure :
Amoret! my lovely foe,
Tell me where thy ftrength doth lie :
Where the power that charms us fo,
In thy foul, or in thy eye ? Waller.
CHARM'ED, adj. Enchanted. — Arcadia was the
charmed circle, where all his fpirits for ever ihall be eix-
chanted. Sidney.
CHARM'ER. f. One that has the power of charms or
enchantments. See the article Magic.
She was a charmer, and could almoft x-ead
The thoughts of people. Shakefpeare.
Words of endeai-ment among lovers.
CHAR'MES, a town of Fi-ance, in the department of
the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Mirecourt : two leagues and a half north-eaftof Mire-
coui-t. This place is famous for a ti-eaty between the
duke of Loraine and cardinal Richelieu, in the year 1633,
by which the duke furrendered the dukedom to France.
CHARM'ING, part. adj. Pleafing in the higheft de-
"gjree. — For ever all goodnefs will be charming, lor ever all
wickgdnefs will be moll odious. Spratt.
CHARM'INGLY, ada>. In iuch a manner as to pleafe
exceedingly. — She fnxiled very charmingly , and difeover-
ed as fine a fet of teeth as ever eye beheld. Addifcn.
CHARM'INGNESS, f The power of pleafing.
CHARMOGOL', a -town of Perfia, in the pi'ovince of
Chorafan : 200 miles north of Herat.
CHARMONT', a town of France, in the department
of the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Vitry-le-Fram;ais : fourteen miles north-eaft of Vitry.
CHAR'MOUTH, a village of England, on the. coal!
of the county of Dorlet, at the mouth of a fmall river
called Char, where the Danes made a defeent and ravag¬
ed the country in 883, and 840 : three nxiles eaft of Lira.
CHAR'NEL, adj. Containing fleftx, or cavcaffcs:
Such are tlxofe thick and gloomy fliadows damp,
Oft found in charnel vaults" and fepuldxres
Ling’ ring, and fitting by a new-made grave. Milton.
C I-IAR'N EL-HOUSE, \_charnier, Fr. from caro, car-
nis, Lat.] The place in or near churches, where the bones
of the dead are repofited :
If charnel-houfes and our graves muff fend
Thofe, that we bury, back; our monuments
Shall be the maws of kites. Shakefpeare.
CHARNIZAY', a town of France, in the department
of the Indre and Loire : ten miles fouth of Loches.
CHAR'NOCK (Stephen), deicended from an ancient
family of that name in Lancaftiire, was bonr in London,
and educated firft in Emanuel college, Cambridge, from
whence he i-emoved to Oxford in 1649, and' obtained a
fellowfliip by the parlimentarian intereit. Afterwards he
went into Ireland, where he pi-eaclxed, aixd was much
efteemed by the prefbyterisns and independents. Upon
u8 C H A
the reftoration of Charles II. being incapacitated to ap¬
pear in the church, he returned to London, where he
preached in private meetings, and had the reputation of
a man of learning and elocution. He died in 1680.
His works are printed in two vols; folio.
CHAR/NY, a town of France, in the department of
the Yonrie, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrict
of Joigny: nineteen miles north-weft of Auxerre.
CHAR/NY, a town of France, in the department of
the Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Verdun : one league north of Verdun.
CHAROLLAIS'', before the revolution, a fmall coun¬
try cf France, called from Charolles, the capital.
CHAROL'LES, a town of France, and principal place
cf a dill rift, in the department of the Saone and Loire :
feven leagues eaft-fouth-eaft of Bourbon Lancy, and eight
weft of Ma$on.
CHA'RON, d Theban, who. received into his lioufe
Pelopidas and. his friends, when they delivered Thebes
from tyranny. An hiftorian of Lampfacus, who wrote
two bocks on Perlia befides other treatiles B. C. 4-79. An
hiftorian of Naucratis, who wrote an hiftory of his coun¬
try, and of Egypt.
CHA'RON, in fabulous hiftory, one of the infernal
deities, Ion of Erebus and Nox, who condufted the fouls
of the dead in a boat. over the rivers Styx and Acheron,
to the infernal regions, for an cbolus. Such as had not
been honoured with a funeral were not permitted to enter
his boat, without previoufly wandering on the fiior^ for
one hundred- years. If any living perlon presented him-
i’elf to crofs the Stygian lake, he could not be admitted
before he ftiowed Charon a golden bough, which he re¬
ceived from the fybil ; and Charon was imprifoned for
one year, becaule he had ferried over, againft his own
will, Hercules, without this paffp.ort. Charon is repre •
fented as an old robuft man, with a hideous countenance,
long white beard, and piercing eyes. His garment is
ragged and filthy, and his forehead is covered with
■wrinkles. As all the dead were obliged to pay a fmall
piece of money for their admifiion, it was ufual, among
the ancients, to place under the tongue of the deceafed
a piece of money for Charon. This table of Charon and
his boat is borrowed from the Egyptians, whofe dead
were carried acrofs a lake, where lentence was paffed over
them, and according to their good or bad aftions, they
were honoured with a fplendid burial, or left unnoticed
in the open air. Diodorus.
CHA'RON, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Charente : three leagues north of Rochefort.
CHARON'JDAS, a celebrated legiflator of the Thu-
rians, and a native of Catana in Sicily, flourifhed 440
years before Chrift. He made a law that no man fhould
be permitted to come armed into the aflembly. He-in-
advertently broke this law, and, when told of it, he fell
upon his fword, and thus killed himfelf for being the
violator of his own law.
CHARON'NE, a village of France : about a mile ealt
of Paris.
CHAROST', a town of France, in the department of
the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of
Bourges, fituated on the river A rnon : four leagues fouth-
weft of Bourges, and two north-eaft lifoudon.
CHARPENTIER' (Francis), dean of the French aca¬
demy, was born at Paris, February 1620. His early acute-
nefs made his friends defign him for the bar : but his tafte
carried him another way. He preferred the repofe of the
a clofet toanoify and tumultuous life ; and was infinitely
more delighted with languages and antiquity, than the
itudy cf the law. He was made a member of the French
academy in 1 65 ij and had the advantage of the beft conver-
lation for his improvement. When Colbert projected the
iettingup a French Eaft-India company, he thought it pro¬
per that a dilcourfe fhould be publifhed to recommend it.
He employed Charpentier to draw one up, and was lo pleaf-
ed with his performance that he kept him in his family,
C H A
and made ufe of him in eftablifhing his new academy of
Iufcriptionsand Medals. The learned languages, in which
Charpentier was a confiderable mailer, his great know¬
ledge of antiquity, and his exaft and critical judgment,
made him very ferviceable 5 and it is agreed that no per¬
lon contributed more than himfelf towards that noble fe-
ries of medals, which reprefented the moft confiderable
events of the reign of Louis XIV. He publifhed feveral
works, which were well received. He died April 22,
1702, aged 82. His harangues and dilcourfes are extant
in the eolleftions of the academy. There are likewiie of
liis in print feveral poems,- fuch as odes, fonnets, para-
phrafes upon the plalms, and many other works which
have not been printed.
CHAR'PEY, a town of France, in the department of
the Drome: three leagues eaft of Valence.
CHAR'RARA, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Farfiftan: forty-eight miles north-weft of Schiras.
CHARRE OF LEAD,/. A quantity of lead confifting
of thirty pigs, each pig containing fix ftone wanting two
pounds, and every ftone being twelve pounds.
CH AR'RES, a town of Arabia, nine miles jiorth-north-
eaft of Sana.
CHAR'RON (Peter), born at Paris in 1 541. After mak¬
ing a confiderable proficiency in grammar-learning, he
applied to logic, metaphyfics, moral and natural philofo-
phy. He ftudied civil and common law at the. univerfi-
ties of Orleans and Bourges, and commenced doftor in
that faculty. Upon his return to Paris, he was admitted
an advocate in the court of parliament. He always de¬
clared the bar to be the beft and moft improving lchool
in the world ; and accordingly attended at all the pub¬
lic hearings for feveral years : but, forefeeing that
preferment in this way was like to come very flow, he
gave over this puffuit, and clofely applied to the ftudy
of divinity. By his fuperior eloquence, he foon came
into high reputation, and was cholen by queen Margaret,
duchefs of Bulois, for her preacher in ordinary. He ne¬
ver took any degree or title in divinity, but latisfied him-
lelf with deferving and being capable of the higheft.
He compofed a work intituled, Les Trois Verites, tc The
Three Truths,” which he publifhed in 1594. This pro¬
cured him the acquaintance of M. de Sulpice, bifltop and
count of Cahors, who appointed him his vicar-general.
He was deputed to the general aflembly of the clergy in
i595,andwaschofenfirftlecretarytotheaflembly. In 1601,
he printed at Bourdeaux his books “ of Wifdom,” which
gave him a great reputation, and made his charafter ge¬
nerally known. He died November 16, 1603, of an apo¬
plexy. His Treatife on Wifdom is a kind of commentary
on the Elfays of Montagne. The old Gafcon was fo
pleafed with his book and his converfation, that he per¬
mitted him to take his name, and to bear bis arms. The
times in which he wrote could fo ill bear the truths ad¬
vanced in the Treatife upon Wifdom, that he was de¬
nounced by the univerfity of Paris as a man of irreligious
principles. His friend, the preiident Jeannin, fo well
known by his negociations in Holland, faved his book
from being condemned, by permitting the fale of it as a
book of politics. The frontifpiece to the Elzevir edition
of his treatife, reprefents the goddefs of folly leading
mankind by their paflions. Charron begins one of his
chapters upon wifdom thus : Nihil eji aqualitate inaqua-
lius : “ There is nothing fo unequal as equality. There
is no fuch great hatred as that which takes place amongft
perlons who are equal to one another. The envy and
the jealoufy with which equals are poftefled, are the caufes
of troubles, feditions, and of civil wars. In all govern¬
ments there mult be inequality of rank, but it lliould be
moderate. Harmony itfelf confifts not in a complete
equality of tones, but in a difference of tones, that ftill
agree one with another.”
CHARROU'X, a town of France, in the department
of the Allier, and chief place of a canton, in the diffrift
of Gannat ; five miles north of Gannat,
CHARROU'X,
C H A
CHARROU'X, a town of France, -hr the department
of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton in the dillndb
of Civray : eight leagues and a half north of V lenne,
and one and a half eatt of. Civray.
CHART, / [cbarta, Lat.] A delineation or map of
coaits. It is diftinguilhed from a' map, by reprelenting
only the coaits; being a projection of fome part of the
fea in piano, fhewing the lea-coafts, rocks, lands, bear¬
ings, &c. Fournier aferibes the invention of lea-charts
to Henry foil of John king of Portugal. Thefe charts
are of various kinds, the Plain Chart, Mercator’s or
Wright’s Chart, the Globular Chart, &c. In the con-
llrudlion of charts, great care flionld be taken that the
feveral parts of them preferve their pofition to one ano¬
ther, in the fame order as on the earth ; and it is probable
that the finding out of proper methods to do this, gave
rife to the various.modes of projection. There are many
ways of conftruCting maps and charts ; but they.depend
chiefly on two principles. Firfi, by confidering the
earth as a large extended flat lurface ; and the charts
made on this iuppofition are ulually called plain charts.
Secondly, by confidering the earth as a fphere ; and the
charts made on this principle are fometimes called globu¬
lar charts, or Mercator’s charts, or reduced charts, or
projected charts.
Plain Charts have the meridians, as well as the parallels
of latitude, drawn parallel to each other, and the degrees
of longitude and latitude everywhere equal to thole at
the equator. And therefore fuch charts mult be deficient
in feveral refpedls. For, id, fince in reality all the me¬
ridians meet in the poles, it is abfurd to reprelent them,
efpecially in large charts, by parallel right lines, adly,
As plain charts fhew the degrees of the feveral parallels
as equal to thofe of the equator, therefore the diftances
of places lying eafl and weft mult be reprelented much
larger than they really are. And 3cily, In a plain chart,
while the fame rhumb is kept, the veil'd appears to fail
on a great circle, which is not really the cafe. Yet plain
charts made for a fmall extent, as a few degrees in length
and breadth, may be tolerably exa£t, efpecially for any
part within the torrid zone; and even a plain chart made
for the whole of this zone will differ but little from the
truth.
Mercator's Chart, like the plain charts, has the meri¬
dians reprefented by parallel right lines, and the degrees
of the parallels, or longitude, everywhere equal to thofe
at the equator, fo that they are increafed more and more,
above their natural fize, as they approach towards the
pole; but then the degrees of the meridians, or of lati¬
tude, are increafed in the fame proportion at the fame
part ; fo that the fame proportion is preferved between
them as on the globe itfelf. This chart has its name from
that of 'the author, Girard Mercator, who firft propofed
it for ufe in 1556, and made the firft charts of this kind ;
though they were not altogether on true or exaCt prin¬
ciples, nor does it appear that he perfectly underltood
them. Neither, indeed, was the thought originally his
own, viz. of lengthening the degrees of the meridian in
fome proportions ; for this was hinted by Ptolemy near
two thouland years ago. It was not perfected, however, till
Mr. Wright firft demonftrated it about the year 1 590, and
fhewed a ready way of conllruCting it, by enlarging the
meridian line by the continual addition of the fecants.
See his Correction of Errors in Navigation, publiihed in
1599-
Globular Chart, is a proje6tion fo called from the con¬
formity it bears to the globe itfelf; and was propoled by
Meflrs. Senex, Wilfon, and Harris. This is a meridional
projection, in which the parallels are equidiftant circles,
having the pole for their common centre, and the meri¬
dians curvilinear and inclined, fo as all to meet in the
pole, or common centre of the parallels. By this means
f.he feveral parts of the earth have their proper propor¬
tion of magnitude, diftance, and fituation, nearly the
C H A
119
fame as on the globe itfelf ; which renders it-a good me
thod for geographical maps.
Hydrographical Charts, are fheets of large paper, on
which feveral parts of the land and fea are deferibed,
with their relpeCtive coafts, harbours, founds, flats, rocks,
fhelves, lands, &c. alio the points of the compafs, and the
latitudes and longitudes of the places. .
Selenographic Charts, are particular deferiptions of the
appearances, lpots, and maculae, of the moon.
Topographic Charts, are draughts of lome fmall parts
only of the earth, or of fome particular place, without
regard to its relative fituation, as London, York, &c.
For the conllruClion of charts, fee Geography.
CHAR'TER,/ [cbarta, Lat. chartres, Fr.] A written
evidence of things done between man and man. Chai ters
are divided into charters of the king, and charters of pri¬
vate perfons. Charters of the king are thofe, whereby
the king pafl’eth any grant to any perfion or more, or -to
any body politic: as a charter of exemption, that no
man lha.ll be empannelled on a jury ; charter of pardon,
whereby a man is forgiven a fellony, or other offence.
Consjel. — Any writing bellowing privileges or rights. —
It is not to be wondered, that the great charter where¬
by God bellowed the whole earth upon Adam, and con¬
firmed it unto the fons of Noah, being as brief in word
as large in efteCt, hath bred much quarrel of interpreta¬
tion. Raleigh.
Here was that charter feal’d, wherein the crown
All marks of arbitrary pow’r lays down. Denham .
Privilege ; immunity ; exemption :
I mull have liberty,
Withal as large a charter as the wind,
To blow on whom I pleafe ; for fo fools have;
And they that are moll galled with my folly.
They moll mull laugh. Sbakefpeare.
Charters' of private perfons, are deeds and inftruments
for the conveyance of lands. The purchafer of lands
lhall have all the charters, deeds, and evidences, as in¬
cident to the fame, and for the maintenance of his title.
Co. Lit. 6. Charters belong to a- feoffee, although they
be not fold to him, where the feoffor is not bound to a
general warranty of the land ; for there they lhall belong
to the feoffor, if they be fealed deeds or wills in writing:
but other charters go to the tertenant. Moor. Ca. 687.
The charters belonging to the feoffor in cafe of warranty,
the heir lhall have, though he hath no land by defeent,
for the poflibility of defeent after. 1 Rep. x. Charter
land, is fuch land as a perfon holds by charter ; that is,
by evidence in writing, otherwife called freehold.
Charter of the Foref, is that wherein the laws of the
forell are comprifed, fuch as the charter of Canute, See.
CHAR'TER, or the Great Charter; fee Magna
Charta.
CHAR'TER, a town of United America, in the Hate of
South Carolina : twenty-five miles eaft-fouth-eall of Cam¬
den.
CHAR'TER-P AR'TY,/ [charta partita, Lat. chartre
parti, Fr. a deed or writing divided.] Is what among
merchants and lea-faring men is called a pair of inden¬
tures, containing the covenants and agreements rhade
between them, touching their merchandize and mari¬
time affairs. zlnft. 673. Charter-parties of affreightment
fettle agreements, as to the cargo of Ihips, and bind the
mailer to deliver the goods in good condition at the
place of dilcliarge, according to agreement ; and the
mailer fometimes obliges himlelf, Ihip, tackle, and furni¬
ture, for performance. The common law conftrues char¬
ter-parties, as near as may be, according to the intention
of them, and not according to the literal fenfe of traders,
or thofe that merchandife by fea ; but they mull be re¬
gularly pleaded. In covenant by charter-party, that the
ihip Ihould return to the river Thames, by a certain time ,
1 dangers
i20 C H A
dangers of the fea excepted, and after, in the voyage, and
within the time of the return, the fhip was taken upon
the tea by pirates, to that the matter could not return at
the time mentioned in the agreement, it was adjudged
that this impediment was within the exception of the
charter-party, which extends as well to any danger upon
the tea by pirates and men of war, as dangers of the fea
by jQrip wreck, temped, &c. Stile 132. 2 Rnl. Abr. 24.8.
A fliip is freighted at fo much per month that the fhall
be out, covenanted to be paid after her arrival at the port
of London ; the fliip is call away coming up from the
Downs, but the lading is all prelerved, the freight fhall
in this cafe be paid ; for the money becomes clue month¬
ly by the contrail, and the place mentioned is only to
afcertain where the money is to be paid, and the fliip is
intitled to wages, like a mariner that ierves by the month,
who, if he dies in the voyage, his executors are to be
anfwered prorata. Molloy de Jur. Maritim. 260. If a part-
owner of a fliip refufe to join with the other owners in
fetting out of the (hip, he {hall not be entitled to his fhare
of the freight; but, by the courfe of the admiralty, the
other owners ought to give lecurity, if the fliip perifli in
the voyage, to make good to the owner Handing out, his
fhare of ihe fliip, fir L. Jenkins, in a cafe of this nature,
certified that by the law marine and courfe of the admi¬
ralty, the plaintiff was to have no (hare of the freight ;
and that it was fo in all places, for otherwife there would
be no navigation.
CHAR'TERED, adj. Invefted with privileges by char¬
ter ; privileged :
When he fpeaks
The air, a charter'd libertine, is Hill. Skakefpeare.
CHAR'TIS REDDEN'DIS,/. An ancient writ which
lay again!! one that had charters of feoffment entrufled
to his keeping, and refufed to deliver them. Reg. Orig.
I59-
CHARTO'PHYLAX,/! An officer of the Greek church
at Conflantinople, who attends at the rails when the fa-
crament is adminiflered, and gives notice to the piiefls
to come to the holy table. He reprefents the patriarch
upon the bench, tries all ecclefiaflical caufes, keeps all
the marriage regifters, aflifls at the eonfecration of bi-
fhops, and prefents the bifliop eleft at the folemnity, and
likewife all other fubordinate clergy. This office refem-
bles that of the bibliothecarius at Rome.
CHAR'TRAIN, before the revolution, a finall coun¬
try of France, in the environs of Chartres, which is the
capital.
CHAR'TRE sur le LOIR (La), a town of France,
in the department of the Sarte,. and chief place of a can¬
ton in the diilridt of Chateau-du-Loir : leven leagues and
a half fouth-fouth-efiil of Le Mans, and two eall-north-
eaft of Chateau-du-Loir.
CHAR'TRES ,a city of France, and principal place
of a diftridl, in the department of the Eure and Loire,
one of the moft ancient towns of the country ; before the
revolution, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Paris ; the
cathedral is efleemed one of the molt beautiful churches
in the kingdom. It is fituated on the Eure, over which
■is a bridge, the work of the celebrated Vauban, and con¬
tains about 10,000 inhabitants. The principal trade is
corn : eighteen polls and a half north-north-ealt of
Tours, and eleven fouth-weft of Paris. Lat. 48. 27. N.
Ion. 19. 9. E. Ferro.
CHARTREIFSE, or Chartreuse grand, f A
celebrated monaltery, the capital of all the convents
of the Carthufian monks, fituated on a fteep rock in the
middle of a large foreft of fir-trees, about leven miles
north-eaft of Grenoble, in the former province of Dau-
phiny in France. See Carthusians. From- this mo¬
ther-convent all the others of the fame order tock their
names; among which was the Chartreule of London,
corruptly called the Charterhoufe, now converted into
an hofpital, and endowed with a revenue of 600 1. per
C H A
annum. Here are maintained eighty decayed gentlemen,
not under fifty years of age ; alfo forty boys are edu¬
cated and fitted either for the univerfity, or for trades.
Thofe fent to the univerfity have an exhibition of twenty
pounds a. year for eight years ; and have an immediate
title to nine church livings in the gift of the governors
of the hofpital, who are fixteen in number, and take their
turn in the nomination of penlioners and fcholars.
CHARM ULARY, f. [ch art ular ius, Lat.] An ancient
officer in the Latin church, who had the care of charters
and papers relating to public affairs. The chartulary
prefided m ecclefiattical judgments in lieu of the pope.
In the Greek church the chatulary was called charto-
pbylax.
CHAR' WELL, a river of England, which runs into
the Thames at Oxford.
CIIA'RY, adj. Careful; cautious; wary; frugal. —
Over his kindred he held a wary and chary care, which
bountifully was expreffed, when occafion fo required.
Care-tv.
CHARYB'DIS, f. [a word of Phoenician or Hebrew
extract, as the learned Bocliart has proved, of chor, a
hole, and abaddon, perdition, and in compound, cbor-ob-
dan , the hole of perdition.] A dangerous whirlpool on
the coall of Sicily, oppofite another whirlpool called
Scylla on the coall of Italy. It was very dangerous to
tailors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulyffes.
The words, lncidit in Scyllam qui <vult vitare Charybdim ,
became a proverb, to Ihew that in our eagernefs to avoid
an evil, we fall into a greater. This whirlpool, which
was in the gulph of Meffina, is faid to have been entirely
removed by an earthquake in 1783. The name of Cha-
rybdis was bellowed on miflreffes who repay affedlion
and tendernels with ingratitude. It is fuppofed that
Charybdis was an avaricious woman, who Hole the oxen
of Hercules, for which theft Ihe was ftruck with thunder
by Jupiter, and changed into a whirlpool.
To CHASE, v. a. \chaffer, Fr.J To hunt. — It fliall be
as the chafed roe. Ifaiah . — To purlue as an enemy. And
Abimelech chafed him, .and he fled before him. Judges. —
To drive away. — He that chafeth away his mother, is a
fon that caufeth flrame. Pro-verbs. — To follow as a thing
delirable ; to drive:
As when the following morn had chas'd away
The flying liars, and light reflor’d the day. Dryden.
To CHASE Metals. See To Enchase.
CHASE, f. Hunting; as, the pleafures of the chafe.
Purfuit of any thing as game. — There is no chafe more
pleafant, methinks, than to drive a thought, by good
conduct, from one end of the world to another, and never
to lofe fight of it till it fall into eternity. Burnet. — -Fit-
nefs to' be hunted ; appropriation to chafe or fport:
A maid I am, and of thy virgin train ;
Oh 1 let me Itill that lpotlefs name retain,
Frequent the forefts, thy challe will obey.
And only make the bealts of chafe my prey. Dryden.
Purfuit of an enemy or of fome thing noxious. — He {allied
out upon them with certain troops of horfemen, with
luch violence, that he overthrew them, and, having them
in chafe, did fpeedy execution. Knclles. — Purfuit of fome-
thing as defirable :
Yet this mad chafe of fame, by few purfu’d.
Has drawn deftruftion on the multitude. Dryden.
The game hunted :
Honour’s the noblelt chafe-, purfue that game,
And recompenfe the lots of love with fame. Granville.
The chafe of a gun, is the whole bore or length of a
piece, taken withinlide.
CHASE, fchaffe, Fr.J In its legal fignification, is a
great quantity of woody ground lying open, and privi¬
leged, for wild bealls and wild fowl : and the bealts of
chafe
C H A
chafe properly extend to the buck, doe, fox, martin, and
roe ; and in common and legal fenfe to all the beads of
the fored. Co. Lit. 333. A chafe differs from a park in
that it is not inclofed ; and alfo in that a man may have
a chafe in another man’s ground, as well as in his own;
being indeed the liberty of keeping beads of chafe or
royal game therein, protected even from the owner of
the land, with a power of hunting them thereon, a Comm.
38. But if one have a chafe within a fored, and he kill
or hunt any flag or red deer, or other beads of the fored,
he is fineable. 1 Jones's Rep. 278. A chafe is of a middle
nature between a fored and a park, being commonly lefs
than a fored, and not endowed with f'o many liberties, as
the courts of attachment, fwainmote, and judice-feat;
though of a larger compafs, and dored with greater di-
verfity both of keepers, and wild beads or game, than a
park. A chafe differs from a fored in this, becaufe it
may be in the hands of a fubjeft, which a fored in its
proper and true nature cannot ; and from a park, in that
it is not encloled, and hath a greater compal's, and more
variety, of game. A fored and a chafe may have different
officers and laws : every fored is a chafe, & quicidam atn-
plius ; but any chafe is not a fored. A chafe is ad com-
munem legem, and not to be guided by the fored laws ;
and it is the fame of parks. 4 Injl. 3 14, A man may
have a free chafe as belonging to his manor in his own
woods, as well as a warren and a park in his own grounds ;
for a chafe, warren, and park, are collateral inheritances,
and not iffuing out of the foil ; and, therefore, if a per-
fon hath a chafe in other men’s grounds, and after pur-
chafeth the grounds, the chafe remaineth. Ibid. 318. If
a man have freehold in a free chafe, he may cut his tim¬
ber and wood growing upon it, without view or licence
of any ; though it is not fo of a fored : but if he cut fo
much that there is not fufficient for covert, and to main¬
tain the game, he ffiall be punifhed at the fuit of the
king; and fo if a common perfon hath a chafe in an¬
other's foil, the owner of the foil cannot dedroy all the
covert, but ought to leave fufficient thereof, and alfo
browfewood, as hath been accudomed. 11 Rep. 22. And
at has been adjudged, that, within fuch chafe, the owner
of the foil, by prefcription, may have common for his
ffieep, and warren for his conies, but he cannot fur-
charge with more than has been ufual, nor make coney-
burrows in other places than hath been ufed. Ibid. If a
free chafe be inclofed, it is laid to be a good caufe of
feizure into the king’s hands. Ii is not lawful to make
a chafe, park, or warren, without licence from the king
under the broad feal.
The following account of the Englifh chafes is given
by Mr. Pennant: “ At fird the beads of chafe had this
whole ifland for their range ; they knew no other li¬
mits than the ocean, nor confeffed any particular maf-
ter. When the Saxons had edabliffied themfelyes in the
heptarchy, they were referved by each fovereign for his
own particular diverfion ; hunting and war, in thofe un¬
civilized ages, were the only employ of the great ; their
aftive, but uncultivated, minds, being fulceptible of no
pleafure but thofe of a violent kind, fuch as gave exer-
cife to their bodies, and prevented the pain of thinking.
But as the Saxon kings only appropriated thofe lands to
the ufe of foreds which were unoccupied, fo no indivi¬
duals received any injury ; but, when the conqued had
fettled the Norman line on the throne, this paffion for
the chafe was carried to an excefs which involved every
civil right in a general ruin : it fuperfeded the confide-
ration of religion even in a fuperftitious age : the village
communities, nay, even the mod facred edifices, were
turned into one vad wade, to make room for animals,
the objects of a lawlefs tyrant’s pleafure. The new fored
in Hampffiire, is too trite an indance to be dwelt on ;
fanguinary laws were enadted to preferve the game ;
and, in the reigns of William Rufus and Henry I. it was
lefs criminal to dedroy one of the human fpecies than a
bead of chafe. Thus it continued while the Norman line
Von. IV. No. 183.
C H A 72 r
filled the throne ; but, when the Saxon line was redored
under Henry II. the rigour of the fored laws was imme¬
diately foftened.
“ When our barons began to form a power, they
claimed a vad, but more limited, tract, for a diverfion
that the Englifh were always fond of. They were very
jealous of any encroachments on their refpeftive bounds,
which were often the caufe of deadly feuds ; fuch a one
gave caufe to the fatal day of Chevy-chafe; a fadt which,
though recorded only in a ballad, may, from what we knew
of the manners of the times, be founded on truth ; not
that it was attended with all the circumdances which
the author of that natural but heroic competition hath
given it ; for, on that day, neither a Percy nor a Doug¬
las fell : here the poet fieems to have claimed his privi¬
lege, and mixed with this fray fome of the events of the
battle of Otterbourne. When property became happily
more divided by the relaxation of the feodal tenures,
thefe extenfive hunting-grounds became more limited ;
and, as tillage and hufbandry increafed, the beads of
chafe were obliged to give way to others more ufeful to
the community. The vad tradts of land, before dedi¬
cated to hunting, were then contradted ; and, in pro¬
portion as the ufeful arts gained ground, either lod their
original dedination, or gave rife to the invention of parks.
Liberty and the arts feem coeval ; for, when once the lat¬
ter got footing, the former protedted the labours of the
indudrious from being ruined by the licentious fportf-
man, or being devoured by the objedls of his diverfion :
for this reafon, the fubjedts of a defpotic government dill
experience the inconveniences of vad w-ades and foreds,
the terrors of the neighbouring hufbandmen ; while in
our well-regulated monarchy very few chales remain.
The Englifh dill indulge themfelves in the pleafure of
hunting; but confine the deer-kind to parks, of which
England boads more than any other kingdom in Eu¬
rope. The laws allow every man his pleafure; but con¬
fine them in fuch bounds as prevent them from being-
injurious to the meaned of the community. Before the
reformation, the prelates feem to have guarded fufficient-
ly againdthis want of amufement, the lee of Norwich, in
particular, being poffeffed, about that time, of thirteen
parks.”
CHASE, in the fea language, is to purfue a fir ip ;
which is alfo called giving chafe. Stern-chafe, is when
the chaler follows the chafed a-ltern diredlly upon the
fame point of the compafs. To lie with a Jhip's fore-foot
in a chafe, is to fail and meet with her by the neared
didance, to crofs her in her wa}?, or to come acrols her
fore-foot. A ffiip is faid to have a good chafe, when the
is fo built forward on, or a-dern, that die can bring
many guns to bear forwards or backwards; according
to which file is faid to have a good forward or good
dern-chafe. Chafe-guns, are fuch whole ports are either
in the head (and then they are ufed in chafing of others)
or in the deni, which are only ufeful when they are pur-
fiued or chafed by an enemy.
Wild-goofe Chase, ail ablurd kind of racing on horfe.
back, in which the two horfes, after running about
twelve fcore yards, had liberty, which horfe foever could
take the lead, to ride what ground the jockey piealed, the
hindmod horle being bound to follow him within a cer¬
tain didance fixed by the articles, or elfe to be whipped
in by the populace ; and whichever horfe could diltance
the other, won the race. This fort of racing was not
long in ufe, for it was found dedrudtive to good horfes,
when two fuch were matched together ; for, in this cafe,
neither was able to diltance the other till they were both
ready to fink under their riders; and. often two very
good horfes were both fpoiled, and the dakes forced to
be drawn. The mifehief of this racing foon brought in
the method now in ufe, of running only a certain quan¬
tity of ground, and determining the plate by the coming
in at the pod.
CHA'SER, f Hunter; purfuer; driver; anenchafer:
I i Stretch’d
122
C H A
Stretch’d on the lawn, his fecond hope furvey,
At once the chafer, and at once the prey !
Lo, Rufus, tugging at the deadly dart,
Bleeds in the foreft like a wounded hart ! Pope,
CHASM', f. A breach unclofed ; a cleft;
a gap; an opening. — In all that vifible corporeal world,
we fee no chafms or gaps. Locke.
CHASSAIR', or Casair, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Morocco, about fix leagues from Mount At¬
las: near it are mines of lead and antimony, which the
inhabitants carry to Fez to difpole of.
CHASSELAY', a town of France, in the department
of the Rhone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of Camp de Lyon : two leagues north of Lyons.
CHASSENEU'lL, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridt of La Rochefoucauld : eleven miles north-eaft of
La Rochefoucauld.
CHAS'SENSAL, a river of France, which runs into
the Ardeche, not far from its fource.
CHASSERA'DES, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Lozere, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridt of Villefort : eight miles north of Villefort.
CHASSIE'RS, a town of France, in the department
of the Ardeche: ten miles well of Viviers.
CHAS'SIRON (Tower of), a lighthoufe on the north
point of the ifland of Oleron, near the coaft of France,
which has two fires to diftinguifh it from the tower of
Cordovan.
CHASTE, adj. [chafe, Fr. cafus, , Lat.] Pure from all
commerce of fexes ; as, a chafe virgin :
Diana chafe, and Hebe fair. Prior.
With rcfpedt to language, pure; uncorrupt; not mixed
with barbarous phrales. — Free from obfcenity. — Among
words which iignify the fame principal ideas, fome are
clean and decent, others unclean ; fome chafe, others ob-
feene. Watts. — True to the marriage bed. — Love your
children; bedifereet; chafe-, keepers at home. Titus.
CHASTE-TREE, /. inbotany. SeeViTF.x.
CHASTELET', a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftplialia, and the bilhopric of Liege, fituated on the
louth fide of the Sambre : thirty miles fouth-weft of Bruf-
fiels, and fifty weft-fouth-weft of Liege.
CHASTELL AR', a town of Savoy : eight miles and a
half north-eaft Chambery.
CHA'STELY, adv. Without incontinence ; purely;
without contamination. — You fhould not pafs here •, no,
though it were as virtuous to lie as to live chafely. Shake/.
CHA'STENESS, / Chaftity; purity.
To CKA'STEN, <v. a.. [ chofier , Fr. cafiigo, Lat.] To
corredt ; to punilh ; to mortify. — Chafen thy fon while
there is hope, and let not thy foul fpare for his crying.
P, •O’verbs.
I follow thee, fafe guide? the path
Thou lead’d: me ; and to the hand of heav’n fubmit,
However chaff uing. Milton..
To CHASTl'SE, v. a. [ cafiigo , Lat. anciently accented
on the firft fyllable, now on the la'ft.] To punilh ; to cor¬
rect by punifhment ; toafffidt for faults. — Seldom is the
world affrighted or chaffed with figns or prodigies,
earthquakes or inundations, famines or plagues. Grew.
To reduce to order, or obedience; toreprefs; toreftrain;
to awe :
The gay focial fenfe
By decency chafis'd. Tbompfon.
CHA S'TISEMENT, f \chafiment, Fr.] Corredtion;
punifhment; commonly, though not always, ufed of do-
meftic or parental punilhment. — He receives a fit of fick-
nefs as the kind chafifement and difcipline of his heaven¬
ly Father, to wean his affedtions from the world. Bentley.
CHA
CHASTI'SER, /. The perfon that chaftifes ; a punifh-
er ; a corrector.
CHA'STITY, f. [cafitas, Lat.] Purity of the body. —
Chaflity is either abftinence or continence: abftinence is
that of virgins or widows; continence, of married per-
fons : chalte marriages are honourable1 and pleafing to
God. Taylor. — Freedom from obfcenity. Freedom from
bad mixture of any kind; purity of language, oppofed
to barbarifms.
Chaftity is a virtue urdverfally celebrated. There is
indeed no charm in the female fex that can fupply its
place. Without it, beauty is unlovely, and rank is con¬
temptible ; good breeding degenerates into wantonnefs,
and wit into impudence. The belt prefervative of female
honour is female delicacy; modefty is the handmaid of
virtue, appointed to tend, to drefs, and ferve, her : it is
as it were a kind of armour, which the fex (liould always
wear, both to adorn and defend them; and, when that is
laid afide, they are neither beautiful nor defirable, nor
fecure againft the wiles of fedudtion. Out of the nume¬
rous inftances of eminent chaftity recorded by authors,
the two following are feledted on account of the leffon
afforded by the different modes of condudt which they
exhibit.
Lucretia was a Roman lady of great beauty and noble
extradtion ; flie married Collatinus, a relation of Tar-
quinius Superbus. During the liege of Ardea, which
lafted much longer than was expedted, the young princes
palled their time in entertainments and diverfions. One
day as they were at fupper, at Sextus Tarquin’s the king’s
eldeft fon, with Collatinus, Lucretia’s hulband, the con-
verfation turned on the merits of their wives: every one
gave his own the preference. “What Iignify fo many
words?” fays Collatinus; “you may in a few hours, if
you pleafe, be convinced by your own eyes, how much
my Lucretia excels the reft. We are young: let us
mount our horles, and go and furprife them. Nothing
can better decide our dilpute than the ftate we lhall find
them in at a time when. molt certainly they will not ex¬
pert us.” They were a little heated with wine : “ Come
on, let us go,” they all cried together. They quickly
galloped to Rome, which was about twenty miles from
Ardea, where they find the princeffes, wives of the
young Tarquins, lurrounded with company, and every
circumftance of the higheft mirth and pleafure. From
thence they rode to Collatia, where they faw Lucretia
in a very different fituation. With her maids about her,
Ihe was at work in the inner part of her houfe, talking
on the dangers to which her hulband was expofed. The
victory was adjudged to her unanimoully. She received
her guefts with all poffible politenefs and civility. Lu¬
cretia’s virtue, which fhould have commanded refpedt,
was the very thing which kindled in the breaft of SextUs
Tarquin a ffrong and deteftable paflion. Within a few
days he returned to Collatia ; and, upon the plaufible ex-
cufe he made for his vilit, he was received with all the po¬
litenefs due to a near relation, and the eldeft fon of a king.
Watching the fitteft opportunity, he declares the paffion
Ihe had excited at his laft vifit, and employed the molt
tender intreaties, and all the artifices poflible, to touch
a woman’s heart ; but all to no purpofe. He then en¬
deavoured to extort her compliance by the moll: terrible
threatnings. It was in vain. She ftill perfifted in her
refolution; nor could Ihe be moved even by the fear of
death. But when the monfter told her that he would
firft difpatch her, and then, having murdered a Have,
would lay him by her fide, after which he would fpread
a report, that, having caught them in the adt of adultery,
he had punifhed them as they deferved ; this feemed to
fhake her refolution. She beiltated, not knowing which
of thefe dreadful alternatives to take: whether, by con-
fenting, to difhonour the bed of her hulband, whom file
tenderly loved; or, by refufing, to die under the odious
chara&er of having proftitutedher perfon to the lull of a
a fiave.
C H A
flave. He faw the ftruggle of her foul ; and feizing the
fatal moment, obtained an inglorious conqueft. Thus
Lucretia’s virtue, which had been proof againlt the fear
of death, could not hold out againft the fear of infamy.
The young prince, having gratified his paffion, returned
home as in triumph. On the morrow, Lucretia, over¬
whelmed with grief and defpair, fent early in the morn¬
ing to defire her father and her hufband to come to her,
and bring with them each a trufty friend, alluring them
there was no time to lofe. They came with all fpeed,
the one accompanied with Valerius (fo famous after un¬
der the name of Publicola'), and the other with Brutus.
The moment fhe faw them come, Ihe could not com¬
mand her tears ; and when her hufband afked her if all
was well? “By no means,” faid Ihe, “it cannot be well
with a woman after (he has loft her honour. Yes, Col-
latinus, thy bed has been defiled by a ftranger; but my
body only is polluted; my mind is innocent, as my
death lhall witnefs. Promile me only not to fuffer the
adulterer to go unpuniflied: it is Sextus Tarquinius,
who laft night, a treacherous guelf, or rather cruel foe,
offered me violence, and reaped a joy fatal to me; but,
if you are men, it will be Hill more fatal to him All
promifed to revenge her; and at the fame time, tried to
comfort her with reprefenting, “That the mir.donly fins,
not the body; and where the confent is wanting, there
can be no guilt.” “What Sextus deferves,” . replies Lu¬
cretia, “I leave you to judge; but for me, though I declare
myfelf innocent of the crime, I exempt not myfelf from
punilhment. No immodeft woman lhall plead Lucretia’s
example to outlive her dilhonour.” Thus faying, fhe
plunged into her bread a dagger Ihe had concealed under
her robe, and expired at their feet. Lucretia’s tragical
death has been praifed and extolled by pagan writers,
as the higheft and molt noble a£l of heroifm. The gof-
pel thinks not fo : it is murder, even according to Lu¬
cretia’s own principles, fince Ihe punilhed with death an
innocent period; -at leaft acknowledged as fuch by her-
l'elf. She was ignorant that our life is not in our own
power, but in his difpofal from whom we receive it. St.
Auftin, who carefully examines, in his \soo\^DeCicvltate
Dei, what we are to think of Lucretia’s death, confiders
it not as a courageous afition, flowing from a true love of
chaftity, but as an infirmity of a woman too fenfible of
worldly fame and glory ; and who, from a dread of ap¬
pearing in the eyes of men an accomplice of the violence
fhe abhorred, and of a crime to which fhe was entirely
a ftranger, commits a real crime upon lierfelf voluntarily
and defignedly. But what cannot be fufficiently admired
in this Roman lady, is her abhorrence of adultery, which
fhe feems to hold lb deteftable as not to bear the thoughts
of it. In this fenfe, Ihe is a noble example for all her lex.
Cbiomara, the wife of Ortiagon, a Gaulilh prince, was
equally admirable for her beauty and chaftity. D uring the
war between the Romans and the Gauls, the latter were
totally defeated on Mount Olympus! Chiomara, among
many other ladies, was taken prifoner, and committed to
the care of a centurion, no lefs paffionate for money than
women. He, at firft, endeavoured to gain her content
to his infamous defires ; but not being able to prevail
upon her, and fubvert her conftancy, he thought he
might employ force with a woman whom misfortune had
reduced to llavery. Afterwards, to make her amends for
that treatment, he offered to reltore her liberty ; but not
without ranfom. He agreed with her for a certain fum,
and, to conceal this defigh from the other Romans,
he permitted her to fend any of the prifoners Ihe fhould
choole to her relations, and afiigned a place near the ri¬
ver where the lady fhould be exchanged for gold. By-
accident there was one of her own flaves amongft the
prifoners. Upon him Ihe fixed; and the centurion foon
after carried her beyond the advanced polls, under cover
of a dark night. The next evening two of the relations
of the princefs came to the place appointed, whither the
centurion alfo carried his captive. When they had de-
C H A 123
livered him the attic talent they had brought, which was
the fum they had agreed on, the lady, in her own lan¬
guage, ordered thofe who came to receive her to draw
their fwords and kill the centurion, who was then amu-
fing himfelf with weighing the gold. Then, charmed
with having revenged the injury done her chaftity, fhe
took the head of the officer, which fhe had cutoff with her
ownhands, andhidingit underher robe, went to her huf-
band Ortiagon, who had returned home after the defeat of
his troops. As foon as (he came into his prefence, fliethrew
the centurion’s head at his feet. He was ftrangely fur-
prifed at fuch a fight; and afked her whofe head it was,
and what had induced her to do an aft fo inconfirtent
with her fex ? With a face covered with a fudden blufh,
and at the fame time expreffing her fierce indignation, fhe
declared the outrage which had been done her, and the
revenge fhe had taken for it. During the reft of her life,
file ftedfaftly retained the fame attachment for the purity
of manners which conftitutes the principal glory of the
fex, and nobly fuftained the honour of fo glorious, bold,
and heroic, an aftion. This lady was much more prudent
than Lucretia, in revenging her injured honour by the
death of her ravifher, rather than her own. Plutarch re¬
lates this faff, in his treatife upon the virtue and great
aftions of women ; and it is from him we have the name
of this, which is well worthy of being tranfmitted to pof-
terity.
The Roman law juftified homicide in defence of the
chaftity either of one’s felf or relations ; and fo alfo, ac¬
cording to Selden, flood the law in the Jevvifli republic.
The Englifh law likewife juftifies a woman, killing one
who attempts to ravilh her. So the hufband or father
may juftify killing a man, who attempts a rape upon his
wife or daughter; but not if he takes them in adultery
by confent, for the one is forcible and felonious, but not
the other. 1 Hal. P. C. 485. 6. And without doubt
the forcibly attempting a crime, of a Hill more de¬
teftable nature, may be equally refilled by the death of
the unnatural aggreffor. For the one uniform principle,
that runs through our own and all other laws, feems to-
be this; that where a crime, in itfelf capital, is endea¬
voured to be committed by force, it is lawful to repel
that force by the death of the party attempting. 4
Comm. 1 8 1.
CHASTITY is reprefer.ted in painting and fculpture,
by a woman of a modeft afpe.ft, holding in one hand a
whip, as a mark of chaftifement, clad in white like a
veftal, to lhew her purity and innocence. At her feet
Cupid blinded, and his bow and arrows lying broken by
him, to denote that flie has fubdued concupilcence, and
that the paffion of love has no more dominion over her..
Or, her face covered with a veil of lawn, holding in her
right hand a fceptre, and in her left two turtle-dove.-.
By others (he has been' reprefented by the goddefs Pallas,
keeping down Cupid (who is ftriking fire into a heart)
with a yoke; at her feet, an ermin. Conjugal chaftity
by an agreeable damfel, whofe robe is embroidered with
lilies; holding in one hand a fprig of laurel, and in the
other a turtle-dove.
To CHAT, <v. n. [from caqueter, Fr. Skinner 5 perhaps
from achat, purchale or cheapening, on account of the
prate naturally produced in a bargain ; or only, as it is
moil likely, contracted from chatter.'] To prate; to talk
idly ; to prattle ; to cackle ; to chatter 5 to converle at eafe ;
With much good-will the motion, was embrac’d,
To chat a while on their adventures pall. Drjden.
To CHAT, <y. a. To talk of. Not in ufe, unlefs lu-
dicroufly :
All tongues fpeak of him, and the bleared fights
Are fpeftacied. to lee him. Your prattling nurfe
Into a rapture lets her baby cry,.
While fhe chats him. Shakefpeare.
CHAT, f. Idle talk ; prate, flight or negligent tattle.
— The
124- C H A
— The leaft is good, far greater than the tickling of his
palate with a glafs of wine, or the idle chat of a foaking
club. Locke.
Snuff, or the fan, fupplies each paufe of chat,
With finging, laughing, ogling, and all that. Pope.
CHAT, f. The keys of trees are called chats ; as, alh
chats.
CHA'TA-HAT'CHI, or Hatchj, the largeft river
which falls into St. Role’s bay in Weft Florida. It is
alio called Pea river, and runs from north-enft entering
the bottom of the bay through feveral mouths; but lb
lhoal that only a fmall boat or canoe can pals them. Mr.
Hutchins afcended this river about twenty-five leagues,
where there was -a fmall fettlement of Couflac Indians.
The foil and timber on the banks of the river referable
very much thole of Efcambia.
CHATAIGNERAY'E (La), a town of France, and
principal place of a diftridt, in the department of Ven¬
dee : fifteen leagues fouth-eaft of Nantes, and three and
a half north of Fontenay le Comte. In April, 1793, this
town was taken from the republicans by the royalifts of
La Vendee.
^ CHATAIS'KA, a river of Siberia, which runs into
the Enifci, near Turuchanlk.
CHATAIS'KO, a town of Siberia, on the eaft fide of
the Enifei : 156 miles north of Turuchanlk.
CHATAN'G A, a river of Ruflia, which -runs into the
Frozen Sea, extending itfelf by the addition of many ri¬
vers into a large gulf at its mouth. Lat. 74. 40. N.
CHATAU'CHE, or Chatahuthe, a river in Georgia.
The northern part of Appalachicola river bears this name.
It is about thirty rods wide, very rapid, and full of Ihoals.
The lands on its banks are light and fandy, and the clay
of a bright red. The lower creeks are fettled by the
United States in fcattering clans and villages from 'the
head to the mouth of this river. Their huts and cabins,
from the high colour of the clay, referable clutters of
new-burned brick kilns. The diftance from this river
to the Talapole river is about leventy miles, by the war¬
path, which erodes at the falls, juft above the town of
the Tuckabatches.
CHATAUGH'QUE, a lake of North America, in On¬
tario county, -New-York, about eighteen miles long, 'and
three broad. Conewango river, which runs afouth-fouth-
eaft courfc, connects it with Alleghany river. This lake
is conveniently fituated fora communication between the
Erie and the Ohio ; there being water enough for boats
from Fort Franklin-on the Alleghany to the north-weft
corner of this lake; from thence there is a portage of
nine miles to Chataughque harbour- on lake Erie, over
ground capable of being made a good waggon road. This
communication was once ufed by the French.
^ CHA-TCHEOU', or Qua-tcheou, a town of Afia, in
the country of Thibet : 160 miles fouth-fouth-eaft of
Hami. Lat. 40. 22. N. Ion. 1 1 3. 5. E. Ferro.
CHATEAU'-ARNOU'X, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftridt of Sifteron ; feven miles fouth of Sif¬
ter on.
CHATEAU'-BELAIR' BAY, a bay on the weft coaft
t the ifland of St. Vincent, in the Weft Indies. Lat.
13. 14. N. Ion. 61. 17. W. Greenwich.
CHATEAU'-BOURG, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Ille. and Vilaine, and chief place of a
. canton, in the diftridt of Vitre: two leagues and a half
weft of Vitre.
_ CHATEAU'-BRIA'NT, a town, of France, and prin¬
cipal place of a diftridt, in the department of the Lower
Loire, containing about 3000 inhabitants : eleven leagues
north of Nantes, and nine .fouth-fouth-eaft of Rennes.
Lat. 47. 44. N. Ion. 16. 17. E. Ferro.
CHATE AU'-CHALO'NS, a town of France, in the
department of Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridt of Poligny ; two leagues north of Lons-le-Saunier.
C H A.
CHATEAU'-CHINO'N, a town of France, and prin¬
cipal place of a diftridt, in the department of Nyevre,
fituated near the fource of the Yonne. It has a confider-
able trade in cloth, leather, wood, and wool : eleven
leagues eaft of Nevers, and five and a half weft--north-
well of Autun. Lat. 47. 3. N. Ion. 21. 35. £. Ferro.
CHATE AL'-CORNET', a fortrefs of the ifland of
Guernfey.
CHATEAU'-D AUPHIN', a ftrong fortrefs of Pied¬
mont, in the marquifate of Saluzzo, ceded to the duke
of Savoy by the treaty of Utrecht. It was taken by the
combined armies of France. and Spain in 1744: fifteen
miles weft of Saluzzo, and thirty fouth- fouth-weft of Tu¬
rin. Lat. 44. 33. N. Ion. 24. 44. E. Ferro.
CHATEAU'-DUN, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftridt, in the department of the Eure and
Loire. It contains two churches, and about 3000 inha¬
bitants : twenty-five miles fouth of Chartres. Lat. 48.
4. N. Ion. 19. 1 . E. Ferro.
ClIATEAU'-FORT, a'town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Seine and Oife : one league north-eatt of
Chevreufe.
CHATE AU'-GAY, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of thePuy-de-Dome : one league fouth-weft of Riom.
CHATEAU'-GERA'RD, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of Tonnerre ; fourteen miles fouth-fouth-eaft
of Tonnerre.
CHATEAU'-GIRON',a town of France, in the depart <
ment of the Ille and Vilaine, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftridt of Rennes : two leagues and a half fouth-
eaft of Rennes, and four weft-north-weft of La Guerche.
CH ATEAU’-GOMBE'RT, a town of France, in the
department of the Mouths of the Rhone, and chief place
of a canton, in the diltridt of Marfeilles : four miles north-
eaft of Marfeilles.
CHATEAU'-GONTIE'R, a town of France, and prin¬
cipal place of a diftridt, in the department of the May-
enne, on the Mayenne ; here is a manufadture of linen
and woollen. The number of inhabitants is computed
at 7000 : five leagues fouth of Laval, and five weft of
Sable. Lat. 47. 57. N. Ion. 16. 57. E. Ferro.
CHATEAU'-d’IF, a fortrefs and three fmall iflands
near the coaft of France, in the Mediterranean : about
three miles weft-fouth-weft of Marfeilles.
CHATE AU'- JO UX, a fortrefs of France, in the de¬
partment of the Doubs, near Pontarlier.
CHATEAU'-LANDON', a towmof France, in the de¬
partment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftridt of Nemours. It contains three
pariflies : two leagues and a half fouth of Nemours, and
fix fouth-fouth-weft Montereau.
CHATEAU'-LAUDREN', a town of France, in the
department of the North Coafts, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftridt of St. Brieuc : two leagues and a
half weft-north-weft of St. Brieuc.
CHATE AU'-LIN, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftridt, in the department of Finifterre: the
inhabitants carry on a confiderable trade in flates for co¬
vering houfes : in the environs is a medicinal fpring, and
fome mines of copper and iron : four leagues north of
Quimper. Lat. 48. 12. N. Ion. 1 3. 34. E. Ferro.
CHATEAU' du LOIR, a town of France, and prin¬
cipal place of a diftridt, in the department of the Sarte.
It contains about 2000 inhabitants. In the environs is
made a great deal of that excellent wine called claret :
feven leagues north-north-weft of Tours, and feven fouth-
fouth-eaft of Le Mans. Lat. 47. 42. N. Ion. 18. 6. E. Ferro.
CHATEAU'-LOMBA'RD, a fortrefs ofAfiatic Lom¬
bardy, in the province of Caramania : 104 miles fouth-
fouth-weft of Cogni.
CHATEAU' en MARCHE, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Seine : two leagues north of
Montvilliers.
CHATEAU-MEILLA'NT, a town of France, and
. principal
C H A
principal place of a diftrid, in the department of the
Cher, with an ancient caftle, faid to have been built by
Julius Caefar: eight leagues fouth-fouth-eaft of Ifl'oudun,
and ten and a half fouth of Bourges. Lat. 46. 34. N. Ion.
19. 5*. E.'Ferro.
CHATEAU'-NEUF, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Cote d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrid of Arnay-le-duc : feventeen miles fouth-weft of
Diion.
CHATEAU'-NEUF, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftrid, in the department of the Mayne and
Loire : thirteen miles north of Angers, and four and a
half weft of La Fleche.
CHATEAU'-NEUF, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Var, and chief place of a canton in the dil-
trid of Grafle : three miles north-eaft of Grafle.
CHATEAU'-NEUF, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the 1 lie and Vilaine, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrid of St, Malo: feven miles louth of St. Malo.
CHATEAU'-NEUF, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftridt of Marcigny : three leagues eaft-louth-
eaft of Marcigny.
CHATEAU'-NEUF, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrid of Orleans: twelve miles ealt cf Orleans.
CHATEAU'-NEUF, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrid of St. Leonard : feventeen miles fouth-eaft
of Limoges.
CHATEAU'-NEUF sur CHAREN'TE, a town of
France, in the department of the Charente, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftrid of Cognac : ten miles
weft-fouth-weft of Angoulefme.
CHATEAU'-POINSA'T, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftrid of Le Dorat : eighteen miles north of
Limoges.
CHATEAU'-PORTIEN', a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftrid of Rethel. It contains about 2500 inhabi¬
tants : two leagues weft of Rethel.
CHATE AU'-REGNAU'LT, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftrid, in the department of Indre
and Loire : five leagues north-eaft of Tours, and fix weft
of Blois.
CHATEAU'-RENA'RD,a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrid of Montargis : four leagues and a half fouth-
weft of Sens, and four and a half eaft of Montargis.
CHATEAU'-RENA'RD,a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Mouths of the Rhine, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftrid of Tarafcon, celebrated for
its excellent white wine: nine miles north-eaft of Tarafcon.
CHATEAU'-RENA'RD,a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Ardennes : ten miles north-weft of Sedan.
CHATE AU'-SALI'NS, a town of France, and prin¬
cipal place of a diftrid, in the department of the Meurte,
16 called from the fait works, which are very extenfive :
feven leagues fouth-eaft of Metz, and five north-eaft of
Nancy. Lat. 48. 49. N. Ion. 24. 10. E. Ferro.
CHATEAU'-THIERRY', atown of France, and prin¬
cipal place of a diftrid, in the department of the Aifne,
fituated on the Marne, and contains three parilhes ; near
it is a medicinal fpring : five polls and a half weft of
Epernay, and ten and three quarters north-north-eaft of
Paris. Lat.49. 3-N. Ion. 21. 4. E. Ferro.
CHATEAU' la VALLIE'RE, a town of France, in the
Indre and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif¬
trid of Langeais : five leagves north of Langeais.
CHATEAU'- VILLAIN', a, town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Here : fixteen miles eaft of Vienne.
CHATE AU'-VILLAIN', a town of France, in the de~
partment of the Upper Marne, and chief place of a can-
Vol.IV. No. 183.
C H A 125
ton, in the diftrid of Chaumont : five leagues and a half
weft-nortli-weft of Langres.
CHATEAUNEU'F, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrid of Serres : ten miles fouth of Serres.
CHATEAUNEU'F, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrid of St. Amand : four leagues and a half fouth of
Bourges, and four and a half eaft-fouth-eaft of Illbudun,
CHATEAUNEU'F du FAON, a town of France, in the
department of Finifterre, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrid of Carhaix : fixteen miles north-eaft of
Quimper.
CHATEAUNEU'F de GALAU'RE, atown of France,
in the department of the Drome, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrid of Romans : thirteen miles north
of Romans.
CHATEAUNEU'F de MAZE'NC, a town of France,
in the department of the Drome, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrid of Montelimart : nine miles eaft of
Montelimart.
CHATEAUNEU'F du PAPE, a town of France, in
the department of the Mouths of the Rhone : three leagues
north of Avignon.
CHATEAUNEU'F de RAN'DON, a town of France,
in the department of the Lozere, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftrid of Langogne : four leagues north-eaft
of Mende.
CHATEAUNEU'F de RHONE, a town of France, on
the eaft fide of the Rhone, oppofite Viviers.
CHATEAUNEU'F en THIMERAI'S, a town of
Fr mice, and principal place of a diftrid, in the department
of the Eure : thirteen miles north-weft of Chartres, and
twelve fouth of Dreux. Lat. 48. 36. N. Ion. 18. 55. E. Ferro.
CHATEAUNEU'F-au-VAL-DE-BARGI'S, a town
of France, in the department of the Nyevre, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftrid of La Charite : ten miles
north-eaft of Charite.
CHATE AUROU'X, a town of France, and capital ofthe
department of the Indre, fituated in a fertile country, on
the Indre. Here is a large woollen manufadure. It con-,
tains four parilhes, and about 5500 inhabitants: fifteen
polls north Limoges, and thirty-one and three quarters
fouth-fouth-weft of Paris. Lat. 46.49.N. Ion. 19.21.
E. Ferro.
CHATF.AUROU'X, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Higher Alps : five miles north of Embrun.
CHATEEN', a town of Little Bukharia.
CHATF.L', or Chate, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton,,
in the diftrid of Grandpre : five miles fouth-eaft of
Grandpre.
CHATEL'-CEN'SOY, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrid of Avalon : four leagues weft of Avalon.
CHATEL'-GUI'ON,a village of France, in the depart¬
ment of Puy-de-Dome, celebrated for its mineral water ^
one league north of Riom.
CHATEL'sur MOZEL'LE, a town of France, in the
department of the Vofges : three leagues and a half eaft
of Mirecour.
CHATEL'-de-NEUVE, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Allier, and chief place 6f a canton, in
the diftrid of Moulins : ten miles louth of Moulins.
CHATEL' (John), the Ion of a woollen -draper at Pa¬
ris, attempted the life of Henry IV. of France, December
27, 1594. This prince, having taken a journey to the
.borders of Artois, was returned to Paris that very day.
He had a levee in the chamber of his miftrefs Gabriella
d’Eftrees, who lived then at the hotel de Bouchage ; and,
as he was going to embrace Montigni, he was ltruck in
his under lip with a knife, which broke a tooth in his
mouth. John Chate), who gave him the blow, and de-
%ned to cut his throat, was then but eighteen or nineteen
K. k years
126 C H A
years old. Having failed in' the attempt, he dropt his
knife, and hid himfelf in the crowd. Every body flood
amazed, being at a lofs to know who the villain was;
and lie was likely to efcrvpe : but feme one happened to
call an eye upon him, and he was taken at a venture, the
wiidnefs of his look betraying, him. The king com¬
manded the captain of the guard who had feized him, to
let him go ; faying that he pardoned him: but hearing
that he was a difciple of the jefuits, he cried out, “ Mult
then the jefuits be convidled from my own mouth ?” This
regicide, being examined by the ordinary judge of the
king’s houfhold, declared the reafons that determined
him to fo defperate an attempt. Being queftioned about
the fact, he laid he was urged to it, by the confcioufnefs
of having led a fcandalous and wicked life; that he def-
paired of forgivenefs, and that it was impoffible for him
to efcape going to hell ; but that he hoped to make his
damnation more tolerable by attempting a great adftion.
Being afked what that great aftion was ? he anfwer-
ed, the murder of the king ; not that even this would ab-
folve him from damnation, but only that it would make
his torments more. tolerable. Being afked, whence he had
this new theology ? he replied from the ftudy of philofo-
phy. He was then queftioned, whether he had ftudied
philofophy in the college of the jefuits, and whether he
was ever in the meditation-chamber, in which were fhewn
the piftures of feveral evil lpirits, and a great many ftrange
figures ; and to which the jefuits introduced tinners, with
a view to, frighten and reclaim them from their .wicked
lives. He anfwered, that he had ftudied two years and a
half under father Gueret, and that he had often been in
the meditation-chamber. Being afked who it was that
perfuaded him to kill the king? his anfwer was, that he
had heard in feveral places, that it was lawful to kill the
king; and that they who faid it, called him a tyrant. Then
they afked him whether it was not cuftomary with the je¬
fuits to talk of killing the king? to which he replied,
that he had heard them fry, that it was lawful to kill the
king: that he was without the pale of the church ; and
that no one ought to obey him, or acknowledge him for
a king, till he had obtained the pope’s approbation.
. He was Sentenced to death by a decree of the parlia-
'ment December .29, 1594, and buffered the fame day by
the light of flambeaux. The Sentence lets forth a par¬
ticular account of his bufferings, in the following man¬
ner : “The court has condemned John Chat el to make
honourable amends before the chief door of the church
of Paris, ftripped to his fhirt, holding in his hand a lighted
wax taper of two pounds weight, and there to fay and declare
on his knees, that he had wickedly and treacheroufly at¬
tempted to commit this moft inhuman and abominable
murder, and had wounded the king in the face with a
knife ; and that, having been taught a falfe and damna¬
ble dodtrine, he faid on his trial, that it was lawful to kill
the king, and that king Henry IVr. now reigning, was
not a member of the church till he had obtained the
pope’s approbation ; of which he the laid John Chatel re¬
pents, and for which he begs pardon of God, of the king,
and of the court. This done, he is to be drawn on a
fledge to la Place de Greve, and thereto have the flefh of
his arms and thighs torn off with red-hot pincers 5 and
liis right hand, in which he is to hold the knife with
which he endeavoured to commit the murder, cut off;
afterwards his body to be drawn and quartered by four
horfes, pulling’' feveral ways, and his members and corpfe
to be thrown into the fire, and burnt to allies, and the
afhes thrown up into the air. The court has alfo declar¬
ed, and does declare, all his goods and chattels forfeited
to the king. Before this fentence be executed upon him,
he (hall alfo be put to the rack, and buffer the ordinary and
extraordinary torture, to force him to declare his accom¬
plices, and fome other circumftances relating to his trial.”
By the fame dejrree all the jefuits were banifhed out of
France. Peter Chatel his father, and the jefuit Gueret,
C K A
under whom Chatel was then ftudying philofophy, were
tried January 10, following. The jefuit was bauifhed
for ever, Peter Chatel for nine years out of France, and
for ever out of the city and fuburbs of Paris. The jefiiit’s
goods and chattels were forfeited to the king, and Peter
Chatel was fined 2000 crowns.. The court alfo ordered
the houfe in which Peter Chatel lived, to be entirely de-
molifhed ; the fpot on which it flood to be applied to
the ufe of the public, and that no other houfe ihould ever
be built upon it ; but that a high pillar of free-ftone fhould
be let up for a perpetual monument of that moft wicked
and abominable attempt on the king’s perfon, and that
on the laid pillar be engraved an inlcription, containing
the reafons for which the houfe was demolifhed and the
pillar erefted. This fentence was executed ; but the pil¬
lar has fince been taken down, and a fpring caufed to run
there inftead of it.
CHATELDON', a town of France, in the department
of Puy-de-Dome, and chief place of a canton, inthedif-
trift of Thiers : fix leagues eaft-north-eaft of Riom.
CHATELET' (Le), a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftrift of Melun : two leagues ealt of Melun.
CHATELET' (the marchionefs), def’cencied of an an¬
cient family of Picardy, and born on the 17th of Decem¬
ber 1706. Among the women of her nation who have
rendered themfelves illuftrious, fhe is certainly entitled
to the firft rank. Before her, many had acquired repu¬
tation by agreeable romances, and by poetical flight?, in
which there appeared the graces of wit, and the charms
of fentiment. Several alio, by applying themfelves to
the ftudy of languages, by making the beauties of others
to pafs for their own, and by enriching their verfions with
valuable commentaries, had deferved well of the republic
of letters' But by compofing works. on fubjedfts which
unfold themfelves only to men of rare genius, the mar¬
chionefs hasclafled herfelf with the greateft philol'ophers,
and may be faid to have rivalled Leibnitz and Newton.
She wrote “ Institutes of Phyfic,” a. work confidered as
a mafterpiece of eloquence and reafoning., addrefled to
her fon. This is a commentary on Leibnitz’s phiiolophy,
which is often unintelligible. She died 1749, aged 43.
CH A'TELLANY, f. \_cba>. lenie, Fr.] The diltridt un¬
der the dominion of a caftle. — Here are about twenty
towns and forts of great importance, with their chatellanics
and dependencies Dryden.
CHATELLERAU'LT, a town of France, and princi¬
ple place of a diltrift, in the department of the Vienne.
It is iituated on the Vienne, and contains about 8coo in¬
habitants : the principal employment is in making clocks
and cutlery : five polls north-north-eaft of Poi&iers, and
forty-three and a quarter foutli-fouth-weft of Paris. Lat.
46. 49. N. Ion. 18. 1 2. E. Ferro.
CHATELLE P (Le), a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltridl of Chateau Meillant : two leagues north-north-
eaft of Chateau Meillant.
CHATELLU'X, a town of France, in the department
of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Bouffac : four leagues South-weft of Bouffac.
CHATELLU X-l e- MARCH SEU'X, a town of France,
in the department of the Creufe, and chief place of a
canton, in the diitribt of Bourganeuf : five miles north-
eaft of Bourganeuf.
CHATENAY', a town of France, in the department
of Paris : two leagues South of Paris.
CHATENOIS', a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Rhine : one league weft of Scheleftat.
CHATENOY', a town of France, in the department
of the Volges, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri£t
of Neufchateau : two leagues fouth ealt of Neufchateau.
CHATHAM, one of the principal dock-yards be¬
longing to Great Britain, fituate in the county of Kent,
and feparated by the river Medway from Rochefter, to
which
C H A
C H A
which it is a fuburb. The doclc was begun by queen
Elizabeth, and has been lo improved by her fucceflbrs,
particularly Charles II. that there is not a more complete
arfenal in the world. That excellent fund for 'the relief
of wounded feamen, called the cheft at Chatham, was in-
Hi tu ted in i jS3, after the dcfe.at of the Spnnilh armada,
when queen Elizabeth, by advice of Sir Francis Drake,
Sir John Hawkins, and others, affigned a portion- of
every teaman’s pay to the relief o'f feamen who havq been
wounded or difabled in the navy. Here is alfo an hof-
pital, founded by Sir John Hawkins, for poor decayed
mariners and fliipwrights; the building appropriated for
their reception was finilhed, as appears from an inferip-
tion in the wall, in the year 155a. Queen Elizabeth,
at the requeft of the founder, granted a charter of incor¬
poration by the name of ‘“•the governors of the hofpital
of Sir John Hawkins, Knt.at Chatham.” No perfon is eli¬
gible who has not been maimed or difabled in the fervice
of the navy, or otherwife brought to poverty. It is remar¬
kable that captain Hawkins, the founder of this cha¬
rity, is mentioned as the firft Englifhman who ever en¬
gaged in the African (lave trade. By queen Elizabeth’s
charter of incorporation, the community is always to
confift of twenty-fix governors, of which number only
four were to be elective, and the others by virtue of their
refpeftive offices. Thefe are, the archbifhop of Canter¬
bury, tire bilhop of Rochefter, the lord high admiral,
the lord warden of the Cinque Ports, the dean of Ro¬
chefter, the treasurer, comptroller, furveyor, and clerk
of the afls, of the navy, fix principal mafters of mariners,
two principal fhipwrights, the mailer and wardens of
the Trinity-houfe, for the time being, and their fuccef-
fors. This, hofpital has been lately rebuilt, in a light,
airy, and handfome, manner. In 1667, the Dutch fleet
took and difmantled Sheernefs, and, failing up the Med¬
way, burnt three guard-fhips, and attacked Upnor Caftle,
which defends the arfenal; but they were repulfed, and
in their return burned and damaged three men of war.
The dock-yard, including the ordnance-wharf, is a-
bout a mile in length ; and the commiffion.er, and other
principal officers, have elegant houles to refide in. Here
are many fpacious llorehoufes, one of which is 660 feet
in length. The fail-loft is 209 feet long. Though an
immenfe quantity of fiores of all kinds are depolited in
thefe magazines, yet they are arranged in fo regular a
manner, that, on any emergency, whatever is wanted
may be procured with the greateft difpatch, and without
the leaft confufion. In the anchor-fmith’s forge are
twenty-one fires conftantly employed ; and here are made
the anchors, lome of which weigh near five tons. The
new rope-houfe is 1140 feet in length, in which cables
are made 120 fathoms long, and twenty-two inches
round. Chatham church is fituated on an eminence ad¬
joining to the office of ordnance. It was deftroyed by
fire about the middle of the fourteenth century; and, in
order to enable the inhabitants to rebuild it, the pope,
by a bull dated 1352, granted to all who fhould contri¬
bute their affiftance to fo pious a work, a relaxation from
penances for one year and forty days. In 1635, the com-
miffioner of his majefty’s navy repaired the church, le-
built and enlarged the well end, and erefled the lleepie.
In 1707, the gallery over the foutli able was built by com-
miffioner St. Loo, of Chatham-yard, for the ufe of the
navy and ordinary. But, notwithftanding thefe en¬
largements, the church was Hill too fmall ; and in 1788,
it _ was pulled down, except the lleepie part, and rebuilt
with brick on extended climenfions ; the galleries are fpa¬
cious and uniform, and the light happily dilpofed
throughout the fabric, which is now capable of holding
the parilhioners without -inconvenience. Chatham has
two annual fairs, viz. May 15 and September 19. The
market is on Saturdays. Diftant from Canterbury twen¬
ty-five miles, and thirty eaft from London.
CHA' PHAM, a maritime town of United America,
in Barnitaple county, Maffachufetts, fituated on the ex¬
terior extremity of the elbow of Cape Cod, convenient
127
for the filhery; in which they have ufually about forty
veil els employed. It has 1 140 inhabitants, and lies nine¬
ty-five miles fouth-eaft of Bofton.
CHATHAM, a townfhip in Grafton county, New-
Hamplhire. It was incorporated in 1767.
CHA'THAM, a fiouri filing townfiiip in Middlefex
county, Connedlicut, on the eaftern bank of Connecti¬
cut river, and oppofite Middleton city, It was apart of'
the townfiiip of Middleton till 1767.
CHA'THAM, a townfiiip in Eflex county, New Jer-
fey, fituated on Paflaic l i ver: thirteen miles weft of Eli¬
zabeth town, and nearly the fame from Newark.
CHATHAM, a townfiiip of Columbia county, New-
York. By the ftate cenfus of 1796, 380 of its inhabitants
were eleftors.
CHA'THAM, a county of the American States, in
Hilllborough diftrift. North Carolina, about the centre
of the ftate. It contains 9221 inhabitants; chief town,
Pittfburg. The court-houfe is a few miles weft of Ra¬
leigh, on a branch of Cape Fear river.
CHA'THAM, a town of South Carolina, in Cheraws
diftriCl, fituated in Chefterfield county, on the weft fide
of Great Pedee river. Its fituation, in a highly-cultiva¬
ted and rich country, and at the head of a navigable river,
bids fair to render it a place of great importance.
CHA'THAM, a county of the American States, in
the lower diftridft of Georgia, in the north-eaft corner of
the ftate, having the Atlantic ocean eaft, and Savannah
river north-eaft. It 'contains 10,769 inhabitants. The
chief town is Savannah, the former capital of the ftate.
CHA'THAM, or Pnnjo bay, a large bay on the weft
fide of the foutli end of the promontory of Eaft Florida.
It receives North and Delaware rivers.
CHA'THAM, an ifland of United America, on the
fouth-eaft coaft of the llate of Maflachufetts. Lat. 41,
39. N. Ion. 69. 56. W. Greenwich.
CHA' TH AM-HOUSE, in the territory of theHudfqn’s'
bay company. Lat. 55. 23.40. N. Ion. 98. W. Greenwich.
CHATILLON', a town of France, in the department
of Paris, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriiSt of
Bourg la Reine: one league and a half fouth-lbuth-weft
of Paris.
CHATILLON', a town of France, in the department
of the Drome, and chief place of a canton, in the dill rift ;
of Die : three leagues and a half north-well of Lyons-
CHATILLON', a town of Savoy, in the Genevois :
three miles fouth-fouth-eaft of St. Juiien.
CHATILLON ', a town of Piedmont, in the duchy of
Aofta, on theDoria Baltea: nine miles fouth-eaft of Aofta.
CHATILLON' ex BAROl'S, a town of France, in.
the department of the Nyevre, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftrift of Moulins-en-Gilbert : eight miles
north-weft of Mouiins.
CHATILLON' sous le COTES, a town of France, in
the department of the Meule, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diitriri of Verdun fix miles eaft of Verdun.
CHATILLON' suit COURTl'NE, a town of France,
in the department of Jura, and. chief place of a canton,
in the dillrift of Lons-le-Saunier : two leagues and a half
eaft of Lons-le-Saunier.
CHATILLON' les DOM'BES, a town of France, and
principal place of a diltridl, in the department of the
Ain: four leagues l’outh-weft of Bourg-en-Brefle. Lat.
46. 7. N. Ion. 22. 37. E. Ferro.
CHATILLON' sur IN'DRE, a town of France, and
principal place of a dillriS, in the department of the In-
dre : twenty-three miles north-welt of Chateauroux,
and eleven iouth-fouth-eaft ofLoches.
CHATILLON' suit LOING, a town of France, in
the department of the Loiret, and chief place ot a can¬
ton,. in the di Uriel of Montargis, containing about 1700
inhabitants: four leagues fouth of Montargis.
CHATILLON sur LOIRE, a town of France, in the
department of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton,
in the diltrift of Gieii : three leagues fouth-eaft: of Gien.
CHATILLON' SUR MARNE, a town of France, in
the •
123 C H A
the department of the Marne, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftrift of Epernay : nine miles weft-north-
weft of Epernay.
CHATILLON' deMICHAIL'LE, a town of France, in
the department of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in
the dift nidi of Nantua: two leagues and a half eaft.of Nan tua.
CHATILLON sur SAONE, a town of France, in the
department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftridt of La Marche: three leagues fouth-fouth-
eall of La Marche.
CHATILLON sur SEINE, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftrift, in the department of the
Cote-d’Or. The town is large, though only one parifh,
and is built on both fides of the Seine. There are fome iron
forges in the neighbourhood: thirty-eight miles north-
north-weft of Dijon, and twenty-four eaft of Tonnere.
CHATILLON' sur SE'VRE, a town of France, in the
department of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a can¬
ton, in the diftrift of Chatillon : twelve leagues north of
Niort, and feven weft of Thouars.
CHATILLON' enVEN'DELAIS, a town of France, in
the department of the Hie and Vilaine, and chief placeof a
canton, in the diftrift of Vitre : two leagues north of Vitre.
CHATONNAY', a town of France, in the department
of the Here, and chief placeof a canton, in the diftridt of
Vienne: five leagues eaft of Vienne, and feven and ahalf
tbuth-eaft of Lyons.
CHATOYA'NT, adj. a term applied by the French, to
denote that aftedtion of femi-tranlparent ftones by which
their colours vary according to the pofition of the eye of
the obferver. We have not a correfpondent Englifh
word; for which realbn the French term is adopted by
our modern writers on mineralogy.
CHA'TRE (La), a town of France, and principal
place of a diftridt, in the department of the Indre. Here
js a woollen manufacture, and the inhabitants carry on a
large trade in cattle ; it has two churches : fix leagues
jbuth-fouth-eaft of Chateauroux, and feven and a half
fouth of Ifloudun. Lat.46. 35. N. Ion. 19. 39. E. Ferro.
CHA'TTEL, f Any moveable pofleflion:
Nay, look not big, nor ftamp, nor flare, nor fret;
I will be mafter of what is mine own;
She is my goods, my chattels. Shakefpeare.
CHAT'TELS, \catdlla, Lat.] Inlaw, all goods mo¬
veable and immoveable, except fuch as are in nature of
freehold, or parcel of it. The Normans call moveable
goods only, chattels : but this word by the common law
extends to all moveable and immoveable goods : and the
civilians denominate not only what we call-chattels, but
alio land, bona. But no eftate of inheritance or freehold
can be termed in our law, goods and chattels ; though a
leafe for years may pafs as goods. Chattels are either
perfonal or real: perfonal, as gold, filver, plate, jewels,
houfhold fluff, goods and wares in a (hop, corn fown on the
ground, carts, ploughs, coaches, fiddles, See. Cattle, &c.
as horfes, oxen, kine, bullocks, flieep, pigs, and all tame
fowls and birds, fwans, turkeys, geefe, poultry, &c. and
thefeare called perfonal in tw o relpedts, one becaufethey
belong immediately to the perfon of a man ; and the other,
for that being any way injuriously with-held from us, we
have no means to recover them but by perfonal adtion.
Chattels-real, faith Coke, 1 Inft. 118. are fuch as con¬
cern or favour of the realty ; as terms for years of land,
the next prefentation to a church, eftates by a ftatute
merchant, ftatute-ftaple, elegit, or the like. And thele
are called real chattels, as being interefts ifiuing out of,
or annexed to, real eftates; of which they have one qua¬
lity, viz. immobility, which denominates them real;
but want the other, viz. a fufiicient, legal, indetermi¬
nate, duration; and this want it is that conftitutes them
chattels. The utmoll period for which they can laft, is
fixed and determinate, either for fuch a ipace of time
certain, or till fuch a particular fum of money be railed
out of fuch a particular income; fo that they are not
equal in the eye of the law to the lowelt eftate of free-
C H A
hold, a leale for another’s life. 2 Comm. 386. Butdeeds
relating to a freehold, obligations, &c. which are things
in adlion, are not reckoned under goods and chattels;
though, if writings are pawned, they may be chattels:
and money hath been accounted not to be goods or chat¬
tels; nor are haw'ks or hounds, fuch being ferte naturae.
8 Rep. 33. Terms de Ley 103. A collar of SS. garter of
gold, buttons, See. belonging to the drefs of a knight of
the garter, are not jewels to pafs by that name in per¬
fonal eftate, but enfigns of honour. Dyer 59.
Chattels perfonal are, immediately upon the death of
the teftator, in the adtual pofleflion of the executor, as
the law will adjudge, though they are at never fo great a
diftance from him; chattels real, as leafes for years of
houfes, lands, &c. are not in the polTelfion of the execu¬
tor till he makes an entry, or hath recovered the fame;
except in cafe of a leafe for years of tithes, where no en¬
try can be made. 1 Nelf. Abr. 437- Leafes for years,
though for a thoufand years, leafes at will, eftates of te¬
nants by elegit, See. are chattels, and lhall go to the ex¬
ecutor: all obligations, bills, ftatutes, recognifances,
and judgments, fhall be as a chattel in the executors,
&c. Bro. Obi. 181. But if one be feifed of land in fee on
which trees and grafs grow, the heir fhall have thefe, and
not the executor; for they are not chattels till they are
cut and fevered, but parcel of the inheritance. 4 Rep. 63.
Dyer 273. The game of a park with the park, fifti in
the pond, and doves in the houfe with the houfe, go to
the heir, &c. and are not chattels: though if pigeons, or
deer, are fame, or kept alive in a room; or if fi(h be in
a trunk, &c. they go to the executors as chattels. Noy
124. 11 Rep. 50. Keilw. 88. An owner of chattels is
faid to be pojj'ejfed of them; as of freehold the term is,
that a perfon is feifed of the fame.
To CHAT'TER, <u. n. [caqueter, Fr.] To make a noife
as a pie, or other unharmonious bird. — Nightingales fel-
dom fing, the pie ftill ebattereth. Sidney.
So doth the cuckoo, when the mavis fings,
Begin his witlefs note apace to chatter. Spenfer.
To make a noife by collifioti of the teeth :
Dip but your toes into cold water,
Their correfpondent teeth will chatter. Prior.
To talk idly or carelefly. — Suffer no hour to pafs away in
a lazy idlenefs, an impertinent chattering, or ufelefs tri¬
fles. Watts.
CHAT' PER, f Idle prate. — Noife like that of a pie
or monkey :
The mimic ape began his chatter.
How evil tongues his life. befpatter. Swift.
CHAT'TERER, f An idle talker; a prattler.
CHAT'TERER, in ornithology. See Ampelis.
CHATTERPOUR', atown of Hindooftan, in the coun¬
try of Alla-Habad : 158 miles fouth-fouth-eaft of Agra,
and 120 eaft-louth-eaft of Alla-Habad.
CHAT'TERTON (Thomas), a very Angular writer,
and one to whom M. Baillet would certainly have given
a place among his “ enfans celebres,” was born at Briftol
November 20, 1752 ; and educated at a charity-fchool on
St. Auguftin’s Back, where nothing more was taught
than reading, writing, and accounts. At fourteen years
of age, he was articled clerk to an attorney at Briftol,
with whom he continued about three years ; yet, though
his education was thus confined, he difeovered an early
turn towards poetry and Britifh antiquities, and particu¬
larly towards heraldry. How foon he began to be an au¬
thor is not known. In the Town and Country Magazine
for March 1769 are two letters, probably from him, as
they are dated from Briftol, and fubferibed with his ufual
fignature, D. B. that is, Dunhelmus Briftolienfis. The
former contains fliort extracts from two MSS. “ written
300 years ago by one Rowley a monk,” concerning drefs
in the age of Henry II. the latter Ethelgar, a Saxon poem,
in bombaft profe. In the fame magazine for May 1760,
are
C H A
are three communications from Briftol, with the fame
fignature D. B. one of them intituled “ Obfervations upon
Saxon Heraldry, with drawings of Saxon Achievements;”
and, in the fubfequent months of 1769 and 1770, there
are leveral other pieces, which are undoubtedly of his
compofition. In April 1770 he left Briftol, difgufted with
his profeflion, and irreconcileable to the line of life in
which he was placed; and coming to London, in hopes
of advancing his fortune by his pen, he funk at once from
the fublimity of his views to an abfolute dependence on
the patronage of bookfeilers. Things however, leem foon
to have brightened up a little with him'; for. May 14,
he writes to his mother, in high fpirits, upon the change
in his fituation, with the following farcaftic reflection
upon his former patrons at Briftol. “ As to thofe, they
rate literary lumber fo low, that an author in their efti-
mation mult be poor indeed: but here matters are other-
wile. Had Rowley been a Londoner inltead of a Briftow-
yan, I could have lived by copying his works.” In a
letter to his filler, May 30, he informs her that he is to be
employed in writing a voluminous “ Hiftory of London,”
to appear the beginning of next winter. Meanwhile, he
had written fomething in praife of alderman Beckford,
then lord mayor, which had procured him the honour of
being prefented to his lordihip ; and, in the letter juft
mentioned, he gives the following account of his recep¬
tion, with certain obfervations upon political writing.
“ The lord mayor received me as politely as a citizen
could : but the devil of the matter is, there is no money to
be got on this fide of the queltion. However, he is a poor
author who cannot write on both fides. Eflays on the
patriotic fide will fetch no more than what the copy is
fold for. As the patriots themfelves are fearching for
places, they have no gratuity to lpare. On the other
hand, unpopular elfays will not even be accepted, and
you miift pay to have them printed ; but then you fel-
dom lofe by it, as courtiers are fo fenfible of their defi¬
ciency in merit, that they generoufly reward all who
know how to daub them with the appearance of it.” He
continued to write incelfantly in various periodical pub¬
lications ; yet all thele exertions of his genius brought
in fo little profit, that he was foon reduced to the ex-
tremeft indigence ; lo that at laft, opprefled with pover¬
ty, and all'o with difeafe, he put an end to his exiftence
in a fit of defpair, Augult, 1770, by a dofe of poifon.
This unfortunate perfon, though certainly a moft extra¬
ordinary genius, feems yet to have been a moft ungra¬
cious charafter. He was violent and impetuous to a
ftrange degree- From the firlt of the above-cited letters
to his After, he appears to have had a portion of ill-hu¬
mour and fpleen more than enough for a lad of feven-
teen ; and the editor of his Mifceilanies records, “ that
he pofleffed all the vices and irregularities of youth, and
that his profligacy was at leaft as confpicuous as his abi¬
lities.”
In 1777 were publilhed, in one volume 8vo, “ Poems,
fuppofed to have been written at Briftol, by Thomas
Rowley and others, in the fifteenth century : the greateft
part now firft publilhed from the moft authentic copies,
with an engraved fpecimen of one of the manufcripts. To
which are added, a preface, an introductory account of
the feveral pieces, and a gloflary.” And, in 1778, were
publilhed, in one volume 8vo, “ Mifceilanies in profe and
verfe, by Thomas Chatterton, the fuppofed author of the
poems publilhed under the names of Rowley, &c.” Con¬
cerning the authenticity of the poems under the name
of Rowley, that is, whether they were really written by
a perfon of that name, or are only, what they are now
generally believed to be, the forgeries of Chatterton, let
us advert to the editors of the above works. The pre¬
facer of Rowley’s poems gives this account of them, in
the words of Mr. George Catcot ot Briftol, to whom, he
fays, the public is indebted for them. “ The firft dil-
covery of certain manufcripts having been depofited in
Redclift church, about three centuries ago, was made in
Vol. IV. No. 183.
C H A 129
the year 1768, at the time of opening the new bridge at
Briftol; and was owing to a publication in Farley’s Week¬
ly Journal, Oftober 1, containing, ‘ An Account of the
Ceremonies obferved at the opening of the old Bridge,1’
taken, as it was faid, from a very ancient manufcript.
This excited the curicfity of fome perfons to enquire af¬
ter the original. The printer, Mr. Farley, could give
no account of it, or of the perfon who brought the copy ;
but, after much enquiry, it was difcovered that this per¬
fon was a youth between fifteen and fixteen years of age,
whole name was Thomas Chatterton, and whofe family
had been fextons of Redclift church for near 150 years.
His father, who was now dead, had alfo been malter of
the free-fchool in Pile-ftreet. The young man was at
firft very unwilling to dilcover from whence he had the
original ; but, after many promifes made to him, was at
laft prevailed on to acknowledge that he had received
this, together with many other manufcripts, from his fa¬
ther, who had found them in a large chelt, in Redclift
church.” It is added, that foon after this, Mr. Catcot
commenced an acquaintance with Chatterton, and partly
as prefents, partly as purchafes, procured from him co¬
pies of many of his manufcripts in profe and verle : as
other copies were difpofed of in like manner to others.
It is concluded, however, that whatever may have been
Chatterton’s part in this very extraordinary tranfaftion,
whether he was the author, or only (as he conftantly af-
ferted) the copier of all thefe productions, he appears to
have kept the fecret entirely to himfelf, and not to have
put it into any one’s power to bear certain teftimony
either of his fraud or of his veracity.
This affair, however, has fince become a fubjeCt of much
controverfy. The poems in queftion, publilhed in 1777,
were republilhed in 1778, with an “ Appendix, con¬
taining 1'ome obfervations upon their language; tending
to prove that they were written, not by any ancient au¬
thor, but entirely by Chatterton.” Mr. Wartcn, in the
third volume of his Hiftory of Englilh Poetry, has el-
poufed the fame fide of the queftion. Mr. Walpole alfts
obliged the learned world with a letter on Chatterton,
from his prefs at Strawberry -bill. On the other hand
has appeared, “ Obfervations upon thefe Poems, in which
their authenticity is alcertained, by Jacob Bryant, efq.
1781;” 2 vols. 8vo. and another edition of the poems,
with a comment, in which their antiquity is confiuered
and defended, by Jeremiah Miiles, D. D dean of Exeter,
1782, 410. Then again, in anfwer to thefe two works,
three pamphlets came out immediately after : 1 . Cur-
lory Oblervations on the Poems, and Remarks on the
Commentaries of Mr. Bryant and Dr. Miiles ; with a fa-
lutary Propofal addrefled to the Friends of thofe Gentle¬
men. 2. An Archaeological Epiftle to dean Miiles, edi¬
tor of a fuperb edition of Rowley’s Poems, &c. 3. An
Enquiry into the Authenticity of the Poems attributed to
Thomas Rowley, in which the arguments of the dean of
Exeter and Mr. Bryant are examined, by Thomas War-
ton ; and other pieces in the public prints ; all prepara¬
tory to the complete fettlement of the bufinefs, in “ A
Vindication of the Appendix to the Poems called Row¬
ley’s, in reply to the anfwers. of the dean of Exeter, Jacob
Bryant, efq. and a third anonymous writer; with fome
further oblervations upon thofe poems, and an examina¬
tion of the evidence which has been produced in fupport
of their authenticity. By Thomas Tyrwhitt, 1782,” 8vo.
Upon the wdiole, the war between Bentley and Boyle about
Phalaris, though waged with a far moreholtile lpirit, yet
does not feem to have produced greater commotions and
difturbances in its day, than the late conteft about Row-
ley and Chatterton ; which feems finally decided that he
was himfelf the author of all thofe poems, and the fuc-
cefsful imitator of the ancient ftyle of poefy.
CHATS' WORTH, the fuperb feat of the noble fa¬
mily of Devonlhire. See the article Bakewxll, vol. ii.
CHATS'WORTH, a town of United America, in the
ftate of Virginia ; four miles fouth»eaft of Richmond.
LI CHATIFGA,
130 C H A
CHATU'GA, a town of America, in the Tennafee
government: three miles fouth-weft of Tellico.
CHAT7 WOOD, f. Little. (ticks; fuel.
CH AT7ZAN, a town of Afia, in the Moultan country,
weft of the Indus : ninety miles weft of Moultan. Lat.
3 i. 8. N. Ion. 69. 4.5. E. Greenwich.
CH AVAI'GNES, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of Vihiers : four leagues fouth of Angers.
CHAVANAY7, a town of France, in the department
of the Rhone and Loire : (even leagues fouth of Lyons.
CHAVAN'NE, a town of France, in the department
of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridl of
Bourg-en-Brefle : eight miles weft-north-weft of Bourg.
CHAVAN'GE, a town of France, in the department
of the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridl
of Arcis : fix leagues eaft of Arcis.
CHAU'CER (Geoffrey), one of the greateft, as well
as moft ancient, of the Englifh poets, lived in the four¬
teenth century. It is generally agreed that he was born
in London in 1328, the fecond of Edward III. He was
educated at Cambridge, where he wrote the “ Court of
Love,” and fome other pieces. He removed from Cam¬
bridge to ftudy at Oxford, and afterwards travelled into
France, Holland, and other countries. Upon his return
he entered himfelf of the Inner-Temple. His diftinguilh-
ing accomphftunents both of body and mind gained him
the friendfhip of many perfons of diftindtion, by whom
he was drawn to court, where he was made page to the
Ling. Not long after, he was made gentleman*)!’ the
privy-chamber; and, in 1369, the king granted him a
penfion during life. Next year he was made fhield-bearer
to the king. In the number of Chaucer’s patrons was
John of Gaunt duke of Lancafter, by whom, and alio
his duchefs Blanche, a lady diftinguilhed for her wit and
virtue, he was greatly efteemed. This lady had, among
her attendants, Catharine Roxet, daughter of fir Payn
Roxet, a native of Hainault, and Guyen king at arms
for that country, who married fir Flugh Swinford, a
knight of Lincoln. This gentleman dying loon after
their marriage, his lady returned into the duke’s family,
and was appointed governefs of his children. She had a
lifter, likewile, whole name was Philippa, a great favou¬
rite with the duke and duchefs, and by them therefore
recommended to Chaucer for a wife. He married her
about the1 year J360, when he was in the flower of his
age, and, as appears from a pidlure taken of him at that
time, was one of the liandfomeft perfons about the court.
In the forty-fixth year of this prince, Chaucer was alio
commiflioned, in conjunction with other perfons, to treat
with the republic of Genoa. This negociation, it is con¬
jectured, regarded the hiring of Ihips for the king’s navy;
for, in tliofe times, though we made frequently great na¬
val armaments, yet we had but very few Ihips of our own ;
and this defeft was fupplied by hiring them from the
free -Hates, either in Germany or Italy. Upon his re¬
turn, his majefty granted him a pitcher of wine daily,
in the port of London, to be delivered by the butler of
England. Soon after he was made comptroller of the
cultoms of London, for wool, wool-fells, and hides ; with
a provilo, that he Ihotlld perfonally execute that office,
and keep the accounts of it with his own hand. About
a year after his nomination to this office, he obtained
from the king a grant of the lands and body of fir Ed¬
mund Staplegate, fon of fir Edmund Staplegate, of Kent,
in ward. His income, at this time, amounted to ioool.
per annum. In the laft year of king Edward, he was
one of the commiflioners fent over to expoftulate with
the French, on their violation of the truce. Richard II.
who fucceeded to the crown in 1377, confirmed the fame
year his grandfather’s penfion to Chaucer of twenty
marks a-year, and likewife the other grant of a pitcher
of wine daily. In the fourth year of Richard II. he pro¬
cured a confirmation of the grants that had been for-
s
C FI A
merly made to himfelf and to Philippa his wife. Chaucer-
had adopted many of Wi'ckliffe’s tenets, and exerted'
himfelf to the utmoft, in 1382, in fupporting John Cam-
berton, generally Ailed John of Northampton, mayor of
London, who attempted to reform the city, according to
the advice given by Wickliffe. This was highly refent-
ed by the clergy. Camberton was taken into cultody.
Chaucer, who was apprifed of his danger, made his efcape
out of the kingdom, and fpent his time in Hainault,
France, and Zealand, where he wrote moft of his books.
His neceffities forcing him to return to England, lie
was difcovered, feized, and fent to prifon. But, upon
difcovering all he knew of the tranladlion, he was dif-
charged. This confeflion brought upon him a heavy load
of calumny. To give vent to his forrow at this time, he
wrote his “ Teftament of Love,” in imitation of Boe¬
thius de Confolatione Philofophise.” His affliflions re¬
ceived a very confiderable addition by the fall of the
duke of Lancafter’s credit at court. He now refolved
to quit that bufy fcene of life which had involved him
in 16 many troubles, and accordingly retired to Wood-
ftock, where he employed part of his time in reviling
and corredling his w'ritings. The duke of Lancafter’s
return to favour, and his marrying Catherine Swynford,
filler to Chaucer’s wife, could not influence him to quit
his retirement, where he publiflied his admirable “Trea-
tife on the Aftrolabe.’’ The king, upon his return to
France, w'here he efpouled Ifabel, the French king’s
daughter, who was then very young, and put under the
care of the duchefs of Lancafter, granted Chaucer an
annuity of twenty marks per annum, in lieu of that
given him by his grandfather, which poverty had forced
him to difpofe of for his fubfiftence. Upon the death of
the duke of Lancafter, he retired to Dunnington caftle,
near Newbury, where he fpent the laft two years of his
life. Upon the acceflion of Henry of Lancafter, the fon
of his brother-in-law, to the throne, he was reinftated in
all his emoluments from the crown. He died October 25,
14:00. and was buried at Weftminller-abbey. By his wife
Philippa he had two ions, Thomas and Louis, to the lat¬
ter of whom he addrefled his “ Aftrolabe.” Thomas was
fpeaker of the houfe of commons, in the reign of Henry
IV. ambaflador to France and Burgundy, and palled
through ieveral other public polls.
Chaucer was not only efteemed the firft, but one of the
bell poets which thefe kingdoms ever produced. He was-
equally great in every fpecies of poetry which he at¬
tempted : and his poems in general poffefs every kind of
excellence, even to a modern reader, except melody
and accuracy of meafure; defeats which are to be attri¬
buted to the imperfedl Hate of our language, and the in¬
fancy of the art in this kingdom at the time when he
wrote. “ As he is the father of Englifh poetry, (fays
Dryden,) fo I hold him in the fame degree of venera¬
tion as the Grecians held Homer, or the Romans Virgil,
He is a perpetual fountain of good fenle, learned in all
fciences, and therefore fpeaks properly on all fubjefts.
As he knew what to fay, fo he knew alfo when to leave
off ; a continence which is praftifed by few writers, and
fcarcely by any of the ancients, except Virgil and Ho¬
race.” This character Chaucer certainly delerved. He
had read a great deal; and was a man of the world, and of
found judgment. He was the firft Englilh poet who wrote
poetically, as Dr. Johnfon obferves in the preface to his
Dictionary, and (he might have added) who wrote like a
gentleman. He had alio the merit of improving our lan¬
guage confiderably, by the introduction and naturaliza¬
tion of words from the Prove^al, at that time the moft
polilhed dialefl in Europe.
CHAU'CIS, in ancient geography, the country of the
Chauci, a people of Germany ; divided into the Minores,
now Eaft Friefeland, and the county of Oldenburg; and
into the Majores, now the duchy of Bremen, and a part
©f Lunenburg,
CHAU'DEBURG,
C H A
CIIAU'DEBURG, a village of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Mofelie, celebrated for its medicinal waters,
near Thionville.
■CHAU'DES-AIGUES, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Cantal, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of St. Flour; which takes its name from a
hot mineral fpring. The principal commerce is in Heins
and glue : twelve miles fouth of St. Flour.
CHAUDIE'RE, a river of Canada, which runs into
the river St. Lawrence, two leagues above Quebec.
CHAUDRON', a town of France, in the department
of the Mayne and Loire : 15 miles fouth-weft of Angers.
CHA'V ENDER, /. [cbevefne, Fr.] The chub-fllh. See
Cyprinus. — Theie are a choice bait for the chub, or
cbanjender, or indeed any great fifli. Walton.
CHA'VES, a towm of Portugal, in the province of Tra-
los-Montes, near the confines of Spain, defended by a
caftle, walls, and baftions, fituated on theTamega, and
founded by the emperor Trajan : feveral veftiges exift of
its ancient magnificence. This town was taken by the
Spaniards, under general O'Reilly, in 1762: twelveleagues
welt of Braganga. Lat. 41. 42. N. Ion. 11. 15. E. Ferro.
CHAUFAIL'LE, a town of France, in the department
of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diltrict of Marcigny : four leagues eaft of Marcigny.
CHAUKUN'DA, a town of Africa, near the river
Gambia, in the kingdom of Jemarrow.
CHAUL, a town of Hindooltan, on the coaft of Mala¬
bar, with a good port, and defended by a citadel, taken,
in 1507, by the Portuguefe : fix leagues fouth-eail of
Bombay.
CHAU'LIEU (William Amfreye de), abbe de Amale,
one of the molt polite and ingenious of the French poets,
was born in 1639, and died at the age of eighty-four.
The molt complete edition of his poems, is that printed
in 2 vols. Svo. in 1733.
CHAULIODON' FA,/, [from p'auAaw, to emit, and
oJs;, a tooth.] The tribe of animals wliofe teeth protrude
beyond their mouths, as the boar, the elephant, &c.
. CHAU'LMES, a towm of France, in the department
of the Seine and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of Melun : leven leagues and a half eaft-fouth-
eaft of Paris.
CHAU'LNES, a town of France, in the department of
the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the diltridt of
Peronne : feven miles louth of Peronne.
CHAUMERGNY', a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltridt of Poligny 1 three leagues weft of Poligny.
CHAUMET'TE (Pierre Gafparin), the revolutionary
recorder of Paris, was a native of the town of Nevers,
in the Orleanois. Few men excited more attention in
France for a time, or had a more hateful talk to per¬
form, during the tragical part of the revolution, thanChau-
mette. He had been bred to the lea ; but not relilhing that
kind of life, and failing to obtain preferment, he quitted it,
and lived by his pen, which he certainly knew how to ma¬
nage more to his advantage than the compafs. He could
however, fpeak better, and more fluently, than he could
write. He had alio been employed as librarian to a dig¬
nitary of the church, in the diocefe of Nivernois; but,
at the commencement of the troubles in France, he was
only a clerk to an attorney, and occafionally wrote for
the newlpapers and for the ftage. He was one of the
chief difciples of Camille Defmoulins, and among the
fil'd who adopted the tri-coloured cockade, juft before
the taking of the Baftilie. He greatly out-ran his revo¬
lutionary colleagues in zeal for the new faith ; for when
Camille was compofing the firft number of his Vieux
Cordelier, with the hope of tranquillifing the over-heated
imaginations of the leaders of democracy, and temper¬
ing the public rage againft the real or fuppofed enemies
of the riew order of things, Chaumette was ftill further
inflaming and diredting their vengeance againft particu¬
lar individuals. It was Chaumette who inftigated the
C H A 131
commune of Paris to demand the trial of the queen ; and
he became one of the committee which prepared the
charges, and regulated the evidence, againft that unfor¬
tunate princefs. He was a wdtnefs too againft her at the
revolutionary tribunal, and undertook to reprimand M.
La Tour Dupin, war-minifter to Louis XVI. for not ex-
pofing thofe parts of Antoinette’s conduct, which, it was
infilled on, he was privy to. The molt audacious part
of Chaumette’s conduct on that occafion, was his ac-
cufing the queen of an inceftuous connection with her
fon. This infinuation even (hocked the favage tribunal
before which (lie was arraigned, and immediately funk
the accufer in the popular opinion. Robefpierre him-
l’elf, under whole aufpices he was believed to adt, grew
outrageous, and exclaimed, “ The fool ! was it not
enough that he had proved her a Meflalina, but he mull
make an Agrippina of her too ?” Robefpierre inftantly
perceived that this odious conduct of Chaumette would
hurt the caufe ; on which account he never forgave him,
though he allowed his zeal to continue to operate on
inferior objects, till it overwhelmed him in ruin. Robef¬
pierre was at this time in the zenith of his power ; yet
Chaumette moved fuch a propolition in the full com¬
mune, as gave reafon to fufpedt that he intended to fet
himfelf up as his rival in the city. The objedt of this
motion was to unite all the heads of the forty-eight lec¬
tions of Paris in one council ; a meafure that would have
fuperfeded the force of the legiflature i tie If, if not its
authority. This was a projedt conceived in common
with the famous Hebert, Momoro, and Mazuel, and
would have been aided in its execution by Ronlin, who
at that time commanded a body of the revolutionary
army. How far Robefpierre was apprifed of, or dreaded,
the lcheme, does not appear; many fhrewd obfervers
feemed latisfied that it was only a prelude “ to the fwel-
ling adt” which was to follow, when the hero of the
piece was to have been put in full play. The majority
of the convention law through the veil which covered
the plot, and anticipated their own danger, (hould it be
carried into effedt. They, therefore, without lofs of
time, annulled the proceedings, and declared all to be
rebels who lliould perlift therein. Chaumette put a good
face on the corredtion. He told the commune, on its
next meeting, that his propofition mull be relinquilhed ;
for that the convention, with a paternal though feyere
voice, had damped with nullity their former relolution,
and that it became them, like dutiful children, to fub-
mit. Hebert, Momoro, and Mazuel, were loon after
accufed as traitors, imprilbned, tried, and executed ; but
Chaumette furvived alhort time longer, as his enemies
thought it fafer to wear away by degrees the remaining po¬
pular partiality for him, before he (hould meet his doom.
He was taken up, however, on the 26th of March, 1794,
under a charge of having conlpired, with the foregoing
men, againft the government, and was guillotined on
the 13th of April following, without the Imalleft elfort,
on the part of Robefpierre, to lave him. He confefled,
at the place of execution, that the revolution had in¬
flamed his imagination, and at times intoxicated his
brain, from the too free gratification of his. vengeance
for the perlonal injuries he had received. He laid, alfo,
that three inltances had come to light of his ariftocratic
and inveterate enemies attempting his life.; and that a
defire of reprifal, in which he conceived the fiafety of the
commonwealth in fome meafure involved, made him
leek ail occafions for arrogating power ; but that he
never cherilhed an idea of. poflelling any permanent au¬
thority, not even of a lecondary or fubordmate nature.
CHAUMO'NT, a city of France, and capital of the
department of the Upper Marne, fituated on a mountain.,
near the river Marne. Here is a manufacture of coarle
woollen cloth, and a confiderablc trade in deer and goats
(kins : four pods north-north-welt of Lar.gres, and twen¬
ty-nine and a quarter ea(t-foiUh-eaft of Paris. Lat. 48. 7.
N. Ion, 2a. 48, E, Ferro.
CHAUMO'NT.
132
C H A
CHAUMO'NT, a town of France, and principal place
of a diftrift, in the department of the Oile; it takes its
name from an artificial mountain, on which a fortrefs
was built, as a boulevard of France, when Normandy
was in the hands of the Englifh : thirteen miles fouth-
ibuth-wefl of Beauvais, and twenty-feven weft of Senlis.
Lat. 49. 1 5. N. Ion. 19. 33. E. Ferro.
CHAUMO'NT, a town of Savoy, in the Genevois, near
the frontiers of France : fix miles north -eaft of Seiffel.
CHAUMO'NT, a town of the Netherlands, in the du¬
chy of Luxemburg : fix miles fouth of Baftogne.
CHAUMO'NT, a town of France, in the department
of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton, in the dil-
trift of Rethel : nine miles north-north-weft of Rethel.
CHAUMO'NT, a town of France, in the department
of the Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Romorantin ; feventeen miles eaft of Blois.
CHAUMUSS AY', a town of France, in the department
of the Indre and Loire : twelve miles fouth of Loches.
CHAUMU'ZY, a town of France, in the department
of the Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Reims : eight miles fouth-weft of Reims.
CHAUNAY', a town of France, in the department
of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Civray : two leagues north-weft of Civray.
CHAU'NCY (Sir Henry, knt.), author of the Hifto-
rical Antiquities of Hertfordfhire, was defcended from a
family which came into England with William the Con¬
queror. He was admitted in Gonvil and Cains college,
Cambridge; from whence he removed, in 1649, to the
Middle-Temple, and in 1656 was called to the bar. In
1681 he was elefted reader of the Middle-Temple; and,
on the, 4th of June, the fame year, received the honour
of knighthood at Wi nd for- calf le from Charles II. He
was chofen treafurer of the Middle-Temple in 1685. On
the nth of June, 1688, he was called to the degree of
ferjeant at law, and the fame year advanced to be one of
his majefty’s juftices of the peace for the counties of Gla¬
morgan, Brecknock, and Radnor, in the principality of
Wales. After being thrice married, he died in the year
170 o. He publilhed the valuable antiquities of Hert-
fordlhire, with the original of counties, hundreds, wa¬
pentakes, boroughs, corporations, towns, parilhes, vil¬
lages, hamlets. &c.
CHAU'NY, a town of France, and principal place of
a diftrift, in the department of the Aifne, fituated on the
Oile : two polls eaft of Noyon, and three and a half north
of Soiffons. Lat. 49. 37. N. Ion. 20. 53. E. Ferro.
CHAUP (La), a town of France, in the department
of the Drome, five leagues and a half eaft of Le Buis.
CHAURIAT, a town of France, in the department of
the Puy-de-Dome, and chief place of a canton, in the dif¬
trift of Billom : four miles north-weft of Billom.
CHAUS, or Cost, the molt eafterly and moll exten-
five province of the kingdom of Fez : in general moun¬
tainous, ftony, and unfruitful; but in feme places fer¬
tile, and. capable of feeding numerous herds of cattle.
CHAUS'SF. (Michael Angelo de la), a learned anti¬
quary of Paris in the fever.teenth century, went early in
life to Rome for the fake of ftudying antiquities. His
Mufaeum Romanum, Rome 1690, fol. and augmented to
2 vols. fol. in 1746, evinced the fuccefs of his applica¬
tion. This valuable colleftion comprifes a numerous
fuccefiion of antique gems, which had never before been
given by impreflion to the public. It has gone through
feveral editions. Graevius inferted it at length in his
Recueil des Antiquites Romaines. The fame author pub¬
lilhed at Rome, in 1707, a Recueil des Pierres-gravees
Antiques, in 4to. The explanations are in Italian, and
the plates are executed by Bartoli There is alfo by
him, Pifturse Antiques Cryptarum Romanarum et Sepul-
chri Nafonum, 1738, fol. Thefe different works prefent
a great ftock of erudition and fagacity ; and are much
valued by the curious.
CHAU'SETRAPPES, / or Caltrops, or Crows.
C H A
feet. Iron inftruments with fpikes, about four inches
long, made like a liar, in fuch a manner, that whichever
way they fall, one point Hands always upwards, like a
nail. They are ufually thrown and lcattered into moats
and breaches, to gall the horfes feet, and ftop the hally
approach of the enemy.
CHAUSSIN', a town of France, in the department of
the Puy-de-Dome, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Dole : three leagues fouth of Dole.
CHAUTLAN', a town of North America, in the
country of Mexico, and province of Chiapa ; the inha¬
bitants carry on a confiderable trade in cocoa, pottery,
lalt, and dates.
CHAUVIGNY', a town of France, in the department
of Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Montmorrillon, on the Vienne : 4 leagues eaft of Poictiers.
CHAUVIN' (Stephen), a celebrated proteftanc divine,
born at Nifmes, but left France at the revocation of the
edift of Nantz, and retired to Rotterdam, where he be¬
gan a new' Journal des Sgavans; and, afterwards remov¬
ing to Berlin, continued it there three years. At Berlin
he was made profeffor of philofophy, and dilcharged that
office with much honour and reputation. His principal
tvor< is a philolophical diftionary, in Latin, which he
publilhed at Rotterdam in 1662 ; and gave a new edition
of it, much augmented, at Lewarden, in 1713, fol. He
died in 1725, aged eighty-five.
CHAUX, a towm of France, in the department of the
Charente : twenty miles fouth-weft of Angouleline.
CHAUX de FoNDS, a beautiful town of Swiflerland,
in the principality of Neufchatel, and capital ot a jurif-
diftion, which produces but little corn, but feeds a great
number of cattle: the inhabitants are induftrious, and
annually export from ten to fixteen thoufand watches of
gold and filver: 9 miles north-north-weft of Neulchatel.
To CHAW, <v. a. \_kavjen , Germ.] To champ between,
.the teeth; tomafticate; to chew :
The man who laugh’d but once to fee an afs
Mumbling to make the crofs-grain’d thillles pafs,
Might laugh again, to fee a jury cisw
The prickles of unpalatable law. Lryden.
CHAW,/ The chap; the upper or under part of a
beaft’s mouth. — I will turn thee back, and put hooks in¬
to thy c/mwj, and will bring thee forth and all thine
army. Ezekiel.
CHAW'DRON,/. Entrails.
Add thereto a tyger’s chanxidron ,
For the ingredients of our cauldron. Sbakefpearei
CHAW'STICK,/ in botany. See Gouania.
CHAYAU'TAS, a jurifdiftion of South America, ill
the country of Buenos Ayres, about forty leagues in
circumference, famous for its gold and filver mines.
CHAYO'TA,/ in botany. See Sechium.
CHAZELET', a town of France, in the department
of the Indre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Argenton : leven miles fouth-fouth-weft of Argenton.
CHAZEL'LES, a town of France, in the department
of the Rhone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Montbrifon ; feven leagues weft-fouth-weft
of Lyons.
CHAZEL'LES (John Matthew), a French mathema¬
tician and engineer, born at Lyons in 1657, and educated
there in the college of Jefuits, from whence he removed
to Paris in 1675. He firll became acquainted with Du
Hamel, fecretary to the academy of fciences, and through
him with Caffma, who employed him with himfelf at
the obfervatory, where Chazeiles greatly improved him¬
felf, and alfo aflifted Caffini in the meafurement of the
fouthern part of the meridian of France. Having, in
1684, inftrufted the duke of Montemar in the mathema¬
tical fciences, this nobleman procured him the appoint¬
ment of hydrography-profeffor to the galleys ot Mar-
feilles. In difeharging the duties of this department, he
made
CHE
made numerous geometrical and aftronomical obferva-
tions, from which he drew. a new map of the coaft of
Provence. He alfo performed many other fervices in
that department, and as an engineer along with the ar¬
mies and naval expeditions. To make obfervations in
geography and aftronomy, he undertook all'o a voyage to
the Levant, and among other things he measured the
pyramids of Egypt, and found the four fides of the
largeft of them exactly to face the four cardinal points'
of the compafs. He made a report of his voyage, on his
return, to the academy of fciences, upon which he was
named a member of their body in 1695, and had many
papers inferted in the volumes of their memoirs, from
1693 to 1708. Chazelles died at Marfeilles the 16th of
January, 1710.
CHAZINZA'RIANS,/ Heretics who rofe in Armenia
in the feventh century. The word is formed of the Ar¬
menian chains, “ crofs.” They are alfo called ftaurola-
tra, which in Greek fignifies the fame as Chazinzarians
in Armenian, viz. adorers of the crofs ; they being charged
with paying adoration to the crofs alone. In other re-
fpefts they were Neftorians ; and admitted two perfons in
Chrift. Nicephorus afcribes other fmgularities to them ;
particularly their holding an annual feaft in memory of
their falfe prophet Sergius, which they called arizi-
bartzes.
CHE, a town of China, of the third rank, in the pro¬
vince of Ho-nan : twelve leagues weft-north-weft of Se.
CHE-CHEOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Hou-quang, on the river Yang-tfe : eleven
leagues eaft-north-eaft of Fong.
CHE-CONG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Se-tchuen : ten miles fouth-eaft of Tong-
tchouen.
CHE-FANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Se-tchuen : ten miles north -wreft of Han.
CHE-KANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Kiang-nan : eleven leagues eaft-fouth-
eaft of Tchi-tcheou.
CHE-LEOU, a. town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Chanli : fourteen leagues fouth-weit of
Fuen-tcheou.
CHE-MEN, a town of China, of the third rank, in the
province of Tche-kiang: twenty miles fcuth-fouth-weft
of Kia-hing.
CHE-P1NG, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
the province of Yun-nan: 410 leagues fouth-fouth-weft:
of Peking. Lat. 23. 49. N. Ion. 120. xo. E. Ferro.
CHE-PING, a town of China, of the third rank, in the
province of Koei : live leagues weft of Tchi-yuen.
CHE-SI'NEN,. a town of China, of the third rank, in
in the province of Chen-fi : fifteen leagues north-weft of
Hing-ngan.
CHE-TCKEOU-OUE'I, a town of China, in the pro¬
vince of Hou-quang: 700 miles fouth-fouth-weft of Pe¬
king. Lat. 30. 16. N. Ion. 126. 40. E. Ferro.
CHF.-TCHING, a town of China, in the province of
Quang-tong : eight leagues weft-fouth-weft of Hoa.
CHE-TCHING, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Kiang-fi : thirty leagues fouth-eaft of
Ki-ngan.
CHE-TSI'EN, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the
province of Koei-tcheou : 875 miles fouth-louth-weft of
Peking. Lat. 27. 30. N. Ion. 125. 30. E. Ferro.
CHE-TSU'EN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Se-tchuen : 30 miles north-ealt of Mao.
CHE-TSUNG, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
the province of Yun-nan: 340 leagues fouth-fouth-weft
of Peking. Lat. 24. 56. N. Ion. 121. 24. E. Ferro.
CHE-YAM-HO'EI-HO'TUN, a town of Afia, in the
kingdom of Corea : 437 miles eaft-north-eaft of Peking.
CHEA'DLE, a fmall town in Staffordlhire, 146 miles
from London, ten from Uttoxeter, twelve from New-
caftle, fifteen from Stafford, feven from the Staffordlhire
potteries, and in the midway between Birmingham and
Vol, IV. No. 184.
CHE 133
Mancheller, being forty-two miles from each place-
It is pleafantly fituated on the fide of a hill facing the
fouth. Here is a good market on Fridays, well fupplied
with -all kinds of provifions, and four fairs for cattle,
liorfes, hogs, and pedlary, viz. on Lady-day, Holy
Thurlday, Auguft 21, and October 18. The town is fur-
rounded with coal of an exceeding good quality, which,
from its abundance and cheapnefs, has occafioned feveral
great w'orks to be erefted in the neighbourhood; viz.
brafs- works, copper- works, tin -works, and brafs and cop¬
per wire-works ; all of w hich are very extenfive, and em¬
ploy a great number of poor. There is alfo a large ma-
nufa&ory of tape, lately let on foot. The church is an
ancient itrufture, dedicated to St. Giles. The reblory is
worth about 500 1. per annum. Here is a free-fchool,
well endowed, for twelve boys. The country round
Cheadle is beautifully diverfified with hill and dale, and
enriched with a great number of gentlemen’s feats.
CHEAP, adj. [ceapan, Sax. koopcn, Dutch, to buy.]
To be had at a low rate ; purchafed for a fmall price. —
Where there are a great many fellers to a few buyers,
there the thing to be fold will be cheap. On the other
fide, raife up a great many buyers for a few fellers, and
the fame thing will immediately turn dear. Locke. — Of
fmall value; eafy to-be had ; not refpefted. — He that is
too much in any thing, fo that he giveth another occa-
fion of fociety, maketh himfelf cheap. Bacon.
CHEAP,/. [ cheping is an old word for market ; whence
Eojlcheap, Cheapfnle.~\ Market; purchafe ; bargain: as,
good cheap, a bon marche, Fr. — It is many a man’s cafe
to fire himfelf out with hunting after that abroad, which
he carries about him all the while, and may have it bet¬
ter cheap at home. V Eftrange.
Ta CHEA'PEN, <v. a. [ceapan, Sax. to buy.] To at¬
tempt to purchafe; to bid for any thing; to alk the
price of any commodity :
To (hops in crowds the daggled females fly,
Pretend to cheapen goods, but nothing buy. Snvift .
To leflen value :
My hopes purfue a brighter diadem,
Can any brighter than the Roman be ?
I find my proffer’d love has cheapen'd ms. Dry den.
CHEAP'LY, adj. At a fmall price ; at a low rate :
Blood, rapines, maffacres, wrere cheaply bought,
So mighty recompence your beauty brought. Dryden.
CHEAP'NESS, f. Lownefs of price. — The diferedit
which is grown upon Ireland, has been the great dif-
couragement to other nations to tranfplartt themfelves
thither, and prevailed farther than' all the invitations
which the cheapnefs and plenty of the country has made
them. Temple.
CHEA'PO, a river of America, which runs into the
bay of Panama : thirty miles eaft of Panama.
CHEAR. See Cheer.
To CHEAT, <v. a. [of uncertain derivation ; probably
from acheter, Fr. to purchafe, alluding to the tricks ufed
in making bargains.] To defraud; to impofe upon ; to
trick. It is uled commonly of low cunning. — It is a
dangerous commerce, where an honeft man is lure at
firft of being cheated ; and he recovers not his Ioffes, but
by learning to cheat others, Dryden. — It has of before
the thing taken away by fraud :
I that am curtail’d of man’s fair proportion,
Cheated of feature by djlfembling nature,
Deform’d, unfinilh’d. Shakefpeare.
CHEAT,/ [from the verb. Some think abbreviated,
from efeheat, becaufe, many fraudulent mealures being
taken by the lords of manors in procuring efeheats, cheat.
the abridgment was brought to convey a bad meaning.]
A fraud ; a trick ; an impolture :
When I confider life, ’tis all a cheat. ;
Yet, fool’d with hope, men favour the deceit 1
M.m ’ Truft
134 CHE
Trull on, and think to-morrow will repay ;
To-morrow’s falfer than the former day;
Lies worfe; and, while it fays we Ihall be bleft
With fome new joy, cuts off what tve poffeft. Dryden.
A perfon guilty of fraud. — Diffimulation can be no fur¬
ther ufeful than it is concealed ; for as much as no man
will trull a known cheat. South. — In the eye of the law,
cheats are deceitful practices, in defrauding, or endea¬
vouring to defraud, another of his known right, by
means of fome. artful device, contrary to the plain rules
of common honefty; as by playing with falfe dice; or
by caufing an illiterate perfon to execute a deed to his
prejudice, by reading it over to him in words different
from thole .in which it was written ; or by perfuading a
woman to execute writings to another as her truftee,
upon an intended marriage, which in truth contained
no fuch thing, but only a warrant of attorney to confefs
a judgment ; or by fuppreffing a will, See. i Hawk. P. C .
c. 71. Changing corn by a miller, and returning bad
corn in the Head, is punilhable by indictment, being an
offence againft the public. ) SeJff'.Ca. 217. So to run a
foot-race fraudulently, and, by a previous underllanding
with the feeming competitor, to win money. 6 Mod. 42.
So if an indented apprentice enters for a foldier, and,
having received the bounty, is difeharged on his maf-
ter’s demanding him, he may be indiCted. 1 Hawk. P. C.
c. 71. But felling beer Ihort of the jull and due meafure,
is not indiftable as a cheat. 1 Black. Rep. 274. Nor fell¬
ing gum of one denomination for that of another. Sayer,
205. Nor felling wrought gold, as and for gold of the true
ftandard ; the offender not being- a goldlniith. Cowp.
323-
The diftinClion laid down as proper to be attended to
in all cafes of the kind, is this : that in fuch impofitions
or deceits, where common prudence may guard perforis
againft their buffering from them, the offence is not in¬
dictable ; but the party is left to his civil remedy for re-
orefs of the injury done him: but where falfe weights
and meafures are ufed, or falfe tokens produced, or fuch
snethods taken to cheat and deceive, as people cannot
by any ordinary care or prudence be guarded againft,
there it is an offence indictable. Burr. 1125. By flat.
33 H. 8. c. 1. if any perfon falfely and deceitfully get
into his hands or poffeffion any money or other things of
any other perions by colour of any falfe token, See. being
convicted, he Ihall have fuch punilhmfent by imprifon-
ment, fetting upon the pillory, or by any corporal pain'
(except pains of death) as Ihall be adjudged by the per-
fons before whom he Ihall be conviCt. Lord Coke ob-
ferves hereupon, that for this offence the offender can¬
not be fined, but corporal pain only infliCled. 3 -Injl. 133.
But in 1 Hawk. P. C. c. 71. it is laid, that a perlon has
been fined 500 1. for this offence. In indictments on this
ftatute, the falfe token made ufe of mull be fet forth.
Stra. 1127. A counterfeit pafs has been held fuch. Dalt.
91. or a pretended power to difcharge foldiers. 1 Latch.
202. By flat. 30 Geo. II. c. 24. perfons convicted of ob¬
taining money or goods by falfe pretences, or of fending
threatening letters in order to extort money or goods,
may be punilhed by fine and imprifonment or by pil¬
lory, whipping, or tranfportalion. In indictment on'
this ftatute, it muft appear what the falfe pretences were,
a Term. Rep. 581. As there are frauds which may be
relieved civilly, and not punilhed criminally, fo there are
other frauds which, in a fpecial cafe, may not be helped
civilly, and yet Ihall be punilhed criminally. Thus, if a
minor goes about the town, and pretending to be of age,
defrauds many perfons, by taking credit for a confidera-
ble quantity of goods, and then infilling on his nonage,
the perfons injured cannot recover the value of then-
goods, but they may indiCl and punilh him for a com¬
mon cheat. 1 Hawk. P.C. c. 71.
CHEATER, f. One that praCtifes fraud. — All forts of
injurious perfons, the lacrikgious, the detainers of tithes,
Che
cheaters of men’s inheritances, falfe witneffes and accu-
lersi Taylor.
CHE'BIB, or Tellitz, a mountain of Africa, in the
kingdom of Fez, on which are feveral towns.
CHEBUC'TO, a bay and harbour on the fouth-fouth-
eaft coaft of Nova Scotia, diftinguilhed by the lofs of a
French fleet in a former war between France and Great
Britain. Near the head of this bay, on the weft fide.
Hands the city of Halifax, the capital of the province.
CHECHMEBAND', a town of Perfia, in the province
of Segellan : feventy miles north-weft of Zareng.
CHECHMURATft a town of Perfia, in the province
of Adirbeitzan : 200 miles north-eaft of Tauris.
To CHECK, -v. a. [from the French echecs, chefs ; from
whence we ufe, at that game, the term checkmate, when
we llop our adverfary from carrying on his play any far¬
ther.] Toreprefs; to curb. — Fames may be foyvn and
railed, they may be fpread and multiplied, they may be
checked and laid dead. Bacon.
I hate when vice caff bolt her arguments,
And virtue has no tongue to check her pride. Milton .
To reprove ; to chide :
Richard, with his eye brimful of tears,
Then check'd and rated by Northumberland,
Did fpeak thefe words, now prov’d a prophefy. Shake/.
To compare a bank note, or other bill, with the corre-
fpondent paper. To controul by a counter-reckoning.
To CHECK, v. n. To Hop ; to make a Hop : with at — »
The mind, once jaded by an attempt above its power,
either is difabled for the future, or elfe checks at any vi¬
gorous undertaking ever after. Locke. — To clalh ; to in¬
terfere. — If love check with bufinefs, it troubleth men’s
fortunes. Bacon.* — To ftrike with repreflion :
I’ll avoid his prefence ;
It checks too llrong upon me. Dryden.
CHECK, / Repreffure ; Hop; rebuff; fudden rellraint.
• — God hath of late years manifelled himlelf in a very
dreadful manner, as if it were on purpofe to give a check
to infolent impiety. TUlotfon. — The great ftruggle with
pallions is in the firll check. Rogers. — Rellraint ; curb ; go¬
vernment; continued rellraint :
Some free from rhyme or reafon, rule or check,
Break Prifcian’s head, and Pegafus’s neck. Pope ,
A reproof ; a flight :
However this may gall him with fome check,
Cannot with fafety call him. Shakefpeare.
A dillike ; a fudden difguft; fomething that Hops the
progrefs :
Say I Ihould wed her, would not my wife fubjefts
Take check , and think it ftrange ? Dryden.
In falconry, when a hawk forfakes her proper game to
follow rooks, pies, or other birds, that crofs her flight. —
A young woman is a hawk upon her wings; and, if Ihe
be handlome, Ihe is the more fubjeCt to go out on check.
Suckling.
When whiffled from the fill
Some falcon Hoops at what her eye defign’d,
And with her eagernefs the quarry mifs’d.
Straight flies at check, and clips it down the wind. Drydi
The perfon checking; the caufeof rellraint; a Hop. — A
fatirical poet is the check of the laymen on bad priefts.
Dryden. — Any Hop or interruption. — The letters have
the natural production by feveral checks or Hops, or, as
they are ulually called, articulations of the breath or
voice. Holder. — The correfpondent cipher of a bank-bill,
or note, or order to pay money. A term ufed in the
game of chels, when one party obliges the other either
to move or guard his king.
CHECK,
CHE
CHECK, or Check-Roll, a roll or book, wherein
are contained the names of fuch perfons as are attend¬
ants on, and in the pay of, the king, or other great per-
fonages, as their houfehold fervants. It is otherwife called
the chequer-roll, and feems to take its etymology from the
exchequer.
Clerk of the Check in the royal dockyards, an officer
who keeps a mutter or regilter of all the men employed
aboard his majefty’s (liips and veffels, and alfo ot all the
artificers and others in the i'ervice of the navy at the port
where he is fettled.
To CHECICER, or Chequer,^, a. [from echecs, chefs,
Fr.] To variegate or diverfity, in the manner of a chefs-
board, with alternate colours, or with darker and bright¬
er parts. — In the chefs-board, the ufe of each chefs-man
is determined only within that chequered piece of wood.
Locke.
The grey-eyed morn frniles on the frowning night,
Check' ring the ealtern clouds with ftreaks of light. Shake/.
CHECK'ER, or Checker-work, /. Work varied al¬
ternately as to its colours or materials. — Nets of checker-
work and wreaths of chain-work for the chapiters which
were upon the top of the pillars, i Kings.
CHECK'MATE,/ [echec et mat, Fr.] Themovement
on the chels-board that kills the oppollte men, or hinders
them from moving :
Love they him call’d, that gave me the checkmate,
But better might they have behote him hate.- Spenfer.
CHECK'Y, in heraldry, is when the (hield, or a bor-
dure, &c-is chequered, ordivided into chequers or fquares,
in manner of a chefs-board. This is one of the moft
noble and moft ancient figures ufedin armoury ; and was
given to none but great warriors, in token of their bra¬
very; for the chefs-board reprefents a field of battle;
and the pawns placed on both fides reprefent the foldiers
of the two armies, which move, attack, advance, or re¬
tire, according to the will of the gamefters, who are the
generals. This figure is always ccmpofed of metal and
colour. But feme authors reckon it among the feveraj
forts of furs.
CHE'CO, or Kecio, or Tong-tow, a towm of Afia,
and capital of the country of Tonquin, fituated on the
river Songkoi, 100 miles from its mouth.
CHEDABUC'TO, or Milford Haven, a large and
deep bay of North America, on the eafternmoft part of
Nova-Scotia, at the mouth of the gut of Canfo. Oppo-
fite to its mouth hands Ifle Madame. Salmon river falls
into this bay from the weft, and is remarked as one of
the greateft fifheries in the world.
CHED'DER, a village in the county of Somerfet, fitu¬
ated under the fouth-W'eft fide of the Mendip hills, and
celebrated for its excellent cheefe : feven miles diftant
from Wells, two from Uxbridge ; and 149 from London.
Chedder is alfo remarkable for its wonderful rocks, of
which it is almoft impoffible to give an adequate defcrip~
tion. The chafm by which, the cliffs are formed, does
not difclofe itfeif until we Come near a mill, turned by
a rapid brook thatgufhes out near the entrance, and foon
afterwards lofes itielf in the river Ax. Proceeding by
the fide of this brook, we are fuddenly ftruck by a divi¬
sion in the fide of the mountain, of the extent of which
we no Sooner form an idea, than we find it erroneous ; for
the rocks project one behind another fo as often to pre¬
vent the eye’s further progrefs. We are conftantly de¬
ceived, and at length difcover that this ltupendous chafm
extends quite through the fouth-weft ridge of Mendip,.
from top to bottom, the length being at leaft two miles,
at the end of which it divides into twm branches, fo as to
allow an eafy afcent to the top of the hills. The direc¬
tion is winding, but on the whole nearly from fouth-weft
to north-eaft. In many points the cliffs rife to the height
of full 300 feet, quite perpendicularly, fome terminating
in bold pinnacles, others in irregular fragments like (hat-
CHE 135-
teied battlements of vaft cattles, and others inclining as
if about to crulh the ipeftator as he pafles under. Yews
projeft out of feveral of the fiffures, forming lofty cano¬
pies of a folemn (hade ; many rocks wear long mantles
of ivy, which have the moft piiturefque and beautiful
appearance, compared with the craggy nakednefs of the
others. The fcenery varies continually, and to catch all
its fublime effefcs it is neceffkry to traverfe the gap back¬
ward and forward for fome time. The width decreafes
gradually towards the termination, the bottom appearing
more and more overfpread with fragments of rock, which
render it in fome places with difficulty paffable. On the
right hand, the cliffs are much fteeper than on the left,
and for the moft part inacceffhble; but it may be remarked
that, in general, thefaliant angles on one fide correfpond
with the recipient ones on the other. Indeed every cir-
cumftance contributes to imprefs a belief that the moun¬
tain muft have been here violently rent afunder, either
in confequence of fome remote part fuddenly lofing its
fupport, and fubfiding, or of fome fubterraneous force-
operating immediately below this part, and elevating if
above the level of the reft. The inclination of the ftrata-,,
which are from one foot to three feet in thicknefs, is to
the fouth-weft nearly, the general dire&ionof them being
from north-weft to fouth-eaft ; this is the courfe of the
hills, the height of which feems to increafe northward,
and particularly near the village of Loxton, -where is a
prodigious eminence called Crook’s peak. Though the
cliffs are not fo wide apart as thofe of Dovedale, yet (ex¬
cepting that the latter are more profufely adorned with
wood) there is- a great refeinblance between thefe two
grotefque fpots. The rocks of Chedder are certainly on
the gran deft and boldeftfcale; on the other hand, they
have not the advantage of a beautiful ftreafn, like the
Dove, dividing them. Stupendous as they are, there is
a contiguous part of Mendip fome hundred feet higher.
Hoping from their tops with a gradual afcent, and com¬
manding, particularly to the weft and fouth, a moft ex-
ten five profpehl.
CHE'DUBA, an ifland in the bay of Bengal, near the
coaft of Ava, thirty miles long, and nine wide. Lat. 18.
50. N. Ion. 93. 45. E. Greenwich.
CHE'GO-HILLS, hills of Hindooftan, near the foutii-
coaft of the country of Gutch.
CHEEK, / [ceac, Sax.] The fide of the face below
the eye -.
Daughter of the rofe, whofe cheeks unite
The differing titles of the red and white;
Who heav’n’s alternate beauty well difplay.
The blufh of morning and the milky way. Dryden.
A general name among mechanics for almoft all thofe
pieces of their machines and inftruments that are dou¬
ble, and perfeclly alike; as the cheeks of a printing-prefs,
of a turner’s lathe/ of a glazier’s vice, &c.
CHEEK by JOLE, dole together,, fide to fide.
CHEEK,/ in fhip-building, apiece of timber, fitted on
each fide of the mail at the top, to ftrengthen it. The
uppermoft piece of timber in the beak of a fliip is called'
the cheek. The knees which fatten in the beak-head of
the (hip are called cheeks ; and the fides of any block, or
the fides of a (hip’s carriage of a gun, are called cheeks.
CHEEK-BONE,/ I cut the tumour, and felt the (lug ;
it lay partly under the os jugale, or check-bone. Wife man.
CHEEK-TOOTH, /. The hinder-tooth or tu(k. — •
He hath the cheek-teelh of a great lion. Joel.
CHEER, / [cbere , Fr. entertainment ; cara, Sp. the
countenance. It feems to have, in Engliffi, fome relation,
to both thefe fenfes..] Entertainment; provifions ferved
at a feaft. — Better cheer you may have, but not with bet¬
ter heart. Shakefpeare . — Invitation to gaiety :
You do not give the cheer ; the feaft is fold
That is not often vouched, while ’tis making,
’Tis given with welcome. Shakefpeare ,
Gaiety 5.
CHE
136
Gaiety; jollity:
I have not that alacrity of fpirit,
Nor cheer of mind that I was wont to have. Shakefpearc.-
Air of the countenance :
He ended; and his words their drooping cheer
Enlighten’d, and their languiih’d hope reviv’d. Milton.
Perhaps temper of mind in general ; for we read of heavy
cheer. — Then were they all of good cheer, and they alfo
took fome meat. Ads.
When good Cheer is lacking, friends twill be packing.
Eat. Cum fortuna perit, nultils amicus erit. And fo the
Germ. Mit dem glucke verfc-utwinden ailch diefreunde, (for¬
tune and friends difappear together.) Daily experience
fo fufhciently evinces the truth of this proverb, that it
needs no illullration.
To CHEER, v. a. To incite; to encourage; toinfpirit :
He cheer'd the dogs to follow her who fled,
And vow’d revenge on her devoted head. Dryden.
T o comfort ; to confole :
I die ere I could lend thee aid ;
But cheer thy heart, and be thou not difmay’d. Shake/.
To gladden :
The facred fun, above the waters rais’d,
Thro’ heaven’s eternal brazen portals blaz’d
And wide o’er earth diffus’d his cheering ray. Pope .
To CHEER, <v. n. To grow gay or gladfome :
At fight of thee my gloomy foul cheers up ;
My hopes revive, and gladnefs dawns within me.
A. Phillips.
CHEERT.R, f. Gladner ; giver of gaiety. — SafFron is
the lafeft and molt fimple cordial, the greatell reviver of
the heart, and cheerer of the ipirits. ’Temple.
Prime cheerer, light,
Of all material beings firlt and bed. Thomfon.
CHEER'FUL, adj. Gay; full of life; full of mirth :
The cheerful birds of fundry kind
.Do chaunt fweet mufic to delight his mind. Spenfer.
Having an appearance of gaiety. — A merry heart maketh
a cheerful countenance ; but by forrow of the heart the
ipirit is broken. Proverbs.
CHEER'FULLY, adv. Without dejection ; with wil-
lingnefs; with gaiety. — Pluck up thy fpirits, look cheer¬
fully upon me. Shakefpearc.
May the man, _
That cheerfully recounts the female’s praife.
Find equal love, and love's untainted Tweets
Enjoy with honour. Phillips.
CHEER'FULNESS, /. Freedom from dejeftion; ala-
crity .' — With what refolution and cheerfulnefs, with what
courage and patience, did vaft numbers of all forts of
people in the firlt ages of Chriftianity, encounter all the
rage and malice of the world, and embrace torments and
death ! Tillotfon. — Freedom from gloominefs. — I marvel¬
led to fee her receive my commandments with fighs, and
yet do them with cheerfulnefs. Sidsiey. _
CHEER'LESS, adj. Without gaiety, comfort, or
gladnefs :
On a bank, befide a willow,
Heav’n her cov’ring, earth her pillow.
Sad Amynta figh’d alone,
From the cheerlefs dawn of morning
Till the dews of night returning. Dryden.
CHEERTY, adj. Gay; cheerful. Not gloomy ; not
.clejefted, — They are ufeful to mankind, in affording them
s
C H E
convenient fituations of houfes and villages, reflecting
the benign and cherifliing fun-beams, and fo rendering',
their habitations both more comfortable and more cheerly
in winter. Ray.
CHEER'LY, adv. Cheerfully :
Oft liftening how the hounds and horn
Cheerly route the flumb’ring morn. Milton.
CHEER'Y, adj. Gay; fprightly ; having the power
to make gay : a ludicrous word :
Come, let us hie, and quaff a cheery bowl ;
Let cyder new walk forrow from thy foul. Cry’.
CHEESE,/, [cafeus, Lat. cype, Sax.] An univerfar
food, made by prefling the curd of coagulated milk, and
fuffering the mafs to dry. — I would rather truth a Fleming
with my butter, the Welflnnan with my cheefe, than my
wife with herfelf. Shakefpeare. — Ariftseus a pupil of Chi¬
ron, is faid to have firlt difeovered the art of making
cheefe; and it appears from Galen and Pliny, that clieele
was known to the Greeks and Romans much earlier than
butter. It is a common opinion, that old cheefe di-
gelts every thing, yet is left undigefted itfelf; but this is
without foundation. New cheefe digelts difficultly, and,
when old, it is acrid and hot. Cheefe made from the
milk of flieep digefts fooner than that from cows, but it
is lets nourilhing; and that from the milk of goats digefts
looner. than either, but is alfo the leaft nourilhing. The
acrimony in cheefe is from the rennet, which is increafed
by age. As to the goodnefs of cheefe, that is bell tailed
which difeovers no particular quality to excefs, and which
is the foonefl digefted. In general, it is a kind of food
bell adapted to the laborious, or thofe whole organs of
digeltion are ftrong. See Galen de Alim. Facult. Dr.
Cullen, in his Materia Medica, fays, the cafeous or co-
agulable part of milk, is certainly a great if not the
greateft part of the nourilhment which milk affords, and
is in itfelf the more nourilhing thempre it is united with the
oily parts. When the coagulum has the whey taken from
it, it becomes a more nutritious fubltance than the milk
it was taken from, but will probably be of more difficult
digeltion. Cheefe in its dried Hate, when made from
milk previoufly deprived of its cream, maybe Hill a very
nutritious matter, but of very difficult digeftion ; but*
made of entire milk, mull be a more nourifhing fubltance,
and of much- eafier digeftion ; or made of entire milk,
with a portion of cream taken from other milk added to
it, will be ltill more nourilhing, and hardly of lefs eafy
digeltion, as the oily parts every-whereinterpofed between
the parts of the gluten mult render the adhefion of this
lefs firm ; and, if cltfeefe be made of cream alone, that will
be certainly the molt nutritious, and of the eaiielt digef¬
tion. But cheefe is not only made of cow’s milk, but
alfo of the milk of ew’es and goats, and often of a portion
of the two latter added to cow’s milk. In all thele cafes,
as the milk of ewes and cows contains a larger portion
of the oily and cafeous parts, fo, in proportion as thefe
are employed, the cheefe becomes more nutritious, but at
the fame time of more difficult digeftion.
As cheefe is eaten not only when recent and frelli, but
alfo under the various degrees of corruption it is liable
to ; fo it acquires new qualities ; and, according to the
degree of corruption, it becomes more acrid and llinvu-
lant, partly by the acrimony it has acquired from corrup¬
tion, and partly by the great number of infects that are
conftantly generated in it in that Hate. In this corrupt¬
ed condition, it can hardly be taken in fuch a quantity,
as to be confidered as alimentary ; and, as a condiment
influencing the digeftion of other food, it is a point dif¬
ficult to explain, though it is commonly admitted. When
toafted, it is not fo eafily digefted by weak ftomachs, be-
caufe a portion of the oil is then leparated, and the other
parts are more firmly united by that procefs : hence for
thole hurt by indigeltion, and heated by a heavy fupper,
it is a very improper diet.
Before
CHE
Before the time of Scheele, our chemical knowledge
of milk confuted of little more than the common opera¬
tions of the dairy, and the refults of the inaccurate me¬
thod of decompolition by fire. This celebrated chemiit,
however, relates a variety of intereiting experiments on
milk, which confirm all the above properties of .cheefe.
If any vegetable or mineral acid be mixed with -milk, the
cheefe feparates, and, if aflifted by heat, coagulates into
a mats. The quantity of cheefe is lefs when a mineral
acid is ufed. Neutral falts, and all earthy and metallic
frits, will feparate the cheele from the whey. Sugar, and
gum arabic, produce the fame effedt. Cauftic alkalis will
diffolve the curds, by the afiiftance of a boiling heat, and
acids occafion.a precipitation again. It does not appear,
however, that the caceous part is diffolved in milk by
means of an alkali, as was afcertained by adding an acid
to milk, which ought to have produced a neutral fait,
if this had been the cafe ; but it did not. The true rea-
fon why acids caufe the caceous matter to feparate is,
that they combine with it, and form a compound much
lefs foluble in water than the cheefe itfelf. Eight parts
of water will diffolve one part of the curd precipitated by
a mineral acid ; fo much of the acid having been pre-
vioufly mixed with the water as to give it a four tafte.
Vegetable acids have very little folvent power upon curds;
which accounts for a greater quantity of curd being ob¬
tained when a vegetable acid is ufed. Scheele thinks that
neutral falts, gums, and fugar, produce a coagulation of
curds by virtue of their ftronger attraction for the water.
He coniiders cheefe as an animal gelatinous fubftance, or
rather ferous matter ; for he would wifli to confine the
word jelly to fuch adhefive animal fubftances as become
more fluid by heat, whereas ferum coagulates at a certain
temperature. He found that curds, after repeated ab-
ftradtions of nitrous acid, left a white refidue confining
of nitrated lime and an animal earth. This animal earth,
which may be fuppofedto be phofphorated lime, amount¬
ed to one tenth of the whole weight. The white of egg,
in the opinion of this author, is nothing elfe but pure
cheefe. When this fubftance is coagulated by means of
heat, it may be diffolved by boiling in very dilute mine¬
ral acids, which folution is again precipitated by adding
fome concentrated acid; a phenomenon that likewiie
happens with the acid folutions of curd or cheefe.
The goodnefs of cheefe undoubtedly depends on the
richnefs of the milk from which it is made; as does the
milk on the luxuriance and fweetnefs of the paftures
wherein the cattle feed. It is to this circumftance, and
not to any peculiarity in the art of making, that we are
to attribute the particular excellence of cheefe of diffe¬
rent places. Chefhire has been for ages celebrated for
the fuperior quantity, as well as quality, of its cheefe ;
an advantage that county derives from its rich and exten-
flve paftures. Next to this, Gloucefterfhire furnifhes a
kind of cheefe, perhaps higher and mellower in flavour;
but by no means in fuch quantity ; although a very prin¬
cipal part of what is called both Angle and double GIou-
cefter cheefes, is made in the adjoining counties of Somer-
fet and North Wilts ; where the paftures are fweeter, but
not fo luxuriant, as in Chefhire. The high relifh of
cheefes made in fome particular parifhes, is perhaps at¬
tributable to the double advantage of rich paftures, and
the farmers allowing little or no' butter to be taken from
the milk. Chedder cheefe feems to have derived its cele¬
brity from the aromatic herbage peculiar to the Mendip
hills and dales, which partly furround the village ; and
which give alio a fine flavour to the mutton bred and
fatted in that particular part of Somerfetfhire. The Stil¬
ton cheefe, however, among epicures, has obtained a de¬
cided pre-eminence over every other kind produced in
this kingdom ; infomuch that it is ftyled the Parmefan
of England. The caufe in fome degree is in the excel¬
lence of the paftures; but much more in the policy of
■ the farmer, who never deprives the milk of its cream,
but takes more than the value of the butter in the high
Vol. IV. No. 184. ■ 0
CHE 137
price of his cheefe. The real Parmefan, fo named from
the province of Parma in Italy, where alone it is made,
certainly derives its fine flavour from the luxuriant paf¬
tures on the banks of the Po, which is aland literally
flowing with milk and honey. Here the very air is per¬
fumed with the fragrance of the fields ; and the cattle
grave with unreftrained freedom ; the milk is not depriv¬
ed of its cream, but goes into the vat juft as it comes
from the cow ; and hence is produced the fineft cheefe in
the world.
CHEESE-REN'NET,/ See Gallium, and Runnet.
CHEE'SECAKE,/. A cake made of loft curds, fugar,
and butter ;
Where many a man, at variance with his wife,
With foft’ning mead and cheefe'cake ends the ftrife. King.
CHEE'SELIP, /. [cyphb, Sax.] A bag in which ren¬
net for cheefe is made and kept; being the ftomach-bag
of a young fucking calf that has never tafted any other
food but milk, when the curd was indigefted.
CHEE'SEMONGER, f. One who deals in cheefe.
CHEE'SEPRESS,yi The prefs in which the curds are
prefled :
The cleanly cheefeprefs fhe could never turn.
Her aukward flit did ne’er employ the churn; Gay.
CHEE'SEVATjy! The wooden cafe in which the curds
are confined when they are prefled into cheefe. — His fenfe
occafions the carelefs ruftic to judge the fun no bigger
than a cheefevat. Glanville.
CHEE'SY, adj. Having the nature or form of cheefe.
Acids mixed with them precipitate a tophaceous chalky
matter, but not a cheefy fubftance. Arbutbnot.
CHEF-BOUTON'NEja town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of Melle : eight miles fouth of Melle.
CHEFE'TE KAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Caramania : 100 miles eaft of Cogni.
CHEF'FES, atown ofFrance,in the department of the
Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif¬
tridt of Chateauneuf : three leagues north of Angers.
CHEG FORD, a fmall town, in the county of Devon :
fifteen miles weft of Exeter.
CHEGIASAR', a town of Perfia, in the IrakAgemi:
100 miles weft-fouth-weft of Ainadan.
CHE'GOE, or Nicua,/ the Indian name of an infedt
common in Mexico, and other hot countries, where it is
called pique. It is a fpecies of the acarus, or itch infedt.
It fixes upon the feet, and, breaking the cuticle, neftles
betwixt that and the true fkin, where it multiplies with
a rapidity almoft incredible. The poor, by an habitual
negledt of their perfons, luff’er thefe infedts fometimes to
multiply fo far as to make large holes in their flefli, and
even to occaflon dangerous wounds.
CHEHAW', a town of United America, in the ftate
of Georgia: 165 miles weft-fouth-weft of Augufta.
CHEl'LOCACE, f. [from a lip, and y.ay.ov, an
evil.] The lip-evil ; a lwelling of the lips, or canker in
the mouth.
CHEIRAN'THUS, / [from the Arabic keiri ; altered
by .Linnaeus into a name in the Greek form, from a
hand, and a>9o;, a flower.] In botany, a genus of the
clafs tetradynamia, order filiquofa, natural order liliquofae,
cruciformes, or cruciferas. The generic characters are —
Calyx :perianthium four leaved, comprefled : leaflets lance¬
olate, concave, eredt, parallel-converging, deciduous ; the
two outer gibbous at the bale. Corolla: four-petalled, cru¬
ciform. Petals roundifh, longer than the calyx, claws the
length ofthecalyx. Stamina : filaments fix, tubulate, paral¬
lel, the length of the calyx : two ofthem within thegibbous
leaflets of the calyx, a little fhorter than the other four.
Anthers eredt, bifid at the bafe, acute at the tip, and re¬
flected. A nedtareous gland furrounds the bafe of the
fhorter ftamens on each fide. Piftillum : germ prifhiatic,
four-cornered, the length of the ftamens, marked with
N n a tubercle
138 C H E I R A
a tubercle on each fide. Style very fhort, comprefled.
Stigma oblong, two-parted, refle£led, thickifli, perma¬
nent. Pericarpium : filique long, comprefled, the two
oppofite. angles obliterated, marked with a toothlet, two-
celled, two-valved ; furnifhed with the very fhort ftyle,
and the eredl bifid ftigma. Seeds : very many, pendulous,
alternate, fubovate, comprefied, with a membranous edge.
F.Jfential Chav after. — Germ: with a glandulous toothlet
on each fide. Calyx: doled with two leaflets gibbous
at the bale. Seeds flat.
Sfecics. 1. Cheiranthus eryfimoides, wild wall-flower,
or flock : leaves lanceolate toothed naked, ftem eredl
quite Ample, filiques four-cornered. Root perennial :
or, according to fiome, biennial. Stem ufually one (in
the wild plant) purplifli at bottom, generally quite Am¬
ple, in height from fix to eighteen inches; on the Pyre¬
nees not above two inches high. Leaves narrow, fharpilh,
feffile, dark green, either linear or oblong-lanceolate,
generally quite entire, but the lower ones fometimes
toothletted. The ftem, leaves, and unripe filique, have
fome roughnefs. The leaves refemble thofe of the com¬
mon wall-flower, as do alfo the flowers, but they have
no feent, they are yellow, arid in loofe lpikes or corymbs.
Grows in Italy, Spain, France, Swiflerland, Germany,
Auftria, Hungary, Sweden, England, in the ofler-holts
about Godltow near Oxford, and Eaft-Grinftead in Suf-
fex. It flowers in June, and ripens its feeds in autumn.
2. Cheiranthus Helveticus, Swifs wall-flower or flock :
leaves lanceolate toothed naked, ftem eredl, filiques four-
cornered, acuminated with the ftyle. I11 appearance very
like the foregoing, but more flirubby ; flowers fmaller,
and the feeds twice as large. Root perennial ; ftem eredl,
fomewhat angular, eighteen inches high ; leaves pale
green, for the moft part quite entire, but fometimes hav¬
ing a few teeth. It flowers in May and June, and the
feeds ripen in July. Native of Swifferland.
3. Cheiranthus alpinus, alpine or ftraw-coloured wall¬
flower, or flock : leaves linear entire lubtomentofe, ftem
branching. It very much refembles the firft fpecies, but
differs in having hoary leaves and a branching ftem.
The whole plant is roughifh. Root biennial. Stemftiffly
ere£l from one to three feet in height, Ample or branch¬
ing, fomewhat angular, fiender, firm. The flowers are
pale yellovy or lulphur-coloured, and have little or no
fimell ; they appear in June and July, and the feeds are
perfected in Auguft and September. Found on banks,
walls, &c. in Auftria, and Provence ; Swiflerland, and
the mountains of Piedmont.
4. Cheiranthus flriiSlus : leaves linear acute fmooth,
Item flirubby eredl.
5. Cheiranthus callofus : leaves lanceolate entire callous,
ftem angular flirubby. Found at the Cape by Thunberg.
6. Cheiranthus cheii i, or common wall-flower : leaves
lanceolate acute fmooth, branches angular, ftem flirubby.
Stem woody, a foot high, afeending ; on walls it is feldom
more than fix or eight inches high, with very tough roots
and firm ltalks, the leaves fliort and {harp-pointed, and
the flowers fmall ; but in gardens it is two feet highland
branches wide ; the leaves are broader, and the flowers
much ‘larger. The principal varieties are, x. Common
dwarf yellow. 2. Large yellbw. 3. Large yellow bloody.
4. True bloody. 5. Narrow-leaved ftraw-coloured. 6.
Variegated-leaved yellow, 7. Winter. 8. White. And
tliefe are either fingle or double.- The common wall¬
flower is a native of Swiflerland, France, Spain, &c. and
is common on old walls and buildings in many parts of
• England. It is one of the few flowers which have been cul¬
tivated for their fragr.mcy, time immemorial in ourgardens.
7. Cheiranthus fruticulofus : leaves lanceolate acute
fmooth fubferrate, ftem flirubby. Refembles the fore¬
going very much, but is a lower plant,, being only three
or four inches high. Flowers one-eighth of the fize of
the common wall-flower, lefs fragrant, pale yellow : Na¬
tive of Spain.
8. Cheiranthus chius : leaves obovate veinlefs emargi-
nate ; filiques fubulate at the tip. Very nearly allied to
2
N T II U S.'
the following fpecies. Native of the iiland of Chios, and
Ruflia.
9. Cheiranthus maritimus, or dwarf annual ftock-gil-
liflower: leaves elliptic obtufe naked roughifh; ftem dif-
fufed, rough. It feldom rifes more than fix inches iu
height, unlefs it be preternaturally drawn up. The na¬
tive place of growth is the coaft of the Mediterranean ;
and therefore it is very improperly called Virginia flock.
Annual.
10. Cheiranthus falinus : leaves lanceolate obtufe quite
entire ; ftem ereft ; anthers included. Very like the next
fpecies, but only one-eighth of the fize. It has the fmell
of the ftock-gilliflower. Found in the falt-marfhes of
Siberia and Tartary.
11. Cheiranthus incanus, or ftock-gilliflower: leaves
lanceolate quite entire obtufe hoary; filiques truncate at
the end and comprefled ; ftem under-fhrubby. The
ftock-gilliflower rifes with a flrong (talk, which is almoft
flirubby, a foot high or more, having oblong, fpear-
fhaped, hoary, leaves, which are frequently waved on
their edges, and turn downward at the extremity ; from
the flalk come out many lateral branches, with the fame
fliaped leaves, but fmaller; thefe fide branches are each
terminated by a loofe fpike of flowers, each having a
woolly calyx, and four large roundifh petals, indented
at the end. Thefe ufually appear in May and June, but
the fame plants frequently continue flowering moft part
of the f'ummer. The feeds ripen in autumn, and the
plants generally perifh foon after ; but, when any of them
grow in dry rubbifh, they will lafl two or three years,
and become flirubby ; but thofe with fingle flowers
are not worth prefetving after they have perfected then-
feeds. The flowers of this fort vary in their colour;
fome are of a pale red, others of a bright red, and fome
are curioufly variegated, but thofe of the bright red are
generally moft el^eemed. If the feeds be well chofen,
frequently three parts in four of the plants will be double;
and as the plants divide into many branches, they make a
fine appearance during their continuance in flower.
There are three principal varieties. 1. Brompton ftock-
gilliflower, from its having been there firft cultivat¬
ed in England. This rifes with an upright, ftrong, un¬
divided flalk, to the height of two feet or more, with
long lioary leaves, which are refle&ed, and waved on their
edges, and at the top form a large head ; out of the cen¬
ter of thefe arifes the flower-flalk, which, when the plants
are flrong, is frequently a foot and a half long, putting
out two or three fliort branches toward the bottom ; the
flowers of this kind have longer petals, and are formed
into a pyramidal fpike ; but thofe with fingle flowers are
loofely difpofed, becaufe the flowers, having but few pe¬
tals, do not fill the fpike, as thofe do which are double ;
for thefe often have fo many- petals, as to render each
flower as large and full as fmall rofes ; and, when they
are of a bright red, they make a pretty appearance; but
the plants of this fort produce but one fpike, in which
it differs from all the others. This is generally biennial,
though many times the plants are preferved longer ; but
they are always flronger the firft year of their flowering
than they will be after ; fb that the feeds are fown every
fpring, to continue a fucceflion of flowering plants, a.
White ftock-gilliflower, which is of longer duration than
either of the others. There are always many double
flowers rife from feeds of this fort, when they are well
chofen. The varieties of this are few ; fometimes a
few of the plants will produce pale flefh-coloured flow¬
ers, and now- and then fome have been purple ; and,
as that fort of ftock-gilliflower, whichis titled the Twick¬
enham purple, will fometimes come with flowers variegat¬
ed with white, thefe two may be varieties of each other;
and the rather, becaufe the plants agree with each other in
their external habit; for neither of thefe put out their
flower-ftems from the centre of the plants, but always
on their fide.. 3. Is known by the name of white wall-flower,
among the gardeners and florilts. This riles with a green-
iih Italk a foot high, dividing into many branches. Leaves
. narrow,
C H E I R ;
narrow, fmooth, lanceolate, of a lucid green, and of
thicker confluence than thofe of the others ; they are
near three inches long, and about half an inch broad in
the middle: the flowers are produced in loofe fpikes at
the end of the branches, are of a pure white, and have a
great fragrancy, efpecially in an evening, or in cloudy
weather. There is a variety of it with double flowers.
Linnaeus obferves, that the variety with white flowers
has the leaves lefs tomentofe and even green, but not
rigid or ftiff, as in the wall-flower. Native of the fea-coafts
of Spain. In Italy, Greece, Candia, and the ifles adjacent.
The flock -gilliflower is of very long Handing in the
Englifh gardens : Johnfon gives a figure of the double
flock, which was not in Gerarde's original work, and
obferves, that many and pretty varieties of it were kept
in the garden of his kind friend, mailer Ralph Tuggye
at Weftminfler : we may conclude therefore the double
flocks were not known in Gerarde’s time. The old Eng-
lifh name of gilliflower, which is now almofl loft in the
prefix Hock, is corrupted from the French giroflier.
Chaucer writes it gylofre ; Turner gelover and gelyfloure-,
Gerarde and Parkinlon gillofiovoer . Having got thus far
from its original orthography, it was eafily corrupted, by
thofe who knew' not whence it was derived, into July-
flonver. Pinks and carnations alfo having the name of
gilliflower, from their fmelling like the clove, which is
called girofle in French, from the Latin caryophyllu'm ; they
were called dove gilliflovoers , and thefe Jiock-gilliflovsers
for diftinfition. Gerarde fays they were alfo called Garn-
fey violet and caJHe-gilliflovjer.
12. Cheiranthus feneftralis, or clufter-leaved ftock-gil-
liflower: leaves crowded in heads recurved waved; flem
undivided. Stem fhrubby, from fix to eight inches high,
nearly the thicknefs of the little finger, llraight, rigid,
round, covered with leaves, hoary with nap, dividing at
top into two or three very fit or t, alternate branches. It
continues three or four years, flowering the fecond ; the
third and fourth it puts out branches, which flower the
fame year. This plant is proper to ftand in windows,
(whence its trivial name,) on account of its fmallnefs,
and the very grateful odour it exhales, efpecially in the
evening. The feeds were firft fown in the Upfal garden in
1753 ; but it is not known whence they came. It was
cultivated here in 1759, by Mr. Miller 3 and flowers from
May to July.
13. Cheiranthus annuus, or annual flock-gilliflower,
or ten-weeks flock : leaves lanceolate fomewhat toothed
obtufe hoary; filiques cylindric acute at the end ; flem
herbaceous. This fpecies rifes with a round fmooth flalk
about two feet high, dividing into feveral branches at
top. It grows naturally on the fea-coafts in the fouthern
countries of Europe ; and w'as cultivated in 1731, by
Mr. Miller. Of this fort there are the red, purple, white,
and ftriped, with Angle flowers ; and the fame colours
with double flowers ; which are very great ornaments in
the borders of the flower-garden in autumn.
14. Cheiranthus littoreus, or fea flock-gilliflower :
leaves lanceolate fomewhat toothed tomentofe and flefhy ;
petals emarginate ; filiques tomentofe. Stem a foot high,
alternately branching, hoary. The flowers are fmaller
than thofe of the common ltock, of a bright red at firft,
but fading to a purple. The whole plant is very white ;
and, having woody ftalks, has the appearance of a pe¬
rennial plant, but it generally perifhes in autumn. It
grows naturally near the lea coait, in the louth of France,
Spain, and Italy. It was cultivated in 1683, by Mr. James
Sutherland.
15. Cheiranthus triflis, or dark-flowered ftock-gilli-
flower : leaves linear fubfinuate ; flowers feflile, petals
waved ; flem fhrubby. This fort is of humble growth,
feldom rifing above eight or nine inches high. The whole
plant is roughilh, and of a hoary alli-colour. The bottom
leaves have two or three pairs of teeth, and are finuated ;
the branch-leaves have one or two teeth, and the upper
ones are quite entire. At night it has a grateful odour,
N T H U S. 139
fomewhat refembling that of geranium trifle. Native of
the fouth of Europe. Cultivated in 1768 by Mr. Miller.
16. Cheiranthus trilobus : leaves toothed obtufe;
calyxes even ; filiques knotted mucronate filiform even.
Root annual ; Items branching, fpreading, feven or eight
inches high, hoary. Native of Italy, on the fea fliore
near Terracina.
1 7. Cheiranthus tricufpidatus, or trifid ftock-gilliflower:
leaves lyrate ; filiques three-toothed at the tip. This is
an annual plant, which branches out from the root into
many declining ftalks : the lower leaves are about tw'o
inches long, and three quarters of an inch broad, very
deeply' finuated on their edges, and hoary ; thole upon
the ftalks are of the lame form, but much fmaller: the
flowers are produced from the fides of the ftalks fingly,
and at the top in loofe fpikes or racemes. Native of. Bar¬
bary. Cultivated in 1759, by Mr. Miller.
18. Cheiranthus finuatus, or prickle-podded ftock-gil¬
liflower : leaves tomentofe obtufe fubfinuate, branch-
leaves entire; filiques muricate. Stalk eretft, and the
wdiole plant covered with a white dowm. Flowers flelh-
coloured, fucceeded by long woolly pods. Brought out
of the ifle of Rhe near Rochelle by John Tradefcant,
when the duke of Buckingham was lent with fupplies for
Monf. Soubife ; gathered by Mr. George Bowles upon
the rocks at Aberdovye in Merionethfhire ; on the fandy
coaft of Anglefey about Abermeney -ferry, at Aberdaren
in Caernarvonftiire ; on the coaft of Cornw'all, &c. Bi^
ennial.
19. Cheiranthus farfetia: filiques oval compreffed ; leaves
linear-lanceolate ; flem fhrubby eredt. Stem a foot high,
hoary, ftiff and ftraight, branching. Native of Egypt
and Arabia : obferved by Forfkael in the kingdom of
Tunis. Turra gave it the name of farfetia, from Far-
fetti, a noble Venetian. Introduced in 1788, by John
Sibfhorp, M. D.
20. Cheiranthus tenuifolius, or narrow-leaved fhrubby
ftock-gilliflower : leaves filiform quite entire fomewhat
filky, flem frutefcent branched. This is a fhrub, a foot
and a half in height ; the branches becoming bald at bot¬
tom. It is a native of Madeira, and was found there by
Maffon. It W'as introduced in 1777 ; and flowers in May
and June.
21. Cheiranthus mutabilis, or broad-leaved fhrubby
ftock-giiliflower : leaves lanceolate acuminate fharply fer¬
rate, Item frutefcent, filiques peduncled. This aifo is a
fhrub, growing to the height of two or three cubits. It
was found by Maffon in the fame ifland, was introduced
at the fame time, and flowers from March to May. Its
chief merit confifts in its early flowering. The fhowy
bloffoms on firft opening are white, lbmetimes inclined
to yellow ; in a few days they become purple ; hence its
trivial name mutabilis , or changeable. ■
22. Cheiranthus quadrangulus : leaves linear entire,
filiques feflile oblong quadrangular. This grows a cubit
in height, with an herbaceous flem, becoming a little
fhrubby at bottom, upright, branched, round: leaves
bright green, three or four inches long, and tw'o or three
lines wide ; flowers fulphur-coloured, odorous. .Native
of the deferts of Siberia. Introduced into the Paris gar¬
den by the famous Jean Jacques Roufleau ; and lince by
Demidow.
Propagation and Culture. The wall-flowers that are
Angle produce feeds in plenty; but the largeft and deep-
eft-coloured flowers fhould always be feledted for feeds.
Thefe fhould be fown in April, upon poor undunged loil ;
and when the plants are fit to remove, they fhould be
tranfplanted into nurfery-beds, at about fixinches diftance
each way, obierving to water and fhade them until they
have taken frefli root ; after which they will require no
farther care, but to keep them clean from weeds all the
fummer; and at Michaelmas they may be tranlplanted
- into the borders of the flower-garden where they are de¬
signed to remain, that the plants may get good roots be¬
fore the froft comes on. This is the method which is
commonly
*40 ' C H E
commonly praclifed with thefe flowers 5 but if the feeds
are fown upon poor land, where they are defigned to re¬
main, and not tranfplanted, they will thrive, and endure
the froft in winter much better than thofe which are re¬
moved ; fo that upon ruins or rubbifti the feeds of thefe
plants may be fown, where they will thrive and continue
much longer than in good land; and in fuch places, ii
they are properly difpoled, they will be very ornamental,
and their flowers, having a ftrong odour, will perfume the
air to a cohfiderable.diltance.
All the varieties of ftock-gilliflower flower in May and
June, at which time they are the greateft ornament to the
flower-garden, therefore deferve our care to cultivate them
as much as any of the flowery tribe ; but, in order to have
many double flowers, there mull be great care taken in
the choice of plants for feeds, without which there can
be little hopes of having thefe flowers in perfection. The
only fure way of getting many double flowers, is to make
choice of thofe Angle flowers which grow near many
double ones ; for thofe feeds which have been faved from
plants growing in beds clofe to each other, where there
happened to be many double flowers among them, are
found to produce a much greater number of plants with
double flowers, than thofe which have been faved from
plants of the fame kinds, which grew Angle in the borders
of the flower-garden ; fo that there fliould be a fmall bed
of each kind planted on purpofe to fave feeds in the
flower-nurfery ; or if they are fown there, and the plants
thinned properly when they are young, they need not
be tranfplanted ; for the plants which come up from
fcattered feeds, which have not been tranfplanted, endure
the froftmucli better than thofe which have been removed;
for as thefe plants fend out horizontal roots from the bottom
of their (terns, which fpread near the furface of the ground,
fo when they are tranlplanted, the roots are forced down¬
ward out of their natural direction ; and, if their (talks
were grown tall before removal, they are generally plant¬
ed low in the ground, whereby they are apt to rot, if the
ground is moift, or the winter (hould prove wet; there¬
fore, where they can be left unremoved, there will be a
better chance of their living through the winter ; and,
as thefe beds need not be of great extent, lb, -when the
winter proves very fevere, it will not bemuch trouble or
expence to arch the beds over with hoops, and cover them
with mats in frofty weather, by. which method they may
be always preferved. The ground - where thefe feeds are
fown, muft not have any dung, for in rich land the plants
will grow very vigorous in fummer, but. froft, or the
heavy rains in autumn, will foon deftroy. them ; for thefe
plants will thrive upon rocks or old walls, as was before
oblerved; and in fucli iituations they. will live, when all
thofe which are planted in gardens are deftroyed. The
belt time to fow the feeds is about the beginning of May ;
and, if the feafon fliould prove dry, it will be proper to
(bade the beds with mats every day, to prevent the earth
from dryingtoo fail; but the covering muft be taken off
every evening,, to . admit the- dews of night, and they
ihould be gently watered in the evening two or three times
a-week. When the plants -.fit-ft appear, w'ith their two
(feed-leaves, they are often attacked by flies, efpecially in
dry hot feafons; therefore to prevent their deftroying the
plants, the covering fliould be continued over them dur¬
ing the heat of the day, and the plants frequently re-
freftied with water, which will keep them in a growing
ftate, and the flies will not infeft them ; for it is always
obferved, they never attack any plants Unlefs they have
been Hunted in their growth : when the plants have got
ftrengtb, they will he lecure from this clanger, and the
coverings may be removed ; after this the plants will re¬
quire no farther care but to keep them clean from weeds,
and to be thinned to the diftanceof nine inches or afoot,
that they may have proper room to. grow, and not draw
each other up tall and weak. The plan ts which are drawn
out of thefe beds to thin them, may be planted in the
borders of tli# flower-garden, where they are defigned
CHE
to remain, and the fooner they are removed, when the
plants have got fix or eight leaves, the more likely they
will be to live through the winter. The farther care of
the plants which are left in the beds, will be to cover
them in winter with mats ; and, when they come to flow¬
er, all thofe which are not of good, colours, or whofe
flowers are fmall, fliould be drawn out as foon as they ap¬
pear, that thej may not impregnate thofe which are de¬
figned for feeds with their farina ; but thofe with double
flowers (hould by no means be removed, nor Ihould their
flowers be cut off, but fuffered to fade among the (ingle
ones, by which the (beds will be improved ; it will alfo be
a fure method of preferring each fort in .perfection, to have
them feparate from each other, in diftinft beds ; though
there is very little danger of any of the fpecies altering,
by the mixt ure of their farina, but their colours are liable
to be changed by it ; fo that, in order to continue thofe
pure, they (hould not (land too near each other. There
are fome who propagate tire double ftock-gillifloWers by
flips and cuttings, which will take root when properly
managed; but the plants fo raifed are never fo ftrong as
thofe which come from feeds, their fpikes of flowers are
always very (hort, and have not half the beauty ; it is not
worth while therefore to praftife this method, unlefs for
thofe which cannot be obtained with any certainty from
feed.
The annual or ten-weeks flock, if fown at three diffe¬
rent times, may be continued in lucceflion during feveral
months. The firft flawing (hould be about the middle of
February, upon a very (lender hot-bed, juft to bring up
the plants, which muft be guarded againft froft ; and, when
they are fit to remove, they (hould be tranfplanted into
. mirfery beds, at about three or four inches diftance, ob-
iferving to water and (hade them till they have taken
root, and afterwards to keep them clean from weeds ; in
. thefe beds they may remain five or fix wreeks to get
i ftrengtb, and may then be planted into the borders of
: the flower-garden, where they are to remain : if thefe
care tranfplanted when there is rain, they will foon take
root, after which they will require no farther care. From
thele early plants good feeds may be expedted, therefore
fome of the fineft plants of each colour fliould be pre¬
ferved, and marked for feeds, which, when ripe, fliould
be carefully cut before the froll pinches them, and the
ftalks tied up in fmall bundles, and hung up in a dry
room till the pods are well dried, when the feeds may be
rubbed out and preferved for ufe. To fucceed thefe, ano¬
ther parcel of (feeds fliould be fown in March ; and a
third parcel at the end of May. If thefe laft be fown
upon a warm border, where they may be covered, by
placing glades before them in winter, or covering them
with mats, they may be continued in flower till Chrift-
mas : and if fome of the plants be potted, and put under
a liot-bed frame in autumn, where they may enjoy the
open air in mild weather, and be fereened from hard rains
and froft, they will keep flowering all the winter, when
the weather is not very fevere. See Arabis, Helio-
phila, and Manulea.
CHEIRAN'THUS LACE'RUS, f. in botany. See
Hespekis Lacera.
CHEI'RI, f. in botany, See Cheiranthus.
CHEIR.O'NOMY, [from Gr. cheironomia,
Lat.] To exercife with the bands. An exercife mention¬
ed by Hippocrates, which confided of gefticulations with
the hands, like our dumb bells.
CHEI'TO, a town of Perfia, in the province of Far-
fiftan : 120 miles fouth of Schiras.
CHEITO'RE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Oudipour, formerly one of the principal fortreiies of In¬
dia, and refidence of the Rana, chief of the Rajpoots,
now removed to Oudipour ; fituated 011 a very high moun¬
tain, and faid by fome to be feven miles in circumfe¬
rence, by others eight, and by Perfian authors repre-
fented to be ten, iurrounded with towers and baftions ;
and, from the foot of the mountain to the top, faid to
CHE
be two miles and a half, and by fome five miles ; a bar¬
rier of l'even gates mull be palled, before the citadel
could be approached ; fuch a fortrefs as this, fupplied
with every necelfary, might be fuppofed impregnable ;
but it was taken after a long liege by the king ot Delhi.
After fome years, it came into the power of the Rana, or
prince of the Rajpoots ; from whom it was taken by the em¬
peror Acbar, who laid it walte with great carnage, pht
the garrifon to the fword, and blew up the towers with
gunpowder. After the Mogul troops were driven away,
the Ranabegaji to repair it, but not in its ancient fpjen-
dour, and even thefe repairs were dedroyed by another
invafion of the Moguls It is now wholly defeated, and
become a refort of tigers and other beads of prey. Sir
Thomas Roe palled through it in his way to Agimere, in
1612, and gives the following detail of its then date.
“ Cytor is an ancient ruined city, on a hill, but fhews
the footdeps of wonderful magnificence. There are Hill
danding above a hundred churches, all of carved done,
anany fair towers and lanthorns, many pillars, and in¬
numerable houfes, but not one inhabitant. There is
but one deep afeent cut out of the rock, and four gates
in the afeent before you come to the city gate, which is
magnificent. The hill is inclofed at the top for about
eight codes, and at the fouth-wed end is a goodly cadle.”
It is lituated forty-three miles north of Oudipour, and
feventy-fix fouth of Agimere. Lat. 2,5. 22. N. Lon. 74.
55. E. Greenwich.
CHE1 WAN', a town of Arabia: fortymiles fou th ofSaade.
CHEKAO', f. an earth ufed by the Chinele in their
porcelain manufactures. It is afpecies of the loap-rock.
See Steatiths.
CHEKE (Sir John), a celebrated datefman, gramma¬
rian, and divine, of an ancient family in the Ide of
Wight, but born at Cambridgerin 1514, and educated
at St. John’s college in that univerficy; where he was
fird chofen Greek lecturer, and in 1540, profedor of that
language, with a dipend of forty pounds a-year. In this
dation he was principally indrumental in reforming the
pronunciation of the Greek language, which, having
been much neglefited, was imperfe&iy underdood. A-
bout 1543, lie was incorporated mader of arts at Ox¬
ford, where he had likewile dudied for fome time. In
the following year he was lent for to thecourt of Henry
VIII. and appointed tutor, jointly with Sir Anthony
Cooke, to prince Edward; about which time he was
made canon of the college newly founded in Oxford, now
Chrid-churcli. On the acceflion of his royal pupil to the
throne of England, Mr. Cheke was firlt rewarded with
a penfion of 100 marks, and afterwards obtained feve-
ral cpnfiderable grants from the crown. In 1550 he
was made chief gentleman of the privy-chamber, and
was knighted the following year; in 1552, chamberlain
of the exchequer for life ; in 1553, clerk of the council ;
and foon after fecretary of date, and privy-counfellor.
But thefe honours were of Ihort duration. Having con¬
curred in the meafures of the duke of Northumberland
for fettling the crown on the unfortunate Jane Grey,
and having abted as her fecretary during, the nine days of
her reign ; on the accedion of queen Mary, Sir John
Cheke was fent to the tower, and dript of the greatelt
part ot his polfelhons. In September 1554, he obtained
his liberty, and a licenfe from her majelty to travel a-
broad. He went fird to Bal'd, thence to Italy, and af¬
terwards returned to Stradmrgh, where he was reduced
to the neceflity of reading Greek leisures for fubfidence.
In 1556 he fet out in an evil hour to meet his wife at
Brulfels: but, before he reached that city, he was feized
by order of Philip II. king of Spain, hoodwinked, and
thrown into a waggon; and thus ignominioudy conduc¬
ed to a llup, which brought him to the tower of London.
He foon found that religion was the caufe of his iinpri-
fonment; for he was immediately vifited by two Romilh
prielts, who pioully endeavoured to convert him, but
Vol, IV. No, 184.
CHE i4t
without fuccefs. He was then vifited by Fleckenham,
who told him from the queen, that he mud either com¬
ply or burn. This powerful argument had the defired
eflefil ; and Sir John Cheke accordingly complied in
form, and his lands, upon certain conditions, were re-
ftored; but remorfe, grief, and fliame, foon put an end
to his life ; for he died in September 1557, and was bu¬
ried in St. Alban’s, church. He left three fons, the el¬
ded of whom, Henry, W'as knighted by queen Elizabeth.
He wrote, 1. A Latin tranflation of two of St. Chryfof-
tom’s Homilies. Loud. 1543, 4to. 2. The Hurt of Se¬
dition. Lond. 1 549, 1 576, 1641. 3. Latin Tranflation
oftheEnglifli Communion Service. Printed among Bu-
cer’s opufcula. 4. De pronunciatione Graecae. Bafil,
1555, 8 vo. 5. Several letters publilhed in his life by
Strype ; and a great number of other books.
CHEKOUTI'MES, a nation or tribe of Indians, who
inhabit near the louth bank of Saguenai river, in Upper
Canada.
CHELIDO'NIA, an anniverfary wind, blowing from
the 6th of the ides of February to the 7th of the calends
of March, being the time of the appearance of the fwai-
lows ; otherwife the Favonius, or Zephyrus. Pliny.
CHELIDO'NIA, f in botany. See Ranunculus
Ficari a.
CIIELIDO'NIUM, f. [from ythiaoiv, a fwallow] In bo¬
tany, a genus of the clals polyandria, order monogynia,
natural order rhoeadese. The generic characters are — ■
Calyx: perianthium two-leaved, roundiih: leaflets fub-
ovate, concave, obtufe, caducous. Corolla: petals four,
roundiih, dat, fpreadirig, large, narrower at the bale.
Stamina: filaments very many (thirty), fiat, broader at
tap, fhorter than the corolla. Anthers oblong, com-
prefled, obtufe, eredt, twin. Pidiilum: germ cylindric,
the length of the damens. Style none. Stigma headed,
bifid. Perianthium: iilique cylindric, fub-bivalve.
Seeds very many, ovate, increafed, finning. Receptacle
linear, between the valves of a kind of circumambient
future not gaping. Ejfential Charaffer. — -Corolla four
petalled ; calyx two-leaved ; fiiique one-celled, linear.
Species. 1. Chelidonium majus, common or great ce¬
landine: peduncles umbelled. Stem ereft, from a foot
to eighteen inches in height, cylindric, a little hairy.
The juice of the whole plant is fafiron-coloured. It ap¬
proaches to the clafs tetradynamia in the cruciform
diape of the corolla, and its fiiique ; which however dif¬
fers eflentially, in being one-celled. It is common in
hedges and other fhady places, uncultivated grounds, on
rubbifh, walls, &c. dowering from May to July, during
which time it is in the greated perfefition for uie. The
juice of every part of this plant is very acrimonious. It
cures tetters and ringworms. Diluted with milk it con-
fumes white opake lpots on the eyes. It dedroys warts,
and cures the itch. There is no doubt but a medicine of
fuch afiiivity will one day be converted to more impor¬
tant purpofes. The root, according to Loureiro, is ex¬
tremely bitter, and greatly edeemed among the natives
of Cochinchina, for a variety of'ufes in medicine.
2. Chelidonium . glaucium, fea celandine, or yellow
horned poppy. Peduncles one-flowered ; leaves ftem-
clafping, iinuated; demlinooth. The root is perennial
according to Scopoli and Allioni, but annual according
to others ; Miller fays biennial. The whole plant is
glaucous. Stem drong, near two feet high, much
branched. The flowers nod till the day preceding the
unfolding of the petals, which fall ofi’ on the fecond day
after they are opened. The large and numerous flowers,
which, although of fhort. duration, fucceed one another
in great abundance during mod part of the dimmer,
make a fine contrad with the fea- green dew-befpangled
leaves, and are a great ornament to our landy fhores..
The whole plant abounds in a yellow juice, is foetid,
and of a poifonous quality. It is laid to occafion raad-
nefs. Found in landy foils in Swifferland, France, Italy,
O o Auftria,
i\2 CHE
Auftria, Carnlola, Denmark, Virginia, ; and on the coafts
of Britain, frequently within reach of the fpray of the
fea, as in Norfolk, Suffolk about Dunwich, &c. Lan-
cafhire, Ille of Wight, Kent, Effex, Wales and Scotland.
Flowers from June to Auguft.
3. Chelidonium corniculatum, red celandine, or horn¬
ed poppy: peduncles one-flowered; leaves feffile, pin-
natifid; ftem hifpid. This fpecies grows in Hungary,
Bohemia, Moravia, Auffria, about Montpellier, Pied¬
mont, Spain. In England, firft obferved by Mr. Stil-
lingfleet, in the Tandy corn-fields of Norfolk. Annual;
flowering in July and Augult.
4. Chelidonium hybridum, violet celandine, or horned
poppy : peduncles one-flowered ; leaves pinnatifid linear ;
item gloliy : flliques three valved. Stem eredt, a foot
high, branched, cylindric, Ihvoothifli, having a few ex¬
panded briftles. Found in the fouthern countries of
Burope; in fandy corn-fields between Swaffham and
Burwell in Cambridgelhire and in Norfolk. Annual,
flowering in July and Auguft.
5. Chelidonium Japonicum: peduncles one-flowered;
leaves petioled, pinnated, ovate. Native of Japan.
Propagation and Culture. If the feeds of the four firft
fpecies be permitted to fcatter, the ground will beplenti-
fully ltored with plants. If a few of them be thrown about
in rock-work, they will come up without trouble, and have
a good effedt. Seeds fown in the autumn will grow with
more certainty than in the fpring, and come earlier to flow¬
er: they fliould be fown where the plants are to remain, and
will require no care but to thin them where they are too
clofe, and to keep them clean from weeds. There is a
variety of the firft fort with double flowers, which gene¬
rally rifes the fame from feeds; and may alfo be prelerved
by parting the roots. See Bocconia.
CHELlDO'NIUM MAJUS, /. in botany. See San¬
guinary a.
CHELlDO'NIUM MINUS, / in botany. See Ra¬
nunculus Ficaria.
CHELIDO'NIUS, /. [from a fvvallow.J Aftone
faid by the ancients to be found in the ftomachs of
young lwallows, and greatly praifed for its virtues in
the falling ficknefs; but it appears to be only a fpecies
of lycodontes, or bufonitse; which fee.
CHEL'LES, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Marne; four leagues weft-fouth-weftofMeaux.
CHELM, a town of Poland, in Red Ruflia, and capi¬
tal of a palatinate to which it gives name; the fee of a
Roman bifhop, fuffragan of Lemburg, and a Greek bi-
fliop, fuffragan of Kiov. It is very much gone to decay ;
the palatinate is now partly fubjedt to Ruflia and partly to
Auftria. On the 8th of June, 1794, the PoLes were defeat¬
ed by the Pruftians, near this town : 108 miles fouth-eaft
of Warfaw, and 396 eaft of Breflaw.
CHEL'MER, a river of England, which runs into the
fea, a little below Malden.
CHEL'MER,/. [corruptly for kill mar, Brit.] The re¬
flux of the fea.
CHELMIE'Z, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Mintk : fifty miles eaft of Mozyr.
CHELMS'FORD, the county town of Effex, fituated
nearly in the centre of the county, with roads exceeding
good, the foil fertile, and the air temperate. It is not,
as has been defcribed, a flat heavy country, but agreea¬
bly diverfified with lawns and eminences, and plentifully
fupplied with the pureft water: under thefe advantages,
it is naturally populous, and refpedtably inhabited.
The town (lands at the confluence of two rivers, the
Chelmer, and the Cann ; from the former of which it de¬
rived its name. In fome places, Doomfday-book has it
Celmeresfort ; in others, Celmeresford, and Chelmsford :
however it is evidently a contraction of Chelmer’s-Ford,
all carriages, cattle, Sec'. being under the neceflity of
fording this river before bridges were thrown over it. —
Chelmsford, being the capital of the county, carries on a
CHE
conflderable fliare of bufinefs; it is diftant from Colches¬
ter twenty-two miles, and twenty-nine from London.
The town conlifts of four principal llreets, regular, and
well-built. The fliire-hall, which has been lately erect¬
ed, is a magnificent edifice : it contains two hand fome
roomy courts, finifhed in the moft convenient and ele¬
gant manner; many large and uleful rooms for the pur-
pofes of tranladling the bufinefs of the county; and in
front, which is of ftone, there is a capital public room;
the length of the whole building is eighty- four feet;
it is decorated with four (lately pillars of the Ionic order,
between each of which there is a handfome window, and
above the windows are three emblematical figures repre-
lenting Juftice, Wildom, and Mercy. Tins beautiful
edifice was built by Mr. John fori, the county furveyor;
the execution does great credit to his abilities as an
architect; and will be a lading monument of the fade
and fpirit of the magillrates of the opulent county of
Effex. On the left of this building is' feen the tower,
fpire, and chief part, of the church ; which venerable
ftrudture terminates this elegant piece of perfpedtive. In
an open lpace adjoining to the thire-hall, ftands a con¬
duit. When it was firft erected is uncertain, as it bears
no date : but it was beautified by the noble family of
the Fitzwalters. It is of a quadrangular form, about fif¬
teen feet high, built with ftone and brick; it has four
pipes, one on each fide, from which the waters are perpe¬
tually flowing. The following infeription is on the fide
that fronts the part from whence the fpring rifes : — “ This
conduit in one minute runs one hogfhead and a half and
four gallons and a half; in one day, 2262 hogfheads and
fifty-four gallons ; in one month, 63360 hogfheads; and in
oneyear, 82 5942 hogllieads and fifty-four gallons.” — Low¬
er down, in fourfinall tables, are the following inferiptions s
“ Benignus benignis." — Bountiful to the bounteous.
“ Nec parous parcis." — Liberal to the covetous.
(,Nec diminutui largiendo." — Not diminifhed by be¬
llowing.
“ Sic charitas a deo fonte .” — Thus charity from the
heavenly fountain.
Two hundred pounds were given by Sir William
Mildmay, bart. the intereft whereof to be applied to¬
wards keeping this conduit in repair. The fpring from
which it is fupplied rifes about a quarter of a mile from
the town, and is called Burges’s well.
This town is conflderable in many refpedts. It is cho-
fen for the tranfadlion of all the public bufinefs of the
county. The aflizes, general quarter feflions, petty fefi-
fions, county courts, See. are held here. Here likewile
are made the eledtions for the knights of the (hire, and
here ftands the county-prilon, which wasrebuilt of ftone
in 1777, and is one of the finelt gaols in the kingdom.
The great road from London to Colchefter, Harwich,
Suffolk, and many parts of Norfolk, lies through this
town. The church is a noble ftrudlure, fituated at the
end of the town, and dedicated to St. Mary ; it has three
fpacious aides, which run to the end of the chancel, and
are leaded. A (lately lquare tower, built of ftone, ftands
at the weft end, with proper pyramids on each corner;
upon it is eredled a fpire, which has a pretty effedt. The
body of the church is fupported by pillars of alight con-
ftrudlion, and excellent workmanfhip; the windows are
Gothic and curious. Here is a royal free grammar-
fchool, founded by Edward VI. in 1552, and liberally
endowed by that monarch; alio two charity fchools; one
founded the 17th of Auguft, 1713, for fifty boys; the o-
ther, in April, 1714, for twenty girls ; both which are
incorporated, and fupported by voluntary fubfeription.
There are many feats of the nobility and gentry in the
neighbourhood of Chelmsford, among which ftands the
capital manfion-houfe of the ancient family of the Mild-
mays, diftinguifhed by the name of Moulfham-hall. It
is delightfully placed on an eafy afeent, about a quarter
of a mile on the eaft fide of the town. It was rebuilt by
the
CHE
the late Benjamin earl Fitzwalter, and was planned with
the niceft (kill and judgment, to render it fo completely
elegant, and at the lame time truly commodious. The
pilafters, cornices, entablatures, and other decorative
ornaments, are all of done. It has a gallery on each
floor, by which means an eafy accels is obtained to all
the different apartments, without the inconveniency of
making any of them a paflage; the principal rooms are
large, and well difipofed; the grand hall at the entrance
is lofty, and the ceiling curioufly wrought ; and the
lioufe contains a great variety of excellent paintings.
CHELMS'FORD, a town of the American States, in
Middlefex county, Maflachufetts, fituated on the fouth
fide of Merrimack river, twenty fix miles from Bolton,
and by the cenfus contains 1144 inhabitants. There is
an ingenioufly conftru&ed bridge over the river at Paw¬
tucket Falls,- which connects this town with Dracut.
CHE.LO'NE, /. [^eAwvjj, Gr.] The tortoife. In fur-
gery it means an inltrument for the purpofe of making
a gradual extenfion of a fractured limb, and fo called,
becaule in its flow motion it reprefents a tortoife.
CEIEEO'NE,/ [from Gr. a tortoife.] In botany,
a genus of the clafs didynamia, order angiofpermia, natu¬
ral order perfonatae. The generic characters are — Calyx: pe-
rianthium one-leafed, five-parted, very fliort, permanent :
divifions ereft, ovate. Corolla : monopetalous, ringent.
Tube cylindric, very fhort. Throat inflated, oblong,
convex above, flat beneath. Border doled, Email. Up¬
per lip obtufe, emarginate ; lower almolt equal to the
upper, very flightly trilid. Stamina : filaments four, hid
beneath the back of the corolla; the two fide ones a
little longer. Anthers incumbent. The rudiment of a
fifth filament, like the point of a dagger, between the
upper pair of llamens. Piitillum : germ ovate. Style
filiform, fituation and length of the ltamens. Stigma ob¬
tufe. Pericarpium : capfule ovate, two-celled, longer
than the calyx. Seeds very many, roundilh, furrounded
with a membranous rim — EJfential Char after. Calyx :
five-parted. Rudiment of a fifth filament between the
upper llamens. Capfule, two-celled.
Species . 1. Chelone glabra, or white chelone : leaves
petioled lanceolate ferrate, the upper ones oppofite. This
fort grows naturally in moll parts of North America;
and is called by Jofcelin, in his New England Rarities,
the humming-bird-tree. It has a pretty thick jointed root,
which creeps under ground to a confiderable diflance,
fending up finooth channelled ftalks, which rife about
two feet high, with two leaves at each joint. Handing
oppofite without foot-ftalks ; thefe are three inches and
a half long, and about three quarters of an inch broad
at their bafe, where they are broadeft, dimimfhing gra¬
dually to a lharp point ; they have firnall ferratures on
their edges, which fcarcely appear. The flowers grow
in a clofe fpike at the end of the fialks; they are white,
and have but one petal, which is tubular, and narrow at
the bottom, but fwells towards the top, almoft like the
foxglove flower ; the upper fide is bent over and convex,
but the under is fiat, and flightly indented in three parts
at the end.
a. Chelone obliqua, or red chelone : leaves petioled
lanceolate ferrate, all oppofite. Difcovered in Virginia
by Mr. Clayton, who fent it to England : the roots of
this do not creep fo far as thofe of the firft, the ftalks
are ftronger, the leaves much broader, and oblique;
they are deeply fawed on their edges, and ftand upon
fliort foot-ftalks : the corolla is of a bright purple co¬
lour, and therefore makes a finer appearance than the
firft fort.
3. Chelone hirfuta, or hairy chelone : ftem and leaves
hirfute. This approaches to the firft fort, but the ftalks
and leaves are very hairy, and the flower is- of a purer
white. It flowers at the fame time. Native of New
England.
4. Chelone pentftemon : leaves ftem-clafping ; panicle
dichotomous. Stem a foot and a half high, putting out
CHE 143
feveral fide-branches. Flowers purple. Native of North
America.
5. Chelone campanulata : leaves oppofite, feflile, ovate-
lanceolate, extremely acuminate, deeply lerrate. The
whole plant fmooth. Stems round, a foot and a half
high, purple, wand-like. It may, perhaps, only be a va¬
riety of the foregoing. Native of Mexico. Cultivated
in the gardens of Paris and Madrid.
Propagation and Culture. The three firft forts flower
in Auguft, and, when the autumn proves favourable, the
feeds wall fometimes ripen in England ; but as the plants
propagate fo faft by their creeping roots, the feeds are
feldom regarded. The beft time to tranfplant the roots
is in autumn, that they may be well eftablilhed in the
ground before the fpring, otherwife they will not flower
lb ftrong, efpecially if the feafon proves dry; but, when
they are removed in the fpring, it fhould not be later
than the middle of March, by which time their roots
will begin to pufh out new fibres. They will thrive in
almoft any foil or fituation, but their roots are apt to
creep too far, if they are not confined, and fometimes
intermix with thofe of other plants ; and then their ftalks
ftand lo far diftant from each other, as to make but little
appearance ; therefore they lhould be planted in pots,
which will confine their roots, fo that in each pot there
will be eight or ten ftalks growing near each other, when,
they will make a tolerably good appearance. This plant
being very hardy, is not injured by cold ; but it mult
have plenty of water in hot weather. As thefe plants
flower in the autumn, when there is a fcarcity of other-
flowers, it renders them the more valuable, efpecially
the fecond fort, whofe flowers make a very pretty ap¬
pearance, when they are ftrong : and if fome of them
have a lhady fituation in the funjmer, they will flower
later. The feeds of the fourth fort fhould be fown in au¬
tumn. When the plants are grown ftrong enough to
remove, they fhould be tranfplanted into a fhady border,
which will prevent their flowering the fame year ; and,
in the autumn, they may be planted in the borders of
the flower-garden. The roots feldom lall above two or
three years.
CHELO'NE, in fabulous hiftory, a nymph changed
into a tortoife by Mercury, for not being prelent at the
nuptials of Jupiter and Juno, and condemned to perpe¬
tual filence for having ridiculed thefe deities.
CHELO'NION,/. [yjXanov, from yj.'karn the tortoife.]
A hump, or gibbofity in the back, is fo called from its
refemblance to the fliell of a tortoife.
CHELO'NIS, a daughter of Leonidas king of Sparta,
who married Cleombrotus. She accompanied her father,
whom her hufband had expelled; and foon afterjwent
into baniflmient with her hufband, who had, in his turn,
been expelled by Leonidas.
CHELONO'PHAGI, f. A people of Carmania, who
feed upon turtle, and cover their habitations with the
fliell s. Pliny.
CHEL'SEA [1 7. d. Shelfly, from fhelves of land ; it is
alfo called Chelche-hyth, probably from cealc chalk, ea
water, and jPy^, Sax. q. d. a chalky port near the water.]
A large and populous village, or rather town, in Mid¬
dlefex, fituated on the Thames, only two miles from
London. The celebrated botanical-garden, belonging
to the company of apothecaries, which is enriched with
a great variety of plants, both indigenous and exotic, is
on the beft lbil of Chelfea. It was given, in 1721, by
fir Hans Sloane, bart. on condition of their paying a
quit-rent of five pounds, and delivering annually to the
royal fociety fifty fpecimens of different forts of plants,
of the growth of this garden, till the number fhould
amount to 2000. In 1733, the company erefted a mar¬
ble ftatue of the donor, by Ryfbrack, in the centre of the
garden, the front of which is confpicuoufly marked, to¬
ward the river, by two noble cedars of Libanus. In a
molt eligible and plealant fituation, is the palace of the
bifhops of Wincheller. Adjoining to this, fir Thomas
More.
CHE
CHE
144
More built a fpacious manfion of brick, the greater part
of which trill remains ; but it has undergone many al¬
terations, and has loft much of its Gothic and venerable
appearance.
In this town, (for it well deferves to be fo called,)
Hands that grand national afylum, for decayed and
maimed loldiers, known by the name of Chelfea Hofpi-
tal, being the nobieft building, and one of the beft foun¬
dations, of its kind, in the world. It was begun by
Charles II. carried on by James II. and completed by
William III. The firft projector of this magnificent
ftrubture was fir Stephen Fox, grandfather to the right
honourable Charles James Fox. He could not bear, he
laid, to fee the common foldiers, who had fpent their
ftrength in our fervice, reduced to beg ; and to this hu¬
mane inftitution he contributed 13,0001. It was built
by fir Chriftopher Wren, on the fcite of an old college,
founded by Dr. Sutcliff, dean of Exeter, in the reign of
James I. for the ftudy of polemical divinity; but, the fum
left for its endowment being inadequate to the expen¬
diture, the buildings fell to ruin, and finally became ef-
cheated to the crown. The north front opens into a
piece of ground laid out in walks ; and that facing the
fiouth into a garden extending to the Thames. In the
centre cf this edifice is a pediment, fupported by four
Tufcan columns, over which is a turret. On one fide
the entrance is the chapel, and on the other the hall
where the penfioners dine. The altar-piece in the cha¬
pel is adorned with the Relurreffion, painted by the ce¬
lebrated Ricci. The wings join the chapel and hall to
the north, and are open on the Thames to the foutli :
they are three hundred and fixty feet in length, eighty
in breadth, and three ftories high. A colonade extends
along the fide of the hall and chapel ; and, in the midft
of the quadrangle, is the ftatue of Charles II. Two
other large l'quares adjoining contain apartments for the
fervants of the houfe, for old maimed officers, and the
infirmary. The penfioners confilt of veterans, who have
been at leaft twenty years in the army ; or are difabled
foldiers. They wear red coats lined with blue, and are
provided with all other clothes, diet, waffling, and lodg¬
ing. The out-penfioners amount to upwards of eight
thoufand, and have each 7I. 1 2s. 6d. a year. Thefe great
expences are fupported by a poundage dedudted out of
the pay of the army, with one day’s pay once a-year
from each officer and common foldier ; and, when there
is any deficiency, by a fum voted by parliament. This
liofpital coft 150,000b in building; and is unqueftion-
ably a noble monument of national gratitude and hu¬
manity. Chelfea has alfo a good charity-fchool for the
education of poor girls, founded in 1729.
CHEL'SEA, a town of United America, in Suffolk
county, Maflachufetts, containing 472 inhabitants. Be¬
fore its incorporation, in 1738, it was a ward of the town
of Bofton. It is only feparated from it by the ferry
acrofs the harbour, called Winnifimet, by the native
Indians.
CHEL'SEA, a town of the United States of America,
in Orange county, Vermont, having two hundred and
thirty-nine inhabitants.
CHEL'SEA, a town of the American ftates, in Nor¬
wich county, called the Landing, fituated at the head of
the river Thames, fourteen miles north of New London,
on a point of land formed by the jun&ion of Shetucket
and Norwich, or Little rivers, whole united waters con-
ftitute the American Thames. It is a bufy, commercial,
thriving, romantic, place, of about 1 50 houfes, afcend-
ing one above another in tiers, on artificial foundations,
•on the fouth point of a high rocky hill.
CHEL'TENHAM, a confiderable town in Gloucefter,
celebrated for its mineral waters, and pleafantly fituated
in a fine fertile vale, near the foot of the Cotiwold Hills.
The town is lately much improved, and well paved and
lighted ; but the great beauty of the place is exhibited
s
in the gardens behind each houfe, which being of great-
length, are formed into an infinite variety of pleafant
walks. The lodgings for valetudinarians are neat and
commodious, and many of them truly elegant. The
church is a venerable Gothic ftrudture, with ailes on
each fide, and a fpire rifing to a confiderable height.
Here is a grammar- fchool in high reputation. The af-
fembly rooms are elegantly difpofed; and the theatre-
royal, erefted for the amulement of their prefent majef-
ties, is a neat and well-conftrufted building. The walks
and rides in the neighbourhood are equal to any in the
kingdom, for variety, beauty, and riclinefs of profpedh
Cheltenham has a good and plentiful market on Thurf-
days, and three annual fairs, viz. on the fecond Thurs¬
day in April, Holy Thurfday, and 5th of Auguft.
Nothing can be more convenient than the watering-
place is to the town ; the nobility and gentry pafs through
a fine alcove of lime-trees, into a ferpentine walk with
orchards on each fide; this leads to a beautiful meadow
at the bottom, erodes a rivulet, and then enters the
grand walk, which, by a gentle acclivity, leads to the
buildings. This walk has a very ftriking effeft; it is
twenty feet wide, and the elm-trees on each fide are at
leaft fixty feet high. The pump appears under a dome,
through an airy and neat archway, with two pofterns ;
it is fupported by pillars. On the right is the libra¬
ry and offices ; on the left the breakfaft-room. The
latter is occafionally converted into a ball-room, where
the band plays in wet weather. Round the buildings is
a fhrubbery, upon a gentle afcent, from which there is a
very magnificent view. The grand walk below forms a
vifta, through which the fteeple of the church appears
in ail the fublimity of Gothic grandeur. The medicinal
fpring was firft noticed in 1716; in 1721, it was leafed
out for fixty-one pounds per annum. In 1738, Henry
Skillicorne, the proprietor, firft began the prefent build¬
ings at the wells, and made them as commodious as moll:
reiorts of the kind. In 1788, at the depth of about fifty
feet, another fpring was dilcovered, which was found to
poifefs all the fpecific medicinal qualities of the other,
and much more copious. Cheltenham is diftant from
London ninety-four miles, Gloucefter ten, .Tewkefbury
ten, and Northleach eleven. This place was honoured
with the refidence of the royal family during the autumn
of the year 1788. About two miles eaft of the town is
another mineral fpring, at a place called Hyde; two
miles beyond which Cleve-hill raifes its venerable brow.
At the top of this hill there Hill remains the veftiges' of
a Roman camp.
CHELVA, or Xei.va, a town of Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Valencia : fix leagues fouth-weft of Segorba.
CHE'LUM, a river of India. See Teh at.
CHE'LY, f. [chela, Lat.] The claw of a fhell-fifli. — It
happeneth often that a lobfter hath the chely, or great
claw, of one fide longer than the other. Brown.
CHELY'SCION f. [^eAvcxiov, from the bread.] A
dry fhort cough, in which the mufcles of the bread are
very fore,
CHE'MA, oi-Cheme,/ Gr.J A meafure among
the ancients, containing two fmall fpoonfuls.
CHE'MACH, or Kemach, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the fouthern part of Caramania.
CHE'MAL, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chu-
fiftan : no miles fouth of Suiter.
CHE'MAZE, a town of France, in the department of
Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Chateau Gontier: one league and a half fouth-weft of
Chateau Gontier.
CHEMERE', a town of France, in the department of
the Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridfc
of Evron : four leagues and a half fouth-ealt of Laval.
CHE'MERY, a town of France, in the department of
the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton in the diftrift
of Sedan i feyeu miles fouth of Sedan.
CHE'MIC,
CHE
CHE'MTC, or Chemical, adj. [cbymicus, Lat.] Made,
by chemiftry :
I’m tir’d with waiting for this cbemic gold,
Which fools us young, and beggars us when old. Diyd.
Relating to chemiftry :
With cbemic art exalts the min’ral pow’rs.
And draws the aromatic fouls of flow’rs. Pope.
CHE'MIC,/. A chemift. Obfolete.
CHE'MICALLY, ad<v. In a chemical manner.
CHE'MICE,/ The art of calling figures in metals.
CHEMILLI'E, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayne and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Chollet, on the Ironne : three leagues and
a half north-eaft of Chollet.
CHE'MIN des RONDS, in fortification, the way of
the rounds, or a lpace between the rampart and the low
parapet under it, for the rounds to go about it.
CHEMI'NON, a town of France, in the department of
the Marne : ten miles eall of Vitry-le-Fran$ois.
CHEMFSE,/ A fhirt or lhift, a lining, or a cafing.
CHEMI'SE, in fortification, the wall with which a
baftion, or any other bulwark, is lined, for its greater
fupport and llrength : or it is the folidity of the wall
from the talus to the ftone-row. Fire-chemife is a piece of
linen cloth, lleeped in a compoiition of oil of petrol, cam¬
phor, and other combuftible matters, ufed at fea to let
fire to an enemy’s vefiel.
CHE'MIST, f. A profeffor of chemiftry; a pliilofo-
pher by fire : *
The ftarving chemijl, in his golden views
Supremely bleft. Pope.
CHEMISTRY',/ [ chetnia , Lat. from xvl/‘ia , 0
Gr. n'nn, chemiab, from nan, cbemdh, to burn, Arabic ;
becaufe, in ancient chemiftry, the examination of all
fubltances was by means of fire. Others make cbcmia fy-
nonimous with occultare ; whence it would denote an in-
veftigation of bidden or fecret things. In the epocha,
when magic and alchemy occupied the attention of man¬
kind, the term chemia was made ufe of to fignify the Sci¬
ence of Nature, or rather Magic nocrruv rcov
foe. (pvo-tios'tqyw) according to Zofimus Panopolita, quo¬
ted by Borrichius (De Ortu et Progr. Chemiae), and ef-
pecially the art of making gold and filver (xnp^u n rov
.agyvgov, y.ai xivcr°v y.a,Ta.o-y.Ewi, according to Suidas).
■Before the New-Platonics, this -word is never mentioned
under fuch fignification, neither by the Greeks, nor by
the Romans. Julius Maternus Firmicus, who lived in
the age of Conltantine the Great, is the firll author by
whom the term appears to have been uled.] It was an¬
ciently written chymiftry ; but the derivation more ftri&ly
favouring the ufage of thofe who write chetnifry, this ortho¬
graphy is now univerfally adopted. Authors are not com¬
pletely agreed on the molt proper definition of the word.
It is very evident, that originally, chemiftry was conlider-
ed as a mere art ; at prefent, however, it is juftly regarded
as one of the molt fublime and important of the fciences.
In its objeft it embraces the whole of natural phenome¬
na, _ there being few changes, comparatively fpeaking,
which are not attended with fome effect that comes un¬
der the cognizance of chemiftry. We might define it
negatively, by affirming that every effect which is not
purely mechanical, is chemical; and in purfuance of this
view of the fubjeCl, we fhould fay that chemiftry, as a
fcience, teaches the methods of eftimating and account¬
ing for the changes produced in bodies, by motions of
their parts amongft each other, which are too minute to
affeft the fenfes individually; and as an art we fhould
affirm that it confifts in the application of bodies to each
other, in fuch fituaticns as are belt calculated to produce
thofe changes.
For the purpofe of exhibiting in a concife and metho-
_VOL. IV. No. 1 85,
CHE 145
dical manner, the progrefs of the human mind in the
ftudy of chemiftry, and the feveral advances made there¬
in from the earlieft times to the prefent, we lhall divide
its hiftory into fix principal epochs or ages. The first
epocha comprehends the origin of chemiftry among the
Egyptians, and its progrefs among the Greeks. Its ori¬
gin, however, is not lei's obfcure than that of the other
fciences and arts in general. The patriarch Tubal Cain,
who lived before the deluge, is faid to be the firft che¬
mift; but his knowledge is not affirmed to have extended
beyond the working of metals. This man feems to have
been the fame, who is fpoken of in fabulous hiftory un¬
der the name of Vulcan. It is certainly among the Egyp ■
tians that we ought to place the true origin of this fci-
ence. The firft of this nation, of whom mention is
made as a chemift, is, according to Lenglet du Frefnoy,
Thoth or Athotis, furnamed Hermes or Mercury. He
was. the fon of Mezraim, or Ofiris, and grandlon of
Cham. He became king of Thebes. The fecond king
of Egypt, who was likewife a philofopher, was named
Sephoas. He lived 800 years after Athotis, and 1900
before Chrill. The Greeks have given him the iiirname
of Hermes, or Hermes Trifmegiltus. He is the fecond
Mercury, and is efteemed as the inventor of natural phi-
lofophy. Several hiftorians have tranlmitted to us the
titles of his works on philofophy, which confifted of for¬
ty-two books. It does not appear that any of them
treated exprefsly of chemiftry, although the fcience has
been called after him, the Hermetic Philofophy.
Our information refpedling the cultivation of chemif¬
try in Egypt, is very uncertain. It feems, however, that
this fcience made great progrefs in that country, fince
the Egyptians were in pofl’effion of a great number of che¬
mical arts; and in particular, that of imitating precious
Hones; of calling and working metals ; of painting on
glafs, &c. but the chemiftry, as well as the other arts
and fciences of this ancient people, are loft. Their
priefts concealed them from the vulgar as myfteries, and
only recorded them under the veil of hieroglyphics. The
Alchemifts have perfuaded themfelves that fome traces of
their pretended art is to be found among thefe; and that
the temple, which the Egyptians confecrated to Vulcan,
was in honour of Alchemy. The Ifraelites learned che¬
miftry from the Egyptians. Moles is placed in the num¬
ber of chemifts, becaufe of the knowledge by which he
was enabled to diflolve the idol of gold that people ado¬
red. It has been thought, and Stahl has written a dif-
fertation to prove it, that this folution of gold in water
was performed by the help of liver of fulpliur ; a procefs
which fuppofes a knowdedge of chemiftry of confiderable
extent.
Democritus of Abdera, who lived about 500 years be¬
fore Chrift, travelled into Egypt, Chaldea, Perlia, &c. ;
and it is affirmed, that he became acquainted with che¬
mifts in the firft of thefe countries. Though the fon of
a man fufficiently rich to receive and entertain Xerxes
and all his attendants, he returned very poor to his own
country, where he was received by his brother Damaf-
fus. In his retirement in a garden, near the rvalls of
Abdera, he employed himfelf in refearches into the na¬
ture of plants and precious llones. Cicero affirms, that
in order that he might not be difturbed from his fpecu-
lations by external objedls, he deftroyed his fight, by
keeping his eyes for a time fixed on the bright reflection
of the lolar rays, from a veflel of poliffied copper; a fadt
which, however, is denied by Plutarch'. Pliny had fo
great a degree, of efteem and veneration for the know8
ledge of Democritus, that he even thought it miraculous;
There are fome authors who reckon Cleopatra among
the chemifts, becaufe ffie knew how to diifolve pearls.
They affirm, that the art of chemiftry, well known to all
the Egyptian priefts, was conftantly pradliled by that
people, till the time of Dioclefian, who, according to
Suidas, thought fit to caufe their books to be; burned,,
that he might lubdue them with more facility,
P P ' .The:
CHEMISTRY.
146
The second epocma, comprehends the cultivation
and growth of chemiftry among the Arabians; who, af¬
ter a long feries of ages, and through the revolutions of
empires, preferved this fcience, and cultivated it with
fuccels. During the dynafty of the Achemides'or Abaf-
fides, the fciences, which had been long abandoned, were
reftored to their vigour. Ahrianzor, the fecond caliph,
devoted himfelf to aftronomy. Harum Rafchid, the
fifth caliph, cotemporary with Charlemagne, caufed fe-
veral books relating to chemiftry to be tranflated from
the Greek. In the ninth century, Geber of Thus, in
Chorazan, a province of Perfia, wrote three works on
chemiftry, in which we find fome very good things.
His belt treatife is intituled, Summa perfeSimiis M.agijlerii.
He has written with confiderable perfpicuity on diftilla-
tion, calcination, and the reduction and fo'lution of me¬
tals. In the tenth century, Rhafes, a phyfician of the
liofpital at Bagdat, firft applied chemiftry to medicine.
Some of his pharmaceutic prefcriptions are (till in efteein.
In the eleventh century, Avicen, a phyfician, likewife
applied chemiftry to medicine. His merit and know¬
ledge raifed him to the office of grand vizier; but the de¬
bauched life he led was the caule of his being degraded
from that office ; and under fuch a defpotic government,
it is no wonder the liberal arts foon began to droop.
Them H irdepoch Amarks the tranfition of chemiftry from
theeafttothewefternpartsof the world, during the Cru-
iades ; and which era is not unaptly termed, the reign of
Alchemy. The art of making gold appears to have been
in requeft for a long time, according to the authors who
have written concerning it; but the folly which gave
birth to it was at its height during the interval between
the eleventh and fixteenth centuries. The chemical
faCts difcovered by the Egyptians, collected by the
Greeks, and applied to medicine by the Arabians, came
to the knowledge of the four nations who travelled into
the eaft during the crufades; namely, the Englilh,
French, Germans, and Italians; and each of thefe in¬
fatuated nations became immediately filled with fearch-
ers after the philofopher’s (lone. And, as the immenfe
labours to which they devoted themfeives have contribu¬
ted greatly to the advancement of chemiftry, it feems
neceffary to be acquainted, with fuch of thefe extraordi¬
nary men as have moft diflinguifhed themfeives. Dur¬
ing the thirteenth century, Albert the Great, a Domi¬
nican of Cologn, and afterwards of Ratifbon, acquired
the reputation of being a magician, and has left a work
full of alchemical procefles. Roger Bacon, an Englilh-
man, firft flu died at Oxford. He repaired to Paris to im¬
prove himfelf in the mathematics and medicine. Many
inventions are attributed to him; any one alone of which
would have been fufiicient to have rendered his name
immortal. Among thefe are the camera obfcura, the
telefcope, gun-powder; he is affirmed to have made a
felf-moving chariot, a lpeaking head, a flying machine,
' See. He was a cordelier, and was furnamed the Admi¬
rable Doctor. He retired to a houfe near Oxford, where
it is faid he worked in alchemy. Arnold of Villeneuve,
born in Languedoc in 124.5, ftudied medicine at Paris
during thirty years. lie wrote a commentary on the
E piffle of the Scbola Salernitana. The alchemills ef¬
teein him as one of their great eft mailers.
The fourteenth century. Raymond Luliius, born at Ma¬
jorca in 1235, went to Paris in 1281, and he became the
difciple of Arnold de Villeneuve. Robert Conftantin af¬
firms to have himfelf feen one of the role-nobles that
were ftruck in the tower of London, out of the gold
made by him, during the reign of Edward the fifth, in
the years 1312 and 1313. He wrote feveral books on al¬
chemy, in which are to be found fome fails concerning
the preparation of acids, or aqua fortis, and on the pro¬
perties of metals.
‘ The fifteenth century. Bafilius Valentinus, a benedic-
tine of Effort in Germany, was well acquainted with
medicine and natural hiflory. He compoied a book on
a
antimony, to which he gave the pompous title of “Cur-
rus Triumphalis Antimonii,” which was commented on
by Kirkringius. In this book we find a great number
of antimonial preparations that have fince been offered
to the world under different new names, and have been
admin'iftered in the cure of diforders with great fuccefs.
Ifaac Hollandus the father, and his fon of the fame name,
have written books praifed by Boerhaave, from which it
appears, that they were acquainted with the properties of
aquafortis, and aqua regia. All thefe authors have in
general written in the moft obfcure and confufed man¬
ner on the chemical art ; and though they were acquaint¬
ed with fome procefles of diffolution, extraction, purifi¬
cation, & c. their pretenfions were greatly beyond their
knowledge, and fcarely any advantage can be derived
from their myflic labours.
The fourth epocha, includes the age of the univer-
fal medicine ; of pharmaceutic chemiftry ; and of alche¬
my oppofed, from the fixteenth to the middle of the fe-
venteenth century ; and it may be here remarked, that
the bad fuccels of the alchemifts, and the ruin of their
fortunes and reputation, were fo far from difcouraging
chemical enterpriles, that we find a prodigious number
of perfons during the fixteenth century, encouraged and
fupported by the enthufiafin of that celebrated Swifs phy-
fician, named Paracelfus. This impetuous man preten¬
ded that there exifted an univerfal remedy. He lubftitut-
ed chemical medicaments in the Head of thole of the
Galenical pharmacy then in ufe, and cured many difor¬
ders by mercurial preparation, which were then deemed
fcarcely curable, more efpecially thofe of the venereal
kind. His miraculous cures leemed prodigious ; but
tranfported by fuccefs far beyond the bounds within
which he ought to have confined himfelf, he publicly
burned the books of the Greek phyficians. He died in
the midll of his triumphs, at the age of only forty-eight
years, after having promiled himfelf immortality by the
ufe of his fecrets. This folly, highly extravagant as it
was, revived the ardour of the alchemifts. Some among
them, who vainly imagined they had lucceeded in the
dilcovery of the univerfal medicine, dignified themfeives
by afluming the new title of adepts. Such were, at the
commencement of the leventeenth century, 1. The Ro-
ficrucians, a kind of fociety formed in Germany, of which
nothing more was ever known but the title, and whofe
numbers continued unknown. Thefe pretended bro¬
thers affirmed, that they were in pofieflion of the fecrets-
of tranfnmtation, of the univerfal fcience, and medicine;
with the fcience of occult things, &c. 2. A cofmopo-
lite, named Alexander Sethon, or Sidon, who performed
the work of tranfmutation before a perlon of the name
of Hauilen. This laft related the faCl to Vander Linden,
grandfather of tlie phyfician of that name, who collected
a medical library. 3. Another named Thomas de Va¬
gan, born in England in 1612. He travelled into Ame¬
rica, where Starkey received gold from him. He cor-
refponded with Boyle. This is the fame adept, who in
France gave his powder of projection to Helvetius. The
latter, after this pretended miracle, which was nothing
more than an artful trick, wrote a diflertation “ De vi-
tulo aureo,” &c.
The fuccefs that attended the adminiftration of che¬
mical medicines by Paracelfus, was productive, however,
of fome permanently good effeCts ; for it induced feveral
men of abilities to enter into tlie inquiry, and to write
ufeful works on the preparation of chemical medicines.
Such are the writings of Crcllius, Schroder, Zwelfer,
Glafer, Tachenius, Lemery, See. and the Pharmacopeias,
publilhed by feveral faculties of medicine. Glauber, a
German chemill, about this time rendered an effential
fervice to chemiftry, in examining the refidues of opera¬
tions, which former operators had always thrown afide
as ulelefs, and diftinguiflied. by the names of caput mor-
tuum, or terra damnata. By this means he dilcovered
the fait named after him, and the vitriolic ammoniac ;
C H E M I
and threw great light on the chemical procefies for pre¬
paring-mineral acids, &c. Some of the promoters of che¬
mical fcience fubfequent to Paracelfus, were not entirely-
cleared of the ideas his ungoverned imagination gave
birth to. Such were Caffius, known by his precipitate
of gold ; Sir Kenelm Digby, who believed in the fympa-
thetic aftion of medicaments. Libavius, whofe name is
affixed to a preparation of tin. Van Helmont, famous
for his opinions in medicine, and the chemical notions
he has propagated. And laftly, Borrichius, a Baniffi phy-
fician and chemift, who firft difcovered and publiffied the
method of inflaming oils by the nitrous acid, and is en¬
titled to the refpeft and gratitude of the world, for hav¬
ing bequeathed his library and chemical laboratory to the
tile of indigent Undents of medicine. Alchemy, at that
time, was in great danger from two celebrated men, who
Tuccefsfully combated its tenets. The one was the fa¬
mous Kircher, a jefuit, to whom we are indebted for a
grand and fublime work intituled, Mundus Subterra-
neus; the other was the learned phyfician Conringius.
The fifth epocha, comprehends the origin and pro-
grefs of philofophical clremiftry from the middle of the
leventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth century 5 for
until this time, chemiftry had never been treated phi-
lofophically. The chemical arts had been "defcribed, me¬
dical formula had been given and the nature of metals
had been laborioufly inquired into with a view to the
making of gold, or of the univerfal medicine, (delufive
views which ftill miflead, the ignorant and enthufiaftic,)
but nothing more had been done. The fa£ts afcertained
were many, but no one had yet collected them, and, as
the celebrated Macquer happily obferves, there were
many branches of chemiftry in being, though the fcience
itfelf was not yet in exiftence. Towards the middle of
the feventeeth century, James Barnet, phyfician to the
king of Poland, arranged the principal known fadts in a
methodical manner, and added obfervations in his- philo¬
fophical chemiftry. The book of this learned man is the
more valuable on account of his being the firft perfon who
attempted to form a complete body of chemiftry, and
ranked it among the fciences. Bohnius, profeflor atLeip-
lic, likewife compofed a book of fcientific chemiftry, which
had great fuccefs, and was for a long time the only ele¬
mentary book on this fubjedt.
Joachim Beecher of Spires a man of the moft extenfive
genius, phyfician to the eledtors of Mentz and Bavaria,
went far beyond the two authors Lift mentioned, and
caufed even their names to be forgotten. In his fublime
work,, intituled, “ Phyfica Subterranea,” he united all
the known fadts of chemiftry, and defcribed them with
aftoniffiing fagacity. He has even pointed out by con-
jedture, a great part of the difeoveries made to this day;
fuch as the aeriform fubftances ; the poffibiiity of reduc¬
ing animal bones into a tranfparent glafs, &c. This work
was commented on by a celebrated phyfician, whofe name
fixes a moft brilliant epocha of chemiftry. J. Erneft Stahl,
born with a ftrong paffion for chemiftry, undertook to
comment and improve the dedtrine of Beecher. His at¬
tention was more particularly diredted to afeertain the
exiftence of the inflammable earth, which he and his fol¬
lowers called phlogifton. Equal to Beecher in genius,
but fuperior in accuracy of operation and order of re-
fearch, he compofed a treatifd on fulphur, a work on falts,
and another intituled Trecenta F.xperimenta, which have
gained him immortal glory, and placed his name among ■
the firft of his age. Boerhaave, in the midft of number-
lefs occupations, alfo cultivated chemiftry, and compofed
a celebrated and truly profound work on this fcience.
His treatifes on the four elements, and efpecially that on
fire, are mafterpieces to which at that time it was fcarcely
poffible to have made any addition. He was likewife the
firft who attempted the analyfis of vegetables, and difco¬
vered the fpi-ritus re£tor, & c.
The theory of Stahl was long followed by the whole
chemical world, and received a new acceffion of ftrength
from the difeoveries and improvements' of Dr. Prieftley in
England; and by the two celebrated brothers MM.
Rouelle, whole too early lofs is leverely felt by the fci¬
ence, and to whom chemiftry owes its origin in-France.
The illuftrious Macquer, who will be long lamented by
every lover of fcience, contributed in a moft eminent
degree to the advancement of this fcience by his moft ex¬
cellent works, which are with the greateft juftice elleem-
ed in every part of Europe, as the fureft guides to che¬
miftry. Befides the great obligations the world is under
to him for his Elements and Chemical Diftionary, his
own particular labours and difeoveries on arlenic, Pruf-
fian blue, dying filk, on clays for pottery, &c. are luffici-
ent to immortalize his name, and entitle him to the gra¬
titude of pofterity.
The sixth epocha, commences with the difcoveiy
of the pneumatic chemiftry, being that which is called
the antiphlogiJUc , introduced by Lavoifier, and followed
at the prefent day. Stahl, entirely bufied in demonftrat-
ing the exifcence of phlogifton, and following it through
all its combinations, feems to have overlooked the influ¬
ence of the air in the greateft part of the phenomena in
which he attributes fo great an energy to the inflammable
principle. Boyle and Hales had neverthelels already
proved the great neceffity of attending to this fluid, in
the operations of chemiftry. The former had obferved
the difference between the chemical events that happen¬
ed in like circumftances in the air and in vacuo. The
latter had obtained from a great number of bodies a fluid
which he fuppofed to be air, but in which however lie
had obferved leveral peculiar properties, fuch as odour,
inflammability. &c. according to the various fubftances
they proceeded from. He thought the air was the cement¬
ing principle, or caufe of folidity in bodies. DivPrieftley
alfo, in repeating a great part of the experiments of Hales,
difcovered many fluids, which though lie thought reiem-
bled air, yet differ from it in all their effential properties.
And in particular, he obtained from metallic oxyds or
calces, a kind of air, much purer than that of the at-
unol'phere. M. Bayen, a chemift juftly celebrated for the
exaftnefs of his operations and experiments, examined
the oxyds of mercury, and difcovered that they were re¬
ducible without phlogifton, and that during reduftioa
they emitted an aeriform fluid in great abundance.
The ingenious and much-lamented Lavoiiien firft proy-
ed, by a great number of valuable experiments, that a
portion of the air becomes combined with fuch bodies, as
are calcined or burnt. In confequence of this, he ella-
bliflied a fe£t or clafs of chemifts, who began to doubt
the prefence of phlogifton, and attributed to the fixation
of air, or its difengagement, all the phenomena that
Stahl and Prieftly readily fuppofed to depend on the re¬
paration or combination of phlogifton. It muft be grant¬
ed, that this dodlrine has the advantage over that of Stahl
in its proofs, being more ftrift, and is fo much the more
feducing, as it agrees better with the accurate and rigor¬
ous manner of proceeding, which is at prefent adopted
in the ftudy and cultivation of natural philofophy. This
feemed to be the cafe in the opinion of the late M. Bu-
quet, who, in his two or three laft courfes, appeared to
give it a decided preference. The wifeft and doubtlefs
the only proper condutt to be purfued on this occafion,
is to wait till a great number of f'afts fliall have complete¬
ly demonftrated, that all the phenomena of chemiftry are
explicable according to the pneumatic theory, without
admitting phlogifton. M. Macquer, though well aware
of the great revolution thefe new difeoveries could not
but occafion in chemiftry, did not admit the opinion,
that every fadfc is explicable without fupjtofing the exift¬
ence of an inflammable principle; and inftead of phlo-
gifton, whole exiftence has never been fairly proved, he
has fubftituted. light, the action and influence of which
in chemical appearances cannot be called in queftion.
Upon the whole, much is due to the ability and indefati¬
gable induftry of Lavoifier, in bringing forward the pneu¬
matic
X4-8
CHEMISTRY.
matic fyftem ; and the hiftory of fcience, oil recording
his too early death, will never fail to ftigmatize thofe re¬
volutionary mil'creants, who caufed the head of this in¬
nocent man to drop on the 7th of May, 1794, under the
axe of the guillotine.
Although the prelent Treatife is principally made up
from the valuable writings of Lavoilier, Fourcroy, and La
Grange ; yet have we occafionally confulted and improved
from the following lift of authors, whofe names we here
fet down, as well to acknowledge our own obligations
on the (core of information, as to put it in the power of
thole who wilh to read more deeply in chemiftry, what
authors they might confult with advantage and pleafure.
We fhall place them in the order of the alphabet, viz.
Achard, Adet, Alyon, Arvidlfon. Bailleau, Bancroft,
Baume, Bayen, Beecher, Benedict Prevoft, Berard, Berg¬
man, Bergniard, Berthollet, Black, Blagden, Boerhaave,
Bognes, Bohnius, Born, Bofc, Bowdes, Boulduc, Brandt,
•Briffon, .Brongniart (Alexander), Brongniart (Ant.-
Louis), Brugnatelli,lBucquet. Cartheuler, Cavallo, Ca-
•vendito, .Chaptal, Charlard, Chauflier, Clouet, Conte,
: Coulomb, .Craffort, Cramer, Crawford, Crell, Crohare,
Cronftedt, ; Curaudeau. Darcet, Daubenton, Deborn,
Delluyard, Demachy, Dengeftroeme, Deyeux, Dize, Du-
’pont, Dutrofne. Elhuyar, Erhman, Erxleben. Ferber,
Fontana. Gahn, Gaffendi, Geller, GeofFroy, Gerhard,
Glafer, Glauber, Gmelin, Goettling, Goulard, Gren,
Guyton. Hagen, Halle, Hafienfratz, Hauy, Hetcht, Hel-
lot, Henkel, Hermftaedt, Higgins, Hoffman, Homberg,
Humboldt. Jacquin, Jar, Jeanetti, Ilfeman, Ingen-
houfs, Jofle. Keyfer, Kirwan, Klaproth, Kofegarten,
Kunkel. Lagaraye, Landriani, Laplace, Laplanche, Lar¬
tigue, Lehmann, Lelievre, Lemere, Lewis, Libes, Lin¬
naeus, Lowitz, Ludovic. Macquer, Magellan, Malouin,
Margraff, Meunier, Meyer, Model, Monceau, Monge,
Monges, Monnet, Morveau, Muffembroek. Navier,
Neumann, Newton, Nicholfon, Nollet, Nooth. Parker,
Parmentier, Pearfon, Pelletier, Peres, Picot-la-Peyroufe,
Poli, Pott, Poulletier, Priellley, Promt. Rabel, Reaumur,
Richard, Richter, Rinmann, Rouelle lenior, Rouelle
junior. Sage, Save (de St. Plamard), Scheele, Scheffer,
Scherer, Sedillot jeune, Seguin, Sickengen, Sigault-La-
fond, Spielman, Stalh, Starkey, Succow, Sylvius, Tan-
coigue, Taffaert, Thouret, Torricelli, Tromfdorf. Van-
helmont, Van-Marum, Van-Mons, Vauquelin, Veau-De-
launay, Venturi, Vilke, Vincenzo-Cafciarolo. Wallerius,
Wedgw'ood, Weigel, Welter, Wenzel, Weltrum, Wie-
gleb, Withering, Wolf. Zwelfer.
The Nomenclature, or words forming the language of
chemiftry, leems to be the next objeft that fhotild claim
the attention of a learner. Without a. due knowledge
of this, and a frequent exercife of the terms made ufe of,
tlie progrefs will be (low, and the embarraffment great,
in purfuing an enquiry into the different branches of
this fcience. To affift the learner, and render a reference
to all the terms more eafy and familiar, we fhall here
let down the various fynonims, or words ufed in the an¬
cient fyftem, with thofe of the new oppofite to them.
This will be found extremely convenient on many occa-
lions ; for even among drug-gifts, and medical men, the
old names of chemical fubltances and praparata, will,
for a time, continue better known than the new ones 5
befides that, a common reader may gradually, and with¬
out trouble, become acquainted with both nomencla¬
tures. A fimilar advantage will a’lfo, by this means, be
derived to thofe who, at prefent, acquainted only with
the new ftyle, may, after fome time, with to read the
works of former chemifts, written in the old language ;
feveral of which are {fill valuable on many accounts.
ANCIENT NAMES.
Acetous ammoniac . ,
Acetous fait of clay .
Acetous fait of copper
NEW NAMES;
C Acetit ammoniacal
* l - — of ammoniac
f Acetit aluminous
' l — of alumin
, Acetit of copper
ancient names. new names.
Acetous fait cf iron . . . Acetit of iron
Acetous fait of lead * . . Acetit of lead
Acetous fait of lime . . . Acetit of lime
Acetous fait of magnefia . Acetit of magnetic
Acetous fait of mercury . Acetit of mercury
Acetous fait of foda . . . Acetit of foda
Acetous lalt of tartar . . Acetit of potato '
Acetous fait of zinc . . . Acetit of zink
Acid acetous ..... Acetous acid
Acid aerial . . . . . Carbonic acid
Acid of alum .... Sulphuric acid
Acid of amber .... Succinic acid
Acid of ants . Formic acid
Acid of apples .... Malic acid
Acid arfenical .... Arfenic acid
Acid of benzoin .... Benzoic acid
Acid boracic .... Boracic acid
Acid of borax .... Boracic acid
Acid of chalk .... Carbonic acid
Acid of charcoal . . . Carbonic acid
Acid cretaceous ., . . Carbonic acid
Acid of fat . Sebacic acid
Acid of galls .... Gallic acid
Acid of galls alcoholized . Gallic alcohol
Acid of lemons .... Citric acid
Acid lignic, or of box . . Pyroligneous acid
Acid malufian .... Malic acid
Acid marine . Muriatic acid
Acid marine dephlogifti- I t , ... - ,
j 1 b f Oxygenated muriatic acid
Acid mephitic .... Carbonic acid
Acid of molybdena . . Molybdic acid
Acid of muria .... Muriatic acid
Acid of nitre .... Nitric acid
Acid of nitre pale or colour- 7 xx. ...
lefs . . . . . . A Nltnc acid
Acid of nitre deprived of its 7 ... . ■ ,
r 5- Nitric acid
gas . : . • J
Acid of nitre dephlogifti- ) ... . . ,
cated . . ... J Nitric acid
Acid of nitre phlogifticated Nitrous acid
Acid perlate . { Supersaturated phofphat of
Acid of phofphorus dephlo-J
gifticated . . . . . j Phofphonc acid
gifticated .... . [ Phofphoreous acid
Acid of fea-falt .... Muriatic acid
Acid of (ilk-worms . . . Bombic acid
Acid of fpar or fluor . . Fluoric acid
Acid of lugar .... Oxalic acid
Acid of fulphur .... Sulphuric acid
Acid of tungftein or tuna- 7 „ . ,
lten ..... . . I Tungftic acid
Acid of wolfram of Meffrs. 7 n • -j
Delhuyar . $ Tungftic acid
Acid laccharine .... Oxalic acid
Acid faccholaftic, or acid of ? c , , n- •.
the fugar of milk . . . } Saccholaftic acid
Acid febaceous, or of fat . Sebacic acid
Acid fedative . ... Boracic acid
Acid fulphureous . . . Sulphureous _acid
Acid fyrupous .... Pyromucous acid
Acid tartareous . . . . Tartareous acid
Acid vitriolic .... Sulphuric acid
Acid phlogifticated vitriolic Sulphureous acid
Acidum pingue , . . -J Pr“Ple
Afflr,u;c^ S Chemical affinities or attrac-
. i tions
Aggregation ..... Aggregation
Air alkaline . Ammoniacal gas
Air atmofpherical, or com- 7 Atmofpherical, or common
mon air ,J air
Air,
C H E M I S T R Y.
ANCIENT NAMES.
Air, dephlogifticated of Di
Prieftley . . .
Air, dephlogifticated ma
rine acid . . .
Air fa&itious
Air, foetid, of fulphur
Air, fire, of Scheele .
Air, fire, of Dr. Black
Air impure
Air inflammable
Air, marine acid
Air nitrous
Air phlogifticated
Air pure
Air, folid, of Hales
Air vitiated
Air vital
Air, vitriolic acid, of Dr
Prieftley
Alkahefl:
Alkahell of Refpour . .
Alkahefl: of Van Helmont
Alkalis in general . .
Alkalis aerated . . .
Alkalis cauftic . . .
Alkalis effervefcent . .
Alkalifixed, of tartar, cauftic
Alkali fixed, of tartar, not
cduftic .
Alkali, fixed vegetable .
Alkali marine, cauftic .
Alkali marine, not cauftic
Alkali mineral acetated
Alali mineral aerated .
Alkali phlogifticated
Alkali Pruflian . . .
Alkali urinous . . .
Alkali vegetable aerated
Alkali volatile acetated
Alkali volatile mild
Alkali volatile fluor
Alkali volatile cauftic .
Alkali volatile concrete
Alkali volatile mephitized
Allay or alloy of metals
Alum .
Alum marine
Alum nitrous
Amalgam of bifmuth
Amalgam of copper
Amalgam of gold
Amalgam of lead
Amalgam of filver .
Amalgam of tin . .
Amalgam of zinc
Amber yellow
Antimony crude
Antimony diaphoretic
Aqua fortis . . .
Aqua regia . . .
Aqua ftygia . . .
Aquila alba . . .
Vol. IV. No. 185.
NEW NAMES.
Oxygenous gas, or vital air
Oxygenated muriatic acid
„ §as .< .
Carbonic acid gas
Sulphurated hydrogenous
gas
Oxygenous gas
Carbonic acid gas
Azotic gas
Hydrogenous gas
Muriatic acid gas
Nitrous gas
Azotic gas
Oxygenous gas, or vital air
Carbonic acid gas
Azotic gas
Oxygenous gas
■ Sulphureous acid gas
; The univerfal folvent of the
1 alchemifts
Potalh mixed with oxyd of
zink
Carbonat of potalh
Alkalis
Alkaline carbonats
Alkalis
Alkaline carbonats
Potalh
Carbonat of potalh
Carbonat of potalh
Soda
Carbonat of foda
Acetit of foda
Carbonat of foda
Ferruginous prufliat of pot-
a(h, not faturated
Ferruginouspruffiatofpotalh
Carbonat of ammoniac
Ammoniacal carbonat
Carbonat of potalh
Ammoniacal acetit
Acetit of ammoniac
Ammoniacal carbonat
Carbonat of ammoniac
Ammoniac
Ammoniac
Ammoniacal carbonat
Carbonat of ammoniac
Alloy
; Sulphat of alumine
’ Aluminous fulphat
; Muriat of alumine
'' Aluminous muriat
[ Nitrjt of alumine
; Aluminous nitrit
Amalgam of bifmuth
Amalgam of copper
Amalgam of gold
Amalgam of lead
Amalgam of filver
Amalgam of tin
Amalgam of zink
Amber of fuccinum
Sulphure of antimony
White oxyd of antimony by
nitre
Nitric acid of commerce
Nitro-muriatic acid
Nitro-muriatic acid, by the
ammoniacal muriat
Mild fublimated mercurial
muriat
ANCIENT NAMES.
Arbor Dianas
Arcanum corallinum
Arcanum duplicatum
Argil pure, or argillaceoi
earth ....
Ary-i 1 cretaceous
Argil fparry . . .
Arlenic, regulus of .
Arfenic, white calx of
Arfenic red . . .
Arfeniat of potalh .
Attractions elective .
Azure of cobalt, or oi
four fibres . . .
Balfams of bucquet .
Balfam of fulphur
Barilla .
Barytes .
Barytes effervefcent .
Bafe of vital air . .
Bale of marine fait .
Benzoin or benjamin
Benzoic falts . . .
Bezoar mineral .
Bifmuth . . .
Bifmuth muriated
Bitumen ....
Black lead
Blue, Berlin . . .
Blue, Pruflic . . .
Borax .
Borax ammoniacal .
Borax of zinc
Borax argillaceous .
Borax barytic or ponderou
Borax calcareous
Borax magnefian
Borax martial . .
Borax mercur M . .
Borax vegetable
Borax of antimony .
Batter of antimony .
Butter of arfenic
Butter of bifmuth
Butter of cobalt . .
Butter of copper
Butter of tin . .
Butteroftin, folid, of Baum
Butter of zinc
Brals .
Calces metallic . .
Calx of antimony vitrified
Cameleon mineral .
Camphor ....
Camphoric falts . .
Caufticum . . .
Caufticum lunare
Cerufe ....
Cerufe of antimony s
T49
NEW NAMES.
C Gryftallized amalgam of fil-
l ver
^ Redoxyd of mercury, by the
t nitric
Sulphat of potalh
> Alumine
Aluminous carbonat
C Aluminous fluat
l Fluat of alumine
Arfenic
Oxyd of arfenic
# Red fulphurated oxyd of
J arfenic
Arfeniat of potalh
Elective attractions
the f Vitreous oxyd of cobalt and
f lilex
Balfams
Sulphure of volatile oil
Carbonat of foda
Barytes
Carbonat of barytes
Oxygen
Soda
Benzoin
Benzoats
Oxyd of antimony
Bilmuth
Muriat of bifmuth
Bitumen
Carbure of iron
Prufliat of iron
Prufliat of iron
r Borax of foda, or borat fu-
l perfaturated with ioda
Ammonical borat
Borat of zink
Aluminous borat
Borat of barytes
C Borat of lime
l Calcareous borat
t Magnefian borat
1 Borat of magnelia
Borat of iron
Borat of mercury
Borat of potalh
Borat of antimony
Sublimated muriat of anti¬
mony
Sublimated muriat of arfe-
Sublimated muriat of bif¬
muth
Sublimated muriat of cobalt
^ Sublimated muriat of cop-
l per
Sublimated muriat of tin
Concrete muriat of tin
Sublimated muriat of zink
C Brafs ; alloy of copper and
l zink
Metallic oxyds
Vitreous oxyd of antimony
Oxyd ofmanganefe& potalh
Camphor
Camphorats
5 Meyer’s hypothetical prin-
i ciple
Fuled nitrat of filver
f White oxyd of lead by the
I acetous acid, mixed with
L carbonat of lime
C White oxyd of antimony by
1 precipitation
Qji
Chalk
iso
ANCIENT
Chalk . .
C H E M I S T R Y.
NAMES.
Charcoal pure
, C Sulphurated
Cmnabar . * mercury
N E V/ NAMES.
Chalk, carbonat or lime
Calcareous carbonat
Carbon
red oxyd of
c Clay; a mixture of alumine
‘ i and filice
.. Cobalt
\ Red oxyd of iron by the ful-
' i phuric acid
. Copper
. Acetat of copper
. Sulphat of iron
. Sulphat of copper
. Sulphat of zink
. Acidulous tartrit of potafli
. Diamond
Calcareous acetit
. Carbonat of barytes
Calcareous plioJ’phat
Earthy bafe of ponderous | Bai.ytes
Clay .
Cobalt .
Colcothar . . . .
Copper . .....
Copper acetated .
Copperas green
Copperas blue . . .
Copperas white . . .
Cream of tartar . . •
Diamond .
Earth, acetated calcareous
Earth, aerated ponderous
Earth animal
ANCIENT NAMES. NEW NAMES.
Gas, inflammable carbonat- 5 Carbonated hydrogenous
ed . I gas
f Marfli hydrogenous gas
Gas, inflammable of marfhes < <™*ture of carbonated
’ > hydrogenous gas andazo-
t tic gas)
fpar
Earth calcareous . .
Earth of alum .
Earth animal .
Earth calcareous . .
Earth magnefian ....
Earth muriatic, of Kirwan
Earth ponderous ...
Earth filiclous ....
Emetic tartar
Empyreal air .
Effences . . .
Ether acetous
Ether marine
Ether nitrous
Ether vitriolic
Ethiops martial
Ethiops mineral
Ethiops per fe
Extract . Extract
Fecula of vegetables ■ . Fecula
Flowers, ammoniacal cupre- C Sublimated ammoniacal
Lime, or calcareous earth
Alumine
Phofphat of lime
Lime, or calcareous earth
Carbonat of magnefia
Magnefia
. Barytes
. Siliceous earth, or filex
C Antimoniated tartrit of pot-
' I ath
. Oxygenous gas
. Volatile oils
. Acetic ether
. Muriatic ether
. Nitric ether
. Sulphuric ether
. Black oxyd of iron
Black lulphurated oxyd of
mercury
Blackitli mercurial oxyd
Flowers argentine, of regu-
lus of antimony
Flowers metallic . .
Flowers of arfenic .
Flowers of benzoin
Flowers of bilinuth . .
Flovyers of fulphur .• .
Flowers of tin . . .
Flowers of zinc . . .
Fluids aeriform . . .
-Fluids elaltic . . .
Fluor ammoniacal . .
Fluor argillaceous . .
Fluor of magnefia . .
Fluor of potath . . .
Fiuor of l’oda ....
Fluor ponderous
Gas .
Gas, acetous acid . .
Gas, aerial muriatic acid
Gas, alkaline ....
Gas, cretaceous acid .
Gas, hepatic . . . .
Gas inflammable . .
t
£ muriat of copper
Sublimated oxyd of anti¬
mony
Sublimated metallic oxyds
Sublimated oxyd of arfenic
. Sublimated benzoic acid
1 Sublimated oxyd of bifmuth
. .Sublimated fulphur
. Sublimated oxyd of tin
. Sublimated oxyd of zink
. Gas
. Gales
5 Fiuat of ammoniac
l Ammoniacal fluat
C Aluminous fluat
’ £ Fluat of alumine
. Fluat of magnefia
. Fluat of potafli
. Fluat of foda
Barytic fluat
. Gas
• Acetous acid gas
C Oxygenated muriatic acid
’ t gas
. Ammoniacal gas
. Carbonic acid gas
5 Sulphurated hydrogenous
* l gas
. Hydrogenous gas
Gas mephitic . .
Gas, marine acid
Gas, nitrous . .
Gas, phlogifticated
Gas phol'phoric, ofMr.Gen
gembre . . .
Gas of Pruflian blue
Gas, fiparry acid .
Gas, fulphureous . .
Gas lylveltre, of Helmont
Gilla vitriol! .
Glutinous matter of wheat
Gold . . .
Gold muriated
Gold fulminating
Hepars . . .
Heat latent . .
Ink fympathetic by cob
Iron, or mars . .
Iron aerated . .
Iron acetated . .
Jupiter ....
Kermes mineral »
Lapis infernalis .
Lead, or faturn .
Lead muriated
Lead fpariy . .
Lead fubacetated
Lead fuperacetated
Lemon-juice .
Ley of ioap
Lignic falts
Lilium Paracelfi
Lime-water
Lime-water, Pruflian
Liquor, Boyles fuming
Liquor filicum . .
Liquor, Libavius’s fuming
Carbonic acid gas
Muriatic acid gas
Nitrous gas
Azotic gas
Phofpho rated hydrogenous
gas
Pruffic acid gas
Fluoric acid gas
Sulphureous acid gas
Carbonic acid gas
Sulphat of zink
Gluten
Gold
. Muriat of gold
. Ammoniacal oxyd of gold
. Sulphures
. Caloric
. Muriat of cobalt
. Iron
. Carbonat of iron
. Acetit of iron
. Tin
5 Red lulphurated oxyd of an-
’ £ timony
. Fufed nitrat of fdver
. Lead
. Muriat of lead
. Carbonat of lead
C White oxyd of lead by the
* £ acetous acid
. Acetit of lead
. Citric acid
. Solution of foda
. Pyro-lignites
. Alcohol of potafli
. Lime-water
. Prufliat of lime
. Ammoniacal fulphure
f Siliciated potafh, in folu-
‘ £ tion
Fuming muriat of tin
Liquor iaturated with the "l
colouring matter of Pruf- > Prufliat of potafn
flan blue-
Litharge . . .
Light ....
Liver of antimony
Liver of arfenic .
Livers of fulphur
Livers of fulphur, earthy
Liver of fulphur, antimoni
ated
5 Semi-vitreous oxyd of lead,
£ or litharge
Light
f Sulphurated oxyd of anti-
l mony
Arfenical oxyd of potafli
Alkaline fulphures
Earthy fulphures
C Antimoniated alkaline ful-
£ phure
Liver of fulphur, calcareous \ Sulplmre' 'offfe""
Liver of fulphur, barytic . ]
Liver of fulphur, magneflan
Liver of fulphur
alkaline . . . .
Luna cornea , . .
Magiftery of bifmuth
Magiftery of lead
Magiilery of iulphur
Magnefia alba . .
volatile C Ammoniacal fulphure
. £ Sulphure of ammoniac
. Muriat of fllver
C Oxyd of bilinuth by the ai-
* l trie acid
. Precipitated oxyd of lead
. Precipitated fulphur
. Carbonat of magnefia
Magnefia
CHEMISTRY.
ANCIENT NAMES.
Magnefia aerated, of Berg¬
man .
Magnefia black . . .
Magnefia cauftic . . .
Magnelia cretaceous
Magnefia effervefcent .
Magnefia fluorated . .
Magnefia iparry . . .
Malufit lalts ....
Manganeie ....
Mallicot .....
Matter of heat . . .
Matter of fire ....
Matter pearly of Kerkrin
gius ......
Matter colouring of Pruf
fian blue
Metaphitized metals, earth
Mephitis atmofpherical
Mercury . . .
Mercury acetated
Mercurius dulcis
Mercury, white precipitate
of . . . ,
NEW MAMES.
Mercury of metals
Minium . . .
Molybdena . .
Molybdena, faline
pounds of . .
Mother water . .
Mucilage . . .
Muriated metals .
Muriated gold, or re
fait of gold . .
Natron, or natrum
Nitre .
Nitre ammoniacal
Nitre argillaceous
Nitre calcareous .
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
Nitre
cubic
fixed . . .
lunar . .
of arfenic .
of bifmuth .
of cobalt
of copper
of iron . .
of lead . .
of magnefia
of manganefe
of nickel
com
uline
Nitre of ponderous earth
Nitre of filver ....
Nitre of tin ....
Nitre of zinc ....
Nitre prifmatic . . .
Nitre quadrangular .. .
Nitre rhomboidal , .
Nitre faturnine . . .
Ochre .
Oil of lime .
Oil of tartar per deliquium
Oil of vitriol . .
Oils ethereal . ,
Oils animal . . .
Oils empyreumatic
Oils elfential . .
| Carbonat of magnefia
Black oxyd of manganefe
Magnefia
Carbonat of magnefia
Carbonat of magnefia
Fluat of magnefia
Fluat of magnefia
Malits of potalh, of foda, & c.
Manganefe
Yellow oxyd of lead
Caloric
r This term has been ufed to
< fignify light, caloric, and
L phlogifton
t Whiteoxyd of antimony by
2 precipitation
| Prufiic acid
Carbonats of metals, See.
Azotic gas
Mercury
Acetit of mercury
Mild mercurial muriat
7 Mercurial muriat by preci-
S pitation
C Beecher’s hypothetical prin-
2 ciple
Red oxyd of lead, or minium
Molybdena
^ Molybdats
Deliquefcent faline refidue
Mucus
Muriats of different metals
^ Muriat of gold
Carbonat of foda
Nitrat of potalh, or nitre
Ammoniacal nitrat
Nitrat of alumine
C Nitrat of lime
2 Calcareous nitrat
Nitrat of foda
Carbonat of potalh
Nitrat of filver
Nitrat of. arfenic
Nitrat of bifmuth
Nitrat of cobalt
Nitrat of copper
Nitrat of iron
Nitrat of lead
Nitrat of magnefia
Nitrat of manganefe
Nitrat of nickel
c Barytic nitrat
1 Nitrat of barytes
Nitrat of filver
Nitrat of tin ‘
Nitrat of zink
Nitrat of potalh
Nitrat of loda
Nitrat of foda
Nitrat of lead
Yellow oxyd of iron
Calcareous muriat
5 Potalh indeliquefcencemix-
2 edwith carbonat of potalh
Sulphuric acid
Volatile oils
Volatile animal oils
Empyreumatic oils
Volatile oiis
ANCIENT NAMES.
Oils by exprefiion . • •
Ojls fat .
Oils unbtuous . . . . .
Oleum philofophorum . .
Ore of antimony . . . .
Ore of iron of marlhes . .
Pewter . -. . . . . . .
Phlogifton ......
Phofphoric fal ammoniac .
Phofphoric fait of barytes .
Phofphoric fait of magnefia
Phofphoric fait of potalh
Phofphoric lalt of loda
Phofphorus of Baldwin
Phofphorus of Kunckel
Phofphorus of Homberg
Platina . .
Plumbago .
Pompholix .
Potalh . .
Powder of algaroth
Powder of Count de Palma
Powder of Sentinelly
Precipitate golden, or pur¬
ple, of Calfius
Precipitate red
Precipitate per fe
Precipitate yellow
Precipitate white by the mu¬
riatic acid . .
Principle acidifying
Principle aftringent
Principle inflammable. See
Phlogifton.
Principle mercurial
Principle of charcoal
Principle forbile of Ludbock
PrulTit calcareous
Prulfit of foda . . .
Pyrites of copper . .
Pyrites martial
Pyrophorus of Homberg
Realgar .
Realgites, falts formed with
aqua regia ...
Regulus . , y . ,
Regulus of antimony
Regulus of arfenic
Regulus of cobalt
Regulus of manganefe
Regulus of molybdena
Regulus of lyderit
Relins .
Ruft of copper . . .
Ruft of iron . . .
Ruby of antimony
Saffron of mars . .
Saffron of mars, aperitive
*5[
NEW NAMES.
Fixed oils
Fixed oils
Fixed oils
f ixed empyreumatic oils
Nati vefulpiuire of antimony
C Iron ore, containing phofi-
2 phat of iron
V Alloy of copper and tin ;
2 pewter
f Stahl’s hypothetical prin-
2 ciple
r Ammoniacal pliofphat
2 Pliofphat of ammoniac
C Pliofphat barytic
1 Barytic pliofphat
Magnefian pliofphat
Pliofphat of potalh
Pliofphat of foda
Dry calcareous nitrit
Phofphorus
Dry calcareous muriat
Platina
Carbure of iron
Sublimated oxyd of zink
Impure carbonat of potalh
C Oxyd of antimony by the
2 muriatic acid
Carbonat of magnefia
Carbonat of magnefia
7 Oxyd of gold precipitated
S by tin
c Red oxyd of mercury by
2 the nitric acid
Red oxyd-of mercury by fire.
C Yellow oxyd of mercury by
2 the fulpliuric acid
7 Muriat of mercury by pre-
i cipitation
Oxygen
Gallic acid
f Beccher’s hypothetical
2 principle
Carbon
Oxygen
t Calcareous prulnat
2 Pruftiat of lime
Prulfiat of foda
Sulphure of copper
Sulphure of iron
r Carbonated fulpliure of al u-
■2 mine
t Pyrophorus of Homberg
5 Red fulphurated oxyd of
2 arfenic
^ Nitro-muriats
c.A word ufed to fignify the
2 metallic ftate
Antimony
Arfenic
Cobalt
Manganefe
Molybdena
Pholphure of iron
Refins
Green oxyd of copper
Carbonat of iron
$ Vitreous brown fulphurated
l oxyd of antimony
Oxyd of iron
Carbonat of iron
Saffron
152
C H E M 1 S T .R Y.
ANCIENT NAMES.
Saffron of mars, aflringent .
NEW NAMES.
Brown oxyd of iron
Saffron of metals . . . .
Sal-ammoniac ....
Sal ammoniac fixed . .
Sal de duobus ....
Sal polyclireft of Glafer
Sal polychreft of Rochelle
Sal foda?. See Soda.
Salt acetous ammoniacal
C Semi-Vitreous fulphurated
' 2 oxyd of antimony
5 Ammoniacal muriat
' 2 Muriat of ammoniac
5 Calcareous muriat
2 Muriat of lime
. Sulphat of potafh
. Sulphat of potafh
. Tartrit of foda
V Ammoniacal acetit
2 Acetit of ammoniac
f Calcareous acetit
2 Acetit of lime
Magnefian acetit
J Acetit of magneiia
Acetit of iron
Acetit of foda
Aluminous acetit
Acetit of zink
Ammoniacal carbonat
f Calcareous muriat
2 Muriat of lime
Nitrat of ammoniac
5 | Sulphat of ammoniac
. Ammoniacal borat
. Fluat of ammoniac
. Ammoniacal fulpliat
f Magnefian fulphat
' 2 Sulphat of magneiia •
. Muriat of foda
. Muriat of potafh
J Phofphat of foda and am-
2 moniac
Sulphat of foda .
f Aluminous muriat
2 Muriat of alumine
f Calcareous muriat
2 Muriat of lime
f Magnefian muriat
' 2 Muriat of magnefia
. Muriat of iron
. Muriat of zirik
t Phofphat of loda and am-
" 2 moniac
of 7 Acidulous arfeniat of pot-
• i afli
f Ammoniaco-mercurial mu-
' 2 riat
Salt of amber, obtained by? „ „ , r . . . .
cryftallization . . - .} Cryftalhzed fuccmic acid
C Sulphat of iron, in a fiate
' 2 little known
. Sulphat of magnefia
Salt acetous calcareous .
Salt acetous magnefian . .
Salt acetous martial . . .
Sait acetous mineral . . .
Salt acetous argillaceous ,
Salt acetous of zinc . . .
Salt ammoniacal cretaceous
Salt ammoniacal fixed .
Salt ammoniacal nitrous
Salt ammoniacal (fecret of \
Glauber) . . . .
Salt ammoniacal fedative
Salt ammoniacal fparry
Salt ammoniacal vitriolic
Salt bitter purging . .
Salt common ....
Salt febrifuge of Sylvius
Salt fufible of urine . .
Salt, Glauber’s . . .
Salt marine argillaceous
Salt marine calcareous
Salt marine magnefian
Salt marine of iron .
Salt marine of zinc .
Salt native of urine .
arfenical,
Salt, neutral
Macquer .
Salt of alembroth
Salt of calcothar
Salt of Epfom . . .
Salt of Jupiter .
Salt of milk . . .
Salt of Scheidfchutz
Salt of Sedlitz . . <
Salt of Segner . . .
Salt of Seignette . .
Salt of forrel . . .
Salt of wifdom . .
Salt of wormwood, common
Saltpetre ....
Salt reguline of gold
Salt fedative . . .
Salt fedative mercurial
Salt fedative fublimated
Salt ftanno-nitrous .
-Salt fulphureous of Stahl
i
Muriat of tin
Sugar of milk
Magnefian fill phat
Sulphat of magnefia
Sebat of potafli
Tartrit of foda
’ Acidulous oxalat of potafli
C Ammoniaco-mercurial mu-
2 riat
Carbonat of potafli
Nitrat of potafli, or nitre
Muriat of gold
Boracic acid
Borat of mercury
Sublimated boracic acid
Nitrat of tin
Sulphit of potafli
ANCIENT NAMES.
Salt vegetable . . .
Salt volatile of amber
Salt, wonderful pearly
Saturn .....
Selenit .
Silver .... . .
Silver muriated . .
Silver fupernitrated .
Snow of antimony
Soaps acid ....
Soaps alkaline . . .
Soaps earthy of Berthollet .
Soaps metallic, of Berthollet
Soap of Starkey . .
Soda cauftic . . .
Soda cretaceous . .
Spanilh white . . .
Spar ammoniacal . .
Spar calcareous , .
Spar fluor ....
Spar ponderous . .
Spirits acid ....
Spirit acid of wood .
Spirit alkaline volatile
Spirit ardent . . .
Spirit of Mindererus
Spirit of nitre . . .
Spirit of nitre dulcified
Spirit of nitre fuming
Spirit of fait . . .
Spirit of fal ammoniac
Spirit of Venus . .
Spirit of vitriol . .
Spirit of wine . . .
Spiritus reftor . . .
Spirit volatile of fal ami
niac .....
Spiritus fylveftris of
mont . . . . .
Stone of the bladder .
Sublimat corrofive
Sugar . .
Sugar candied ... . .
Sugar of lead . . .
Sugar or fait of milk .
S ulphur
NEW NAMES.
Tartrit of potafh
Sublimated fuccinic acid
f Superfaturated phofphat of
2 foda
Lead
Sulphat of lime
Silver ,
Muriat of filver
Fufed nitrat of filver
White fublimated oxyd of
antimony
Acid foaps
Alkaline foaps
Earthy foaps
Metallic foaps
Saponull of potafli
. Soda
. Carbonat of foda
t White oxyd of lead by the
' 2 acetous acid
. Ammoniacal fluat
. Carbonat of lime
. Calcareous fluat
. Sulphat of barytes
, Acids diluted with water
. Pyroligneous acid
. Ammoniacal gas
. Alcohol
. Ammoniacal acetit
5 Nitric acid diluted with wa-
‘ 2 ter
. Nitric alcohol
. Nitrous acid
. Muriatic acid
. Ammoniac
. Acetic acid
5 Sulphuric acid diluted with
' 2 water
. Alcohol
. Aroma
o- 7 Ammoniac diluted with wa*
i ter
Hel
Carbonic acid
Lithic acid
Corrofive muriat of mercury
Sugar
Cryftallized fugar
Acetit of lead
Sugar of milk
Sulphur
_ , . . , - . f Oranve-coloured fulphurat-
S ulphur golden of antimony \ ed |xyd of antimo£y
Syderit . Phofphat of iron
Syderotet of Morveau
Tartar . . . , .
Tartar ammoniacal .
Tartar antimoniated .
Tartar calcareous
Tartar chalybeated .
Tartar cretaceous
Tartar crude . . .
Tartar cupreous . .
Tartar emetic . . .
Tartar of magnefia ,
Tartar of potafli
Tartar of foda . . .
Tartar martial foluble
Tartar mephitized
Tartar mercurial . .
Tartar faturnine . .
Pholphure of iron
Acidulous tartrit of potafh
Ammoniacal tartrit
5 Antimoniated tartrit of pot-
2 afli
Tartrit of lime
Ferruginous tartrit of potafh
Carbonat of potafli
Tartar
Tartrit of copper
5 Antimoniated tartrit of pot-
2 afli
Tartrit of magnefia
Tartrit of potafh
Tartrit of foda
Ferruginous tartrit of potafh-
Carbonat of potafli
Mercurial tartrit
Tartrit pf lead
Fluat
ANCIENT NAMES.
Tartar fparryq or of /’par
Tartar fokvble . . . .
Tartar ftibiated . . .
Tartar tartarized, or terra
foliata tartari . „ .
Tartar tartarized, holding
antimony in foiution .
Tartar vitriolated . .
Tindture acrid of tartar
Tinctures fpirituous . .
Tin .
Tin mufiated ....
Tungftein .
Turbith mineral , , .
Turbith nitrous . , .
Verdegris .....
Yerdegris of the drops .
Verdegris diftilled . . .
Venus .......
Vinegar diftilled . . . .
Vinegar of faturn ....
Vinegar radical . . . .
Vitriol ammohiacal . . .
Vitriol blue, orRoman vitriol
Vitriol green, or copperas .
Vitriol magnefian , . .
Vitriol martial . ... ,
Vitriol of antimony . . .
Vitriol of clay, or argil . .
Vitriol of bifmuth . . .
Vitriol of cobalt . . . .
Vitriol of copper . . . .
Vitriol of Cyprus . . . .
Vitriol of lead .■-....
Vitriol of manganefe
Vitriol of mercury . . ,
Vitriol of nickel . . . .
Vitriol of platina . . . .
Vitriol of potafli . . . .
Vitriol of fdver . . . .
Vitriol of foda .
Vitriol of tin .
Vitriol of zinc .
Vitriol white .
Water .
Waters aerated, or acidu¬
lated .......
Water mercurial . . . .
Water hepatic ....
Wolfram of Meff. d’Elhuya
Wood philofophical .
Zinc . .
CHE M I
NEW NAMES.
Fluat of potafli
Tart rit of potafli
Antimoniated tart rit of pot-
afli
Tartrit of potafli
Tartrit of potafli fupercom-
pounded with antimony
Sulphat of potafli
Aricohol of potafli
Relinous alcohols
Tin
Muriat of tin
Tungftein, or tungften
Yellow oxyd of mercury by
the fulphuric acid
Yellow oxyd of mercury by
the nitric acid
Green oxyd of copper
Acetit of copper, with ex-
cefs of oxyd
Cryftallized acetit of copper
Copper
Acetous acid
Acetit of lead
Acetic acid
Ammoniacal fulphat
Sulphat of copper
Sulphat of iron
Sulphat of magnefia
Sulphat of iron
Sulphat of antimony
Sulphat of alumine
Sulphat of bifmuth
Sulphat of cobalt
Sulphat of copper
Sulphat of copper
Sulphat of lead
Sulphat of manganefe
Sulphat of mercury
Sulphat of nickel
Sulphat of platina
Sulphat of potafli
Sulphat of filver
Sulphat of foda
Sulphat of tin
Sulphat of zink
Sulphat of zink
Water
Water impregnated with
carbonic acid
Solution of nitrat of mercury
Sulphurated, or l'ulphureous
waters
Tungften
Sublimed oxyd of zink
Zink
GENERAL OUTLINE of MODERN CHEMISTRY.
All the fadls and experiments of chemiftry, may be re¬
ferred to the twelve following eftablifhed phenomena ;
i. The adlion of light. 2. The adlion of caloric. 3.
The adtion of air in combuftion. The nature and
adlion of yvater._ 5. The nature and adtion of earths,
and the formation of alkalis, with the parts they per¬
form in combinations. 6. The nature and properties of
combuftible bodies. 7. The formation and decompofi¬
tion of acids. 8. The union of acids with earths and al¬
kalis. 9. The oxydation and diffolution of metals. 10.
The nature^ and formation of vegetable fubftances. n.
The tranfition of vegetables to the ftate of animal mat¬
ter, and the nature thereof. 12. Finally, the fpontane-
ous decompofition of vegetable and animal fubftances.
Thefe twelve heads may be confidered as the titles or data
Vol. IV. No. 185.
S TRY. 153
of fo many diftindl parts ; which, taken together, in¬
clude the whole of the dodtrine of chemiftry ; the outline
of which wefhall trace as follows :
THE ACTION OF LIGHT.
Light, whether it come from the fun and fixed liars, 01*
be diffufed throughout l'pace, is modified in four different
ways with regard to the bodies with which it comes in¬
to contadl : either it is refledted entirely from their furfaces
to our eyes, and excites the fenfation of whitenefs; or it.
is decompofed, and fome of its parts only are refledted,
whence arife different colours ; or it is more or lefs com¬
pletely abforbed, and produces blacknefs ; or, laftly, it
pafles through bodies, deviating more or lefs from its
courfe, by approaching the perpendicular, and this confti-
tutes trnnfparency. In its paflage through tranfparent bo¬
dies, it experiences a refradtion, the degree of which is in
a diredl ratio to the denfity of the body, if incombuilible;
but increafing in proportion to the combuftibility of the
body through which it pafles. Hence Newton divined the
combuftibility of the diamond, and the exiftence of a
combuftible principle in water.
Light, in refracting, is decompofed into feven rays;
red, orange, yellow', green, blue, indigo, and violet. It
has been fuppofed, that three of thele colours, the red,
yellow, and blue, were Ample; and that the other four
were formed each of the two contiguous to them; that
is, the orange from the red and y'eliow', the green front
the yellow and blue, the indigo from the blue and violet,
and the violet from the red and indigo. But this fup-
polition has never been proved. The decompofition ef¬
fected by means of the prifm, is a fort of analyfis of
light. Light alfo adts chemically on fubftances, occa-
lioning decompofitions and combinations. This we in¬
fer from the difference exhibited by' bodies immerfed in
light, from the lame deprived of this element. The
former become in general coloured, volatile, and inflam¬
mable; the latter have the oppofite qualities. And
thus, by the contact of light, fome acids are deccmpo-
fed ; many falts change their nature; the oxyds of metals
in general re-approach the metallic ftate : and vegetables
acquire colour, and become fapid and inflammable; de¬
prived of light, they remain pale and inflpid, and are
what we call etiolated. Thefe general effedts are almoft
always owing to this circumftance, that light deprives
burnt bodies of the principle they abforbed in burning,
fo that from incombuftible, wdiich they had become,
they return to the combuftible ftate. It may be faid,
that light generally unburns burnt fubftances. Thefe
data enable us to inveftigate the colours of bodies : trans¬
parency : opacity: brilliancy: Ample and double re¬
fradtion: metallic luftre: the decompofition of acids,
and of metallic oxyds : decombuftion: the alteration of
the colours of minerals: vegetation : the decompofition
of water by the leaves of plants: the renovation of the
vital air of the atmofphere : the formation of oils: the
difference between the vegetables of hot climates, and
tliofe of temperate ones, &c.
THE ACTION OF CALORIC.
What we call heat, is a fenfation produced by a fub-
ftance to wdiich modern chemifts have given the appella¬
tion of caloric. When caloric is applied to our lyltem
in a greater proportion than it already contains, the
fyftem is warmed, and the fenfation of heat produced..
When, on the contrary, a fubftance of a lower tempera¬
ture than our fyftem is applied to it, we feel the lenfa¬
tion of cold, becaufe w'e then lofe caloric. The adlion of
caloric is of fuch a nature as to penetrate all bodies ;
it l’eparates their particles by lodging between them, and
diminifhes their attradlion ; it dilates bodies, it liquifies
folids, and ratifies liquids to fuch a degree as to render
them invifible, to give them the form of air, and convert
them into elaftic, compreflible, aeriform, fluids. Hence
it follows, that liquids are combinations of folids with,
caloric, and that gafes are folutions of different bodies
Rr in
i54 ' C H E M !
in caloric, which of itfelf is the moft attenuate, fubtile,
light, and elaftic, of all natural fubftances; accordingly
its weight cannot be eftimated.
While caloric feparates the particles of bodies, and di-
mi nifties their attraction for each other, it proportion¬
ally augments their attraction for the particles of adja¬
cent bodies. For this rea’fon it is fucceisfully employed
to produce combinations, and facilitate reciprocal uni¬
ons. Hence the axiom, corpora non agunt, n ji foluta,ho-
dies do not aft, unlefs they be diffolved. Every parti¬
cular body differing from others both in the form of its-
particles and their reparation from each other, requires a
different quantity of caloric toraife it to the fame tempe¬
rature ; this is what is called the capacity of bodies for
caloric. From this it follows, that different bodies, at
the fame temperature, or indicating the fame degree of
the thermometer, ready contain different quantities of
caloric. This different quantity of caloric contained in
bodies railed to the fame temperature, which is with pro¬
priety termed fpecific caloric, being incapable of being
meaftired by the thermometer, a mode of ascertaining it
has been invented, by means of the quantity of ice which
bodies at an equal temperature will diffolve in defend¬
ing to the fame degree. The difference of the quantity
dilfolved, gives the proportion of caloric contained in
the feveral bodies, and the inftrument employed to af-
certain this difference, is called a calorimeter.
All the experiments made by the modern philofophers,
who have inveftigated the theory of caloric, prove, that
bodies, in changing their Hate, change alfo their capacity.
We call change of Hate in bodies, their becoming iolid,
liquid, or elattic fluid. Hence it follows, that by mixing
two (olid bodies at different temperatures, incapable, of
combining together, a mean of the two temperatures
will be obtained, if their capacities be equal; but, if their
capacities be unequal, the temperature of the mixture
will deviate more or iefs from the mean, and the differ¬
ence will indicate the reciprocal capacities of the two
bodies. Thefe phenomena lliow, that caloric has differ¬
ent attractions, or different degrees of affinity, for differ¬
ent bodies. In all combinations, therefore, this varying
attraftion of caloric fhould be attentively calculated.
Wnen bodies unite, either they lofe caloric, which in¬
dicates, that the new compound contains lefs than its
component parts; and in this cafe the operation renders
heat perceptible to our organs, and the temperature of
the mixture is increaled, which commonly takes place
in our experiments : or the bodies which combine' ab-
lorb caloric, and the new compound contains more heat
than its component parts did ieparately ; and then, when
the combination takes place, the mixture grows cold,
the caloric, which was at liberty between its particles,
unites with them more clofely, and they even take fome
from contiguous bodies. Sometimes caloric adheres lb
forcibly to bodies, that it prevents their combining with
others. Thus many diffolved into gas, or elaftic fluid,
unite neither with other bodies, nor with one another,
as long as they retain this ftate of in vifible iblution in
caloric; fo that recourfe mult be had to double attrac¬
tions to effect their combination.
The attraction of caloric for fome fubftances, is fo great,
that it is very frequently employed with advantage for
feparating thefe fubftances from the compounds into which
they enter, and for analyfing or decompofmg compound
bodies. Thisis whatwedoindiftiilation, and in all the de-
compofitions elfeftedby means of fire alone, or caloric,
applied to very compound fubftances. The different ele¬
ments of thefe compounds are gradually diffolved in the or¬
der of their folubility in caloric, and feparated in the ftate of
vapour or gas. Light, applied at the fame time with ca¬
loric, frequently alfifts its aftion, or has its aftion affifted
by it. Hence, tranl'parent veffels employed in furnaces
are extremely ufeful to chemilts, by tranfmitting light
and caloric at the fame time. A fimilar effect is produ¬
ced, by penetrating opake veffels fo thoroughly with ca~
a
. S T R Y.
loric, as to make them red-hot, or render them permea¬
ble to light.
There are bodies which abforb caloric much more
fpeedily than others ; this is called the property of con-
dufting caloric. In general thofe bodies which are
molt coloured are the belt conduftors. The caufe of
this phenomenon is unknown. All thefe fafts prove,
that caloric is a particular fubftance, and not a modifica¬
tion. or all fubftances, as fome natural philofophers have
imagined; and it is far from having been fliown to be
the fame thing with light; for the farther we advance in
the fcience. of phy.fics, the greater differences appear in
the aftion of thefe two fubftances. Thefe fafts point out
to us the principles and nature of the dilatation of folids
and the rarefaction of fluids: thermometers: fufion;
fublimation and volatilization : the calorimeter, and ta¬
bles of the fpecific heat of bodies:, the changes of tem¬
perature in different mixtures: artificial refrigeration;
the. production of gales, and their fixation: diftiliation
at different temperatures : incandeicence : the different
conduftors of caloric ; and attractions of the fame.
THE ACTION OF THE AIK.
The air afts in a collective mafs on all natural bodies,
by its weight, moiiture or drynefs, temperature, See. Ac¬
cordingly experiments of fynthefis or analyfis, made in
contaCt with the air, differ confiderably. from thofe which
are performed in a vacuum ; and it is always neceffary to af-
certain the ftate of the barometer, thermometer, and hy¬
grometer, in chemical experiments. The atmofphere it-
lelfisa vail laboratory, in which nature operates im-
menfe analyfes, folutions, precipitations, and combina¬
tions: it is a grand receiver, in which all the attenuated
and volatilized productions of terreftrial bodies are re¬
ceived, mingled, agitated, combined, and feparated.
Confidered in this view, the atmofpheric air is a chaos,
an indeterminate mixture of mineral v.apours, vegetable
and animal molecules, feeds, and eggs, which the lumi¬
nous, caloric, and eleftric, fluids, are pervading and tra¬
veling continually. The grand changes it experiences,
and of which we are fenfible in extenllve lpaces by the
appearance of water, light, free caloric, cr noife, are call¬
ed meteors. Yet notwithftanding this mixture, of
which it feems impoffible for us to afeertain the nature,
the atmofpheric air is lenfibly the fame with regard to
its intimate qualities, wherever we examine it ; and it is
decidedly marked by its two properties of lupporting
refpiration and combuftion, the cloftit analogy lubiift-
ing between thefe two grand phenomena. From a care¬
ful ftudy of what pafies in combuftion, we may readily
acquire a knowledge of the air.
Acombultible body cannot burn without the contaft
of atmofpheric air, or a certain matter extracted from it ;
and hence combuftion cannot take place in a vacuum.
A combuflible body cannot burn in a given quantity of
atmofpheric air, beyond a certain period. A hundred
parts of this air contain only twenty-feven capable of
lupporting combuftion; when thefe twenty-feven parts
have been abforbed by the combuflible body, the com¬
buftion ceafes, as the other feventy-three parts cannot at
all contribute to its fupport. Hence it appears, that at¬
mofpheric air is a compound of two different fubftances,
fetting afide a few matters foreign to it, which are min¬
gled with it, but amount not to more than a hundredth
part of its bulk. Of thefe two fubftances, one fupports
refpiration and combuftion : this is termed vital air; the
other is the reverie of it in both thefe refpefts, and is cal¬
led azotic gas. Thus a body burning in the air effefts a
real analyfis of this fluid. It feparates from it, and ab-
forbs, the vital air, which augments the weight and chang¬
es the nature of the burning body. The azotic gas
which remains is lighter than the atmofpheric air, ex-
tingujfhes bodies in combuftion and kills animals. It is
alio one of the conilituent principles of feveral com¬
pounds, as we Hull hereafter fee, particularly of ammo¬
niac,
C H E M I
niae, or volatile- alkali, the acid of nitre, and animal
fubitances.
A cOinbuftible body which has burnt in atmofpheric
air, and ablbrbed all the vital air to which it is capable
of uniting, can burn no longer in a frefh quantity of air :
it has become incombuftible, and frequently laline. A
body burning in atmofpheric air never abforbs complete¬
ly the twenty-f'even hundredth part of vital air it con¬
tains. To make a perfect analyfis of the atmofpheric
air, and dived: it entirely of this fluid, combuftible bodies
mult be burnt in it repeated times. The portion of air
thus abforbedby combultible bodies, called above vital
air, is alfo named oxygen gas. The former name is de¬
rived from its being the only elaftic fluid capable of fup-
porting life: the latter is given it, becaule many bodies
on abiorbing it are rendered acid.
Combuftion, then, confifts in the fixation and abforp-
tion of vital air by combuftible bodies, and the decom-
pofition of the atmofpheric air by thefe bodies. As the
vital air only ferves to liipport combuftion, it is eaf'y to
conceive, that a very combuftible body, capable of ab-
lorbing the whole of the vital air, may be employed to
determine the proportion of the two atmofpheric fluids :
thus phofphorus is now ufed for thepurpofeof eudiome-
try, or to difcover the purity of the atmofphere, that is to
fay, the proportion of this vital air which it contains.
As vital air is a gas, and many combuftible bodies, when
they abforb it, render it fixed, and caui'e it to affume the
folid form, the vital air, when it is thus precipitated, lofes
the caloric, which held it in a fbrte of folution, and gave
it the elailic fluid form: hence the origin of the caloric
dilengaged, or of the heltt produced, during combuftion.
Combuftible bodies differ from each other, firft, In the
rapidity with which they abforb oxygen; 2diy, In the
quantity of it they abforb; 3 dly , In the proportion of
caloric which they difengage f rom the oxygen abforbed •
and, by confequence, athly, In the greater or lei's degree
of folid ity of the oxygen they, contain after being burnt.
Burnt bodies, then, may be defined to be bodies combin¬
ed with oxygen : accordingly they are termed oxygenat¬
ed or oxydated fubftances : and as the greater number
of known bodies are either combuftible, or already burnt,
we may be allowed to fufpeCt, that many incombuftible
natural bodies, with the compofition of which we are
unacquainted, are incombuftible folely from being iatu-
rated with oxygen. With regard to lame in this predi¬
cament, this conjecture has already been verified.
From feveral of the preceding axioms, it follows, that,
when we burn a combuftible body 111 order to procure
heat, as we do to mitigate the rigours of winter, we ob¬
tain at leaf! the greater part of tile caloric from the airit-
feifVwith which it was combined. We may even afl’ert
that the colder the air, the more heat is derived from it;
becaufe, when the atmofphere is extremely cold, more
air paffes into the fire in a given bulk. Indeed, it is well
known, that the fire in our grates is much more fcorch-
ing, and burns much more brifkly, when the air fuddenly
becomes cold; and the art of increafmg combuftion by
means of condenl'ed air thrown from a pair of bellows on
wood already heated, is founded on this principle.
Combuftion, therefore is not confined to the decompofi-
tion of atmofpheric air by abforbing one of its principles ;
for it alio decompofes the vital air, by. abforbing, fixing,
and rendering more or lei's f'oiid, in the combuftible bo¬
dy, the oxygen, or bale of the vital air, and difengaging
the. folvent of this bale, .caloric, in greater or lefs quantity.
There isanother interelling phenomenon in combuftion,
which modern chemlitry is able to explain : that of the
dii'engagement of light, or the production of flame. It
is demonftrated, that the greater part of the light which
conftitutes flame, is contained in the vital air, of which
it is one of the principles: for, ift, Combuftible bodies
afford much more flame when they burn in vital air a-
lone, than in atmofpheric 'air: 2dly, There are colnbuf-
tible bodies which do not burn vvicn flame except in vi-
s T R Y. 155
tal air: 3 cl ly , To difengage the oxygen from bodies
which contain it, and com ei t it into vital air, it is not
fuflicient to diffolve it in a greater or lefs quantity of ca¬
loric, but it is neceffary at the fame time to add light:
4-thly, There are burnt bodies which lofe their oxygen
on the conlaft of light alone.: in this fenfe we mult un¬
derhand the property of unburning and decombuition,
mentioned above, as a character ift ic of light. Vital air,
therefore, is to be coniidered as a compound of a iblidifi-
able, ponderous, acidifying, b ile, oxygen, diffolved in'
two menltrua, caloric, and light, which of thernfelves are
extremely attenuate, highly elaftic, and deflitute of af~
fignable weight. Combuftion confifts in a more or lefs
complete precipitation of the oxygen of thefe two men¬
ltrua. Thus, a combuftible body, in burning, dif ’en¬
gages from vital air, not only caloric, but alio light ; and
every combuftible body difengages a different quantity
of light from the vital air, as it does of caloric. It is
probable that there are combuftible bodies which fepa-
rate from vital air more light than caloric, while others
difengage from it more caloric than light. The oxygen
fixed in burnt combuftible bodies remains more or lefs de¬
prived of light and caloric; and the denfity or folidity it
acquires in, the procefs, is one of the caufes to which is
owing the greater or lefs facility experienced in fepara-
ting the oxygen from burnt bodies in the form of vital
air. For this, fome require more caloric than light;
others more light than caloric. It is eafy to perceive, af¬
ter what has been laid, that to feparate the oxygen from
a burnt body, is to perform an operation the reverie cf
combuftion. We have no word in our language to ex-
profs this Operation. It would not be improper to fay,
that we unburn, that we difoxydate, the body : hence the
terms of unburning and difoxydation.
Befide the greater or lefs force with which oxygen is
retained in combuftible bodies, according to .its being
combined with them inaliate of greater or lefs lblidity,
and its having loft a greater or lefs portion of its folvents,
caloric and light; it adheres to them by its attraction,
its particular affinity to each. A confiderable number
of thefe affinities of oxygen for different fubftances are al¬
ready known, and the degrees of f'ome cf them have been
afeertained. It is from theftlegrees of thefe affinities,
that we are frequently enabled to transfer oxygen from a
burnt body to a combultible one. I11 this procefs a com¬
buftion takes place, lb much the more imperceptibly, or
tacitly, as it were, according as the oxygen is more lblid
in the burnt body, and more iimilar in denfity to the bo¬
dy which abforbs it, or into which it panes. But this
kind of combuftion fometimes takes place with a vivid
heat and flame: which phenomena occur, whenever the
body which is to receive the oxygen mult contain it in a
more folid form than that from which it is extracted.
Thus iron, zink, antimony, arlenic, tec. burn with flame,
when heated with oxyd of mercury, from which they
attraft the oxygen, to contain it i.i a more f'oiid form-
From thefe confederations we may deduce the nature and'
caufes of the obstacle which air oppofes to evaporation,
the ebullition of liquids, fublimation, &c. the folution.
of water in air, and the hygrornetrical ltate of the atmof-
phere: the effloreicence and deiiquefcence of laline bo¬
dies : aqueous meteors: experiments made at different
heights of the atmofphere, and in a vacuum : the compa¬
rative nature of combuftible .bodies: the increaie of
weight and change of nature in thefe bodies after com¬
buftion : artificial heat and flame; the theory of furna¬
ces: the different eudiometrical proceffes : the refpira-
tion of different animals : the mephitilin occafioned by
combuftion and refpiration : the diminution, increaie,
and lupport, of animal heat : tranfpiration from the fkin
and lungs, &c.
THE NATURE AND ACTION OF WATER.
Water exifts in three different flares : that of a folid,
which is ice; that of a 'liquid, its molt common form,
and
C I-r E M I S T R Y.
156
and that of vapour, or gas. Ice is a cryftallization more
or left regular, tranfparent, very lapicl, elaitic, fuiible at
a temperature above 32° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer,
and which buffers the el'cnpe of much caloric from its in¬
terior, iii feveral combinations. Ice at 320 abforbs ua°
of heat in melting, or i'uch a quantity of caloric as would
raii'e a body of water of equal bulk with itfelf to 144°.
Its capacity, therefore, is not the fame with that of liquid
water, which is owing to the difference of its ffate, as
has been laid above, under theadtion of caloric.
Whenever liquid water lofes much caloric on enter¬
ing into any combination, it ought to be conlidered
as Iblid in it; frequently it is even much more lo than
ice at 320; whence arifes the folidity of mortars, or ce¬
ments, of which flaked lime forms a part. Water remains
eternally 1'olid on mountains, cooled for ages by the pre¬
fence of ice, and underneath the poles. In thefe places
it forms l'olid rocks, or white concretions almoft fimilar
to (tones.
Liquid water is pure, infipid, deftitute of fmell, and 850
times heavier than air. It forms rivers, brooks, ponds,
fprings, rivulets, &c. It occupies the cavities, furrows,
and generally (peaking all the loweil parts, of the globe.
It is very l'eldom pure ; for it diflblves, in the earth, and
on its iurface, air, Inline gales, and terrellrious falts:
it afts even on the molt l'olid Hones, which it diflblves,
carries along in its courfe, depolits, and criftallizes.
Hence it has been named the grand lolvent of nature.
By it are produced various phenomena, and it is one
of the molt powerful agents, by which the Iurface of the
globe is inceifantly modified. Its motions, its currents,
its aflion, have gradually changed the nature of mine¬
rals, and created a kind of new world on the face of the
old. Accordingly all the waters of the earth contain
l'ome fubftance or other, foreign to the nature of water ;
the prefence of which is dilcernable from the increafe
of their lpecific gravity, their tafte, more or lei’s flat,
earthy, and crude, and the difficulty with which they
boil, drefs pulf'e, or diffolve loap. The more free any
water is from thefe properties; which are repugnant to
its effential charafter, the greater is its purity. Water
flowing in a fandy channel, and expofed to the open
air, is fufliciently pure for the purpofes of life, and
moft of the ul'es of the arts. On the contrary, that
which traverfes chalk, gypfum, and marbles, or ftagnates
on turf, bitumen, and ores of metals, or in fubterranean
cavities far from the contadt of the atmofphere, is more
or lefs impure. The art of correcting hard or impure
water by chemiflry, coniifts in expofing it to the atmof¬
phere, agitating it in contact with the air, boiling it,
diftilling it, and afterwards combining it with air. Fre¬
quently the addition of allies, alkalis, or weak acids,
ierves to diminifh the bad qualities of water; and fome-
times even completely removes them. Moft adventi¬
tious fubltances, which diminilh the purity of water, being
either much more volatile or much more fixed than it, dii-
tillation is the moll certain method of obtaining pure
water. For this reafon chemiffs always employ diftiiled
water in their experiments.
Liquid water, being a combination of ice at 32°, and
fiich a quantity of caloric as would have been 1'ufHcient
to raife the water to 144°, on the addition of caloric be¬
comes rarefied : when it is railed to a temperature of i 84°,
it aflumes the form of gas; it is vapour: in this Hate, it
is far lighter than liquid water, it occupies a much more
extensive (pace, it eafily penetrates all bodies, it readily
diflblves in air, and itsexpanflve force, from the increaie
of its temperature, renders it capable of moving enormous
weights, driving the fleam-engine, &c. As liquid water
•abforbs air, which renders it light, air alio abforbs and
diflblves water. This is the caufe of water’s evaporating.
The folution of water in air, is dry and invifible as air
itfelf: it is proportionate to the temperature of the at-
molphere. The hygrometer does not indicate with pre-
idfion this water, for it is not effected by a complete iolu-
tion of water in air, but moves according to the quantity
of water which is juft going to be dififolved, and more es¬
pecially oFthat which is precipitating from it.
Water is not a Ample fubftance, as had long been fup-
pofed. By burning with rapidity a number of coinbuf-
tible bodies, more or lei's heated, as charcoal and pit-coal
already on fire, red hot iron, zink melted and red-hot,
oil, &c. water is decompofed, yielding to thefe combuf-
tible bodies the oxygen it contained. In proportion as
the oxygen of the water becomes fixed in the combufti-
ble bodies which it burns, its other principle capable of
difiblving in caloric forms the inflammable gas which is
evolved. As this fecond principle is one of the elements
of water, it has been called hydrogen , and its elaitic fluid
-folution in light and caloric, hydrogen gas. The dil'en-
gagement of this principle in the form of gas, which
takes place wherever water is decompofed by a combufti-
ble body, is the caufe of a great number of detonations
and fulminations. The hydrogen gas produced in vari-
ous experiments always originates from water, either in
confequence of a preceding decompofition, in which it
had been combined in the flate of fixed hydrogen with
one of the l'ubftances employed, or from a decompofition
of water actually taking place in the experiments them-
lelves. All the inflammable gas, therefore, proceeds from
water. Reiterated experiments have proved, that water
contains about eighty-live hundredth parts of oxygen and
fifteen of hydrogen. The recompolition of water, one
of the grandelt difeoveries of modern chemiflry, confirms
the analylis of this body ; for, on uniting by combultion
eighty- live parts of oxygen with fifteen of hydrogen, a
hundred parts of pure water are obtained.
When water is decompofed by a combuftible body, this
is effected by meansofadouble affinity ; that of the oxygen
of the water for the combuftible body, and that of its
hydrogen for caloric. For this reafon, the more caloric
matter is employed in the experiment of decompofmg
water by means of iron, charcoal, or the like, the f'ooner
is the water decompoled. From this neceffity for an ex¬
treme abundance of caloric in the operation, it is ealy
to conceive how the hydrogen, one of the elements of
the water, acquires a levity fo far beyond that of the fluid
from which it is derived : in faCt, while a cubic foot of
water weighs feventy pounds, a cubic foot of pure hy¬
drogen gas weighs only fixty-one grains. Hydrogen gas,
though always produced by the decompofition of wa¬
ter, carries along with it vaiious fubltances, either fuf-
pended or diifolved in it, according as the bodies from
which it is extricated are more or leis Ample. Thus it is
mingled with azotic gas, carbonic acid gas, or vital air ;
or it holds in folution, water, carbon, fulphur, phofpho-
rus, arfenic, oil, alcohol, ether, &c. From the difference
of thefe adventitious fubltances which it contains, it varies
in fmell, weight, and inflammability, the colour of the
flame it yields, its aCtion on different bodies, and all'o in
the products diftinCt from pure water which it affords in
burning. Hence are derived the leveral fpecies and de¬
nominations of inflammable gas admitted by authors, of
which hydrogen gas always conftitutes the general balls.
Hydrogen gas being one of thole natural fubltances
that contain moll caloric, it is among the number of
combuftible bodies, which give out moft, and conlequent-
ly afford molt heat in burning. Hence all compound
combuftible bodies of which hydrogen conftitutes the
bafis, fuch as oils, fats, and in general all that originate
from organized bodies, yield, during the procefs of burn¬
ing, a confiderable quantify of heat. Wood, oil, pit-
coal, bitumen, alcohol, ether, &c. are of this kind. It
follows, alfo, from what has been laid, that thofe conn
pound combuftible bodies, which contain much hydrogen
in their compoiition, necellarily require a large portion
of oxygen in burning, and afford water as a produCt of
their combultion, in proportion to the quantity of hy¬
drogen they contain. Thus a pound of alcohol, on bein 3
burnt, yields more than a pound of water. The com-
bultibis
C H E M 1
buflible bodies, generally fpeaking, which decompofe
water, are thole which have a greater affinity, or ftronger
attraction, for oxygen, than hydrogen has : but this at¬
traction is greatly affifted by the prefence of caloric, which
has a tendency to unite with the hydrogen. A large
quantity of caloric can even occafion the decompofition
of water by bodies which would be incapable of decom-
pofing it cold. To this light equally contributes. The
combuftible bodies which will not decompofe water at
any temperature, in confequence of their feeble attrac¬
tion for oxygen, which in this cafe always remains infe¬
rior to that which fubfhls between oxygen and hydrogen,
muft, on the contrary, when they 'have been burnt, by
other means, be decoffipofed, or fuffer their oxygen to
be taken from them, by hydrogen. This happens to the
oxyds of lead, bifmuth, See.
Hitherto the art of chemiftry has arrived at the know¬
ledge. of no means of decompoiing water, but by cornbuf-
tible fubflances, which take from it its oxygen. We are
unacquainted with any capable of attracting its hydrogen,
and felling its oxygen free. It would ieeni, however,
that nature has inllruments for e fie Cling this inverfe
manner of decompofing water : the leaves of vegetables
ltruck by ihe j ays of the fun appear to. decompofe water
by abforbing its hydrogen, and difengaging its oxygen
in the form of vital air. This we may prefume to be in
part the mechanifm- of vegetation, of the formation of
oils, and of the renovation of the atniofphere. While
hydrogen and oxygen, each diffolved into gas by caloric
and light, remain in contaft with each other cold, they
do not combine ; no inflammation occurs, no water is
formed. But if the mixture be expofed to an ignited
body, ftrongly fpmpreffed, or affefted by any violent and
forcible concnfficn, a combination of the two commences,
combuflion takes place, and water is produced. A fimi-
lar phenomenon appears to take place in the atmofphere.
Atmofpheric detonations, claps of thunder, leem to be
nothing more than a combuflion of hydrogen gas and
vital air ; and accordingly they are often fucceeded by a
torrent of rain. Some llorms of rain alfo appear to be
in like manner owing to a fudden formation of water in
the atmofphere, from the rapid combuflion of hydrogen
gas' and vital air, occafloned by an eleClric fpark, arifing
from the necefiary re-eltabliflinient of an equilibrium of
eleftikity between different clouds, or between the clouds
and the earth. A multitude of chemical phenomena of
nature and ait, formerly inexplicable and ranked as mi¬
raculous, ate now efteemed the necefiary confluences
of the decompofition of water well underflood. Of the
truths thus exhibited the influence on the general theory
of chemiftry is immenfe, as will appear in our experi¬
ments hereafter to lucceed. From thefe data we deduce
our knowledge of artificial refrigerations : the theory of
the permanent ice covering the tops of mountains, and
the neighbourhood of the poles : the varieties of atmof-
pheTic and terreflrial waters : the art of correcting the
bad qualities of waters : the theory of the ebullion of
water: the difference between boiled water and water
pregnant^with air : the diflil lation of water in the great,
and that of fait water : the theory of fogs and dew : the
tlieoiy of the hygrometer, and liygrometiical phenomena:
the burning of combuflible fubflances by means of water:
the gales difengaged from Aagnant waters : the variety
of inflammable gafes : the colouring of fubflances by in¬
flammable gafes : the oxydation of metals, or rufl, pro¬
duced by damp air: the theory of detonations : lome
phenomena of metallic l'olutions : fome fundamental prin¬
ciples of thetheoryof vegetation, the formation of oils, &c.
THE NATURE AND ACTION OF EARTHS AND ALKALIS.
What was formerly called earth by way of eminence, and
confidered as an element, and the caule cf folidity, dry-
nefs, infipidity, indifiblubilify, &c. is now conligned to
that clafs of vague and indeterminate ideas, which the
imagination, unlatisfied with the fuccefs of experience,
Vol, IV. No. 1 8 6,'
S T R Y. 157
invented to fupply the place cf fafts. At prefent no ele¬
mentary earth is acknowledged ; and inflead of one earthy
fubftance, we have at leafl five, all of which have an equal
claim to be denominated elements; for each enters into
the compofition of various bodies. Of the five earthy
fubflances that have been difcovered, two are in fome
meafure more earthy, dry, fufceptible of hardnefs, infipid.
Sec. while the other three poffefs faline properties, which
; render them fomewhat akin to the fubflances denominat¬
ed alkalis. Tliefe three, which have in confequence been
termed lalino-earthy, faline earths, alkaline earths, and
earthy alkalis, are baryt, magnefia, and lime. 'I'he other
two are filex and alumin. The generical characters com¬
mon to all thefe are drynefs, unalterablenefs in the fire,
infufibility, and the quality of being infufeeptibie of de¬
compofition, and aiding as Ample and indeftruftible fub¬
flances in combination. Belides thefe, each has fpecific
characters by which it is diftinguilhed.
Silex, which has been named filiceous earth, quartzofe
earth, and vitrifiable earth, is rough to the touch ; it
feratehes and wears away metals ;'it is infufible, incom-
buflible, infoiuble in water and mofl acids, foluble by
alkalis in a flrong fire, and forming glafs with thefe fairs.
It is found in abundance in land, quartz, flint, agate,
jafper, fandflone, and ail flones that llrike tire, of which
it conflitutcs the balls. It has neither been analyfed, nor
imitated by fynthefis. Some have confidered it as the
mofl Ample of tire earths, the terreous element, the ori¬
gin of all the other earths j but experience has not fup-
ported their affections. It is employed for various pur-
pofes, particularly for miil-fiones, and making glafs, ce¬
ments, earthen-ware, &c.
Alumin, fo named becaufe it conflitutes the bafis of
alum, the fame which fome authors have called argil, is
foft to the touch, and adheiiveto the tongue ; it hardens
in the fire, makes a palte with water, unites with mofl
acids, dries in flakes, acquires great hardnefs when mixed
with water and filex, and is contained in a large propor¬
tion in clays, fchifls, (leatites, &c. It is employed for
various purpofes of art, from its aptitude for moulding
into different forms, and retaining them, audits quali¬
ties of hardening in the fire, and holding water. By
fome it has been erroneoufly confidered as Alex changed,
attenuated, and rotted, by the aftion of air and water ;
but with its intimate nature, or principles, we are totally
unacquainted.
Baryt, or hea-uy earth, is remarkable for its extreme
ponderoAty. This is never found alone in nature, but
always united with the fulphuric or carbonic acid. In
the Are, and in contact with the Alex or alumin ot the
crucible, it affumes a blue or green colour : it is fblubie
in nine hundred times its weight of water, changes fyrup
of violets green, has a ftronger affinity even than alkalis
for mofl: acids, and will any where deleft the prefence of
fulphuric acid, and indicate its quantity. Its principles are
unknown, though it is fulpefted of being a metallic oxyd.
Magnefia, is very fine, very white, unalterable in the
fire, loft, and light. It refembles vegetable fecuke, re¬
quires near two thoufand parts of water to dilfolve it,
very flightly greens the tinfture of violets and mallow
flowers, forms with acids extremely foluble falts, and is
lefs retentive of acids than lime, which attrafts them
from ic, having nearly the fame affinity for them as am¬
moniac, with which and acids it forms falts with two
bafes, or a clafs of triple falts. Il exills in conliderable
quantity in lerpentines, mica, flates, and amianthus ; is
equally incapable of analyfis with the preceding earths ;
and, like theirs, its compofition is unknown.
Lime is the mofl alkaline of earths, and the only one
that poffelfes an acrid, burning, almoil cauflic, difagree-
able, and urinous, tafte. It is very powerful in convert¬
ing the fyrup of violets to a green colour ; attrafts water
from the atmofphere when flacked in it ; heats greatly
with water, and becomes foli'd with it ; gives out a large
quantity of caloric when flacked dry ; diffolves in lefs
S f " tl>an
C H E M
158
than feven hundred parts of water; attracts carbonic
acid from the atmofphere, and forms on the furface of
its folution a pellicle of chalk, improperly called cream
of lime-, is unalterable alone, but melts with filex and
alumin; and is formed of principles with which we are
yet unacquainted, though it is evidently a compound.
The pretended converfion of earths, each into other,
admitted by natural philofophers, is nothing more than
a chimera: I'o far is it from being proved, that fdex be¬
comes alumin in confequence of expofure to the air, that
flints are changed into chalk, and that chalk is convert¬
ed into magnelia, as fome have fuppofed on much too
feeble grounds. T.he three alkaline earths are to appear¬
ance more manifellly compound than the other two.
There is reafon to prefume, that azotis one of their prin¬
ciples, and gives them their alkaline properties : however,
experience has yet afforded no proof in fupport of this
opinion ; though their origin, al'cribed with confiderable
propability to marine animals, which contain a large por¬
tion of azot in their compolition, renders it not dellitute
of foundation. As to the metallic nature of the five
earths, which fome fuppofed they had demonftrated by
an imaginary reduftion of them into metals, by expofmg
them to a violent heat in contact with Charcoal ; the very
finall and few metallic globules obtained, evidently came
from the charcoal and the earth of the cupels, and has
been difcovered to be nothing more than phofphure of
iron, in the treatment of each of the different earth's ;
whence it is fufflciently proved, that they afford no me¬
tallic lubllance. Several natural pljiloibphers continue
of opinion, that earths are fpecies 'of burnt bodies, to
which the oxygen is llrongly adherent, and incapable of
being decom poled on account of their powerful attrac¬
tion for this, principle; but in this they are not fupport-
ed by experience.
Earths cpmbine.by twos, threes, and even greater num¬
bers, by proceffes unknown to us, which nature employs
on a very extenfive fcale, to produce Hones differing in
hardnefs, texture, tranfparency, opacity, colour, form,&c.
If art has failed to imitate thefe compounds, the reafon is,
time, fpace, and quantity, are wanting. Something fimilar
to the natural earthy compounds, however, may be pro¬
duced, by leaving a long time in contact, earths, intimate¬
ly mingled, and moillened at firft with a little water. The
three alkaline earths form a kind of intermediate link be¬
tween earths and alkalis. The latter are diftinguifhable
by their acrid, burning, and urinous, tafte, their cauffici-
ty, their Angular aftion on the fkin, and all animal fub-
ftances, the quality of changing the blue colour of vio¬
lets to a green, and even a greenifh yellow', and deliquef-
cency. We are acquainted with three fpecies, potafh, fc-
da, and ammoniac. The firff and fecond have been called
fixed alkalis, becaufe tlrey melt and grow red in the fire
before they become volatile, the third has been named
volatile alkali, from poffefling the oppofite property.
Potafn is known by the following characters ; — It is
dry, folid, wdiite, chryftalized in rhomboidal plates, fu-
fible at a temperature of 203", and very deliquefcent,
abforbs water with heat and a peculiar faint fmell, com¬
bines with Alex by fuAon, and forms with it atranfparent
compound. It is frequently found native with lime,
and combined with different acids; but is chiefly obtain¬
ed from vegetables, in theaflies of which it remains after
combuffion. It is fuppofed that it bears fome analogy
to lime, and may perhaps be formed of azot combined
with it : experience, however, gives no fupport to this
opinion.
Soda is procured from marine plants by incineration,
and confti.tutes the bafis of fea-falt. It ftrikingly relem-
bles potafh in form, caurticity, fuiibility, deliquefcency,
combination with Alex by means of fufion, aftion on
animal fubffances, See. fo that it Was long confounded
with it, and might have continued to be fo, if it did not
form very different falts with acids, and yield thele acids
to potafli. It has been imagined, that lodawas a com-
a
I S T R Y.
pound of magnefia and azot, becaufe falts with foda for
their bale have been as frequently found with falts hav¬
ing for their bafe magnefia, as calcareous falts with thofe
having potafh for their bulls : but both thefe opinions
remain hitherto equally devoid of proof.
Ammoniac, or volatile alkali, differs greatly from the
tw'o preceding fpecies in its form of gas when diffolved
in caloric, in its liquid form when diffolved in wafer, in
its pungent and fuffocatiiig fmell, its folubility in air, and
its known and eafy decompofition by the eleftric (park,
metallic oxyds, and the nitric and oxygenated muriatic
acid. This decompofition evinces, that ammoniac is a
compound of hydrogen and azot ; and for this reafon it
frequently exhibits the phenomena of a combuffible lub-
ftance. Hence alfo it is eafy to conceive, how animal
matters furnifh ammoniac in confequence of putrefaction.
If azot fliould at fome future period appear to be the
principle that forms alkalis, the atmofphere will be found
to confilt of a mixture of oxygen and alkaligen, each fe-
parately diffolved in caloric; and it will exhibit an im-
menfe fefervoir, from which the philolopher will perceive
nature drawing the materials of two dalles of com¬
pounds, the molt aCtive and ufeful in a great number of
her operations. From a conflderation of the faCts laid
down under this head, we are directed to a comprehenfive
view of the extraction, preparation, and purification, of
earths : the theory of the arts of the potter-, brickmaker.
See. the theory of cements and mortars: the reciprocal
combinations of earths by means of fire: the natural hif-
tory of Hones : the compound nature of earths and Itones:
the alteration of colours by means of alkalis : vitrifica¬
tion, and the art . of making glafs : the extraction and
purification of potafli and foda : the theory of alkaline
cauftics : fome points regarding putrefadion, See. See
the article Mineralogy.
THE NATURE OF COMBUSTIBLE BODIES.
Combuflible bodies are too various, too numerous, and
important in the phenomena they exhibit, and the com¬
binations they are inceffaritly entering into with each
other, and with the air, not to excite us to examine them
with care, and endeavour accurately to alcertain their
properties' and fpecific characters. In comprehending
under this name all fubffances capable of combining
more or lefs rapidly with oxygen, and difengaging from
it caloric and light, we fhould arrange them in two clafles;
fimple or indecompofed combuftibles, or fuch as cannot
be decompofed, and combuftibles more or lefs compound.
We call thole combuftibles fimple, which we are hitherto
unable either to decompofe, 01 co compote by the union
of different fubffances. With, their intimate nature we are
unacquainted. Sometimes they occur flngly in the mi¬
neral kingdom, or in one of the others ; but they are
found molt ufually combined two and two together. Such
are the diamond, hydrogen, fuiphur, phofphorus, carbon,
and the metals. Each of thefe lix genera muff be cou-
fidered feparately.
The diamond, is the hardeff of all the bodies that we
know. It is very remarkable for the power with which
it refraCts and decompofes light, from which Newton dif¬
covered that it was very combuflible. It is found native,
cryffallized in oCtaedra, dodecaedra, &c. exhibits fome
varieties differing in texture, denlity, and colour ; burns
with a perceptible flame, and is converted into vaperur
by burning. Its combination with oxygen is unknown.
Few fubffances aft upon it; and, if it were not cornbuf-
tible, it might be confidered as infufceptible of alteration.
We know no compound into which it enters as a confti-
tuent part ; and it feems of all bodies the lealt obedient
to chemical attraction.
Hydrogen, as before noted, is one of the principles
of water. With caloric and light it forms hydrogen gas,
fixteen times as light as air, in folublein molt fubffances,
capable on the other hand of diffolving fuiphur, phof¬
phorus, carbon, arfenic, oils, &c. and thus forming the
different
CHEMISTRY.
different fpecies of inflammable gas, formerly called fuj-
phurated, pholphorated, carbonated, arfeniated, oleagin¬
ous, Sec. hydrogen gas. It decompofes feveral metallic
oxyds, and acids with Ample and known radicals; im¬
parts to all the compounds into which it enters, whether
they be .combuftible or not, a contiderable refringent
power, which property led Newtoii to conjecture, that a
combuftible fubltance wa$ contained in water ; becomes
Axed in organized bodies, and forms one of the princi¬
ples of the mixed combuitibles they contain.
Sulphur, is a yellowilh lubllance, odorate, eledhic,
tranlparent and odftaedral, op a Ice and prifmatic, and fu-
fible. It is fulceptible of two kinds of combultion ; the
one flow, with a bine flame, and the' formation of ful-
phurous acid ; the other rapid, with a white flame, dur¬
ing which fulphuric acid is produced. It combines with
earths and alkalis; becomes ioluble when thus combined,-1
unites with metals, and forms l'ulphurous ores ; and exilts
in the earth in very large quantity, either alone, or com¬
bined with metal.
Phosphorus is a white, tranfparent, chryftallized,
lamellated, and extremely fuiible, fubltance. It burns
in two modes ; (lowly, in every temperature with which
we are acquainted, emitting a white flame and acrid
odour, and forming phofphorous acid ; rapidly, inatem-
perature of 1470, with a vivid and very brilliant flame,
without any perceptible odour, and forming phol'phoric
acid. It is never to be found pure in a native ftate, on
account of its extreme combuftibility ; unites with lul-
phur, and with metals; is Ioluble in hydrogen gas; takes
away oxygen from feveral metals, and Separates them
from acids, relloring their proper form and metallic
luftre ; and exifts more abundantly in. the mineral king¬
dom than in the animal, to which it was once exclufive-
ly attributed.
Carbon is the combuftible matter of coals, fuppofed
pure and ifolated from earths, alkalis, falts, & c. It is
combuftible in a great degree of heat; forms carbonic
acid when united with oxygen; has the ftrongelt attrac¬
tion for oxygen of any known fubltance, and deprives
all other burnt bodies of this principle; exilts in abun¬
dance in animals aiftl vegetables, conftituting almoft
wholly the folid bafis of the latter, and on that account
remaining, and preferving their form, after tippy are de¬
composed, cither l'pontaneoully, or by theadtion of ca¬
loric ; is foluble in alkalis, and hydfogen gas ; unites
with metals, forming with iron, in particular, iteel, and
carbure of iron, improperly called plumbago, lead ore, or
black lead ; and is found in each of the natural kingdoms.
Metals are well known for their great ponderoftty
and luftre : they are fufible, cryftallizable, and combuf¬
tible ; decompofe water and leveral acids ; unite with
Sulphur, phofphorus, carbon, and each other, at different
temperatures ; and in their Hate of oxyds, perform a dou¬
ble funftion. that of acids with earths and alkalis, and
that of falifiable bales with acids. This genus differs
from all that precede, particularly in the number of its
fpecies. To give a juft idea of thefe, of which there are
feventeen with which we are weil acquainted, and this
number will probably be Iriil farther increafed by new- re-
learches, we fhall divide this genus into five le&ions : the
firft comprifes brittle and acidinabie metals ; of which
there are three, arfenic, tungften, and molybdaena. The
fecond includes thofe which are brittle, and limply ca¬
pable of oxydation, of which we reckon live fpecies; co¬
balt, bifmuth, nickle, manganeSe, and antimony. The
third leftion contains the femi-dudtile and oxvdable me¬
tals, of which there are two; zinc and mercury. The
fourth Sedtion comprehends Inch metals as are perfectly
dudfile, and eafily oxydable, which are tin, lead, iron,
and copper : and the fifth, includes all thole that are per¬
fectly duCfile, but oxydable with difficulty, which are
filver, gold, and platina. As a diftinCt head is referved
for the moil important chemical properties of metals, it
will be fufficient here to exhibit briefly fome 1'peciiic dif¬
r59
ference of each of thefe bodies ; obferving, that the ap¬
pellations of fetni metals, imperfedl metals, tn\A perfedl me¬
tals, manifestly originating from the erroneous ideas of
alchemy, ought to be difcarded from the language of a
fcience that has any pretention to accuracy.
1. Arfenic is lamellated, of a bluifh grey colour, bril¬
liant and fragile; and burns with a blue frame, and a
fmell refembling that of garlic. 2. Tungften- is of a grey
white colour, ■ granulated, friable, almolt infufible, and
fcarcely foluble in acids, though extremely oxydable and
acidifiable by the operation of air and caloric. 3. Molyb-
dsena is in the ftate of powder, or grains, blackifh, Shin-
ing, agglutinated, fragile, very little fuiible, and by burn¬
ing becomes a white, volatile, prifmatic, and acidifiable
oxyd. 4. Cobalt is granulous, fine, of a roly white co¬
lour, fragile, pulverable, difficult of fufion, and becomes
blue when melted with glafs. 5. Bifmuth is in large la¬
minae, of a yellowilh white, brittle, eafily fufible, very
cryftallizable, and extremely oxydable. 6. Nickel is grey,
granulous, hard, a little fragile, extremely difficult to
lul'e, and affords a green oxyd by means of caloric and
air. 7. Manganeie is of a grey white colour, and fine
grain, brittle, very difficult to fufe, and of all metals
the molt combuftible in the air alone, fo that it changes
colour immediately on expofure to it, and is reduced to
a black dull in the courfe of a few days. It Ihould be
kept underneath alcohol, or oil, to prevent it from burn¬
ing. 8. Antimony is of a pure white, in large laminae,
brittle, hard, to fufe, and Sublimes on combultion in the
air into a white, cryftailized oxyd, which almoft adts the
part of an acid in uniting with alka.lis. 9. Zink is of a
blue -white colour, in large laminae, femi-fragile, in fome
degree malleable, eafy to fufe, the moft inflammable of
metals, burning, when red hot, with a beautiful yellow¬
ilh white flame, and powerfully decompoiing water, ra.
Mercury is fufible at 30° below o of Reaumur’s thermo¬
meter, and congeals at 31°; becomes a black oxyd.
(cethiops per fe) by mere divifion, or is extinguished by
this Simple procefs in every vifeous or confident matter
with which it is triturated, n. Tin is of a brilliant
white colour, foft, light, little, Sonorous, capable of be¬
ing Scratched by the nail, ver\ fuiible, very' combuftible,
and affords a white oxyd, which deftroys the transparency
ot glafs, and converts it into enamel. 12. Lead is of a
dull bluifh colour, heavy, foft, extremely fufible, and af¬
fords an oxyd the moft vitrifiable of all we know, and a
laf's of a yellow hue, refembling that, of a topaz. 13.
ron is white, fibrous, the nioft tenacious of metals, very
difficult to fufe, very combuftible, and the metal moft
attradied by the magnet. It readily decompofes water,
changes to a powder in the air, unites with a carbon, which
converts it into fteel, and is the only metal any way abun¬
dant in the two organic kingdoms. 1 4. Copper is of a
fine Shining red, very foft and dudtile, odorate, and poi-
fonous. It bums with a green flame, and affords brown,
blue, and green, oxyds, the laft of which is formed in
damp air. 1 5. Silver is of a pure and brilliant white, des¬
titute of fmell and tafte, very dudtile, not oxydable by
caloric and air, burning with a green ifh flame by the elec¬
tric Ihqck, growing black from the fumes of Sulphur, un¬
alterable by the air alone. 16. Gold is of a fine brilliant yel¬
low, extremely dudtile, lefs combuftible and leis oxydable
than Silver, and even lei 1 1 lefs alterable than it by the
contadt of air. It is convertable into a fine purple oxyd
by the cledtric (hock. 17. Platina is the lieavieft, molt
infufible, leaft combuftible, and leaf! alterable of all me¬
tals. It is of a grey white colour, poffeffes little brilli¬
ancy, and may at Some future period become one of the
molt valuable inlfruments of the arts.
Compound combuftible bodies are all fuch as refult
from a combination of feme of the preceding ones : thus
the Solutions of Sulphur, carbon, phofphorus, and arlenic,
in hydrogen gas, are compound inflammable gales : and
the combinations of Sulphur with phofphorus, of carbon,
with iron, of different metals with Sulphur, phofphorus.
i6o CHE M
and each other, are compound bodies. Such are aim oil
all the combuftibles we meet with in nature : it is the
province of art to feparate them from each other, and
exhibit them pure and ifolated. When we compare the
properties of compound combuftible bodies with thofe of
iimple combuftibles, we perceive, that the former fome-
times abforb oxygen with more avidity than if they were
alone, as many metallic fulphures, and alloys ; at other
times, on the contrary, we find them lefs ready to burn,
on account of the ftrong attraftion they poffels for each
other, which is the cafe in general with phofphorated
metals. There are even fome that are long unalterable
in the air, appearing to have loll by their intimate com¬
bination the property of being combuftible, which they
exert only when ftrongly heated;, as the carbure of iron,
which is even employed with fome l'uccefs to prevent iron
from contrafting ruft.
Hydrogen and carbon, very intimately united together
in the capillary tubes of vegetables, and frequently con¬
taining fmall portions of earths, alkalis, acids, and elpe-
cially oxygen, form bitumens, oils, and refins, which,
though they have a tendency to burn and feparate, pre-
ferve fome time the equilibrium, of their combination,
till a rapid increafe of temperature, accompanied with
the contaft of air or water, puts an end to this equili¬
brium, by il’olating their elements, and uniting them fe-
parately with cxygen. Accordingly the produfts of thefe
compound combuftibles are univerl'ally water and carbo¬
nic acid. It is the fame with alcohol, and with ether,
formed by modifications of the principles of vegetable
matter, which, in their ultimate analyfis, are nothing elfe
than combinations of hydrogen and carbon with more or
lefs oxygen and water.
This exhibition of the different fpecies of combuftible
bodies, and their principal cliarafteriitic properties, fhows
the part they aft in the phenomena of the globe. It
authoril'es us to divide almoll ail the productions of na¬
ture into two grand claffes, one of combuftible bodies,
the other of bodies already burnt. In the mafl'es and ac¬
tion of the former we difcern the caufes of inflammable
meteors, partial heat, volcanoes, the perpetual alterations
of the furface of the earth. See. in the exiftence of the
latter, we perceive the fourceof thenumberand diverfity
of acids, laline compounds, oxyds, and metallic falts,
which vary in a thoufand ways the appearance of ores,
their reciprocal decompofition, and their alterations by
the aftion of water, air, and light ; in fine, we difeover
in vegetables machines which nature has organized for
the purpofe of intimately combining feveral of thefe fub-
itances with each other, in order to form compounds more
fubfervient to its grand defigns, as they are lefs durable
and permanent. And hence we deduce the circumftan-
tial hiftory of the combuftion of eacli combuftible :ub-
llance in particular : the hiftory of foils impregnated
with fulphur, and of native fulphuric acid : the pheno¬
mena of natural inflammable gafes in quarries, mines,
the atinofphere, &c. the properties of earthy, alkaline,
and metallic, fulphures: the converfion ot fulphures into
lulphits andlulphats by the aftion of air and water : the
properties, extraction, and combinations of phofphorus ;
.alfo metallic pholphures the exiftence of native metallic
carb tires : the phenomena depending on the denfity,
weight, duftility, and fufibility, of metals : the properties
and ufes of alloys : the formation of fecondary ores from
native metallic falts : volcanoes, and lulphurous and ther¬
mal waters: bitumens;' the companion of fulphur, car¬
bon and Iimple combuftible bodies, with oils, & c.
THE FORMATION AND DECOMPOSITION OF ACIDS.
Since all acids refemble each other in their tafte, their
manner of giving a red colour to vegetable fubllances,
their tendency to combine with earths, alkalis, and me¬
tallic oxyds, and their property of attrafting, and being
attrafted powerfully, it was natural to prelume, as New¬
ton obferved, that they likewife refembled each otliev in
I S T R Y.
their intimate nature, and poffeffed fome homogeneal
principle : and chemical analyfis, by the help of the new
means it has in its power to employ, has eftablifhed this
as a truth beyond the poffibiiity of doubt.
As every acid contains oxygen, and lofes its acidity
exaftly in proportion as it is deprived of this principle,
we ought to confider acids as burnt or oxygenated fub-
ftances, which are akin to each other from the prefence
of the acidifying principle. There are two methods of
acquiring a knowledge of the nature of acids : one by
forming them, by compofing them from their conftituent
parts, in uniting with oxygen fuch lubftances as are ca¬
pable of becoming acid by an union with it : the other
by decompofing them, by Unburning them, in depriving
them of their oxygen by the aid of lubftances with which
this principle has great affinity. Confidered in the lafl-
mentioned viewy all known acids may be divided into
three claffes, namely, ill, Thofe which may be both com-
pofed and decompofed, of which our knowledge is moll
complete : ?,dly, Thofe which we can only compofe, be¬
ing incapable of decompofing them ; and with thefe alfo
we are well acquainted : jdly, Thofe which have neveryet
been either compofed, or decompofed ; the nature of which
remains altogether unknown, Since then, out of thirty
known fpecies of acids, as there are but three, ftriftly
fpeaking, which are in the lall predicament, or which we
can neither compofe nor decompofe, fo that we are ne-
ceffarily ignorant of their nature, there is no reafon why
we fhould not regard fubllances of this kind as accurate¬
ly diferiminated, and contemplate their general proper¬
ties and compofition.
All acids being compounds 'of oxygen with different
fubllances, the former principle is the caufe of their re-
femblance and common properties ; the latter, being
different in each, may ferve to charafterize each in par¬
ticular. For this reafon, thofe matters which are vari¬
able in acids are termed their radicals, or acidifiable prin¬
ciples. Thus all acids are combinations of radicals, or
acidifiable lubftances, different in each fpecies, with oxy¬
gen, which is the fame in all : whence it follows, that
their common properties, their charafters as acids, de¬
pend on oxygen ; their particular properties, their fpe-
cific charafters, arife from their radicals. The word
acid, indicating the general and identical nature of thefe
fubllances, forms their generical name, while the parti¬
cular name of the radical contained in each may with
propriety defignate each particular acid. Thus fulphur
is the radical of the acid we name fulphuric, phofphorus
that of the pkofphoric, carbon that of the carbonic , and fo
on. Tut, though this nomenclature enjoys the advantage
of exprefling the nature of each acid, we are unable to
employ it for all, becaufe the radicals of fome are un¬
known, and thofe of others are themfelves compounded
of feveral principles, and wmuld confequently require too
complicated appellations.
Acidifiable radicals may contain different quantities of
oxygen, and under this point of view' they poffels two
ftates of acidity. The firft is that, in which they contain
the leaft poffible quantity of oxygen to render them acid.
In this their acidity is commonly weak, and they adhere
but feebly to the bales with which they are capable of
forming falts. The modern methodical nomenclature
defignates this ftate of combination and acidity, by giv¬
ing the names of thefe weak acids the-termination ousi
Tftus we fay the lulphurous, nitrous, phofphorous, or
acetous, acid. The fecond ftate of acids is that, in which
they contain more oxygen, and in general are complete¬
ly laturated with it. In this they have all the fbrength
and attraftion they are capaple of poffeffing as acids, and
the modern nomenclature expreffes it by the termination
ic. Thus we fay the fulphuric, nitric, phofphoric, or
acetic, acid. With regard to the proportion of oxygen
united to acidifiable radicals, Hill greater latitude may be
given to the considerations prefented above. Each radi¬
cal may be contemplated in four ftates : ill, Containing
very
C H E M
very little oxygen, not ftifficient to impart to it the na¬
ture of an acid, and in this it is nothing more than an
oxyd : fuch is fulphur coloured red or brown, by expo-
fure to the air, and a degree of heat inadequate to produce
inflammation ; when it is oxyd of fulphur: 2dly, Con¬
taining- more oxygen than in the preceding cafe, and
enough to become an acid, though weak ; as in the lid-
phurous acid : 3dly, Poffefling ftill more oxygen than in
the fecond inftance, and having acquired powerful acid
properties ; fuch is the fulphuric acid : 4-thly, Conjoined
with a. larger dole of oxygen than is necefl'ary to conlli-
tute a powerful acid, an acid in ic ; when it is termed an
oxygenated acid, or even luperoxygenated.
From the coniiderations above enumerated, it follows,
that we have two modes of forming at will acids with
different proportions of oxygen. One is, to combine the
radicals with fitch determinate quantities of oxygen as
are necefl'ary to convert them into the date required, as
is done with fulphur, phofphorus, or arfenic.: the other,
to extract from acids containing the greateft poffible
quantity of oxygen, different proportions of this princi¬
ple, by means of combultible fubflances which abl'orb it
with great avidity. The latter method, founded on the
affinity of oxygen for different combultible fubflances, is
frequently employed with fuccefs for the complete de-
compofition of acids, by depriving them of all the oxygen
iheycontain. It is in this way, that acids inflame com-
budible fubflances. To produce this effeft it is fufficient
that the acids employed do not contain oxygen in a ftate
of folidity, and that the inflammable matter brought into
contaft with it will abl'orb it in a more folid ftate than
that in which it fubflfts in the acid. But thele conditions
being reqjuifite, inflammation by no means takes place in
all decompofitions of acids by combultible fubflances.
Hot charcoal is fuccefsfully uled to decompofe all acids
fufceptible of decompofition ; but it is not the only com-
bultible fubftance that will anl'wer the purpol'e ; for molt
metals, phofphorus, fulphur, and hydrogen in a dry and
folid ftate, as itexills in vegetable compounds, poflefs the
fame property.
All the acids, the fpecific nature of which is owing to
their particular radicals, as has been already faid, ma'y
be divided into four clafles, according to the nature of
their bafes being known or unknown, Ample or com¬
pound. The firft clafs includes acids with known and
Ample radicals, or fuch as are formed by the union of
indecompofable combultible fubflances with oxygen. Its
fpecies are the following : Sulphuric acid, nitric acid,
carbonic acid, phofphoric acid, arfenic acid, tungftenic
acid, and molybdenic acid. The fccond clafs comprifes
acids with radicals that are unknown, but ftrongly fuf-
pedted of being Ample. In it may be reckoned the mu¬
riatic acid, fluoric acid, and horacic acid. In the third
clafs may be ranked acids with binary compound radi¬
cals. Such are all the vegetable acids, the common ra¬
dical of which' is a compound of hydrogen and carbon.
In this clafs the fuccinic acid lhould alfo be placed. To
the fourth clafs belong all acids of which the radicals are
at leaft triple compounds. In this are comprehended the
animal acids, the radicals of which are combinations of
carbon, hydrogen, and azot. .
Not only is each of the clafles in the preceding fedtion
diftinguifnable by general charadters inherent in it, but
each individual acid alfo poffefles properties by which it
is charadterized, and which prevent its being confounded
with any other. And thefe properties may even be de¬
noted by Ample and eafy expreffions, by phrafes Amilar
to thofe which naturalilts have learnt from Linnaeus to
employ. A fketch of this method we fhall prefently
exhibit.
AH acids with Ample and known radicals are capable
of being decompofed by combultible bodies, which they
burn with more or lefs rapidity, and are thus reduced to
their radicals. It is by means of this decompofition,
that the nature of their radicals becomes known. We
Vox,. IV, No. 186.
[ S T R Y. 161
can alfo form them from their conftituent principles, by
uniting their radicals with oxygen. Acids with un¬
known radicals, which are fufpedted of being Ample fub-
ftances from ftrong analogy, have no other claffic charac¬
ter than thofe of being in fufceptible of decompofition
by means of combultible fubflances, and incapable of be¬
ing formed by art. Acids with binary radicals, or vege¬
table acids, are diftinguilhable by the following charac¬
ters. 1. They are all decompofable by a ftrong Are and
a fufficient addition of oxygen. 2. I11 this decompofition.
they afford water and carbonic acid, formed by the dis¬
junction of their hydrogen and carbon, each of which
unites feparatelv with a portion of the oxygen. 3. They
are decompofed fpontaneoufly and (lowly in a temperature
above 530, if diffolved in water. 4. They cannot be.
decompofed by any known combultible body, their radi¬
cal being compounded of two fubflances which have the
Itrongeft attradtion for oxygen of any with which we are
acquainted. 5. They are convertible into each other;
which is owing to the difference between them confining
folely in the proportion of their three conftituent prin¬
ciples.
Acids with ternary radicals, and thofe wdiich are ftill
more compound, or animal acids, though the leaft known
of all, poflefs fome properties which may be deemed claffic
charadters. Such are thofe of affording ammoniac when
decompofed by fire, and fur ni filing pruffic acid on the
proportion of their principles being changed. To thefe
claffic charadters their fpecific charadters may be added,
thus attempting a language analogous to that of the bo-
tanift and zoographer.
Acids of the firft clafs , or ‘with fimple and known radicals. — •
1. Sulphuric acid, formed of fulphur and oxygen by the
combuftion of fulphur, inodorous, twice as heavy as wa¬
ter, very cauftic, lefs volatile than water, affording ful-
phurous acid gas and fulphur, on being decompofed by
red-hot charcoal, metals, See. and forming fulphats with
earths, alkalis, and metallic oxyds.
2. Sulphurous acid, having a powerful flnell, very vo¬
latile, gafeous, deftrudtive of blue vegetable colours, and
removing Itains produced by thefe colours on white, gra¬
dually attradling oxygen from the air, and feveral acids
or oxyds, and forming fulphits with earthy and alka¬
line bafes.
3. Nitric acid, liquid, white, cauftic, of a ftrong and
naufeous fmell, formed of azot and oxygen, inflaming
fulphur, charcoal, zink, tin, and oils, yielding to com-
bullible bodies various portions of oxygen, and thus
giving birth to nitrous acid, nitrous gas, or nitrous oxyd,
aeltroying colours, burning and turning yellow vegetable
and animal l'ubftances, converting them into acids, de-
eompofing ammoniac, produced by putrilying animal
matter, forming nitrats with earths and alkalis, remain¬
ing (lightly united with metallic oxyds, and tending to
acidify them.
4. Nitrous acid, the fame as nitric acid, except in hav¬
ing a fmaller portion of oxygen, red or orange coloured
in the ftate of gas, very volatile, depriving vegetables of
colour, becolning blue and green on the addition of wa¬
ter, turning yellow nitric acid, to which it is united in
different proportions, yielding nitrous gas on the contadt
of combultible Jubilances, and forming nitrits with earths
and alkalis.
5. Carbonic acid, formed of twenty-eight parts of car¬
bon with feventy-two of oxygen, a gas heavier than air
and difplacing it, filling fubterraneous cavities, dilen-
gaging itfelf from liquors in a ftate of vinous fermenta¬
tion, extinguifliing lighted candles, killing animals, red¬
dening only light vegetable blues, precipitating chalk
from lime-water, re-dilfolving the chalk in the water,
mineralizing acidulous waters, baryt, lime, copper, iron,
and lead, in quarries and mines, forming carbonats with
earths, alkalis, and metallic o.xyds, decompofable by
phofphorus alone, and when it is united to alkaline bales,
particularly foda in the ftate of carbonat,
T 1 6. Phofphoric
J62 C H E M I
6. Phofphoric acid, compofed of pliofphorus and oxy¬
gen united by rapid and complete combuftion, liquid,
denfe, or folid, vitrifiable by means of fire, diffolving
iilex in the aft of vitrification, decompofable by carbon
which reftores it to the Hate of phofphorus, and forming
phofphats with earths, alkalis, and metallic oxyds.
7. Phofphorous acid, differing' from the phofphoric
only in containing lei's oxygen, volatile, odorous, elicit¬
ing oxygen from various bodies, and forming phofphits
with earthy, alkaline, and metallic bafes.
S. Arfenic add, formed of the metal called arfenic
and oxygen, fixed, fufible into a glafs, decompofable by
means of a large quantity of light and caloric, as well as
by feveral combuitible fubllances, and forming arfeniats
with earths, alkalis, and metallic oxyds. Oxyd of arfe¬
nic, being alfo capable of uniting with thefe bafes, may
be confidered as a fort of arfenious acid.
9. Tungftenic acid, compofed of the metal called tung-
ften and oxygen, a white or yeilowilh powder, fixed, in-
fufible, difficultly foluble, reducible to tunglfen by means
of hydrogen, carbon, &c. forming the native tungllat of
lime called lapis ponderofus, and the native tungllat of
iron, or wolfram of mineralogilts.
10. Molybdenic acid, compofed of the metal named
molybdena and oxygen, of a rough talle, metallic like
the two preceding fpecies, in a white powder, becoming
blue on the contaft of fuch fubllances as reduce it, and
in conlequence of the lofs of oxygen returning to the
Hate of molybdena.
Adds of the fecond clafs, or ‘with unknown radicals.—
There are three acids, the radicals of which are unknown,
though fulpefted to be fimple : the muriatic, fluoric, and
boracic.
1 . Muriatic acid, gafeous or fluid, of a pungent fmell,
unalterable by any known combullible fubftance, on the
contrary attfafting oxygen from feveral burnt bodies,
particularly from metallic oxyds, and thus becoming
oxygenated muriatic acid. The oxygenated muriatic acid
as remarkable for its greenilli yellow colour, its aftion on
the organs of animals, which it thickens and contrafts,
its properties of divelting vegetable fubllances of colour,
burning and inflaming moll combullible fubllances, and
forming with potalh a fait, which rapidly fets fire to heat¬
ed inflammable fubllances, and affords the pureli vital
air known.
2. Fluoric acid, gafeous, forming a very thick white
vapour in the air, corroding glafs, dilfolving filicious
earth, and forming with this earth a permanent gas, from
which water feparates a part of the filex.
• 3- Boracic acid, dry, cryllalized in hexxdral laminae,
fuiible into a glafs, poll'effing little talle, difficultly loluble,
melting withVilex, having very feeble affinities, and re-
iigning earthy or alkaline bales to almoil all other acids.
Acids of the third clafs, or with binary radicals. — Acids
with binary, mixed, or compound, radicals, belong parti¬
cularly to the vegetable kingdom, and are formed by the
union of carbonated hydrogen, or hydrogenated carbon
with oxygen in different proportions; which accounts,
as has already been laid, for their reciprocal converlion
into each other. Thefe acids being pretty numerous,
and capable of becoming Hill more l'o by daily difcoveries,
we have divided them into five genera, in which regard
is had to their nature and formation. The firll genus
includes the pure acids formed in vegetables, reckoning
among(l thele the fuccinic acid, which is manifeltly of
vegetable origin. In this there are five fpecies : the fuc-
ciuic, citric, gallic, malic, and benzoic, acids. The fecond
comprifes vegetable acids perfeftly formed, but partly fa-
turated with potalh. Of thefe, which are termed acidules,
there are two fpecies, the tartarous, and oxalic. In the
third genus, we clafs the particular acids formed by the
agency of the nitric acid, and the precipitation of its
oxygen upon vegetable fubllances. We have yet but
one diltincl fpecies in this genius, the camphoric acid j
S T R Y.
though the oxalic and malic acids are frequently formed
•by treating vegetable fubllances with the nitric acid. In
the fourth genus, we place the acids formed in vegetables
treated with fire. Such are the pyromucous, pyrolige-
nous, and pyrotartarous acids. The fifth genus com¬
prehends vegetable acids produced by fermentation, of
which we are acquainted with only one, the acetous.
The following are the fpecific charafters of the twelve
acids here enumerated.
1. Succinic acid, difengaged and fublimed from heat¬
ed amber, of a ftrong bituminous fmell, oleaginous and
inflammable, volatile, cryllallizable in the lhape of nee¬
dles, forming permanent cryllallizable falts, particularly
with metallic oxyds, and adhering more forcibly to the
three alkaline earths than to alkalis.
2. Citric acid, cryllallizable in rhomboidal laminae, not
convertible into oxalic acid by means of the nitric, hav¬
ing more affinity to earths than to alkalis, and fpontane-
oully decompofable in water, and by the aftion of fire.
3. Gallic acid, abounding in galls, cryltaliized in little
gray or yeilowilh needles, flyptic, precipitating iron
black from its folutions, reducing metallic oxyds united
to other acids, and convertable into oxalic acid by means
of the nitric.
4- Malic acid, abounding in apples, not cryllallizable,
convertible into oxalic acid by means of the nitric, and
forming at the fame time with the malic acid, and even
before it, in vegetables treated by the nitric acid.
5. Benzoic acid, obtained from benzoin, llorax, ballam
of Peru, vanilla, and cinnamon, by means of heat, cryf-
tallizable into comprefled prifms, of an aromatic fmell
when warmed, fufible by a gentle fire, volatile, inflam¬
mable, little foluble in water, foluble in the nitric acid,
but not decompofable by' it.
6. Tartarous acidule, formed of tartarous acid part¬
ly faturated with potalh, exiiling in wine, cryllallizable,
decompolable by' fire, affording a confiderable quantity
of carbonic acid and oil, and leaving behind much car-
bonat of potalh, yielding alfo on diffillation pyrotarta¬
rous acid, little foluble, decompofable in water, forming-
triple falts with alkalis and metallic oxyds, and becoming-
very foluble by- the addition of borax or boracic acid.
The tartarous acid, obtained from the acidule, is cryf-
tailizable in needles interwoven amongft each other, un¬
alterable in the air, very foluble, forming anew the aci¬
dule by the addition of a little potalh, decompoling th«
fulphats, nitrats, and muriats of potalh and foda, till
they reciprocally form acidules, and convertible into
oxalic acid by means of the nitric.
7. Oxalic acidule, formed of oxalic acid partly fatu¬
rated with potalh, extracted from the juice of forrel, cryf-
tallized in parallelopipeds, little decompofable by fire,
affording no oil, little foluble, and forming triple falts
with earths and alkalis. The oxalic acid extrafted from
it is very foluble, and very cryllallizable, attrafts lime
from all other acids, perfeilly refembles that which is
formecj from all vegetable fubllances by the contaft of
nitric acid, and is the lead, decompoiabie and molt oxy¬
genated of the vegetable acids.
8. Camphoric acid, produced by diftilling camphor
with nitric acid, cryllallizable in parallelopipeds, form¬
ing perfeftly' cryllallizable falts with earths and alkalis,
and not attrafting lime from all the other acids as oxalic
acid does. This acid is very little known.
9. Pyrotartarous acid, a modification of the tartarous
acid produced by fire, of an empyreumatic fmell, and
burnt colour, very rarefiable andfwelling up greatly with
caloric, not cryllallizable, and forming with earthy and
alkaline bafes, falts different from thole afforded by the
tartarousacid. With this acid we arebut little acquainted.
10. Pyromucous acid, formed by the diffillation of
gums, fugar, or feculae, pofleffing very powerfully the
agreeable fmell of a lozenge, volatile, colouring vegetable
and animal fubllances red, and decompofable by a ftrong
fire. This alfo is little know'll,
31. Pyro-
CHEMISTRY.
ii. Pyroligneous acid, extra&ed from wood by diftil-
lation, of a pungent fetid fmell, not cryftallizable, de-
compofable by a ftrong fire, volatile, forming peculiar
lalts with earths, alkalis, and metallic oxyds, and having
particular attractions for thefe bafes, but in other re-
i'pefts we are as little acquainted with it as with the two
preceding acids.
u. Acetous acid, formed by the fermentation of wine,
on which account it is called vinegar, of an agreeable
fmell and tafte, volatile and liquid, decompofable by a
ftrong fire, capable of being furcharged with oxygen
when diftilled with metallic oxyds, and thus becoming
acetic acid, or radical vinegar, which is more acrid and
odorous than the acetous acid, inflammable, and mixed
with alkohol.
Acids of the fourth clafs , or avith ternary radicals. — Acids
with ternary compound radicals, which were fpoken of
above as formed in general of carbon, hydrogen,- and
azot, united with oxygen, appertain more efpecially to
animal fubftances. With thefe we are Hill lefs acquaint¬
ed than with the preceding acids : but recalling here to
the reader’s mind, that they all furnifh ammoniac on be¬
ing decompofed by the a&ion of fire, and pruflic acid on
a change in the proportion of their principles, we lhall
remark that the pruflic acid feems to be to thefe acids in
general what the oxalic is to vegetable acids, and add,
that, on converting animal fubftances into oxalic acid
by the agency of nitric acid, pruflic acid is conftantly
formed during the operation, and evolved in the ftate of
vapour. There are feven animal acids known, all of
which appear to belong to this clafs of compounds,
namely, the laftic, faccholadfic, febacic, lithic, formic,
bombic, and pruflic, acids. In each let us leek for a few
charadieriftic properties.
r. Laftic acid, formed, with a little acetous acid, in
milk fpontaneoufly foured, net cryftallizable, foluble in
alcohol, affording on diftillation an acid analogous to
the pyrotartarous, forming deliquefeent faits with earthy
and alkaline bales, and decompoling alkaline acetits.
2. Saccholadtic acid, precipitating as a white powder
from oxalic acid formed by fugar of milk and nitric acid,
little fapid, fcarcely at all foluble, decompofable by fire,
when a fait refembling benzoin in fmell iublimes from
it, and forming cryftallizable faits with alkalis. This is
very little known.
3. Sebacic acid, obtained from fat by the action of
fire, feparated from it alfo by alkalis and lime with the
afliftance of a ftrong heat, liquid, white, fmoking, very
acrid in tafte and fmell, forming cryftallizable and fixed
faits with earth and the alkalis, decompofing muriat of
mercury, and decompofable by a ftrong heat.
4. Lithic acid, exifting in human urine, forming the
ftone in the bladder, dry, cryftallized in flat needles, al-
moft infipid and infoluble, in part volatile, decompofable
by a ftrong heat, affording ammoniacal carbonat and
pruflic acid by the agency of fire, forming a beautiful red
iolution with nitric acid, foluble in caultic alkalis, and
precipitating of a gridelin or reddifli colour from the
urine of perlons labouring under fever.
5. Formic acid, obtained from ants by diftillation or
expreffion with water, reddening blue flowers while in
the living infeff, flying off in a very highly odorous va¬
pour, in fmell analogous to mufk, killing animals in this
form of gas capable of being employed for the fame do-
meftic purpofes as vinegar, decompofable by a ftrong
fire, taking oxygen from oxygenated muriatic acid, fre¬
quently ftronger than fulphuric acid, and forming cryf¬
tallizable and not deliquefeent faits with earth and alkalis.
6. Bombic acid, contained in a relervoir near the anus
of the cryfalis of the filk-worm, extra&ed from this re-
fervoir either by expreffion or by means of alcohol, min¬
gled with a brown oil and a gum while in the worm, li¬
quid, of an amber yellow colour, decompofable fponta¬
neoufly, and affording pruflic acid by means of diftilla¬
tion and nitric acid. In its combinations it is unknown.
163
7. Pruflic acid, faturating iron and colouring it in Pruf-
fian blue, obtained at prefent by the diftillation of blood,
or the action of nitric acid on albumen, gluten, animal
fibre, See. and difengaged in proportion as oxalic acid is
formed, remarkable for a noxious fetid- fmell, analogous
to that of bitter almonds, very decompofable by a ftrong
fire, and then affording ammoniac, fufceptible of the
form of gas, taking metallic oxyds from a great number
of other acids, capable of being artificially formed by the ■
union of hydrogen, carbon, azot, and oxygen, little acid
in its tafte, and containing, as far as appears, very little
oxygen.
It follows, from what has been advanced in the pre¬
ceding feftions, that if acids be divided into two claffes,
diftinguifhed by having fimple or compound radicals,
they will be found to differ principally in this circum-
ftance, that thofe with fimple radicals are not convertible
into each other, becaufe the properties of one fimple ra¬
dical, fuiphur for example, vary much from thofe of an¬
other, fuch as pholphorus, whence it would be neceflary
to begin with converting thefe radicals into each other,
which is far beyond the power of art.' The acids of the
other clafs, on the contrary, being formed in general of
a bafe compofed of hydrogen, carbon, and azot, united
with oxygen, appear to differ from each other only in the
proportions of the two or three principles which enter
into the compofition of their radicals, and of the oxygen
united with thefe, have a tendency to undergo inceflant
changes in their compofition, efpecially from variation
of temperature, humidity, See. and fpontaneoufly pals in¬
to different ftates. Thus, from the mere efforts of vege¬
tation, plants contain different acids at different periods
of their growth : and thus folutions of vegetable acids
in water (hange, alter their nature, and ultimately yield
a certain quantity of carbonic acid and water, as they
arrive at the laft ltage of decompofition.
If we attend to thefe fafts, it is ealy to perceive that
there ftill remain to be dilcovered, not only the nature
of feveral acids, with the compofition of which we are
unacquainted, but alfo, perhaps, a conliderable number
of new acids, in plants and animais. For among the
productions of thefe organized beings, the principles of
which we have only begun to- inveftigate, we are far
from having exhaufted all the polfible combinations of
carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen, as the mod fuper-
ficial calculation will demonftrate. To this order of in-
veltigation and difeovery, we muft refer the examination
of the acids indicated in cork, grey-peale, and leveral
other vegetable matters, as well as thofe of the gaftric
juice, the coagulum of the blood, cruoric acid, &c. It
wall be perceived too, from the l'ucceeding leCtion, that
moft burnt metals feem to enter into the clafs of acids,
and comport themfelves as thefe faits, in a great number
of combinations : fo that acids appear to be the moft
numerous of all bodies, and perform the principal parts
in the chemical alterations, which both fimple and com¬
pound fubftances are deftined inceflantly to undergo.
From the foregoing confiderations we are naturally led
to the artificial formation of fulphuric acid, by the com- -
bullion of fuiphur in the great: the dilcharging of co¬
lour from white linens and Huffs, by means of the ful-
phureous acid : the new art of bleaching, by means- of
the oxygenated muriatic acid : the theory of the aqua
regia of the ancient chemifts : the art of engraving on
glafs, by the fluoric acid : one part of the theory of the
formation of artificial nitre-pits : the exiftence and for¬
mation of the known native acids : the influence of acids
in mineralization : the extraftion and purification of ve¬
getable acids and acidules : the fpontaneous formation,
and deftrudtion of vegetable acids : their reciprocal con-
verfion into each other, by vegetation, fermentation, Sec.
THE UNION OF ACIDS WITH EARTHS AND ALKALIS.
All acids unite with alkalis and the alkaline earths,
without being decompofed. The combinations thus form¬
ed.
s&4- C II E M
ed, have beer, called neutral, middle, compound, or fe-
condary, falts. To the firft two of thefe names they have
no claim, unlefs when they are neither acid nor alka¬
line : the other two are more accurate, and of greater
utility. All thefe frits are readily made by art; and na¬
ture exhibits a conliderable number of them, particu¬
larly of thole the radicals of which are limple. Minera¬
logy is continually making new acquifitions in this branch
of knowledge, by the analylis of minerals, which alone
is capable of unfolding to us their intimate nature.
Every compound fait ought to have a double name, one
branch of which (hould indicate its acid, the other its
earthy or alkaline bafe. The f miner has two different
terminations announcing the date of the acid. Words
ending in at are employed when the fait contains an
acid iaturated with oxygen, which is denoted by the
termination ic : thus nitrats are formed by the nitric
acid: and words ending in it, imply feeble acids, not
fit a rated with oxygen; for which, as has been already
obferved, we ufe the termination ous ; thus the com¬
pound of the nitrous acid are nitrits.
As there are thirty-four kinds of acids known, and
feven earthy or alkaline bales, which may be united to
form compound falts, the number of thele falts might be
eftimated at two hundred and thirty-eight; but fuch a
calculation would be far from exaCt ; for, :ft, There are
only few acids capable of combining with filex ; zdly,
There are others which cannot unite with certain earthy
bafes, on account, of their weaknefs, or with ammoniac
without decompoiing it; 3d ly. There are feveral acids
which may be united to the fame bafes in three ways, or
remain at three different points of faturation with thele
bales ; namely, with excels of acid, with excels of bafe,
and exactly neutralized. Thus we are far from being
able to determine with accuracy the number of earthy
and alkaline compound falts; becatife we are far from
having fufiiciently examined all thele combinations, to
attain a.perfeft knowledge of them, and allure ourfelves
whether they be not fuiceptible of feveral degrees of fa¬
turation, &c. All the acids polfelfmg different eleCfive
attractions or affinities for each alkaline or earthy bafe,
it is necelfary to be fully acquainted with the whole of
thele refpe&ive affinities, before we can have a complete
knowledge of compound falts ; and, as a very few only
of thefe affinities have yet been determined with accu¬
racy, we are far from polfeffing the general mafs of
faCls that relate to this order of bodies. Indeed, one-
tenth of thele combinations has not yet been duly in-
veftigated.
To begin the hiftory of compound falts methodically,
we ffiould divide them into genera and fpecies, and fix
their generic and fpecific characters. As this branch of
the fubjeCt has not yet much occupied the attention of
chemilts, a (light (ketch of it is all that can be given ;
though, in the prefent (late of fcience, it may be elfen-
tial to the enunciation of chemical properties. There
are two methods of dividing compound falts, to which
recourfe might be had ; the one founded on their acids,
the other on their bafes : at prefent, however, it is from
the acids only we can eftablilh genera comprehending
the whole of the falts, for they alone are capable of fur-
nifning generic characters ; the influence of the bafes on
the properties of thefe compounds, not being fufficienfly
known, to enable us to confider thefe earthy and alka¬
line fubltances, as the heads of the generical divilions.
Thus we may reckon thirty-live genera of compound
falts, according to the number and name of the acids.
But each of thefe genera (hould be confidered with re-
fpeCt to its difcriminative characters, or thofe qualities
which are fufticient to diitinguilh it, and give an accu¬
rate idea of its difference from all others. For this pur-
pofe, out of the properties difplayed by it, one, if pof-
fible, or at molt two or three, (hould be feleCted, of pro¬
minent features, to conftitute an ellential character of
z
: S T R Y.
each genus. Fourcroy has affumed the following 'clafii-
fication of thefe thirty-five genera :
Genus I. Sulphats : Decompofable by charcoal, &c.
into ful phu res.
Genus II. Sulphits: Yielding the fineil of burning
fulphur on the contaCt of almoft all acids, with effervef-
cence.
Genus III. Nitrats : Afcending combultible bodies
at different temperatures, and almoft ail of them reduci¬
ble to their bafes by .the aClion of lire.
Genus IV. Nitrits-. Decompofable by weak acids,
which feparate from it red nitrous vapour.
Genus V. Carbonats: Leaving the characters of
their bales more or lei’s prominent; and producing with
all acids a brifk and fenfibie effervefcence, till their car¬
bonic acid is completely evolved.
Genus VI. Phosphats: Decompofable mediately, of
immediately, by charcoal, which feparates from them the
phofporus.
Genus VII, Phosphits : All decompofable immedi¬
ately by charcoal, which feparates from them the phof-
phorus ; and emitting vapours on the contaCt of fulphu-
ric acid, &c.
Genus VIII. Arseniats : Affording, on the contaCt
of red hot charcoal, the linell and white vapour of arfe-»
nic ; and not decompofable by acids alone, unaffilted by
a double affinity.
Genus IX. Arsenits : The arfenious acid is fepa-
rated and precipitated from their folutions by the con¬
taCt ot all the acids, even of the arfenic acid.
Genus X. Tung stats : Turning yellow on the ad¬
dition of nitric or muriatic acid.
Genus XI. Molybdats : Not yet diftinguilhable till
the molybdenic acid is feparated from them by other acids,
and in confequence of the characters exhibited by the
molybdenic acid.
Genus XII. Muriats : Affording muriatic acid by
means of concentrated fulphuric acid, and oxygenated
muriatic acid when aCted upon by the qitric.
Genus XIII. Oxygenated Muriats: Accending
all combultible bodies at a lower temperature than they
are kindled by nitrats, with a more vivid flame, and re¬
maining in the ftate of muriats after the combuftion is
ended.
Genus XIV. Fluats : Yielding a vapour that cor¬
rodes glafs, on the contaCt of concentrated fulphuric acid;
Genus XV. Borats: Fufi’ole, with or without repa¬
ration of their bafes ; and affording, when another acid
is united with their folution, boracic acid in foliated
cryftals.
Genus XVI. Succinats : Thefe are not to be known
or characterized but by decompoiing them, and obferv-
ing their acid : molt of them retain the fmell of burnt
amber.
Genus XVII. Citrats: Not fufiiciently known for us
to find in them generic characters : to diitinguilh them,
the citric acid muff be l’eparated by the molt powerful
mineral acids.
Genus XVIII. Gallats : All ftrongly characterized
by their property of precipitating iron black from its lo-
lutions, and partly reducing the oxyds of filver, gold,
and mercury, in feparating them from tire nrenftrua in
which they are diffolved.
Genus XIX. Malats : Almoft all deliquefeent : not
to be known but by obtaining their acid feparately by
the aid of mineral acids.
Genus XX. Benzoats: Afcertainable on difeerning
the fmell of the benzoic acid, feparated by acids of greater
power.
Genus XXI. Tartrits : Sufficiently ftriking charac-
teriftics for diltinguilhing thefe, are to be found in their
tendency to compofe triple falts, and acidules lei's foluble
than either the pure acid, or the neutral falts which the
tartarous acid forms with the fame bafes.
Genus
C H £ M I
Genus” XXII. Oxalats : May be characterized by
their tendency to form acidules of difficult folution, and
their property of decompofing all calcareous falls.
Genus XXIII. Camphorats : Too little known to
have generic characters affigned them : they are to be
diftinguifhed by the prefence of tlie camphoric acid, and
the recognition of its properties, when leparated.
Genus XXIV. Pyromucits : Similarly circumftanced
with camphorats.
Genus XXV. Pyrouig nits : The fame may be faid
of thefe.
Genus XXVI. Pyrotartrits : Thefe rank with the
three preceding genera.
Genus XXVII. Ac tT at s : Yet too little diftinguifh¬
ed from acetits : evolving, when decomposed by mineral
add, a very Itrong and pungent white vapour.
Genus XXVIII. Acetits : All recognizable by their
acid difengaged by means of {harper acids.
Genus XXIX. Lactats: Very little known: their
acid, leparated by. others, can alone characterize them.
Genus XXX. Saccholats: As the laCtats : unknown.
Genus XXXI. Sebats: Emitting the white vapour and
acrid fmell of febacic acid on the contaCt of the Itrong eft
mineral acids. -
Genus XXXII. Lithiats : The weakeft of all falts
in their attractions, being decompolhble even by the car¬
bonic acid.
Genus XXXIII. Formiats: Very little known, and
recognizable only by means of their acid.
Genus XXXIV. Bombiats : Similarly circumftanced
with the formiats.
Genus XXXV. Prusstats : Completely characterized
by their property of forming Pruffian blue with folutions
•of iron.
To determine the fpecific characters of nearly two
hundred and forty-five fpecies contained in thefe thirty-
five genera, they would require to be profoundly ftudi-
ed, and in this refpeCt fcience is yet but little advanced.
While our knowledge is thus defective, it is of import¬
ance to indicate at leaft the path we ought to purfue, to
complete the hiftory of thefe compounds, and to afcer-
tain with.precifion the method of inveftigating their pro¬
perties. Each compound earthy or alkaline fait prefents
to our obfervation, ill. Figure, and the varieties of that
figure. This ought to be defcribed geometrically : the
inclination and degrees of its angles, the primitive for¬
mation of the cryftals, the interior form, their diffeftion,
and the laws of decreafe which determine their varieties,
fiiould be detailed, zdly. Its exiftence by art or nature,
with a comparifon of the native and artificial fait, jdly,
Tafte. 4tbly, The aftion of fire; whether it be null,
filling, vitrifying, fubliining, or decompofing, See. 5thly,
That of light. 6thly, The influence of the air; whether
it be null, or impart water to the cryftals, or elicit water
from them. 7thly, The union with water, the quantity
neceflary to difl’olution at different temperatures, the ca¬
loric abforbed or evolved, the cryftallization produced
by refrigeration or evaporation. Stilly, The attraction
of earths which modify the fait, deccmpole it, produce
no change in it, or unite with it to form a triple fait.
9 1 h 1 y , The effeft of alkalis on it; whether null, decoin-
pofing, or fometimes combining with it, fo that a triple
fait is formed, lothly, The comparative aftion of acids
different from that which it contains, decompofing the
fait, changing its nature, or producing in it no altera¬
tion. nthly, The operation of other neutral falts on
it; which may produce a complete union, forming a
triple fait; a double decompofition, by an interchange
of acids and bafes ; a precipitation, in confequence of
their attraction for water; or no alteration whatever,
iathly, The diffolubility or indiffolubility of the fait in
alcohol. 1 3thiy, Its alterabiiity or unalterability by
by means of charcoal, which may difeompofe its acid,
or leave it untouched, iqthly, The influence of vegetu-
Vol, IV. No. 1 86;
S T R Y. 165
tion and fermentation on the fait. 15th, and finally, Its
aftion on the animal economy.
If all thefe queftions were anfwered with precifion, in
the prefent ftate of chemiftry, the hiftory of earthy and
alkaline compound falts would not only be complete, but
would throw confiderable light on various phenomena of
nature and art, which ftili remain plunged in great obfeu-
rity. Some faline combinations of an acid with two bafes,
particularly magnefia and ammoniac, are already known :
thefe compounds bear the name of trifules, or triple falts ;
but a far greater number exifts, of which we are not fuf-
ficiently aware, and which demand all the attention
that can be paid them by che miffs'. The earth conceals,
both at its fufface and in its ftiperficial cavities, faline
compounds differing from thole which art produces by
the limultaneous exiftence of two bafes, or even of two
acids: borat of lime and borat of magnefia have already
been found cryftallized together in cubic quartz, phol-
phat of lime, and fluat of lime, in the earth of manr.it-
rcch and the eftremadura ftone, Sec. Thefe data luctei: -
fully lead to the knowledge of native falts: the cryftal¬
lization and purification of ufeful falts : the phenomena
of folutions : the precipitation and preparation of alumin,
magnefia, &c. the attraftion of lime, potafli, foda, and
ammoniac, for acids : the formation cf neutral falts by
nature: all the details of halotechny: the preparation of
the nitric, muriatic, boracic, and leverai other acids.
THE OXYDATION AND DISSOLUTION OF METALS.
Metals have already come under confideratioir in
page 159, as indecompof'ed or Angle combuftible bo¬
dies ; and have been charafterized by their molt linking
properties. But thefe general obfervations. are not fufli-
cient: the important parts performed by thefe fubftan-
ces, in the phenomena of nature and the proceffes of the
arts, require, that they fnouid. be feparately examined,
and with fufficient minutenefs to enable us to appreciate
the whole of their influence. Though metals are capa-
b!e of uniting in their metallic ftate with each other,
with fulphur, with phofphorus, with carbon, and with
combuftible fubftances in general, it is much more com¬
mon to fee them combined with oxygen previous to their
union with other bodies ; or, in other words, for them
to enter into the greater number of compounds of which
they conftitute a part, it is neceflary, that they firft unite
with oxyen, or be converted into the ftate of burnt bo¬
dies. Accordingly, all the lingular phenomena difplayed
by metals in their combinations, and the changes of form
they undergo, are'owing to their attraftion for oxygeii,
and the different proportions in which they contain this
principle. Though there are various circumftances under
which metals may be united with oxygen, they may be
reduced in general to three. The firft is the contaft of
air, afiifted by caloric ; the fecond is owing to the decom¬
pofition of water ; the third, to that of acids. In this
triple view the oxydation and diffplution of metals are
here to be cohfidered.
All metals heated in the air, and railed to a tempera¬
ture more or lefs high, are fuf'ceptible of burning with
a vivid flame, great heat, and a true deflagration, either
previous or fubfequent to their entering into fufion ;
thus they ablorb oxygen in a ftate of greater or lefs fo-
lidity : thofe which oxydate flowly, and without percep¬
tible inflammation, equally difengage light and caloric
from the vital air, hut' in fo fmall a quantity at a time,
that they are not rendered fenfible to our organs. Ele¬
vation of temperature favours the abforptiOn of the oxy¬
gen of the atmofphere by metals, and renders the com¬
bination of this principle with thefe combuftible bodies
more folid. While there are fome metals which never
burn in the air, except at a very high temperature, as
gold, lilver, and platina, there are others that burn at all
temperatures, even the loweft, and with great prompti¬
tude j as munganefe, which oxydates, and falls into pow-
U. u dcr.
1 66
CHEMISTRY.
der, in a few hours, on the contact of air fevcral degrees
below the freezing point. Some, as iron, copper, lead,
burn flowly, and in the courfe of feme months, in the
air, even though cold. All metals increafe their weight
during this operation, which does not take place without
the contaft of air, and confequently abl'orb a principle,
the oxygen of the atmofphere, without lofing any one.
Neither the name of calcination, which was given to this
phenomenon, nor that of metallic calces, can be retain¬
ed ; but inftead of thefe have been fubftituted the terms
of combultion and oxydation for the operation, and of
metallic oxyds to denote the metals thus burnt. The
colours which metals difplay in burning, or with which
their flame is tinged, appear to be owing to the diflolu-
tion of the metallic molecules in the light that is evolv¬
ed. Thus copper yields a green flame, &c.
Not only do all metals compared with each other ab-
forb different quantities of oxygen to fatiirate them in
their combultion by the contaft of air, but each metal
confidered feparately ablbrbs different proportions, and
flops at various points of oxydation, according to the
degree of temperature to which it is railed. Thus tin,
lead, copper, iron, change colour and aflume the tints
of the rainbow, at the firfl: degree of Are to which they
are expofed in con t aft with the air : lead firfl: becomes
a grey oxyd, next yellow, and laltly red : mercury poffes
from black to white, from white to yellow, and from
yellow to red : iron, at firfl: a black oxyd, becomes next
green, then brown, and ultimately white: copper is at
rirll: a brown oxyd, from which it changes to blue, and
its iaft degree of oxydation imparts to it a green colour.
All metals differ in their attradfion for oxygen. From
fome, as gold, filver, &c. oxygen is elicited by means of
light almolt alone, or affifted with a very final! portion
of caloric ; others, as mercury, require for its reparation
a great degree of lire, and much light ; while the greater
number do not part with this principle, merely by the
intervention of light and caloric. To decompofe oxyds
of the lafl: defeription, they muff be heated with char¬
coal, w liich attradts from them their oxygen. It is ow¬
ing to this diverfity of attraftive power for oxygen, that
fome metals are deprived of it by others, as filver and
gold are by almolt all the reft, mercury by copper, cop-
} er by iron, &c. We are not yet perfedtly acquainted
with all thele degree's of attradfion, but the prelent date
of our knowledge indicates the following order of the
metals, beginning with that of which the attradfion for
oxygen is molt powerful : Manganele, zink, iron, tin,
copper, mercury, lilver, gold.
Various metals decompole water, and this the more
fenflbly and rapidly the higher their temperature is raif-
ed, becaufe then the abundant quantity of caloric em¬
ployed more forcibly attradts and dilfolves the hydrogen.
Thus iron decompofes wrater with great rapidity when
it is of a white heat, though it requires a confiderable
time toeffeft its decompofition at the higheft temperature
our atmofphere ever attains. Iron, zink, tin, and anti¬
mony, appear to be capabie of decompofing water : it is
probable, too, that manganefe, and even fome other me¬
tallic jubilances, are equally capable1 of effefting this
purpofe. This decompofition is attributable to a ftronger
attradfion for oxygen than hydrogen poffeffes : whence
it follows, that hydrogen completely decompofes the ox¬
yds of thofe which do not decompofe water. But it is
requifite here to diftinguifh the different degrees of oxy¬
dation: for the oxyd of iron highly oxydated, or oxy-
dated brown, is partly decompolcd by hydrogen, and
reverts to the ftate of black oxyd, becaufe iron is capable
of eliciting oxygen from water only to that degree which
oxydates it black, and beyond this degree of oxydation
decompofes it no longer. All metals capable of decom¬
pofing water effeft this operation with more eale and ra-
pklity, when affifted by the contaft of a fubftance which
has a great tendency to unite with their oxyds. Fre¬
quently even metals, like other combuffible bodies,
•which alone would not decompofe water, are rendered
capable of it by the prefence of fome other lubliance,
which afts by a predilponent affinity. Thus almolt all
metals are enabled to effeft the decompofition of water
by means of acids.
Metallic oxyds have this peculiarity in their combina¬
tions, that they feem, with regard to acids, to perform
the functions of alkalis, or earthy and alkaline bales;
though, on the other hand, they are capable of uniting
with earths and alkalis, as if they were a fort of acids.
Of the latter, indeed, there are fewer than the former;
and it is obfervable, that they which faturate alkalis in
the manner of acids, are in general thofe to which oxy¬
gen molt powerfully adheres, as antimony, lead, iron,
and manganele. It has already been laid above, that
that there are three metals which are truly acidifiable.
Metals cannot be diffolved by acids without being pre-
vioufly oxydated : for this reafon, fuch metallic oxyds
as are foluble in acids, diffolve in them flowly, and with¬
out effervefcence ; while metals themfelves cannot be
diffolved in the lame menftruum, without motion and
effervefcence being produced. The effervefcence occa-
fioned by the diffolution of metals arifes from this, that,
in abforbing oxygen, they take it from a principle which
affumes the form of gas, or eiaftic fluid. This principle
proceeds either from the water, or from the acid, em¬
ployed in the procefs, according as the one or the other
is decompofed ; and fometimes it originates from both,
when both are decompofed at the fame time by the me¬
tal. Sulphuric acid thus decompofed by metals, when
in a concentrated ftate, gives out fulphureous gas; and
nitric acid, nitrous gas. Sulphuric acid diluted with
water, greatly facilitating the decompofition of the aque¬
ous fluid by means of metals, evolves in this procefs hy¬
drogen gas : this is eminently the cafe in the diilblution
of iron or zink by dilute fulphuric acid. The phofpho-
ric acid afts nearly in the fame manner as the lulphuric
with metals. Nitric acid is not only decompofed by
feveral metals, but alfo admits the decompofition of wa¬
ter at the fame time. For this it fuffices, that the metal
diffolved in it be extremely greedy bf oxygen : fuch is
particularly tin. In this cafe, the hydrogen of the water,
uniting with the azot of the nitric acid, forms ammo¬
niac; for which reafon thefe foiutfons afford no gas, and
contain ammoniacal nitrat. Hence we underlbmd how
moft folutions of the white metals in nitric acid evolve
ammoniacal vapours in the injeftion of quicklime.
The muriatic acid, as it is incapable of being decom¬
pofed by combuffible bodies, of itfelf dilfolves few me¬
tallic fubftances. It attacks only fuch metals as poflefs
fuflicicnt avidity for oxygen to decompofe water: ac¬
cordingly, during the diilblution of metals in the mu¬
riatic acid, hydrogen gas is always evolved. And not
only is the muriatic acid incapable of being decompofed
by metals, but it alfo pofleffes the property of attrafting
oxj'gen from molt metallic oxyds: in doing which it
panes- to the ftate cf oxygenated muriatic acid. To this
jtrong affinity for oxygen the muriatic acid owes its pro¬
perty cf eafiiy diffolving metaliic oxyds, on which ac¬
count it is employed with fuccefs for diffolving the oxyd
of iron, which other acids are unable to attack. If me¬
tallic oxyds be furcharged with oxygen when we dif¬
folve them in muriatic acid, an eflervelcence arifes, be¬
caufe a part of the acid flies off in the form of oxyge¬
nated muriatic acid gas. If the oxyds be only at the
proper point of oxydation for uniting with this acid,
they dill olve in it without any movement or effervel-
cence, as fait or l'ugar will in water. The boracic and
fluoric acids unite but feebiy with metallic oxyds : they
do not diflbive pure metals, becaufe they are not de-
compofable by them ; but they enable water to oxydate
fuch of them as have moft affinity for oxygen. It is the
fame with the carbonic acid, which unites w'ell with
b , moft
C H £ M I
moft metallic oxyds, and is often found combined with
them in their native ltate.
Metallic acids are eaiily decompofed by very combuf-
tible metals: they unite very perfeftly with their oxyds,
and are frequently found thus combined in a native ltate.
Acids of the vegetable and animal kind, or of which the
radicals are formed by hydrogen and carbon, are not de¬
compofed by metals ; but they render water extremely
decompofable by them, and unite with metallic oxyds
with conliderable folidity. Many of them occafion thefe
oxyds to revert to the metallic ftate.
The oxyds of metals cannot unite with acids, and ftill
lefs remain combined with them, unlefs they contain
certain proportions of oxygen: if they have lei'sthan the"
determinate quantity, no union will take place; if more,
they will feparate from them. Belides this general truth,
there is another of the lame kind peculiar to each acid
and each metal; which is, that they cannot remain re¬
ciprocally united, but within certain limits of oxydatron,
and thefe oftentimes very confined. There is a deter¬
minate proportion of oxygen in the combination of an
acid with a metallic oxyd. It is in confequence of this
law, that metallic lolutions expofed to the air grow tur¬
bid, and forma precipitate, in proportion as the metallic
oxyd, by abforbing oxygen from the atmofphere, be¬
comes gradually inloluble in the acid. This is the rea-
fon of the decompofition, which the atmofphere effects
on moft metallic lulphats and nitrats. It even frequent¬
ly happens, that metallic oxyds diflblved in acids readt
by degrees on thefe liilts, and take from them, though in
clofe vefleis and without the contaft of air, a portion of
their oxygen, I'o that they foon feparate, and are precipi¬
tated to the bottom of the Iblution. Heat is eminently
favourable to this fucceflive decompofition of acids by me¬
tallic oxyds. Thus nitric lolutions, when heated, grow
turbid, or become more and more decompofable by airand
water, which is particularly remarkable in the nitric Iblu¬
tion of mercury. There are metals which have lo great
tendency to oxydate tbemfelves with acids, that they can •
not remain united, or form permanent lolutions with
them. This is particularly the cafe with thole, which
have the property of becoming acids, or forming oxyds
capable of .combining with alkalis: as arsenic, tunglVen,
molybdena, antimony, tin, iron, &c. accordingly we find
the lolutions of thefe metals, elpecialiy in the nitric acid,
are always loaded with precipitates, and contain little or
no metallic oxyd.
From what ha-s been faid it appears, that, to form me¬
tallic falts, the oxyds ot metals muft remain united with
acids, and have no tendency to feparate from them. It
is requisite too, that we do not augment their affinity for
oxygen, or bring them into contaft with this principle.
Metallic compound lalts have always, or almoft always,
an excefs of acid: all of them likewile are more or l<|fs
acrid or corrofive, which Ihovvs a tendency to becoffie
acid in moft metallic oxyds. Thole properties of metal¬
lic falts with which it is cf importance to be acquainted,
may be included under the following heads, i. Figure,
and its varieties. Sapidity or caufticity, more or lefs
powerful. 3. Alteration by means of light. 4. Fiifion,
defecation, decompofition, by means of caloric, more or
lefs marked. 5. Deliquefcence, tffiorefcence, or decom¬
pofition, more or lefs complete, by the action of the air.
6. Solubility in water, warm or cold; decompofition
more or lefs promoted by pure water, Sec. 7. Decompo-
fition by earths and alkalis; mture of the metallic oxyds
precipitated; complete precipitation, or formation of tri¬
ple falts, partly alkaline or earthy, partly metallic. 8.
Alteration of the metallic oxyds precipitated, at the in-
' ftant of their precipitation, either by the air, or by the
nature of the alkali employed for the precipitation, as
happens when ammoniac is ul'ed. 9. Reciprocal altera¬
tion by different acids ; decompofition taking place, or
not ; affinity of acids for the metallic oxyds ; changes of
the oxyds difcoverable by their colour, jo. Alteration
S T R Y. 167
by earthy or alkaline neutral falts, whether exhibiting
an union without decompofition, or a double decompo-
iition. 1 r. Reciprocal aftion of metallic falts on each
other, announcing either limple union, a finiple change
of bales by the acids, or a dilplacement of oxygen preci¬
pitating both the oxyds; one hecaufe it is partly dil-
oxydated, the other btcaule it is fuperoxydated, as .is the
cale, for example, in the ufeful precipitation of the mu¬
riatic Iblution of gold by the muriatic folution of tin,
which furniflies the purple precipitate of Caflius. 12.
Union with earthy or alkaline fulphures ; the formation
of akind of a fulphurous ores.
Metallic oxyds have different degrees of affinity with
acids, and fome may be employed to decornpole combi¬
nations of others. But the different affinities of metals
for oxygen are the moft important caufe of the pheno¬
menon of the precipitation of metallic lolutions. Thus
feveral metals, by taking oxygen from others diflblved in
acids, occalion their re- appearance in the metallic form ;
as mercury does with filver, copper with mercury, iron
with. copper, zink with iron, See. Sometimes metals do
not deprive metallic oxyds dilfolved in acids of all their
oxygen; which occurs when the precipitating metal has
no occalion for all the oxygen of the metal dilfolved, to
aflume its place in the acid : thus tin, when it precipitates
the oxyd of gold, does not elicit from it all the oxygen it
contains, but fuifefs it to precipitate in a peculiar ftate of
oxydation. Metallic oxyds, in dividing oxygen. among
them in new proportions, precipitate with properties
which deferve to be more accurately inveftigated- than
has hitherto been done. From the fabts here laid down,
we are enabled to inveftigate the preparation . of ail the
metallic oxyds ufeful in the arts: coloured glafs, enamels :
metallic lalts, of ufe in the arts : the elfebts of thefe falts
in the arts in which they are employed : the folution and
parting of metals : the precipitation of metallic oxyds by
alkalis and earth. Thefe applications are in general lo-
uleful and multifarious, that they cannot be exhibited
unlefs in the particular detail of each metal.
THE FORMATION AND NATURE OF VEGETABLE SUB¬
STANCES.
The fubfhmces which conftitute the texture of vegeta¬
bles differ from mineral lubftances in this, that they, are
of a more complex order of compofirion, and, though
all are extremely fufceptible of decompofition or analylis,
not one is an object of fynthefis. Nothing but the tex¬
ture of living vegetables, nothing but their vegetating
organs, can form the matters extracted from them ;. and.
no inftrument invented by art can- imitate the comgofi-
tions, which are formed in the organic machines cf plants.
Though vegetables form all the materials-, which con¬
ftitute their texture with four or five natural lubftances,
caloric, light, water, air, .and the carbon derived from
fome remains of plants- decayed into mould, we find an
extreme variety in the properties of thefe materials'.
Thefe may be reduced, however, to a certain number of
principal heads, under the name-of immediate materials
of plants, becaufe they are obtained from them by limple
proceffes, almoft wholly mechanical, by. a fpi t of cliredt
analylis, which does not alter their nature. Thefe mat¬
ters, which are more or lefs compound, are placed in
particular organs, veffeis, diftinif cells, See. Sometimes
their feat is in the root, or ftalk, bark, and leaves, at the
fame time : at others they are contained only in the flow¬
ers, fruits, or feeds, and even in certain -parts of thele
organs. This particular fitualion of the immediate ma¬
terials indicates the different organization of the texture
of the part, as the caufe of the various nature dilplayed
by each of them. The different place occupied by each
of thefe materials of vegetables, often enables us to ob¬
tain them eaiily feparate and pure. It is lufficient, when
this local diltribution occurs, to bruife and open the
veffeis or cell’s which contain them, and exprefs their li¬
quid juices. Nature Lerfelf frequently exhibits this le-
paratioa
1 68 C H E M
paration at the fnrfaces of plants, even by the power of
vegetation : thus the'fapf manna, gum, refin, &c. ipon-
taneoufly flow; though art is often obliged to feparate
from each other feveral of thefe materials united and
confounded together. The means it employs for this
purpofe are ufually fimple and eafily practifecl; fuch as
reft, filtration, expreffion, ablution, and diftillation with
a gentle heat, which produce no alteration in the jub¬
ilances fubjefted to thefe procefl.es.
Among the materials of vegetable bodies obtainable by
fimple means, which, change not their nature, may be
reckoned the following lubitances, either fluid, or folids
i. The extra&ive matter, or extract. 2. Mucus, or mu¬
cilage. 3. Sugar. 4. EiFentiai lalts. 5. Fixed oil. 6.
Volatile oil. 7. Aroma. 8. Camphor. 9. Refin. 10.
Baliam. n. Gum-refin. 12. Fecula. 13. Gluten. 14.
Colouring matter. 15. Elaftic gum, 16. The ligneous
part. Betide thefe lixteen principles, a fubftance analo¬
gous to animal albumen has been discovered in the ana-
ly (Is of vegetables; and Jit is probable, that fpme other
unknown vegetable principles, exift, as the matter pro¬
per for tanning hides, or tannin, Sec.
It is necelliiry here to be fully aware, that, on reducing
all the faffs of vegetable analyfis to general terms, or
leading refults, nothing more has been found in any of
the plants hitherto examined, than the eighteen jub¬
ilances above mentioned ; fo that we may ailirin, that
they actually compofe the texture of ail known vegeta¬
bles, and that a very accurate analyfis is made of a vege¬
table,. when we feparate thefe from it. Yet it is not to be
underftood, that all thefe eighteen immediate materials are
to be found in the different parts of vegetables, or even in
each vegetable taken all together. There are plants, all
the parts of which do riot furnilh fo many as five or fix of
thefe materials : others contain eight or ten; fome afford
them all. But fuppofirig we could mingle arid biend toge¬
ther, even chemically, all the plants which have ever occu¬
pied the attention of the chemi ft, this mixture, this combi¬
nation, confufed in appearance, would exhibit only the fix-
teen or eighteen above mentioned fubftances, as the re¬
fults of the moft accurate and refined analyfis; whence
we are juftified in faying, that vegetables are formed of
thefe immediate materials. Each of the materials above
announced has peculiar diftinguifhing properties, among
which thofe that can mark its characters, and render it
eafily difcernable from the reft, fnould be feiefted. It is
by no means impoffible to treat this fubjeft after the
manner of botanilts, and to have but one dharafleriftic
or fpecific phrafe for each of thefe materials : and though
this method has never yet been executed in chemiltry,
Fourcroy prefents a lketch of it in the following manner :
Characters of the immediate Materials of Vegetables.
Extractive matter, or extract: Dry; brown;
a little deliquescent; foluble in water; obtained from
the juices of vegetables by iiifpiflation, or from decoc¬
tions or infufioris of them by evaporation; affording by
diftillation an acid, a little ammoniac, and fome oil ; ab-
fiorbing oxygen from the atmofphere, and by this abforp-
tion becoming gradually infoluble; erroneoufly confi-
dered as a native foa.p; compofed of carbon, hydrogen,
• azot, and oxygen, and always tending to abforb more of
the laffc than it contains in its primitive ftate.
Mucus, or mucilage: An agglutinative, vifeous, in-
fipid, lubftance; affording- much pyromucous acid on
diltillation ; foluble in both warm and cold water ; ab-
lorbing no oxygen from the atmofphere; drying and be¬
coming brittle in the form of gum; exifting in roots,
young (talks, and leaves; ifluing from the bark of trees
by expreffion; gluing their fibres together.
Sugar : Sapid and agreeable to the tafte; cryftalliza-
ble, foluble, and fermentable; in moft circumftances re-
Jfembling mucilage, but differing from it in the property
of fermenting and forming alcohol. Both mucilage and
fugar are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen;
I S T R Y.
differing from extraft, ift, By poffeffing a fmaller pro¬
portion of hydrogen, on which account they do not ab¬
forb, like extraft, the oxygen of the atmOljphere ; 2dly,-
By the ab fence of azot, whence they afford no ammoniac
on diftillation.
Essential salt: Comprehending the vegetable acids,
formed in general of hydrogen and carbon more oxy¬
genated than in the three preceding principles: accord¬
ingly thefe are convertible into acids by the addition of’
oxygen. Vegetable acids, however numerous they may¬
be, appear to differ only in the proportion of their three
principles : they are all decompofable by fire, capable of
being converted into each other, and, cn an ultimate
analyfis, are reducible to water and carbonic acid by the
addition of oxygen.
Fixed oil: Formerly called grofs or exorefled' oil ;
thick, fweet, inodorous; burning when volatilized ; form¬
ing joap with cauftic alkalis ; mixed with a mucilage
named the fweet principle of oils by Scheele; infpifiating
and becoming concrete by the contact of air and abJorp-
tion of oxygen; experiencing the fame effedts by the ac¬
tion of acids and metallic oxyds; compofed of carbon,
hydrogen, and a little oxygen. It differs from the pre¬
ceding compounds in containing a larger proportion of
hydrogen; whence arife its combuftibility, and its pro¬
perty of being converted into water and carbonic acid,
when it burns with a fufficient quantity of air, as it does
in the hollow wicks furrounded on all fides with air,
which conftitute Argand’s lamp.
Volatile oil: Heretofore named effential oil, or
effence: highly acrid, highly odoriferous; entirely re¬
ducible to vapour at a heat of 184° ; combining difficult¬
ly with alkalis; capable of being fet on fire by acids; in-
ipiflating to a refin by the aftion of oxygen; burning
more rapidly, and affording more water, than fixed oil,
and admitting more fpeedily the precipitation of its
charcoal, which forms lamp-black.
Aroma, formerly called fpiritus reClor : Avery vola¬
tile principle, reducible to vapour by the. ordinary heat
of the air, and forming an atmofphere round plants;
paffing over with water in diftillation in balneo Maria-,
lometimes of an inflammable nature, at others displaying
faline properties, uniting with alcohol, fixed oils, vinegar.
Sec. forming by thefe combinations what are called in
pharmacy diftilled waters; contributing by its prefence
to the quantity of volatile oil diftilled from plants, and
bearing fo great analogy to it, that they have been con¬
founded together. The nature of aroma is not accu¬
rately known; fome begin to fulpeft, that it is not a dif-
tindt body, a jingle principle dij engaged from vegetable
matters, but theie matters themfelves in fubftance redu¬
ced to a ftate of vapour.
Camphor: A matter now reedgni/ed in a number of
vegetables, and claiming to be reckoned among their im¬
mediate principles; of a concrete and cryftalline form;
very volatile; burning with the emifiion of fmoke; joiu-
ble in a large quantity of water, in alcohol, and in ether;
exifting in feveral volatile oils; contained pure in the
trunk and leaves of the jpecies of laurel which furniflies
it ; too littie known yet with regard to its intimate na¬
ture; yielding a peculiar acid by means of the nitric.
Resin: AToft or dry fubftance; little odorous; com-
bultible; foluble in alcohol, but not in water; uniting
difficultly with alkalis; little alterable by acids; origi¬
nating from infpiflated volatile oil, and appearing to dif¬
fer from it only by a larger portion of oxygen.
Balsam-. Refin united with benzoic acid ; more odo¬
riferous than pure refin} affording its acid in a concrete
ftate by the agency of fire and water; yielding it to al¬
kalis or earths; and approaching to relin after having
loft its acids.
Gum-resin: A concrete juice; partly foluble in wa¬
ter, and forming with it a kind of emuliion, as it does
with vinegar, which has been fuppofed its univerlal men-
ftrunm, but ftil! more foluble- in alcohol: net cXudin
natural)
C H E M
naturally from vegetables like refin, but extracted from
their ruptured veffels, in the form of a white or coloured
juice, of a fetid fmell, more or lets refembling garlic.
Fecula : A pulverulent, dry, white, infi.pid, combuf-
tible, matter; affording much pyromucous acid on dis¬
tillation; folubie in boiling water, and forming a jelly
with this liquid ; convertible into the oxalic and malic
acids by means of nitric acid ; exifting in all the white
and brittle parts of vegetables, particularly in tuberofe
roots and gramineous feeds ; constituting the bale of the
houiifhment of animals, and difpofed to become readily
a principle of their bodies.
Gluten : An elaftic ductile body, as if fibrous or
membraneous ; infoluble in water; flightly folubie in al¬
cohol ; affording a confiderable quantity of ammoniac
on diftillation ; putrefcible like animal matter; turning
yellow like it on the contact of nitric acid ; convertible
by this acid into oxalic acid ; occafioning the difference
between the farina of wheat and other farinaceous fub-
llances, and bellowing on it the capability of being made
into a pafte.
Colouring matter : Always attached to one or
other of the preceding materials ; appearing variable in
its nature; fbmetiines folubie in water; at others, at¬
tackable only by alkalis, oils, or alcohol; indebted for
the diverfity of its properties to the different quantities
of oxygen fixed in it ; poffeffing an affinity of attraction
for alumin, oxyd of tin, & c. and capable of combining,
more or lefs intimately, with the textures of vegetables
and animals.
Elastic gum: Analogous to gum-refin ; appearing
to exift in feveral vegetables ; remarkable for the exten¬
sibility and elafticity it retains after deficcation ; afford¬
ing ammoniac when diltilled ; diffufing a fetid fmell when
burned ; having been at firft in the form of a white milky
fluid, and converted from that ftate to an elaftic folid,
by the abforption of atmofipheric oxygen.
The ligneous part, o.r wood : A matter too much
negleCted hitherto by chemifts ; conftituting the folid
bafts of all vegetables, but far more abundant in thofe
which are hard ; erroneoufly confidered as an earth ; in¬
foluble in water; affording, on diftillation, the peculiar
acid called pyroligneous ; containing a large quantity of
carbon ; pafiing to the ftate of three or four acids by the
aCtion of the nitric ; and appearing to be the laft produCl
of vegetation.
From what has been thus exhibited refpeCting the im¬
mediate and known materials of vegetables, it follows,
that they are all reducible, on an ultimate analyfis, to
three or four principles, which are their primitive com¬
ponent parts ; namely, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and,
in many, azot ; and that they differ from each other
only in the various proportions of the elements from
which they are formed. Now, if we invelligate, by fim-
ple calculation, the numbej of different compounds that
may refult from the union of three or four principles in
every poffible proportion, we ftiall find, that a much
larger number might exift. But as each of the ternary
or quaternary compofitions which conftitute the imme-'
diate materials of vegetables, admits, as far as it appears,
a certain latitude of proportions, while retaining its ge¬
neral nature of extract, mucilage, oil, acid, reftn, &c. it
is eafy to conceive, that the different proportions of the
principles included within thefe feveral latitudes, fet
bounds to the vaft immeafurable variet)*- of colour, fmell,
tafte, and confiftency, which are obfervabie in all the ma¬
terials of vegetables, and which men difcern in fuch of
them as they employ in their food, garments, habitations,
&c. On the, fame confideration, it will not be more diffi¬
cult to conceive, that vegetables muff vary in the nature
and fpecific properties of their materials, according to the
feveral periods of their vegetation ; that they can never
remain in the fame ftate ; and that the different fcenes
exhibited in the periods of germination, leafing, bloffom-
ing, fructification, and maturity, which ponltitcte ve-
Vol. XV. No. 187.
I S T R Y. 169
getable life, muft be accompanied and marked by internal
change, as they are by external appearance. Of this the
varioufly modified tafte, inceffantiy changing colour, fmell
not more liable, and difference of texture, which charac¬
terize the feveral epochs of vegetation, afford incontefti-
ble proofs.
A new advantage arifing from the modern chemiftry,
is the having thus diftinguifhed the nature of the mate¬
rials in plants, far more complex than that of mineral
fubftances. The acquifition of this knowledge, leads to
an appreciation of the changes wrought in vegetable mat¬
ters by different chemical agents. Thus we can no longer
profels ourfelves ignorant of the aCtion of the deftruc-
tive agent fire on vegetable fubftances. From the pre¬
ceding confiderations, are underitood hew, when a com¬
plete vegetable, or any one of its different produCts, is
fubjeCted to the aCtion of fire, caloric tends to reduce
thefe complicated compounds to more Ample ones, by
occafioning the union of their principles, two and two
together, in proportions very different from thofe which
before obtained. By gently heating them, the hydrogen
is extricated, which burns aione, and much carbon re¬
mains : if they be ftrongly heated, the carbon is difen-
gaged at the fame time with the hydrogen, they both
burn in the air, and the only refiduum left, conillts of
that fmall quantity of earth and falts, which conftitutes
vegetable allies.
All the immediate materials of vegetables being re¬
ducible in their ultimate analyfis to three or four origi¬
nal principles; namely, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and
a little azot in fome of them , this analyfis, moreover,
anfwering with the utmoft precifion to the manner in
which vegetables are nourished, grow, fpread, and per¬
petuate their fpecies, fince we know that vegetation, to
take place, requires only thefe Ample principles ; nothing-
more remains, but to find how plants appropriate thefe
forts of elements, and combine them in their organic
flrainers, to compole the different fubftances, the pro¬
perties of which have been announced. It appears be¬
yond all doubt, that water is the fource whence vege¬
tables derive their hydrogen; that they decompofe this
fluid in their leaves, by the help of the foiar light, ab-
forb its hydrogen, which becomes fixed in them in the
ftate of oil, or extract, or mucilage, See. and feparate its
oxygen, a great part of which, being diffolved in light
and caloric, flies off in the ftate of vital air. But a por¬
tion of the oxygen of the water is fixed at the fame time
in the texture of the vegetable, in which it is retained
chiefly by the carbon.
It is not fo eafy to account for the carbon that exilts
in vegetables. Some natural philofophers fuppofe, that
vegetables decompofe carbonic acid at the fame time
with water, and abforb its carbon: but this fuppofition
is not proved, though it has acquired flrength, fince the
decompofition of carbonic acid, combined 'with foda, by-
means of phofphorus, lias been dilcovered. Other che¬
mifts are of opinion, that vegetable earths, mould, dung,
and particularly the water of dunghills, furniffi the car¬
bon, attenuate, and even diffolved in water ; that plants
abforb this "principle by their roots; and that they do
not extraff it from carbonic acid. According to this
hypothefis, manure affords only carbon, and the water
of it is nothing more than a faturated foiution of this
principle. To thefe data we muft reft rain at prelent the
theory of vegetation.
The applications of the fa6ts above-ftated, are ex¬
tremely multifarious; they relate to agriculture, rural
economy, pharmacy, materia medica, and all the arts
in which vegetable fubftances are employed. They alfo
point out the true nature of germination : the develope-
ment of leaves : bloffoming: fruftification : the matu¬
ration of fruits and feeds : the fuccefiive formation of
gum, extract, oil, relin, falts, fugar, the colouring mat¬
ter, and wood, in the different periods of vegetable life :
the growth of the woody fubftance, bark, &c. the phar-
X x maceutical
170 C H E M
maceutical preparations of juices, extra£ls, effential falts,
mucilages, oils, relins, gum-refms, aromatic waters, &c.
the arts of the fugar-maker, confectioner, miller, baker,
ltarch-maker, vine-dreil'er, brewer, diltiller, varnifher,
dyer, paper-maker, indigo-maker, colour-man, flax-man,
perfumer, oil-man, fo'ap-boiler, maker of charcoal, &c.
THE FORMATION AND NATURE OF ANIMAL SUB¬
STANCES.
It is an eflablifhed truth, that, without the aid of ve¬
getables, animals cannot fupport their exiftence : accord¬
ingly it has long been faid in natural hiitory, that vege¬
tables are formed from minerals, and animals from ve¬
getables. But, if this truth has been long known, the
mode in which theft bodies are changed, or reciprocally
converted into each other, has never yet been afcertained.
On this point, however, the labours of chemifts fhould
be principally exerted : for, were this problem once folv-
ed, it would lead us to a precife knowledge of all that
concerns the animal economy : and fome relults condu¬
cive to this grand inquiry are already afforded us by
modern difcoveries. . The moll certain means of folving
this important problem, are unqueftionably, firft, to ac¬
quire an accurate knowledge of animal fubftances, to
compare them with thofe of the vegetable kingdom, and
to invefcigate with care their difference or analogy.
There is no doubt, were thefe differences once weii
known, they would enable us to underhand the caufe
from which they arife.
If we compare the refults of all the modern analyfis
made of the blood and humours, and of the folid parts
which inanifeltly originate from the concretion of theft,
•we {hall find, that animal fubftances differ from vegetable
fubftances, in, i. The property of affording a ccnlider-
able portion of ammoniac ^ and very fetid products, by
the adtion of fire : 2. In that of putrefying more eafily,
and more fpeedily, and giving out a far more noifonie
fmell : 3. In yielding, when adted upon by nitric acid,
much more azotic gas : and, 4. In contributing Angu¬
larly to the formation of nitric acid. ,
All thefe differences feem to depend only on the pre-
fence of one principle in animals far more abundantly
than in vegetables; which is azot. It may be faid, there¬
fore, that the addition of azot to vegetable matters, would
iuffice to convert them into animal fubftances. Yet it is
proper to obferve, that to theft primary differences, which
may be termed capital ones, fome other particular phe¬
nomena may be added, the influence of which, though
undoubtedly inferior, on the animal compofition, onght
by no means to be negledfed. Such, among others, is
the prefence of phofphoric acid, and the different phof-
pliats, particularly thofe of foda, lime, and ammoniac,
in the animal humours. To thefe falts are owing the
peculiar quality of the coal of animal fubftances, efpe-
cially its being almoll incombuftibie.
The peculiar principle, which is ft abundant in thefe
fubftances, and more efpecially renders them different
from vegetable matter, azot, appears, then, to be the
efficient caufe of the properties which diftinguilh them,
and particularly of that fort of concrefcibility, or plaf-
ticity, which we fhail foon confider more at large. It
may be affirmed, therefore, that, if we were to deprive
animal fubftances of azot, they would become. again, in
fome meafure, vegetables; as, to convert the latter into
animal fubftances, it is fufficient to combine with them,
or introduce into them, azot. Thus all the matters
which form the bodies of animals may be confidered as
fo many immediate principles, as was done in the pre¬
ceding fediion with regard to vegetables. In the fame
manner each of thefe principles ought to be characteriz¬
ed by the enumeration of its molt ftriking properties.
If we fo examine and defcribe the blood, milk, bile, fat,
urine, &c. and the folids of animals, we fhail obtain a
comparative l'cale, which will exhibit the relations and
differences that form the objeCt of our refearch; viz.
2
I S T R Y.
*
Blood : A red fluid ; warm at a temperature of 930
in man, quadrupeds, and birds; at the temperature of
the medium they inhabit in oviparous quadrupeds, fer-
pents, and fifties ; fweetifh ; coagulable by cold ;' milcible
with water; Separating aimolt fpontaneoully into three
different fubftances, white ferum, red ferum, or the co¬
louring part, and fibrous matter ; exhibiting in each of
thefe fubftances diftinguifhing characters ; namely, in the
ferum, alkalinity, coagulability by fire, metallic oxyds,
&c. coagulability, owing to the more intimate combina¬
tion of oxygen; the fame general nature in the red fe-
l'um, which differs from the white only in the prefence
of oxyd of iron ; in the fibrous matter, or fibrin, fpon-
taneous concrefcibility, and folubility in alkalis. Thefe
principal characters ought to be confidered in the whole
of the blood, which appears to be the primary principle
of all animal fubftances, the common origin of all the
humours and of all the folids. It has been called fluid
fiefh, in confequence of the fibrin, which concretes in it
on cooling. The caufe of its heat has been difcovered
in the alteration and abforption of vital air in refpira-
tion : and the renovation of the blood by the chyle, and
the converfion of the chyle into animal matter, have, in
like manner, been found to originate from the extrica¬
tion of a confiderable quantity of carbon and hydrogen,
which appears to take place in the lungs.
Milk: A white fluid, bland and Saccharine, formed
of ferum, cheefe, and butter, intimately mixed, and ex¬
hibiting a true animal emulnon. In the ferum of milk
we fhould particularly notice the fubftance called fugar
of milk, which may be faid to have the character only of
an incipient fugar, and the quantity of phofphat of lime,
more abundant than in the other humours, which feems
to indicate, that nature thought fit to place in the firft
nourilhment of animals a quantity of ofieous bale, with
a view to the neceffaiy celerity of the formation and
growth of the bones in the earlieft ftage of their lives.
The cheefe is a true albuminous matter. The butter is
a concrete oil, the folidity of which, and its eafy repara¬
tion from the milk by finiple agitation, appear owing to
the abforption of atmofpheric oxygen during the forma¬
tion of the cream.
Bile: An oily faponaceous fluid; compofed of an
oil approaching the ftate of fpermaceti and foda, min¬
gled with albuminous fluid; formed in the liver, a vifi-
cus which itfelf contains a large quantity o-f oil. In the
fyftem of the voluminous gland juft mentioned, every
thing indicates a difpofition, an organization, defigned
to feparate from the blood the large portion of fat,
which arifes from the retardation of this fluid in the ve¬
nous fyftem of the abdomen. This confideration, def-
tined fome day to become cue of the principal bafts of
the phyfiology hinted at above, accounts for the bulk of
the liver in the fcetus which has not breathed, as well as
in animals which have no refpiratory organ fimilar to
thofe of man, birds, and quadrupeds. It alfo explains
the origin of fome difeafes of the liver, particularly of
its concretions or gall ftones.
Fat: A fort of oily matter ; formed at the extremi¬
ties of the arteries, and as far as may be from the centre
of motion and animal heat; affording a kind of refer-
voir, in which that large quantity of hydrogen which
could not be evacuated by the lungs becomes fixed ; an
oil united to a confiderable portion of oxygen, and con¬
taining befides febacic acid. This manner of confider-
ing fat, is one of the molt ftriking points of modern
phyfics as it regards animals.
Urine: An excrementitious fluid; more or lefs co¬
loured, acrid, and faline ; remarkable for the large quan¬
tity of free phofphoric acid, and phofphat of foda, am¬
moniac, and lime, which it contains, and ftill more fo
for the prefence of a peculiar acid not yet found in any
other animal humours, which is now called lithic, be-
caufe it forms the bafis of the ftones of the kidneys and
bladder, which caufe the difeal'e known by the name of
lithiafis.
C H E M :
litliiafis. Urine has been the fource of difcoVeries highly
valuable to the-chemift, -and mull be of others itiU more
valuable to the phyfician. Cdhfnbring it firft as a lixi¬
vium, defigned- to carry out of the body a large quantity
of faline matters, which wouid injure the due exercile
of its functions, we muft not forget that it is an evacua¬
tion, the proportion of the principles of which, varying
according to the ftate of the- body, becont-s a kind of
ftandard to lliew the modifications of the body, in health
or ficknefs, by a leries of obfervations, which phylicians
have already commenced under fortunate aufpices. We
fhould confider it, too, as always containing the matter
of. renal and vefical concretions, which teem to require
for their formation only a little longer refidence in the
refpeftive organs than nature intended, or the prefence
of a nucleus, which attracts, in fome meafure, the.fuc-
ceflive lithic ftrata. We muft alfo obferve the propor¬
tions of the different principles in the urine, particularly
of the uncombined acids it contains, and the phofphat
of lime which it carries along with it; for thefe, differ¬
ing remarkably in difeafes of the joints, the aponeurofes,
and the bones, will, at fome future period, become, in
the hands of fkilful observers, new means of difcovering
. the nature of thefe complaints, afcertaining their pro¬
gress, and, perhaps, infuring their cure.
Little can be added here of the other animal fluids,
flich as the infenfible perfpiration, fiveat, the gaftric juice,
faliva, tears, the mucus of the nofe, the cerumen, the
leminal liquor, &c. becauie'none of thefe fluids have yet
been much examined. Ail have unquestionably their
peculiar compofition, and diifer in fome points, particu¬
larly in the proportion of their principles. Some of thefe
humours, with which modern experiments have render¬
ed us a little better acquainted, exhibit the union of a
peculiar mucilage with water, pure foda, phofphat of
lime, and phofphat of foda : fuchare. the tears, the nafal
mucus, and the fpermatic fluid. Qf thefe the firft and
Second difplay likewife the property of infpiflating by the
contact of the air and the abforption of oxygen, which
probably conflitutcs the maturity, as it is called, of the
humours in catarrh, whether it be confined to the nofe
and fauces, or extend to the lungs. The feminal liquor
has. offered us the Angular phenomenon of the crystalli¬
zation ot phofphat of lime, which was never before
known. On conlidering the whole of the l'olid matters
which compofe the various textures of the different or¬
gans of animals, the fubftances of which they are formed
may be divided into three principal genera: the firft
comprehends the albumen ; the fecond, the gelatin, or
gelatinous matter; the third, the fibrin, or fibrous mat¬
ter : two of thefe have already been distinguished above,
under the article on the blood, we (hall therefore now
only give a concife Sketch of the constant phenomena,
which may be confidered as the characters of each of
thefe genera.
Genus I. Albumen: Coagulable by heat, acid, ox-
yds, and, in general, by oxygen in a concrete or nearly
concrete State; foluble by alkalis; found more or lei's
condenfed or oxygenated, and interwoven in the mem¬
branes, tendons, cartilages, and, in general, all the white
parts of animals.
Genus II. Gelatin : Participating the folidity of the
firlt in molt of the white organs, but capable of being
feparated from it, and eafily diffolved by boiling water,
to which it gives the form of a jelly on cooling. As it
constitutes the bafe, or principal . part, of all the white
organs in general, thefe are more or lefs completely foluble
in boiling water, and form tranfparent jellies by the re¬
frigeration of thefe Solutions.
Genus III. Fibrin : Infoluble in water, at any tem¬
perature; foluble in acids; containing a large quantity
of azot ; condenfed, concrete, and organized, in mu feu -
lar fleSh, which may be regarded as the proper receptacle
of all the fibrin contained in the blood : accordingly,
confidering the mufcles as the Secretory organs of the
S TRY. 171
fibrous matter of the blood, we. ought to inveftigate all
its modifications, with refpeft to the quantity or pro¬
portion which fixes in thefe organs, and more particu¬
larly. with regard to their apparent exclusion of it under
various circumstances of dileafe, old age, &c.
Thefe three matters, albumen, gelatin, and fibrin, in
a ftate of concretion, of combinations of tw > and two, or
all three together, and ei'pecially in different proportions,
form all the folids of animals, and are Sept -able from
each other by a Ample and eafy analysis : th.y ai fo, par¬
ticularly the albumen, form many of the fluids of ani¬
mals ; only in thefe they contain lefs oxygen, more wa¬
ter, and are combined with acids, neutral Saits, &c. It
muft be obferved, that in the fluids, the gelatin is as de¬
ficient as in the folids it is abundant, appearing to ac¬
quire its nature, of gelatin in palling from the fluids to
the folids. Albumen difiolved in acids by art aflumes
properties analogous to thofe of gelatin. The folid ani¬
mal matter, or bony fubftance, is of another order of
compofition. A large quantity of an earthy l’alt, almaft
wholly infoluble, phofphat of lime is amafled in the tex¬
ture or primitive parenchyma of the bones. This is the
.whole myftery oS the ftrufture and compofition of this
part of the animal frame ; and for this reafon bones yield
jelly on being boiled in water, and a considerable quan¬
tity of oil and ammoniac on diftillation ; and when tho¬
roughly calcined, or burnt, they are nothing more than
calcareous phofphat, mingled with fome fmall portion of
carbona'c, muriat, and phofphat of foda.
When any one of tlie preceding- animal matters, par¬
ticularly of the condenfed white fluids, or white organs-,
is treated with nitric acid, there will be extricated a
more or lei’s considerable quantity of azotic gas, and of
pruflic acid gas, which appears to be nothing but a com¬
bination of azot, hydrogen, and carbon, with a little
oxygen. Gelatin yields the leaft, albumen lomewhat
more, and fibrin the 1110ft. In proportion as this change ,
of combinations in the principles of animal matters is
effefted by means of the nitric acid, they feem to revert
to their ancient ftate of vegetable matter, from which
they do not effentially differ, as has already been laid,
but by the prefence of azot, their proportion of carbon
and hydrogen not being the fame, and greater compli¬
cation in the number of principles, from a combination
of which they are formed. Thus, inftead of being ter¬
nary compounds, as vegetable fubftances are, animal
matters are quaternary compounds, and even Hill more
complicated. Azot is the fourth primitive principle,
which is fu per added to hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen.
Accordingly, the converlion of vegetable into animal
matter, which confifts only in the fixation or addition of
azot, muft -be confidered as the principal phenomenon of
animalization : this alone explains its chief myfteries ;
and, when once we are perfeftly acquainted with the rae-
ctianilin of this addition of azot, molt of the functions of
the animal economy, which eft’eft it, or depend on it, will
become equally known.
What we already know of the fubjeft, is confined to
the following confiderations : the phenomenon is not fo
much owing to the fixation of a new quantity of azot,
as to the fuktraftion of other principles, which increafe
its proportion. In refpiration, the blood exhales a large
quantity of hydrogen, and of carbon, either limply dif-
folved in hydrogen gas, or converted into the ftate of
carbonic acid by the very aft of circulation, and in the
vafeuiar l'yftem, according to fome modern philofophers.
In the cavities of the bronchia, during the aft .of refpira¬
tion, and by the ir.ftrumentality ot this aft, the hydro¬
gen forms water, which exhales in expiration. A por¬
tion of oxygen appears at the fame time to become fixed
in the pulmonary blood, and, circulating with this fluid
through the vefiels, gradually combines with the carbon,
to as to form that carbonic acid, which is extricated from
the venous blood in the lungs. It is ealy to conceive,
that, by thus dilengaging a large quantity of hydrogen
172 C H- E M I
raid carbon, refpiration muft nece (Tardy augment the pro-
portion of azot. The ltudy of the mechanilm of the other
functions, which remains to be purfued, will undoubt¬
edly lead to ' new difcoveries, itill more important than
the preceding : what has been performed within a few
years, naturally prompts us to imagine, that ftilj more
will be done. The analogy of aCtion which has been
diicovered between digeltion, refpiration, circulation,
and infenfible perfpiration, has begun to eftablifh on new
views, more lolid than were heretofore pofTelTed, a fyftem
of animal phyfics, which promifes an abundant harveft
of dilcoveries and improvements. Unqueltionably it will
be in purfuing the phenomena of digeltion and growth
in young animals, that an edifice equally novel and folid
will be ereCted on thefe foundations. Every thing is
ready for this grand work ; feveral philofophers purine
this unbeaten path of experience ; frefh ardour, fpring-
ing from thefe new conceptions, animates thofe.who are
engaged in this branch of phyfics ; and the track they
have juft begun to explore, appears fuch as mult lead
them to more precife and accurate refults, than any that
have hitherto been advanced on the functions which con-
llitute animal life. The advantages, therefore, to be de¬
rived from a due contemplation of thefe matters, will be
found in our acquiring a fuperior knowledge of the func¬
tions of the animal economy, particularly refpiration ;
digeltion ; hematofis, or fanguification j infenfible per-
ipiration ; the fecretion of the bile ; ofiification and of-
teogony; nutrition; the difeafes dependent on the de¬
generation of the humours, &c. animal concretions ;
the aCtion of various medicines on the humours, &c.
the arts employed in the manufacturing of animal mat¬
ters, particularly thole of the tanner, currier, preparers
of different kinds of glue and fize, makers of catgut,
jrliofe who extra# oils, and thole who work on horn,
bone, tortoifelhell, &c.
THE SPONTANEOUS DESTRUCTION OF VEGETABLE
AND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
When vegetables and animals are deprived of life, or
when their products are removed from the individuals
of which they made a part, movements are excited in
them, which deltroy their texture, and alter their com¬
pofition. Thefe movements conllitute the different kinds
of fermentation. The intention of nature in exciting
them is evidently, to render more fimple the compounds
formed by vegetation and animalization, and to caufe
them to enter into new combinations of different kinds.
When a portion of matter has been employed for fome
time in the fabrication of an animal or vegetable body, it
muff be rendered up by it to' form new compofitions, as
Icon as the functions of the body are at an end. From the
general definition of fermentation, it would feem that there
ought to be as many - peculiar and different fermenta-
.tions, as there are vegetable and animal matters to be
changed and decompoled : but feveral of them purfuing
a fimilar path to arrive at a more fimple ftate of compo-
fition, the number of fermentations lias been reduced to
three, the vinous, acetous, and putrid.
Vinous fermentation, as its name imports, is that which
produces wine or alcohol. The faccharine matter is the
only one which undergoes this fermentation, when di¬
luted with a certain quantity of water, and mingled with
a third lubftance of fome kind, vegetable or animal, as
extraCt, fait, fecula, or the like: for it is now fully
proved, that fugar and water alone never enter into vi¬
nous fermentation. The faccharine matter is fo abun¬
dant and generally diffufed through vegetable and even
animal fubftances, that there are a great number of bo¬
dies capable of affording wine, or yielding alcohol. All
fweet and faccharine fruits reduced to a pulp, and more
efpecially their expreffed juices, undergo a movement,
when they are at a temperature of 62° or upwards, if
they be in a large body, and particularly when neither
£00 thick nor too thin. Hence the great number of dif-
S T R Y.
ferent wines, comprehending the decoCfions of grain
malted, and by this procefs converted in part into fac¬
charine matter, and even the vinous liquors made with
jnilk, honey, blood, See. Vinous fermentation announces
itfelf in faccharine liquors by an increafe of volume, the
formation of a copious feum. which covers t'heir furface,
rife of temperature, the difengagement of a confiderable
quantity of carbonic acid gas, and the converfion of a
fweet fluid into a (harp, warm, and pungent, liquor.
The caufe of this fermentation appears to be owing to a
decomposition of water, a great part of the oxygen of
winch, attacking the carbon of the fugar, burns it, and
converts it into carbonic acid. At the fame time the
hydrogen of the water attacks .the fugar diverted of its
carbon, and, combining with it, gives birth to alcohol.
Thus alcohol may be defined to be fugar minus a cer¬
tain quantity of carbon, and plus a certain portion of
hydrogen. This theory explains both the formation of
the carbonic acid evolved during the progrefs of vinous
fermentation, and that of the alcohol, as well as all the
properties of this new production.
Pure alcohol is a white liquid, of a ftrong fmell, of a
hot and acrid tafte ; rifing in vapour at a temperature of
150°; inflammable at any temperature; affording much
water and carbonic acid in burning ; yielding no fmoke
in combuftion; mifcible with water in any proportion,
and expelling its air and a part of its caloric while com¬
bining with it; diffolving pure or cauftic alkalis; de-
compofing acids, and convertible into ether by this de-
compofition ; diffolving deliquefeent neutral halts, and
feveral metallic ones ; taking from vegetables their vo¬
latile oil, aroma, refill, balfam, part of their gum-refin,
and many colouring matters ; and of great ufe in various
procefles of the arts, in confequence of thefe feveral pro¬
perties. The reader may have already remarked, that
the formation of alcohol takes place at the expence of
the deftruClion of a vegetable principle, and that the
faccharine matter undergoes a decompofition, which re¬
duces it to a more fimple term ; thus vinous or fpiritous
fermentation is a commencement of the deftruction of
principles formed by vegetation : and hence it may be
regarded as one of the movements eftablifhed by nature,
to Amplify the order of compofition, which vegetable
fubftances exhibit.
The acid or acetous fermentation is the fecond natu¬
ral movement, which contributes to reduce vegetable
compounds to more fimple ftates of compofition. This
fermentation, which produces vinegar, takes place only
in liquors that have previoufly undergone the vinous
fermentation. It has been obferved, that the contact of
air is neceffary to the production of vinegar: it has even
been perceived, that wine in tunning four abforbs air;
fo that a certain portion of the oxygen of the atmofphere
appears to be neceffary to the formation of the acetous
acid. Unqueftionably there are feveral other fermenta¬
tions analogous to that which forms vinegar, though
their products are not yet well known ; Inch, for in-
ftance, are that of water mixed with ftarch, called ftarch- -
makers four water, and thole which form four bread,
four kraut, and four liquors. All thefe changes are to
be confidered as means of decompofition for Amplifying
the complex combinations of vegetables.
Finally, after vegetable liquors, or their folid parts
moillened, have paffed to the acid ftate, their decompo¬
fition, continuing under favourable circumffances, name¬
ly, a gentle or warm temperature, expofure to air, and
the contact of water, leads them into putrefaction, which
terminates in volatilizing moft of their principles under
the form of gas. Water, carbonic acid, carbonated, and
even fulphurated, hydrogen gas, volatile oil in vapour,
and fometimes even azotic gas and ammoniac, are evolv¬
ed; and after this there remains nothing but a brown or
black refiduum known by the name of mould, formed of
carbon fomewhat fat and oily, from which water Hill ex¬
tracts feme faline fubftances and a little extractive matter.
Nature,
C H E M
Nature, in organizing animals, and forming their fluids
and folids by complex compofitions, has placed in them
a germ of deftrudlion, which developes itlelf after the
death of the individual. This deftruftion is effected by
the movement termed putrefaftion, which conflfls in a
kind of fermentation, a flow decompofltion of the folid
or fluid fubltances. Their order of compofition, being
more complex than that of vegetable matters, renders
them ftill more fufceptible of the putrid decompofltion.
Animal fubltances compofed of hydrogen, carbon,
oxygen, and azot, and frequently Itili more complicated
by the union of fulphur, phofphorus, & c. when deprived
of that movement, and more particularly of that reno¬
vation, which conftitutes animal life, are foon altered
by more Ample attradtions between their principles,
which have a tendency to unite two and two together.
This re-adtion gives birth to binary compounds, fuch as
the carbon acid, nitric acid, ammoniac, and carbonated
hydrogen gas, which gradually efcape into the atmof-
phere, proportionably diminifhing the quantity of ani¬
mal matter. It is th-us, in confequence of.a natural de¬
compofltion, that we perceive this animal matter foften,
change colour and fmell, lofe its texture and form, and
difl'ufe through the atmofphere vapours and gafes, which
diffolve into the air, and transfer to other bodies, par¬
ticularly thofe of vegetables, the materials neceflary for
their formation.
All the phenomena of the putrefaction of animal fub-
ftances depend on the mechanifm here explained. In the
union of hydrogen and azot we perceive the formation
of ammoniac, which has been deemed the principal off-
fpring of putiefadfion. The combination of carbon
with oxygen explains the generation and evolution of
carbonic acid, in which all the myltery of putrefaClion
was made to confift, about the time when gafes were
firft difcovered. Nitric acid, to the production of which
it is well known how much animal fubltances contribute
in artificial nitre pits, avifes from the union of oxygen
with azot. A certain quantity of hydrogen gas is ex¬
tricated, and carries off with it carbon, fulphur, and
even phofporus : hence the various noifome fmells, and,
perhaps the phofphorefcence, of all putrefying animal
matter. When all thefe volatile principles have united
two and two together, and diffufed themfelves in the
atmofphere, nothing remains but a portion of carbon,
combined or mingled with fixed faline fubftances, fuch
as the phofphats of foda and of lime. Thefe relidua
form a fort of mould termed animal earth, which fre¬
quently retains a little fulpliurated and carbonated hy¬
drogen gas, fat, and extraCI, and in this vegetables find
in abundance the principles requifite for the formation
of their materials. It is on this account, that the refi-
duum of animal matter is fo proper for manure, when
fuflieienfly conceded. A certain portion of water is
neceflary for this putrid decompofltion of animal fub¬
ftances : it furniflies them with the quantity of oxygen,
neceflary to the compofition of carbonic and nitrid acids ;
and it contributes highly to the prod udion of the putre¬
factive movement, by the attradions of the oxygen it
introduces to them. It is equally indubitable, that the
hydrogen ariling from the decompofltion of this water,
contributes greatly to the formation of ammoniac : for
it is a well known fad, that, when animal matters are
diluted with a large quantity of water, they furnifli
abundance of ammoniac in their decompofltion.
Putrefadion, coniifting in a feries of particular attrac¬
tions, is modified in many different ways by external cir-
cumllances, fuch as temperature, the medium the animal
fubftance occupies, the ftate of the atmofphere, whether
more or lefs light or heavy, moift or dry, &c. Thus dead
bodies buried in the earth, immerfed in water, or fuf-
pended in the air, are differently affeded ; and moreover
their bulk, their quantity, their propinquity to other
bodies, and all the varying properties of the three me¬
diums above enumerated, diverlify the effeds produced.
VoL.lV, No. xS7.
I S T R Y. 173
We have proofs of this affertion, in what happens to
bodies interred fingly, and thofe which are buried in
numbers heaped on one another. The former, furround-
ed with a large quantity of earth, are foon deftroyed by
putrefadion ; the aeriform or liquid produds of which
are abforbed by this earthy mafs, or by the atmofphere.
The latter, not having around them this kind of earthy
or atmofpheric recipient, remain a long time without be¬
ing deftroyed ; and the animal matter is wholly convert¬
ed into ammoniac and concrete oil, which are known to
form a foap fimilar to that which is found in the foil of
burying-places furcharged with dead. The phenomena
attending the defiirudion of animal fubftances immerfed
in water are likewife different. As new produds are
formed, the water diffolves them, and tranfmits them to
the air. Continual moifture, with a conftant temperature
fomewhat above 3a0, favours the putrefadion of thefe
fubftances, and their diffolution into a ftate of gas. Oil
the contrary, a hot and dry air, volatilizing the water,
deficcates and hardens the bodies of animals, and pre-
ferves them almoft as well as the dry and burning land
of Egypt, fo abounding in natural mummies. Though
all the circumftances of putrefadion, and the almoft in¬
numerable varieties of the phenomena they exhibit, are
not yet deferibed, or even known, we have difcovered,
that they are confined to the converfion of complex fub¬
ftances into fubftances lefs compound ; that nature re-
ftores to new combinations the materials which fhe had
but lent, as it were, to vegetables and animals ; and that
file thus accomplifhes the perpetual circle of compofitions
and decompofitions, which attefts her power, andaemoir-
ftrates her fecundity, while it announces equal grandeur
and fimplicity in the courfe of her operations.
Befide the fubjeds mentioned at the end of the two
preceding fedions, to which the articles of t his almoft
diredly apply, we find, in the feveral fails here enume¬
rated, the following dedudions : The prefervation of all
fubftances extraded from vegetables : the feveral fpon-
taneous alterations they undergo, the acetous fermenta¬
tion, the vinous, &c. the produds of thefe alterations,
frequently employed for the purpofes of the arts : the
produdion of ammoniac and nitric acid : the influence
of putrefadion in the different regions of living bodies :
the contagion and maladies produced by the effluvia of
putrefied fubftances : the theory of the fituation and ma¬
nagement of hofpitals, drains, finks, layftalls, cemete¬
ries, See.
Of PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY-, with the MODERN
CHEMICAL APPARATUS.
Pradical chemiftry teaches to deted and to know the
intimate and reciprocal adion of bodies upon each other;
how to feparate their parts ; and to reunite or combine
them when feparated : and this it does by two method?,
viz. analyfs, or decompofltion ; and fynthefis, or combi¬
nation. Thefe two methods are incefl'antly pradifed in
the grand operations of nature, and of which the che-
mift is only an imitator.
Examples of fimple and compound Analyfis.
Analyfs is either funple, or compound : fimple, when by
fynthefis we can reunite the body with the fubftances
which refult from the analyfis : but, when this cannot
be done, it is called complicated or compound. Thus, in
analyfing a folid body, as cinnabar, we find it compofed
of two fubftances, mercury and fulphur. If we unite
thefe tw’o bodies, wefhall find the fubftance appear again
juft as it was before decompofltion : this, therefore is
fimple analyfis. But, if we analyfe a piece of wood, the
refults will be, 1. A matter as long and as broad as the
piece of wood, not quite fo thick, lighter, of a black
colour, without fmell or fibres, eafily broken ; this is
called carbon, or coal. 2. A deep-red water tinged with
black. 3. Another water of a lighter red, lefs filled with
denie molecules than the firft. But to unite thefe parts,
Y y and
174 C H E M
and bring back the wood to its original Hate, is im-
poffible. This is therefofe what conlti Lutes compound
analyfis.
Synthcfs, is that operation which ferves as a proof of
the analyfis. Many fynihefes are made in analyfing a
body ; for, if that body contains three or four 1'ubltances,
two or three of them often unite while we are feparating
the third or fourth. Ecfides, the order and proportion
which enter into the competition of a body, give occa-
fion to many iynthefes. By order is meant the nature of
the bodies which combine ; and proportion is the quantity
of the parts of each of the bodies which unite together.
And this intimate and reciprocal a 51 jo n of bodies upon
each other is produced by attraction.
Chemical attraction, is the principle of the intimate
aftion of the molecules of the body, which we are to
diftinguilh from the viral a£tiori. Mr. Kirwan, defines
it to be, “ that power by which the invilible particles of
different bodies intermix and unite with each other ib ill -
timately, as to be inseparable by mere mechanical means.
Tn this refpeftit differs from magnetic and ele£trical at-
traftion. It alfo differs from the attraftion of cohefion
in this, that the latter takes place betwixt particles of al¬
most all forts of bodies whole lhrfaces are brought into
immediate contact with each other ; for chemical attraction
does not aft with that degree of indifference, but canfes a
body already united to another, to quit that other and unite
with a third; and hence it is called 'elective attraction.”
This principle was well known in the earlielt times, but it
was not attended to with fufiicient care, till experience had
Ihown that its influence on the praftice, is equal to that on
the theory, of the fcience we are treating of. It is this doc¬
trine that mult g.uide the praftitioner in the refearches
neccffiry for the advancement of chemiftry, and muff
be confulted by the philofopher who collefts and com¬
pares the fadts. It is the compafs. by which both muff
tteer; and it may be truly affirmed, that he wrho clofely
inveftigates the chemical attractions, will fpeedily know
every thing that the fublimell chemiftry has to offer.
There are two kinds of chemical attraction : the mole¬
cular, or attfaftion of aggregation; and the atcraftion
of compofition. The difference between tliefe two kinds
of attraction, is, that aggregation gives always the lame
body for the l'efult, becaule it confilts only in the fuc-
cefiiveand conitant collection of fimiiar molecules. Hence
where the attraction of aggregation t cafes, the aftion of
compofition begins. The attraction of compofition, on
the contrary, forms different bodies, according to the
order and proportion in which the different molecules
ox elementary particles are brought together. Thefe
operations, as may be imagined, are infinite as to form,
colour, and all other modifications.
Examples of the At t raff ion of Aggregation. — Two drops
of water, and two globules of mercury, occafion an ag¬
gregation; but nothing can thence arile but an increale
of the mafs, without the nature of the fubftance under¬
going the lead: change. But here aggregation muft not
Be confounded with colleffion : in the latter, the integral
parts have no fenfible adhefion. Aggregation and col-
leftion, again, muff be diftinguilhed from mixture: a
mixture always contains conftituent parts of a different
nature; as gun-powder; and, in general, all the phar¬
maceutical compound powders. There are alfo different
forts of aggregates ; hard or folid, foft, fluid, and gaieous.
Solid, as wood, fulphur, &c. Soft, as pitch, the fat of
meat, Sec. Liquid, as water, oil, alcolial, &c. Gafeous,
as air, and the different vapours or Itearas. Aggregates
are likewife divided into, irregular , as native ltone; re¬
gular, as cryltallized ftone ; organical, as wood, and
bone. Def ruffian of aggregation, denotes the mecha¬
nical means employed by analyfis to divide bodies. By
kftening the aggregation, bodies prelent lets adhefion
and more furface : thus is the aftion of chemical agents
facilitated, and their energy increaied.
Examples of the Attraction of Compofition. — Ten Laws,
2
S T R Y.
eftabliflied by Fourcroy include all the , phenomena of
the attraftion of compofition.
I. It takes place only between different bodies. — To de-
monftrate that two heterogeneous bodies aft mutually
upon each other, by reciprocally giving out their parti¬
cular properties, put into a glafs a little potalh, or pow¬
dered marble, pour thereon lome nitric acid. The phe¬
nomenon which takes place, and the compofition which
refults, prove, that thefe bodies, though heterogeneous,
combine extremely well.
II. It takes place Only between the leaf moleciilcs of bo¬
dies. — To Ihew that attraftion afts ienfibly only on the
elementary molecules of bodies, put fulphur in lubftance
in contaft with alcohol, and there will be no aftion ; but,
it powdered fulphur be put with the alcohol, then they
will form an union. To perform this, powdered fulphur
is to be put into a glals cucurbit, fufpended within a
vefiel containing alcohol, as fliewn in Plate I. fig. i. of
the chemical apparatus : put on the head or top, 'and
fatten a linall matrafs to its neck; then lute all the join¬
ings clofe, and heat the apparatus. The fulphur fub-
limes, the alcohol vclatilifes ; in this ftate the two bodies
meet; the alcohol diffolvts the fulphur; and a flightiy-
coloured fluid is found in the matrafs : this is fhlpburate.l
alcohol. To prove that the fulphur has been dillolyecL
by the alcohol, add thereto fome diltilled water, and fui-
phur is precipitated. By putting together ammoniac
and muriatic acid, the fame elfcft is produced. A white
linoke immediately arifes ; the muriatic acid mixes with
the ammoniac, and hence is produced the comnolition,
called muriat of ammoniac.
III. Attraction tnay take place between federal bodies ,
as in Darcet’s Mixture. — This is a mixture of eight parts-
of bifmuth, live of lead, and three of tin. The com¬
binations of acids with alkalis may alfo, be brought as
examples to this rule; the formation of the fulphuric
acid, or the combination of fulphur with oxygen, &cu
which Fourcroy denominates complicated attiadfions.
This term, however, has been rejedted by Morveau, as
conveying an incorreft notion of what occurs in the
cafes of chemical combination to which it refers. “ It
frequently happens, lie obferves, that three feparate bo¬
dies, meeting in a fluid ftate, unite and form a Angle
mals, which has all the charafters of a homogeneous,
compound, and which retains this charafter, till its com¬
pofition has been altered l?y chemical means. Such, for
example, is the alloy of gold, fiiver, and topper. It has been
faid, that this triple compound is formed by complicated
affinity-, but this kind of 'expreffion ferves only to divert
the mind from taking a juft view of the experiment. It
is not the fimultaneous and reciprocal aftion of the three
metals on one another, that is eflential to the fuccels of
the experiment ; we have this proof of it, that precifely
the fame alloy is obtained, whether the gold be firifc
united to the iilver or to the copper, or though the coo¬
per be firft united to the fiiver. We have, therefore, two
fucceflive combinations during the experiment. In the
firft of thefe, a particle of one of the metals comes into
contaft, and unites with a particle of one of the other
metals ; and, in thefecond, this newly formed compound
unites to a particle of the third metal, in confequence
of the aflinit)^ which, as a compound, it acquires for
that metal. There is nothing peculiar or extraordinary
in this. We have, as in other cafes, two chemical forces
afting in fucceffion, and two fucceflive combinations
formed. What has been faid of the alloy of three me¬
tals, may be applied to all fimiiar cafes, whatever be the
nature or the number of the fubftances employed.” See
article Affinity of the chemical part of the Encyclopedie
Metbodique, page 550.
IV. That bodies may unite chemically, one of the two at
leaf mttf be liquid orfiuid. — There are bodies which cannot
analyle themtelves, though they conilantly obey the law
of fynthefis. There are others which cannot analyle,
and then unite with other bodies, till after feme prelimi¬
nary
CHEMISTRY. 175
•nary preparations have taken place ; thus, it would be
uleiefs to leave fnlplmr and mercury together in a veffe),
becaufe they would form no combination ; but, if caloric
be added, they will readily unite. In the fame manner,
in making of glafs, if one of the fubftances which en¬
ters into the compofition be not rendered, fluid, there
would be no action between them: we are therefore
obliged to add caloric ; the alkali is thus rendered fluid,
the land then melts ; and thus glafs is made. The union
of an acid with any earth whatever, is another proof of
the neceiTity of one body being liquid : from this phe¬
nomenon arifes what is called a Jolution. Examples
of the various phenomena of folutipn may be noticed
from fugarin lump or in powder; fea-falt cryftallifed, or
in powder, &c.
V. When the attraction of compofition takes place between
bodies, their temperature changes. — By applying experiment
to theory, the truth of this affertion will appear. When
lime is hilled, we know that there is a. di .'engagement of
caloric. If concentrated fulphuric acid be mixed with
watir, a confiderable heat is produced, fo that by plung¬
ing in a tube containing water, it will be made to boil :
the proportion necefihry for this, is four parts of the
acid to one of the water. If muriat of ammoniac be
difl'olvecl ip water, a thermometer plunged therein will
fall confiderably. This effedt will be much more fenfible
in a mixture of muriat of foda with ice. If a quantity
of water of .60 degrees of heat be' poured on an equal
quantity of ice, the melted refult will be o ; 60 degrees of
heat will therefore have been combined.
VI. Bodies between which the attraction of cotnpnfilion
takes place, acquire different qualities from what the bodies
themfelfoes pojfejfed before. — I his truth is a fundamental
axiom in chemillry, and infinitely worthy of attention.
Chemifts in general have thought that the properties of
a compound body held a medium between the properties
of the fubftances which compofed it ; this is an error
which it is important to correCl ; a prejudice which it is
elfential to remove, b'ec'aufe it tends to hinder the pro-
grefs of the art. This rule therefore requires to be exa¬
mined under different points of view. 1. In the tajle,
exemplified ,by oxygenated muriat of mercury, and ful-
phat of potafli. Thefe prove, that the taller is very dif¬
ferent when the bodies are combined. The firft is moll
deadly poifon ; yet its conllituent parts (muriatic acid
and mercury) may be taken feparately without injury to
the human frame. The fecond is bitter and flightiy pur¬
gative, while neither the fulphuric acid nor the potafli
have of thenrfelves either of thefe properties. 2. In fmell,
exemplified by muriate of ammoniac, and fulphur of
'potafli. The muriat of ammoniac affords an example of
two odorous bodies, which form a compofition without
fmell. Sulphure of potafli, on the other hand, when
moillened, gives out a fetid fmell ; yet neither fulphur
nor potafli, in their dry flate, have any fmell. 3. In
colour, exemplified by red and yellow oxyds of lead : blue
oxyd of cobalt : green oxyd of copper, &c. By com¬
paring thefe different oxyds with the pure metals, it
will be eafy to fee the difference between them. It is the
fame thing with relpebt to form, confluence, infufimlity.
See. Two fubftances which are very infufible, or' very
difficult to fufie feparately, become very fufible when
united ; the combinations of fulphur and of metals, af¬
ford very ftriking examples of this faft.
VII. The force of the attraction of compofition is- meafur'ed-
by the difficulty of feparating the component parts. — Many
chemifts have taught the contrary of this fact, for the fol¬
lowing reafons : — Nitrous acid eafily combines with mer¬
cury ; but the muriatic with great difficulty ; he:.ce they
concluded that the nitrous acid had more affinity with
mercury than the muriatic acid. This fpecious reafoning
is erroneous for, if the nitrous acid combines ealiiy with
mercury, it quits it as eafily ; and, if there is a difficulty
in uniting the muriatic acid with the mercury, the dif¬
ficulty of difengaging it is alfo equally great. Farther,
if muriatic acid be poured over nitrat of mercury, it
will unite with the mercury, and f.parate the nitrous
acid ; which is an evident proof of the truth of this law.
VIII. There is a <ve>-y different attraction of compofition
between all bodies in nature. — This we iludl eafily demon-
ftrate, Fourcroy divides this attraction into Ample or
Angle elefiiive attractions, and double or compound elec¬
tive attractions. If into a diffolution, containing two
fubftances, we add a third body which produces a fepa-
ration of one of the difiolved bodies, this body, re-ap¬
pearing under a folid-form, takes the name of precipitate,
and is an example of limple'eleCfive attraction or affinity.
But there are feveral kinds of precipitates : true, falle,
pure, and impure. A true precipitate is when the body
feparated falls to the bottom of the veffel ; it is falfe,
when the mixture is precipitated. A precipitate is pure
when with the refults the original body may be recom-
pofed ; it is impure when this cannot be done, and when
it is poflible to reduce it ftill farther from its original
ftate. But it is neceffary to obferve that precipitation
does not always take place in the body expelled or difen-
gaged ; for it frequently happens, in decompofing a
body formed of two fubftances by the intervention of a
third, that the expelled body volatilifes, or is diffipated
in the form of an aerial fluid. We have an inftance of
this in the decompofition of muriat of ammoniac by
means of quick-lime; a calcareous muriat is formed,
and the ammoniac is volatilifed.
Double or compound eleCti-ve attraction. — Double affinity,
is the decompofition of one body by another compolfid
of two or three fqbftance, but which could not be done
by thole fubftances taken feparately. This attraction or
affinity may be considered. in two ftates. 1. Neceffary.
2. Superfluous ; and which may be illuftrated by the fol¬
lowing formula :
Nitrat of foda.
A
Soda
7 . . D .
O Nitric acid.
of led-f ^ S- RdMcent "altraClions4=i2 )- ous
B
£r.
o'
Sulphuric acid 5 Lime
13
Calcare-
ni-
trat.
L_
Sulphat of lime.
This table is thus explained : a compofition of fulphu¬
ric acid B, and one of foda A, cannot be decoinpofed
by the lime C, nor by the nitric acid D, taken leparate-
ly ; but the analyied compound CD will decompole the
compofition, BA, becaule C and D have lefs affinity to¬
wards BA than B and A have to each other, and CD
have more affinity towards one of thole bodies than that
body has towards them. The firft are called duvellejit af¬
finities, the lall quiefeent. When the quiefeent affinities-
are ftronger than the diveilenf, it makes no change in.
the combinations ; but, if the divellent affinities are
ftrongeft, the txilting combinations are broken, and new
ones are formed. This method of affinities may be fur¬
ther explained by the following formula :
Muriat of potafh.
Muriat
of .
b ary ter. | Barytes
Muriatic acid. 32
4-
36
P-ctafn
; 45
14 Carbonic acid
'46
I Carbo-
/” n at of
potafh
Carbonat of barytes.
If
jy6
CHEMISTR Y,
If a folution of inurlat of barytes be mixed with a
folution of carbonat of potalh, the affinity of the mu¬
riatic acid with the barytes, and that of the potaffi with
the carbonic acid, are quiefcent affinities. The affinity
of the muriatic acid with the potafh, and that of the
barytes with the carbonic acid, are divellent. Thefe
lalt are ftrongell or molt numerous : the firft combinations
are broken ; and, inftead of muriat of barytes and car¬
bonat of potalh, we have muriat of potaffi and carbo¬
nat of barytes, which, being inlbluble in water, is pre¬
cipitated.
In every cafe where more than three bodies are requir¬
ed for the production of any chemical change, we are to
confider the change as depending not on fimple affinities,
or on the independent affinities of fmgle bodies to one
another, but upon the fum of all the affinities that con¬
cur in tending to the lame end. To illuilrate the prin¬
ciple, that in double elective attractions, the condition
by which decompofition is determined, is the relative
fum of the divellent and quiefcent affinities, and not the
itrength of any fingle affinity in particular, it may be
proper to give an inftance in which no decompofition takes
place, when two fubftances are ufed together, though
either of them could have effected it if employed fepa-
rateiy. The acetit of lime is decompofed by loda ; it is
alfo decompofed by the muriatic acid ; yet it refills the
aftion of the muriat of foda. The following table will
illuftrate this :
Acetit f Acetous acid 25 Soda 1 Muriat
of < 19 -j- 28 I — 47 > of
lime. I^Lime 20 Muriatic acid J
= 45 I
In this inftance the affinity of foda with the acetous acid
is greater than the affinity of lime with the acetous acid ;
and the affinity of the muriatic acid with lime is greater
than the affinity of the acetous acid with lime; but the
fum of the quiefcent affinities is greater than the fum of
the divellent affinities, and therefore no decompofition
takes place. In many cafes of chemical mixture, the
affinities of more than four fubftances are concerned ;
and, though fuch cafes are of the fame nature with thole
of double elebtive attraction, yet that term feems inap¬
plicable to them, as it implies the agency of only four
fubftances. Morveau has, therefore, lubftituted the lan¬
guage of concurrent affinity (affinite par concours), as the
general expreffion for that tendency to chemical combi¬
nation, which is rendered efficacious by the conjoined
operation of more affinities than one. It is probable that
this expreffion will be adopted in the place of Bergman’s,
which is evidently too reftrifted in its literal application.
It may alfo farther be obl'erved, that in every chemical
combination which is preceded by decompofition, the
divellent and quiefcent affinities mull be equally attend¬
ed to, in order to form a proper efcimate of the experi¬
ment ; for the quiefcent affinities, even when they cannot
prevent decompofition entirely, are Hill able to diminilh
the promptitude with which it takes place, and frequent¬
ly to Hop its progrefs at a lower point of faturation than
the divellent l'ubltance would otherwife require. It will
alfo happen, on fome occafions, that the concurrence of
feveral divellent affinities, though not abfolutely necei-
fary to produce a particular effedl, will yet accomplilh
it more completely, and with greater facility, than any
of them ftngly could have done.
IX. Attraction in the inverfe Ratio of Saturation. — If
fulphuric acid be brought in contadl with mercury, we
Ihall obtain, by the help of caloric, fulphureous acid nnd
fulphat of mercury. A part of the acid then is decom-
poied; the oxygen which made it fulphuric acid has
oxydated the mercury. The firft portions of the oxy¬
gen then are eaiily difengaged, while the laft adhere
itrongly to the fulpliur; lienee it arifes that the firft
molecules which unite to a body adhere much more ftrong-
ly than the laft; and, in proportion as it approaches to
the point of faturation, the molecules adhere lefs and lefs
to the body, fo that it is often very eafy to feparate the
firft molecules from the principles of a compound, while
the latter molecules are feparuted with great difficulty :
and of which the example above given is a linking proof.
Predifpofng Attractions. — Sulphur works no change.up-
on water; which proves that fulphur has lefs attrablion
for oxygen than hydrogen has ; but, if fulphur be united
v.’ith an alkali, this compofiticn decompofes water, thougli
the 3lkali itfelf has no attraction for the oxygen ; the
alkali then can onlylae attracted by the fulphuric acid,
which Ihould be formed by the union of the fulphur with
the oxygen of the water. This attraction favours the
decompofition of the water, and is what is called predif-
pofmg' attraction. The refults of the experiment are, an
alkaline which has the property of decompofing water
when brought into contafil; a fulphurated hydrogenous
gas is expelled, and the oxygen of the water flies upon
the. fulphur which is formed of the fulphuric acid, and
which poffeffes itfelf of the alkali to form a fulphat.
To thefe laws of chemical affinity propofed by Four-
croy, M. Morveau has added the following two : I. He
Ihows, by a variety of initances, that when two bodies
are prefented to one another, the faturated compound
which refults from their union is capable of combining
with an accefs of one of its conftituents ; but the affinity
which produces this laft combination is not the fame with
the affinity which unites together the conftituents of the
compound itfelf; nor has it any known ratio to this lat¬
ter affinity, but appears in every cafe to be very much
inferior to it in ftrength. The following is an appofite
illuftration of thefe faffs and inferences. The fulphat of
barytes is one of the ftrongeft combinations in chemiltry
and one of the moll perfefl neutral falts. When the
concentrated fulphuric acid is boiled over this fait, a
confiderable quantity of it is diffolved by the acid, and
this quantity is inftantly precipitated by the addition of
water. We have in this cafe a faturated compound (the
fulphat of barytes) uniting with an excels of the fnl-
phuric acid, but forming with it a combination infinite¬
ly weaker than the fulphat of barytes, lince it is decom¬
pofed by the fingle affinity of the fulphuric acid with
water. The following cafe will lerve as another example
of a compound uniting with an excefs of one of its con-
llituents, and at the fame time will explain an apparent
exception to the ordinary laws of chemiltry. It is
known that the fulphuric acid has a greater affinity w'ith
potalh than the nitric acid has. Yet Baume, having
diffolved the fulphat of potalh in an equal w’eight of the
nitric acid, obtained, after filtrating and evaporating the
liquid, a confiderable quantity of cryltallized nitrat of
potalh. In this curious experiment there is a part only
of the fulphat of potalh decompofed, and what remains
is combined with an excefs of acid. From thefe data,
and from analogous experiments with the muriatic and
tartarous acids, Morveau has conftrufted the following
table, to explain in what manner part of the fait is de»
compofed.
Nitrat of potalh#.
_
r
Nitric acid.
58
1
Potalh faturating
z
+
about one third of
the neutral fait.
62 — 64
Sulphatof potalh which
34
Sulphuric acid faturat-
remains undecompofed.
—
ing the fame quantity
_
— 9Z
of the fait.
j
; v —
Sulphat of potalh with
an excefs of acid.
To take but one other example : — Morveau procured
oxalate of lime, by adding lime-water to the oxalic acid;
the liquor was lliil mamfeltly acid ; he feparated the oxa¬
late.
CHE M I
late, poured a little diftilled water .upon it, to carry oft’
any uncombined acid which plight be adhering to it, and,
having placed it to dige'ft in the Syrup of violets, he
found, at the end of a' few hours, that the fyrup was
quite green. We have, in this in fiance, the example of
a compound uniting with an excels of one of its confti-
tuenfts, though an excels of the other was prefent.
II. Chemical affinity is influenced by temperature ; its
aft ion being accelerated, retarded, prevented, or ren¬
dered efficacious, according to the degree of the tempe¬
rature, There are two cafes in which temperature mo¬
difies the aftion of chemical affinity. In the one, the
composition of bodies is changed, in confequence of the
different affinities of their condiment parts with caloric,
at different temperatures. Let the affinity of A with
B — 6, and its affinity with C— 5 ; 'and let A and C be ve¬
ry fixed lubftances, or at lealtmuch lefs volatile than II ;
it is evident that A will unite with B at the common tem¬
perature of the atmolphere. But, if we continually aug¬
ment the temperature of the three bodies, the tendency
of B to the Hate of vapour will increafe in a fuller ratio
than that of the other two, till at length this tendency,
in addition to the affinity of C with A, will overcome the
oppofing affinities; B will efcape in the Hate of vapour,
and. C will combine with A. Obvious examples of this
mode of influencing affinity by means of temperature,
occur in every part of chemiftry.
2. But there are cafes where the accumulation of ca¬
loric appears to be a condition effentially requisite to de¬
termine bodies to unite, without the caloric combining
with any principle feparated from thefe bodies at the in-
ltant of their union, or remaining in combination with
the new compound formed. This happens particularly
in cafes of conibultion. Every one knows, that, either a
very high temperature, or an ignited (park, is neceflary
to dilpofe hydrogenous gas to combine with the oxygen
of atmofpheric air or oxygenous gas. In the fame man¬
ner charcoal, l'ulphur, phofphorus, &c. require a certain
temperature for their combuftion, and this temperature
vaiies according to the condition of the oxygen preferr¬
ed to them. Some of thefe bodies, phofphorus in par¬
ticular, burn at different temperatures, but with very
different phenomena. Thefe eftefts of temperature up¬
on the affinities have been expreffed in a general form by
Morveau; but lie has not attempted to give any rati¬
onale of their caufe ; nor indeed has any fatisfaftory ex¬
planation of them yet been given. From fome curfory
obfervations made by Berthollet, in an Efl'ay on the
Combination of Metallic Oxyds with Alkalis and Lime,
it would appear, that, together, with Monge, he con¬
ceives that this effieft of caloric may be generalized, by
aflimilating it with the operation of mechanical preffiure
in producing certain chemical combinations. Dr. Hig¬
gins has al(o propoled an hypothefis on the Subject. See
Minutes of the Society for Philofophical Experiments
and Converfations.
Two lubftances may have an affinity for each other,
and yet there may be lome condition wanting, which is
neceflary for their chemical combination. Acids do not
unite with alkalis, unlefs the one or the other be diflblved
in water. Metals do not form alloys with one another,
unlefs in the Hate of fufion. Metals are not 1'oluble in
acids, unlefs they be previously oxydated ; and fome me¬
tallic oxyds, thofe of iron and manganefe for example,
are capable of uniting with an excels of oxygen, fo as* to
be rendered a fecond time inl’oluble in acids. To pro¬
cure a chemical union in thefe cafes, it is neceflary to
diffolve the acid or alkali in water; to reduce the metals
to the llate of fufion ; to oxydate the metals that are to be
combined with acids ; and to difoxygenate in part, thole
oxyds which have received an.exceis of oxygen. But
when fubllances have an affinity for one another, and
are prevented from combining together, as in thefe in¬
stances, by the abfence of lome condition neceflary for
Vql. IV, No. 187.
S T R Y. T77
their union, Morveau applies the term cf affimte difpoje i?
to exprefs the change that takes place in the operation cl
their affinities when the obstacle to their union is remo¬
ved. The ufe of this term may be illustrated from an
explanation that ha’s been given of tlie facility with which
iron dilfolves in the diluted' Sulphuric acid. It is necel-
fary to mention that iron, like the other metals* is info-'
luble in acids, unlefs previously oxydated. It is alio
neceflary to obferve, that iron, decompofcs water Slowly
at the common temperature of the atrriofphere ; but when
a little fulphuric acid is added to the mixture of water
and iron, the water is then decompofed rapidly,- and an
oxyd of iron formed, which is immediately diflblved by
the acid. But upon what principle does the fulphuric
acid accelerate the decomposition of the* water, Since it is
incapable of uniting with the iron till the latter has al¬
ready de.compofed the water, and acquired the ftaie ot a
black oxyd ? We anfwer, that the iron, in its metallic
Slate, lids an affinity with the fulphuric acid; that this
affinity is indeed incapable of producing combination,
b.ecaufe the iron, in its metallic Slate, cannot unite che¬
mically with any acid; but this affinity, Superadded to
the affinity which the iron has for the oxygen of the wa¬
ter, increafes the Sum of the divellent powers that concur
in producing the fame feries of chemical effefts. The
affinity of the acid with the iron, and the affinity of the
iron with the oxygen of the water, teiidto the fame com¬
mon end, and therefore favour each other’s operation.
The affinity cf the iron with the acid is unable to pro¬
duce combination; we muff have the affinity, rendered
efficacious (the affinite difpofee of Morveau); we muff have
the iron oxydated. This is accomplished by the con¬
curring affinities of the iron with the acid, of the iron
with the oxygen of the water, and of the acid with the
oxygen of the water, as forming a neceflary constituent
of the metallic oxyd.
It would appear, then, that the term of affinite difpofee
may be retained in chemiftry, as the general expreffion
for the effeft of thofe changes in the condition of bodies ;
in Qonfequence of which, their previously exifting affini¬
ties are enabled to unite them chemically, and without
which their union is impoflible. The affinite difp fee in¬
cludes, as a more comprehenfive expreffion, what has
been called the affinity of intermedium. It is true, that
the fulphat of iron is ultimately formed in confequence
of the affinity of the fulphuric acid with the oxyd of iron ;
but how are we to explain the rapid oxydation of the
iron, without a previously exifting affinity between the.
acid andiron, in its metallic Slate; and why not a gene¬
ral expreffion, for the effeft produced by the removing
of thofe obftacles in the prefent condition of a body,
which prevent its affinity for another body from accom¬
plishing their union. The anomalous appearances which
had fuggefted to Baume and Cornette the idea of reci¬
procal affinity, have been accounted for, on the received
principles of chemiftry, by Bergman and Berthollet;
and their explanations have been adopted by Morveau.
The views entertained by the molt phiiofdphic of the
modern chemifts, upon this interesting fubjeft, are too
remote from immediate application, to find a place with
any propriety, in an elementary work. They will be:
found in Bergman’s OpuJ'cula , in Macquer’s Dittionncdre
de Cbimie, article Fefanteur, and in tlie article affinity, of
the chemical part of the Encyclopedic Methodique.
OF THE PRINCIPLES OF BODIES.
In every age philofophers have admitted, that all the
variety of natural bodies are formed of primary Sub¬
stances, more Ample than themfely.es, which they have
diftinguifhed by the name of principles. Chemifts, who
have the llrongeft conviction of this leading truth from
their analyles, have formed ideas, Sufficiently precife, of .
the nature and difference of thele principles; and have
even admitted Several daffies of them. It mult, how*,
Zz > ever,
j7S C H E M I
ever, be remarked, that they ufe the word principle in a
different- fenfe from that adopted by the ancient philofo-
phers. For Ariftotle and Plato did not regard any fub-
ftances as principles, but fuch as are too minute to be
perceived by the fienfes ; and form, by their alfemblage,
bodies fomewhat lefs fimple, which are within the fphere
of perception, and were by them called elements ; a name
itili retained, and applied in the fame fenfe. Thefe are
what other philofophers have called atoms, or monades.
But c'nemifts, not chooiing to enter rafhly into fpecula-
tions of fuch fubtlety, apply the term principle in gene¬
ral to all bodies, whether fimple, or more or lefs com¬
pounded, which they obtain in their analyfes. Yet as
principles, confidered in this point of view, are very dif¬
ferent from each other, they have divided them- into
■proximate and remote principles. The firft are fuch as
are feparated by a firlt analyfis, and may themfelves be
compofed of others ; as for example, in decompofing a
vegetable fubftance, oils, mucilages, falts, and colouring
matter, are feparated from each other, and are the proxi¬
mate principles from which, by new operations, other
principles may be had. By remote principles they mean
fubftances more fimple than the former, and which enter
into their compofition, fince they may be obtained from
them. Thus mucilage, which is a proximate principle
of plants, affords, by a new analyfis, oil, water, and
earth, which are the remote principles of the plant.
Other names have alfo been given to thefe two orders
of principles, fuch as principiated principles applied to
thofe before called proximate, and principiant principles
to thofe called remote. Thefe words imply, that the lirft
are compofed of other principles, and that the laft are
fuch as ferve to form or conftitute others more com¬
pounded. Some chemifts, for greater accuracy of difi-
tindion, admit feveral orders of principles. They call
the molt fimple, or thofe which cannot be farther de-
compofed by the name of primitive, primary, or firff
principles. Principles compofed of the molt fimple kind
united are called lecondary, or principles of the fecond
order. Principles of the third order or ternary, are com¬
pofed of thefe laft ; and laftly, thofe into the formation
of which principles of the third order enter, are termed
quaternary, or principles of the fourth order, &c.
The number of elements has not been always the fame
among philofophers. Some, with Thales the Milelian,
who w-as placed in the rank of the feven fages of Greece,
on account of his uncommon acquifitions in knowledge,
and who, according to Cicero, was the firft of the Gre¬
cians who applied himfelf to natural philofophy, have
regarded water as the principle of all things. Accord¬
ing to Anaximenes, air occupies this firft place ; and he
did not fcruple to deify this element, on account of its
great importance. Some conferred this privilege on fire ;
others beftowed the chief dignity upon the earth ; the
leader of whom was Anaximander, the difciple of Thales,
and mafter of Anaximenes. Every one found reafons to
fupport his owm opinion ; but, as the true method of
conducing chemical and philofophical inquiries was not
then known, we can only efteem thefe early notions as
fpeculations, void of all foundation. About three cen¬
turies after the time of thefe philofophers, Empedocles,
a phyfician of Agrigentum, thinking that the fimplicity
of the four fubftances contended for as the principle of
all things to be equal, united their opinions, by admit¬
ting of four elements, fire, air, earth, and water. In the
fucceeding age, Ariftotle and Zeno adopted this opinion
of Empedocles. When we refled on the reafons that
may have engaged thefe philofophers to regard fire, air,
earth, and water, as elements, we are tempted to believe
that it was not fo much in confequence of the accurate
knowledge they could have acquired concerning thefe
bodies, as in confideration of the magnitude or quantity
of them, and the conllancy or invariability of their pro¬
perties. Fire exifts every where, and its effects are always
a
S T R Y,
the fame. Our globe is fuiYOUnded by a mafs of air, the
quantity and etfential properties of which do not feem
iubjed to variation. Water is prefented to obfervation
on the furface of the globe, in an immenfe mafs, that fills
up or conceals its abyffes or cavities. And, laftly, the
globe itfelf, whofe volume far exceeds that of all the
creatures that inhabit it, feems to be formed of a fblid
matter, little fubjed to change, capable of fixing or ferv-
ing as a bale for the other elements. It appears, there¬
fore, that it was from confiderations, founded on the
bulk and apparent immutability of thefe bodies, that the
early fages were induced to regard them as the materials
ufed by nature in the formation of all other beings.
The peripatetic dodrine which prevailed in the lchools,
preferved the Ariftotelian diftindion of elements, till the
fixteenth century. At that period, the fed of chemifts,
which began to prevail againft the others, admitted a
new' divifion of primary fubftances. Paracelfus, who was
more of the artift than of the philofopher, drew imme¬
diate inferences from the refults of his operations, and
acknowledged five principles; fpirit, or mercury ; phlegm,
or water; fait; fulphur, or oil; and earth. By fpirit, or
mercury, he underftood every volatile and odorous fub¬
ftance, though fimplicity is far from being a conftant
attendant on thefe properties. Water, or phlegm, com¬
prehended in his fyftem, all the aqueous and infipid pro-
duds, and is liable to the fame objedion with refped to
its pretended fimplicity. The w'ord fulphur, or oil, de¬
noted all inflammable and liquid fubftances, and con-
fequently a great number of bodies more or lefs com¬
pounded, as the fat and efiential oils, &c. By fait, he
indicated every dry fubftance poflefling tafte and folubi-
lity, qualities that belong to a great number of com¬
pounds. Laftly, the word earth was applied in the doc¬
trine of Paracelfus, to the dry, fixed, and infipid refidues
of operations, all of which are now known to differ ex¬
ceedingly from each other.
Beecher, a chernift, who has treated his fubjed in the
molt philofophical manner, was aware of the objections
that might be urged againft the doctrine of Paracelfus,
and, from a convidion of its infufficiency, he took an¬
other method of arriving at the elements of bodies. He
firft diftinguifhed two principles very different from each
other, humidity and drynefs, water and earth. He di¬
vided this laft into three fpecies ; namely, the vitrifiable,
inflammable, and mercurial. Vitrifiable earth, accord¬
ing to him, was that which alone poffefled the greateft
immutability; but, when mixed with fome faline earth,
was capable of forming the molt perfed glafs. He like-
wife attributed to it the property of rendering the com¬
binations into which it entered folid, and little fubjed to
change. The inflammable earth was known by the com-
bultibility of the combinations it enters into. Beecher
regarded it as the caufe of fmell, colour, and volatility.
The mercurial earth he fuppofed to confift in mercury,
arlenic, marine acid, See. and its peculiar character was
that of giving a very confiderable volatility and fpecific
gravity to the compounds in which it exifted, two in-
confiftent and oppolite qualities. Stahl adopted, and
commented on, the doctrine of Beecher. He regarded
the inflammable earth as fire fixed in bodies, and gave it
the name of phlogifton. He could not fucceed in de-
monftrating the exiftence of mercurial earth, and there
has nothing been done to this day, which at all efta-
blilhes it. Stahl paid the greateft attention to combina¬
tions containing earth, water, and efpecially phlogifton ;
but he has faid nothing concerning air, which Hales,
nearly at the fame period, proved to be a principal agent
in chemical phenomena. From the time of Beecher and
Stahl to the prelent, no change has been made by che¬
mifts in the dodrine of the elements laid dow>n by the
ancient philofophers. Like Empedocles, they have ac¬
knowledged four elements, and have confidered each in
two different Hates, i. As free, or initiated; in the
large
CHE M I
large mattes of air in the atmofphere, fire taken in gene¬
ral, water; and the earth, attended to at large, a. Or as
combined ; and in this Hate they corifider the air, water,
and earth, obtained from different bodies in their ulti¬
mate analyfis.
Such were nearly the opinions adopted refpefting the
principles of bodies, from the time of Beecher and Stahl,
till the valuable difeoveries of Prieftley and Lavoifier, on
fixed air and combination, neceflarily introduced new
opinions. In fa£t, if immutability of properties, unity,
and fimplicity, be the true characters of elements j and
if it be admitted that this fimplicity no longer exifts,
when a body is found to be capable of decompofition, it
muft be remarked: i. That among the four elements
there are at prefent two, namely, air and water, the prin¬
ciples of which, art has fucceeded in decompofing and
feparating. a. That elementary earth is a creature of
the imagination ; fince it is now abundantly fhewn, that
there are many earthy fubftances equally fimple and in¬
capable of decompofition. From this general enumera¬
tion of fads hereafter to be fully explained, it follows,
that the true principles, or firft elements of natural fub¬
ftances, efcape our fenfes and our inftruments ; that many
of thofe which have been called elements, on account of
their volume, their influence in the phenomena of na¬
ture, and their multiplied exiftence in its different pro¬
ducts, are very far from being fimple and unchangeable
bodies 5 and that probably there is no body which falls
under our fenfes which is fimple, but only appears
fuch to us, becaufe we do not poffefs the means cf de-
compofing it. Thefe affertions, moreover, agree with
the opinions of fome of the ancient philofophers, who
did not regard the elements as the moll fimple bodies,
but fuppoted them to be formed of principles of afar
greater degree of tenuity and unchangeablenefs. Thefe
notions concerning thofe bodies, which have for fo many
ages enjoyed the exclufive title of elements, and to which
we deny that prerogative, do not prevent us from con-
fid ering fire, air, earth, and water, as containing the
principles of which moft natural bodies are formed, and
of which we fhall now treat.
OF FIRE.
Among the four bodies anciently called elements, no
one appears to be more aftive, nor at the fame time more
fimple, than fire. The moft early philofophers, and af¬
ter them philofophers in every age, have given this name
to a fubltance which they l'uppofed to be a fluid ex¬
tremely moveable and penetrating, formed of particles
continually agitated, by them regarded as the principle
of fluidity and of motion. When we refleCt on this fub-
jeCt, we fhall find that thefe properties could oniy be at¬
tributed by conjecture to a body placed among the ele¬
ments, fince its exiftence has never been demonftrated j
as that of the three other elementary fubftances has al¬
ways. been. It is, indeed, natural to think that this
name, fire, has, in all languages and times, been given
to the imprejfwn that heated bodies -communicate, or
make on the fenfes : and which is fynonymous to the
term heat, as well as to the light that bodies emit when
in combuftion. This is the idea which the greater part
of mankind entertains ; they recognize the prefence of
fire only by that of heat and combuftion. The chan¬
cellor Bacon is one of the firft who doubted the exiftence
of fire as a peculiar fluid, and took notice that philofo¬
phers ; in defining it, had always miftaken a property for
a feparate fubftance. Boerhaave, whole Treatile on Fire
will always be regarded as a mafter-piece, was fenfible of
this difficulty, and, in order to render the properties of
this pretended element more evident, he examined its
effeCls on bodies wherein it is thought to exift ; fo that
he, like all the philofophers who preceded him, has writ¬
ten a hiftory of heated, luminous, ratified, burning, bo¬
dies, rather than that of fire itlelf. This confulion is
likely to be always found in natural philofophy j for the
S T R Y. 179
properties of fire are neceflarily connected with thofe of
the bodies whereon it acts; fo far from having it in our .
power to infulate it, we cannot even form an idea of its
feparate exiftence : and, notwithftandirig the advanced
ftate of chemiftry, it has not been found poflible to feize
and confine this principle, which philofophers feem agreed
to call a fluid, and whofe effects they explain with fuffi-
cient facility, when, led by cuftom, they regard its ex¬
iftence as well eftablithed. Thefe difficulties have caufed
feveral chemifts, and in particular Macquer, to believe,
that fire is nothing elfe but light, and that heat is a mo¬
dification of bodies arifing from the motion and collifion
of their particles. This opinion no longer exifts among
philofophers who cultivate the fcience of chemiftry. To
form an adequate notion of the different theories pro-
pofed for fome years paft, refpeCting fire, we muft not con¬
fine attention to general pofitions. The ideas we fhould
deliver, would be as vague as the fubjeCt itfelf. The only
method of attaining exaCtnefs, is to divide the fubjeCt,
and examine its operations of light and heat, attributed
to combined fire, formerly called phlogifton.
OF LIGHT.
The phyfical properties of light are, elaflicity, weight,
reflection, and tranfparency. It would be difficult to-
make experiments on this part of natural philofophy,
without entering into difquifitions which do not belong to-
this article. Such are in general the properties of light
as free, or as emanating from the fun and the fixed ftars.
Let it be our province to confider it chemically, or in the
mode in which it aCls upon bodies, forms combinations,
decompofitions, &c.
Effetts of light upon acids. — -If concentrated nitric acid
be poured into a decanter, with a ftopper of cryftal, and
expofed to the fun’s rays, in a certain time the decanter
will be full of red vapours, and become nitrous. If
oxygenated muriatic acid be expofed to the light, oxygen
gas is produced. For this purpofe, the muriatic oxy¬
genated acid is to be poured into a decanter ; adapt
thereto a glafs tube, which is to pals under the bell-glafs
of an alembic, or jar of the pneumatic machine, hereaf¬
ter to be deferibed; care muft be taken that the tube do
not touch the acid. The light ftriking direftly upon the
liquor, decompofes this acid ; one part of the oxygen
oxyds the manganefe which was employed in oxygena¬
ting the muriatic acid, and the other is difengaged in
the ftate of oxygen gas: thus wre readily obtain common
muriatic acid.
Effcfis on metallic oxyds. — If red oxyd of mercury be
expofed to the rays of the fun, the oxyd will be decom-
pofed j the oxygen it contains, which makes it an oxyd,.
will be difengaged, and the metallic oxyd will recover its.
natural ftate. Metallic falts may alfo ferve as proofs to
Ihew the adtion of light. Muriat of fiiver is thus prepa¬
red : Take nitrat of fiiver in folution j add muriatic
acid thereto ; it attacks the oxyd of fiiver, and forms an
indifl'oluble fait, which is muriat of fiiver. Expofe this
muriat to the light, on a piece of glafs which has black
paper parted underneath it : in a few hours it will be feen
that the light has a died only on the furface j the fait is
reduced to the metallic ftate ; but where the light has
not penetrated there is no decompofition.
EffeSls on vegetation. — Light is hurtful to the growth,
of feeds. Put the feeds of creffes on a bit of cork wrap¬
ped up in blotting-paper j leave it to float on the water 5.
if deprived of light, you will fee how quickly they will
thoot up, compared with Inch to which light is admitted.
The more light they are expofed to, the more tardy are.
the feeds in growing up ; fo that the brighteft light, that
of the tun, is always the moft hurtful to them.
Light prefents another very curious phenomenon :
Place a certain number of leaves in a bell-glafs full of
water ; reverfe it, and expofe it to. the afition of caloric •,
a gas will be difengaged from the leaves, which, befides-
jnany other properties, will have that of being improper
for
180 CHE M
for combuflion. If, on the contrary, the fame appara¬
tus be exp tied to the fun's rays, a gas will be produced
which has the property of being fit for combnftion : which
thews clearly that the produmon'.of this fluid arifes from
the influence of the light upon the leaves.
Light changes the colour of vegetable fubftances ; de-'
prived of light, they become pale and infipid, and are
what we call etiolated. Plants grow very well in perfect
darknefs, and even increafe falter than in the fun, pro¬
vided the air which furrounds them be refpirable. The
mode the gardeners ule for the etiolation or bleaching of
endive, celery, lettuce, &c. is well known ; when come
to a certain height, they bind them round, or earth them
up, and thus deprive them cf all contaft with the light.
Maturity and the refinous principle are properties which
depend thereon. An obfervation made by M. Humboldt,
might lead to uleful inquiries on the fubjedt of etiolation,
lie found that feveral plants of the clals cryptogamia,
(fee Botany, vol. iii. p. 279-) fuch as the lichen verti-
cellatus, pufli out green Italics, though pi iced in mines,
where the light has no accefs to 'them ; and that feveral
of the gramma, the poa annua and trefolium arvenfe in
particular, have green leaves, when growing in the gal¬
leries of certain mines, at the depth of lixty toifes be¬
low the furface of the earth. Examining the air in
thefe fituatio.ns, he found that it was mingled with hy¬
drogenous gas. It would feem, from this cafual ob-
fervation, that the prefence of hydrogenous gas compen-
fates, to a certain extent, in vegetation, for the abfence
of light. M. Ingenhoufz has alfo remarked, that when
hydrogenous gas is mingled with the air in which vege-=
tables grow, the verdure of the latter acquires a much
deeper (hade. M. Humboldt alfo mentions, that he has
difeevered another fpecies of lichen in the mines at Ma-
rienburg, which had ramifications of a bright green co¬
lour. He alfo found, that the cheiranthus incanus, and
cheiranthus cheiri, placed in certain circumftances, pufli
out green leaves, without the prefence of light. He im¬
putes thefe lingular phenomena to the hydrogenous gas
uniting with the excefs of oxygen, which he fitppofes to
be prefect in etiolated plants, and to be the immediate
caufe of their etiolation. See Journal de Phjfique, part 2d,
for 1793.
The more plants are expofed to the folar rays, the
more colour they acquire. Such, therefore, is the ori¬
gin of thofe colouring matters, of fo much value for
their livelinefs and durability, which many of the ealtern
nations extract from woods, bark, and roots, &c. and
which the utmoft induflry of the European dyers has not
fkcceeded in imitating. But colour is not tlie only pro¬
perty that is obtained by vegetables from the contadl of
the rays of light. Take, odour, and combullibility, are
likewife derived from the fame fource. Light contributes
greatly to the maturity of fruits, and is the caufe why, ur.*
der the burning fun of South America, vegetables are in
general more odoriferous, of a ftronger ffate, and more
abounding with refin. From the fame caufe it happens,
that hot climates feem tu be the native country of per¬
fumes, ftrong fmelling fruits, dying woods, and refills, of
various kinds. Laftly, the aflion of light is fo powerful
on the organifm of vegetables, as to caufe them to pour
forth torrents of vital, or pure air, from the fuperior
iurtace of their leaves into the atmofphere, while expofed
to the fun-fhine ; whereas, on the contrary, when in the
fhade they exhale nothing but a noxious fluid, or true
acid, (miliar to that obtained from chalk. This im¬
portant difeovery, due to Dr. Prieftley, and more mi¬
nutely inquired into by M. Ingenhoufz, (hews, in a link¬
ing manner, the influence of light on vegetation.
W e fee, likewife, that the influence of light upon living
animals has a very ftnfible effedl : earth-worms and wood-
lice are whitifh ; birds of night, and moths, are diftin-
guifhed from birds who feek the light, and from butter-
■flies, by their pale ini perfect colours : there is a difference
alfo between thofe of the north and thole of the foutb.
S T R Y.
Animals accuflomed to the light, on being deprived cf
it, fall lick, and even die. Ira man be long {hut in a
dark dungeon, puttules filled, with watery matter, arile
on the (kin, and he becomes dropfical.
Dr. Hutton, of Edinburgh, has lately pointed out a new
principle in the adlion of light, confiaered as a power in¬
fluencing the temperature of bodies ; and has applied this
principle to the explanation of various phenomena. Dif-
fertation on the Philcfophy of Light, Heat, and Fire, 1794.
The following are his (peculations upon that fubjedl : he
obferves, that the efficacy of the different fpecies cf light,
in railing the temperature of bodies, is not proportioned
to their adtion upon the fenfe of vifion. The influence
of the red light from a fire of coals, and of the white
light from flame, upon the thermometer, were compared
together: when the intenfityof their aflion upon the or¬
gan of fight was apparently the fame, it was found that
the effedt of the red light upon the inflrument was in¬
comparably greater than that of the white light. When
bodies are heated to incandefcence, they emit light, in
which the white or compound fpecies prevails; but, as
their temperature diminifhes, the light gradually be¬
comes of the red fpecies. It would appear, from this
obletvation, that the light emitted from bodies, while
they pais from the ftate of incandefcence to the com¬
mon temperature of the atmofphere, has its power of
exciting vifion diminlfhed in a greater ratio than its
power of influencing temperature. When the light emit¬
ted from a body ceafes to be vifible, we are not to con¬
clude that the body ceafes to radiate light. The fact
proves no more, but that the light radiated is unable to
excite our fenfe of vifion. This light emitted from bo¬
dies, without affedling fenfibly the organ of fight, is call¬
ed, by Dr. Hutton, obfeure or invilibJe light.
We have feeiy that the light emitted from bodies, as
they pafs from the Hate of incandefcence to the common
temperature of the atmofphere, has its power of exciting
vifion diminiflied in a greater ratio than its power of
influencing temperature. It may therefore happen, that
our obfeure or invifible light fhali flill retain the power of
fenfibly influencing temperature; and this fufpicion will
be confirmed, if we find that a fubflance exhibiting the
dillindlive properties of light is radiated from a body of
elevated temperature, but not luminous; and if we find
that this radiated fubflance is capable of railing the ther¬
mometer. But this is precifcly what happens in the ex¬
periments made by Sauffure and Pidlet. Two concave
mirrors are placed oppofite to one another, at the dis¬
tance of many feet, the bulb of a thermometer is in the
focus of the one, and a glafs matrafs, filled with boiling
water, or an iron bullet heated fo as to be juft not vifi¬
ble in the dark, is placed in the focus of the other. A
fubflance is radiated. from the matrafs or iron bullet; it
palfes with incalculable velocity through the air; is re¬
flected from the mirrors, and concentrated according to
the laws of light, and then influences the thermometer
placed in the focus, according to the degree of its con¬
centration.
It is fuppofed by Sauffure and Pidlet, that the fubflance
radiated in thefe experiments, is mot any fpecies of light,
but what Lambert and Sauffure calls chaleur obfeure ; that
is, caloric unaccompanied with light. But the proper¬
ties of this radiation, its velocity and reflexibiiity, iden¬
tify it with light, while they are inconfiflent with the flow
dilfulion of caloric, and with the known dilpofition of
caloric to be arrefted by the bodies through which it
paffes, or with which it comes into contadl. The above
experiment, made by M. Pictet, ferves to confirm this
reafoning. He blackened the bulb of bis thermometer,
and found that it was then more fpeedily influenced by
the radiation than before, and that it role to a greater
height. But it is notorious, that black fuvfaces abforb
light more powerfully than white lurfaces do, and have
their temperature more confiderably a fie died by it. It
may be urged, in objedlion to this conchuion, that if we
fuppofe
C H E M
fuppofe the thermometer dilated by the reflected and
concentrated light, why ftiouid not that light be ren¬
dered vifible by the concentration ? Dr. Hutton con¬
ceives, that, fince the peculiar efficacy of this tight, in
affecting the temperature of bodies, mult depend on its
greater aptitude to combine with them, this lame difpo-
lition for combination, will dif'qualify it from appearing
as light. At the lame time, he leaves to experimental-
ills to determine how far this fpecies of light, afrer hav¬
ing once diTappeared to our ltnfes, is incapable of be¬
coming again vifible ; unlefs the temperature of the body
with which it has combined, be railed to the degree of
incandel'cence, in which cafe it may pollibiy be emitted
from the body, as vifible light. Taking it for granted that
the emanation which affedls the thermometer in thefe
experiments, is invifible light; we learn, from the fame
experiments, compared with others made by Marriotte
and Scheele, that this invifible fpecies of light is much
abforbed in palling through a.glafs lens, while it is but
little diminilhed, in being reflected by a metallic furface.
Dr. Hutton afterwards proceeds to analyfe M. Piftet's
curious experiment of apparently refledted cold : it will,
however, be unnecefl'ary to repeat this part of his work ;
for, although his oblervations on the phenomena of that
lingular experiment appear to be exceedingly juft, and
his doubts refpedting the courfe of the radiation to be
founded on the molt folid grounds, yet he has left the
lubjedt in a ftate of confelfed uncertainty ; having mere¬
ly pointed it out, without having performed any of the
experiments necefl'ary for its elucidation. In the courfe
of liis oblervations on this experiment, he is led to pro-
pole another hypothefis refpedting invifible light. He
fuppofes that bodies are conftantly radiating invifible
light, in proportion to their temperatures ; and that this
invifible light falling upon other bodies, railes their
temperature, or is refledted by them, according to their
relpedtive natures. At the lame time, the fenfible heat
of bodies (the free caloric) is always tending to equili¬
brium, according to the laws of its dilfufion, and in con-
lequence of the mechanical operation of the elaftic fluids
conveying it from place to place. From the combina¬
tion of thefe caufes, the temperature of bodies is always
tending, on the one hand, to equality ; and this perfedl
equality is, on the other hand, prevented from adtually
taking place, by the different difpofitions of bodies to
abforb invifible light, and to have their temperatures af-
fedted by it. Dr. Hutton applied this theory to explain
M. Pidtet’s experiment, and at the lame time fuggefts
an experiment, by which he conceives the truth of his
own theory may be confirmed, or its fallacy difcovered.
It may be worth while to add, that M. Prevoft, of Ge¬
neva, has publiflied fome fpeculations, extremely analo¬
gous, in many rel'pedts, to Dr. Hutton’s views upon this
tubjedt; with this difference, that what Dr. Hutton calls
invifible light, M. Prevoft, conformably to Sauflure’s
opinion, terms chaleur rayonnante. Recherches Pbyfico-Me~
chaniques fur la Chaleur, 1 79Z.
It is, after all, impoftible for chemifts, in the prefent
ftate of the fcience, to decide, whether the light emitted
during combuftion, be derived principally, from the corn-
buftible body, or from the oxygenous gas ? For it feems
improper to derive it exclufively from either, when there
is realon to believe that it enters into the compofition
of both. It mult be confelfed, indeed, that the evidence
for light being a conftituent part of oxygenous gas, is
far from being unexceptionable. The principal argu¬
ment is taken from the fingular influence of light, in
feparating oxygen from its combinations, and making it
aflume the ftate of oxygenous gas. Light, as we have
feen, difengages oxygenous gas from the nitric acid,
from the oxygenated muriatic acid, and from the oxyds
of feveral metals. But in thefe, and many fimilar in-
ftances, does the light combine with'the oxygenous gas?
Or, does it unite with the fubftance from which the oxj'-
gen is feparated ? There is no fiidt in chemjftry that will
Vox. IV. No. 188.
: S T R Y. • 181
enable us to decide between thefe two hypothefes ; and
thole chemifts who, with Fourcroy, regard light and ca¬
loric as two fubftances eflentially different, have abfo-
lutely no realon for inclining to the one hypothefis, in
preference to the other. The exiltence ot light, as a
conftituent part of combuftible bodies, is proved in the
molt latisfactory manner, by the experiments of Deiman,
Pacts, and Van Trootfwyck. Thefe chemifts expofed a
mixture of lulphur and zink to a high temperature, with¬
out any fubftance being prefent, from which they could
derive oxygen. At the inllant when the lulphur and
zink formed a fulphure, there was a vivid emiffion of
light ; and, when the materials were afterwards examin¬
ed, it was found that no oxydation had taken place.
This experiment fucceeds with other metals, befides zink;
fuch as copper, tin, lead, and faintly with iron. It has
been tried with equal fuccefs in vacuo, above mercury,
and in hydrogenous, azotic, and carbonic acid, gafes.
It has been for a long time a defideratum in chemif-
try, to pollels a method of meafuring the quantity of
light emitted from bodies in the ftate of combination.
Count Rumford has publilhed, in the Pliilofophical
Tranlaftions for 1794, the delcription of a very ilmple
inftrument, which he has contrived for this purpofe.
The following are the principle refults of his experi¬
ments with this inftrument, which is called a photometer.
The tranl’parency of air is fo great, that the diminu¬
tion which light buffers in pafiing through fixteen or eigh¬
teen feet of air, is not perceptible with this inftrument.
Somewhat lels than z-ioths of a beam of light are loft in
palling through a pane of fine, clear, transparent, well-
polifhed, glafs, fuch as is commonly made ufe of in the
conltruftion of looking-glafl’es ; fomewhat more than
3-ioths are loft in palling through two panes of fuch
glafs; and about 12-iooths, in palling through a pane
of thin colourlefs window-glafs. The light fell perpen¬
dicularly upon the glafs in thefe experiments ; but the
lofs was very little greater in oblique incidences, pro¬
vided the angle of incidence did not exceed 4.0° or 50°.
Somewhat more than i-3d of a beam of light was loft by
reflection from a yery excellent glafs mirror; and about
46-iooths, from a common looking-glafs. The angle of
incidence was 450, and the rel’ult was not fenfibly af¬
fected by increafing the angle to 85°. Count Rumford
has collected, in the following table, the refults of his
experiments on combuftion. It is to be obferved, that
each of the under-mentioned articles is luppofed to af¬
ford the fame quantity of light; the table denoting how
much of each mult be employed for that purpofe.
Equal parts
in weight.
Bees wax. A good wax candle, kept well fnuff-
ed, and burning with a Gear bright
flame ... 10®
Tallow, A good tallow candle, kept well
fnuffed, and burning with a bright
flame . . . . . 10 1
The fame tallow candle, burning
very dim, for want of lnufling . 229
Olive oil. Burned in Argand’s lamp . . . .11®
The fame burned in a common lamp,
with a clear bright flame, without
fmoke . 129
Rape oil. Burned in the fame manner. . . . 125
Lintieed oil. Likewife burned in the lame manner 100
Count Rumford concludes his paper with an account
of fome experiments on the tranfparency of flame ; from
which it appears that light lullains no fenfible diminu¬
tion in confequence of pafiing l’ucceffively through the
flames of feveral candles.
OF CALORIC.
Caloric, as we have feen above, is a fubftance which
produces the ienlation of heat. The caloric of the
French chemifts is the phlogifton of Stahl and Priejf-
3 %5
CHEMISTRY.
182
Jey, fynonymous with the igneous fluid of Lavoifier,
with the abfolute heat of Dr. Crawford, and with
the matter of heat of La Place. Th'efe terms exprefs a
particular kind of matter, or a particular quality of
matter, which exills under a variety of modifications
that are mutually convertible. One of thefe modifica¬
tions is free caioric. It is in this (late that caloric affefts
animals with the fenfation of heat, and that it expands
in every direftion the bodies into which it enters. Free
caloric is fynonymous with the exprefilons of interpofed
caloric, uncombined caloric, thermometrical (ire, and
caloric of temperature ; and was formerly called fenjtble
heat. It is communicated in general to bodies in three
ways : 1. By contaft with a heated body. 2. By friftion.
3. By the aft of combination. Dilatable bodies are fo
only by the caloric palling from one body to another ;
according to which circumftances we have dilatation or
condenfation of liquids; an operation which points out
the conftruftion of thermometers. The aftion of caloric
may be confidered as tending to deftroy aggregation, and
to promote combination : this happens from melting.
This objeft may be explained under four principal
heads: x. There are bodies which are not altered, but
only, dilated, by heat. 2. Caloric caules bodies to pafs
from the (olid to the fluid (late: this' phenomenon is
called fufon , and thofe bodies are called fifible bodies:
1'uch are fulphur, lead, & c. This fuflbility, when carried
farther, is called volatilization ; and bodies fufceptible of
this property, are called volatile bodies : Inch are benja¬
min, boiling water, &c. Thofe which have not this pro¬
perty are called fixed. There are feveral degrees of this
volatility: the ultimatum' is bodies melted into gas. 3.
Bodies decompofable without alteration, which confti-
tutes the true analyfis. One of the bodies is always fix¬
ed ; the other volatile : as, oxyd of red mercury, &c.
4. If bodies expofed to the aftion of caloric, be com-
pofed of feveral principles, volatile and fixed, the vola¬
tile parts unite,' and the fixed combine alfo ; hence new
compofitions are produced : this is called falfe analyfis.
All bodies contain two diftinft portions of caloric ; viz.
the combined caloric, and the interpofed or difeagaged
caloric. Combined caloric is that which is fixed to bo¬
dies by the force of affinity or attraftion, conilituting a
part cf their fubftance, even of their folidity. Interpofed
caloric is that which, without being engaged in any com¬
bination, is found between the molecules, or elementary
particles, of bodies. A familiar example will render the
difference between thefe two portions of caloric more
clear. A piece of bread put into water contains two
diftinft portions of water; one portion is in a Hate of
combination, and forms a conftituent part of the bread 5
the other is only interpofed between the particles ; it ap¬
pears as water, and efcapes by prefl'ure.
Caloric is alfo to be diftinguifiied from heat, becaufe
we mull not confound the cffedl and the caufe under the
fame denomination. Heat is only the effeft produced
upon our organs by the pafiage of the caloric which is
dil'engaged from the furrounding bodies. When we touch
a cold body, the caloric pafles from the hand into the
body we touch, and we feel the fenfation of cold ; when
we touch a hot body, the caloric pafles from the body to
the hand, and we have the fenfation of heat. But ail
bodies do not furnilh equally a free and eafy pafiage to
caloric. Here, then, we mud diftinguifh, 1. Caloric con-
dufted; 2. Caloric flopped or obftrufted. Metals, and moil
liquids, furnifii examples of the firft point. If one end
of an iron wire be held in the flame of a candle, the per-
fion loon feels a fenfation of heat. If, on the contrary,
3rou take a coal, lighted at one end, and touch at a little
dillance from the burning end, no fenfation of heat will
be produced. The reafon of thefe effefts is, that the
caloric is quickly propagated or conducted through the
elementary particles of the iron, while the particles of
the coal refill its pafiage. Glals, refins, filk, wool, ft raw,
&c. refill the pafiage of caloric more or lefs 5 or, in other
words, they are good or bad conduftors of heat. From
a due confideration of thefe effefts, it may be feen what
ufeful applications may be made in the arts, and even
in the common concerns of life, by the medium of thefe
properties. The property which bodies have of abforb-
ing a quantity of caloric, is called their capacity. Thus,
to raile to the fame number of degrees the temperature
of two bodies equal either in mals or in volume, it is
generally necefftry to communicate to them unequal
quantities of caloric. Regarding caioric as an eminent¬
ly elaftic fluid, which is always tending to expand, ac¬
cording to certain laws peculiar to itfeif, it is faid that
caloric tends conllantly to the Hate of equilibrium ; and
upon this property of caloric is founded the ufe of ther¬
mometers. When a mercurial thermometer is immerfed
in water, the caloric of the water makes an effort to dif-
fu(e itfeif through the mercury, and the caloric of the
mercury makes an effort to cliffule itfeif through the
water. If the tendencies to expand be equal in thefe
two quantities of caloric, both quantities will remain at
reft ; the mercury will neither be expanded by the en¬
trance of caloric from the water, nor will it be contraft-
ed by the lols of any part of its own caloric. But when
the tendencies to expanfion 'are unequal, the caloric is
impelled from the fubftance where it had exiiled in the
ftate of the greateft tenfion, into the fubftance where it
had exiiled in the ftate of the leaft tenfion ; and this flaw
of caloric continues till the forces expanding it are in
equilibrium. When this happens, the degree of dilata¬
tion of the mercury, or other fluid employed in the con-
Itruftion of the thermometer, is laid to indicate the tem¬
perature of the fubftance to which it is applied.
Caloric is conllantly tending to the ftate of equilibri¬
um, though it pafles with different degrees cf facility
through different fubftances. Bodies are hence laid to
be more or lefs permeable to caloric, or to conduft calo¬
ric more or lefs readily. When equal quantities of wa¬
ter, at different temperatures, or- of any other homoge¬
neous fubftance fuited for fuch experiments, are mixed
together, the caloric flows from the quantity which has
. the higbeft temperature, and diffules itlelf through the
quantity which has the lowed temperature, till the forces
expanding it are in equilibrium in every part of the
mafs; audit is thenfoundthat the temperature of the trials
is the arithmetical mean between the temperatures of the
two quantities that had been originally mixed together.
When equal quantities of two different fubftances, are
taken, and mixed together at different temperatures, the
caloric, as in the former cafe, flows from the body which
has the higheft temperature, and diffufes itfeif through
the body which has the loweft temperature, tiil the ex¬
panding forces are in equilibrium, and confequently till
both fubftances have acquired the fame temperature; but
the temperature of the mixture is no longer, as in the for¬
mer cafe, the arithmetical mean between the temperatures
of the two fubftances that had been originally taken.
In every known inltance it deviates from that mean, ap¬
proaching more or lefs to the temperature ol one of the
fubftances employed. An example will illuftrate this
faft, and the conclufion to be deduced from it. When
a pound of ice, at 32°, is mixed with a pound of the
white oxyd of antimony by nitre (diaphoretic antimo¬
ny), at 27°, the uniform temperature of the mixture is
3 i° ; the ice having loll i° of temperature, and the oxyd
of antimony having gained 40. Now, the oxyd of anti¬
mony receiving precilely as much caloric in this experi¬
ment, as is taken from the ice, it follows, that the lame
quantity of caloric, which is capable of railing the tem-
perature of the oxyd of antimony 40, is capable of raif-
ing the temperature of the ice only i°, fince the abftrac-
tion of it has reduced the temperature ol the ice only i°.
This faft is expreffed by laying, that the capacity of the
white oxyd of antimony for caloric, is to the capacity of
ice for caloric, as one is to four; that is, the capacities
of bodies for caloric exprefs the relative quantities of
caloric,
C FI E M
Caloric, which are neceflary to raife the temperature of
equal quantities of thefe bodies the fame number of' de¬
grees, provided the bodies do not change their hate or
form, while, this increafe of temperature takes place.
Lavoifier and La Place have employed the language of
ipecific heat, to exprels the lame idea.
Temperature denotes the hate by which a body pof-
feffes the power of exciting the undefinable feufations of
heat or coldnefs ; and it is to be observed, that the words
temperature and heat are here taken in the moh extend¬
ed fenfe. The organs of the human frame are not only
im perfect when applied to meafure the temperatures of
bodies, but likewife exceedingly limited in this as well
as in every other fimilar cale. Temperature is therefore
uftd to exprefs every degfee of heat or coldnefs, whether
within the limits of perception or not, and is apprecia¬
ted by the oblervation of its effects on bodies. Heat,
confidered as the caufe of temperature and of other ef¬
fects, is for ever fubjeCt to variation. It is therefore an
objeCt of mathematical inquiry, aspolfeiling quantity ei¬
ther abfolutely, or in the fame fenfe as various attributes,
fuch as ratios or motion, are faid to pofiefs it. But it is
no part of this inquiry, whether heat be motion or mat¬
ter. Perfpicuity requires that thefe objects Ihouid be
feparately attended to.
Bodies in contaCt, or communicating with each other,
do, after a length of time, affume or acquire one com¬
mon temperature ; but the time of acquiring the com¬
mon temperature is different in different bodies. When
the temperature of a given folid is increafed, there is a
certain period at which it becomes fluid ; and, as the tem»
perature is increafed beyond this laft point, the fluid
takes a rare and elaftic form, with more or lei's rapidity
forming vapour. Whether an increafe of temperature
would convert vapour into a fourth ftate, namely, that
of a permanently elaftic fluid, or air, has not been deci¬
ded; but it is probable. The temperatures at. which dif¬
ferent bodies affume the fluid of vaporous Hates, are ex¬
ceedingly various. Some bodies, as for example, mer¬
cury, are not frozen but by extreme cold: others, as
rock cryftal, cannot be melted, but by the moft vehe¬
ment heat modern chemiftry can excite : others again
cannot be brought into fome of the ftates ; and of thefe
the rule is inferred from analogy, till future experiments
may tend to clear up the point. The importance of the
theory ofheat, however in chemical operations, requires
a more ItriCt and critical inveftigation of the fubjeCt than
lias hitherto been given.
. Axiom i. The quantities of heat in two equal bo¬
dies of the fame kind' and temperature are equal.
Theorem i. The quantities of heat in bodies of the
fame kind and temperature are as their maffes.
Theorem 2. Two equal bodies of the fame kind, but
different temperatures, being brought into contaCt ; the
hotter will impart half its furplus of heat to the other.
For they will acquire a common temperature by contact,
and by that means, the quantities of heat will be made
equal. This can only be efteCted. by the hotter body im¬
parting half its furplus.
Theorem 3. Two bodies of the fame kind, but dif¬
ferent temperatures, being brought into contaCt; the
furplus of heat, by means of which the one exceeded the
other m temperature, wall be divided between the two
bodies in proportion to their maffes. For they will ac¬
quire a common temperature, and the whole quantity of
heat in each will then be in proportion to its mafs. This
can only be effected by dividing the furplus in the fame
proportion.
Corollary 1. The quantities of heat required to be
added to, or taken from bodies, of the fame kind, to
bring their temperature to a given ftandard, will be as
their mafies.
Corollary 2. Hence a thermometer, with a very
fmall bulb, may be confidered as poffefiing the tempera¬
ture of the body it is in contaCt with, became the com-
I S T R Y. 183
mon temperature will not fenfibly differ therefrom when
the body is or conftderable magnitude.
The mercurial thermometer nearly meafures the true
increments of temperature. This is determined by an
experiment of De Luc : let a thermometer be graduated
fo as to (how the equal increments of the expanlion of the
mercury ; and the common temperature of two equal bo¬
dies of the fame kind in contaCt (as for example, mea-
lures of water) will be nearly the arithmetical mean be¬
tween the two original temperatures, as ftiown by fuch
an inftrument. The inftrument therefore gives refults
nearly agreeing with dedubtions made from the general
phenomena ofheat, or it nearly meafures the true incre¬
ments of temperature.
Axiom 2. If two equal maffes at different tempera¬
tures be brought into contadt, and the common tempe¬
rature be either higher or lower than the arithmetical
mean, the furplus of heat, by means whereof the one
exceeded the other in temperature, will be unequally di¬
vided ; and the difpofition to be heated, or the capacity
or affinity for heat, is greater in one body than in the
other.
Theorem 4, The capacity of equal mafies for heat
are inverfely, as the changes of temperature they undergo,
when differently heated and brought into contact: and
the contrary. For the furplus of heat is divided into
equal parts-by the thermometer : of thefe parts, the hot¬
ter body lofes a certain number by communication to the
colder, and retains the remainder. The number of de¬
grees loft, conftitutes the change of temperature in the
hotter, and the remainder is the change in the colder.
But caufes are ever proportional to their effeCts ; there¬
fore the capacities are as the proportions of heat retain¬
ed by each, that is, inverfely as the changes of tempera¬
ture.
Corollary r. Hence if any given body, as for exam¬
ple, fluid water, be affirmed as a ftandard, the capacities
of other bodies being experimentally found, may be
ranged numerically, fo as to form an ufeful table.
Corollary 2. The quantities of heat required to be
added to or taken from bodies of equal mafs, t o bring
their temperature to a given ftandard, will be as their
capacities.
Corollary 3. The quantities of heat required to be
added to or taken from bodies in general, to bring their
temperature to a given ftandard, will be as their maffes,
and their capacities jointly.
Corollary 4. The capacities, in general, will be di¬
rectly as the quantities of heat fo taken, and inverfely
as the mafles; or they will be in the inverfe ratio of the
changes of temperature, and the mafles of two bodies
placed in contadt. This, in the form of a practical rule,
is, Multiply the weight of each body by the number of
degrees between its original and the common tempera¬
ture, and the capacities of the bodies for heat will be in¬
verfely as the produCts.
Theorem 5. The whole quantities of heat contained
in the bodies of equal mafs and temperature are as their
capacities. For if the temperatures of various bodies be
luppofed gradually and equally to dim ini (h till the abso¬
lute privation of heat be obtained, the quality of heat
given out in any portion of the time wiil be proportional
m each body to its capacity. And the whole time being
made up of fuch portions, the refpeCtive (inns of the quan¬
tities of heat given out by each body will be in the lame
ratio. It is the bufinefs of experiment to determine
whether the ratios of the capacities be the fame in all
temperatures, cceteris manentibus.
Scholium. From the foregoing theorem, many wri¬
ters have called a tabie of capacities by the name of a ta¬
ble of Ipecific heats. Thefe terms, which feem impro¬
per, or at lealf unhappy, becaufe applied to quantities
that continually fluctuate, have certainly rendered the
theory ofheat lets eafy to beginners.
As far as experiments have hitherto been made, it is
• found.
e34- CHE M
found that the capacity ofa given body for heat is leaft
when folid, greater in the fluid llate, an. 1 greateil in the
vaporous date. Thus for example, ice and water being
expofedin equal quantities tofimilar heating matters, as
before a fire, the ice wiil be melted without increife of
temperature, while the water acquires 162° of Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer. Or equal parts of water at 162, and
ice at 32’ being mixed, the ice will melt, and the whole,
inltead of the mean temperature, will remain at 32°. In
either cafe the ice requires 1 30 of heat, which produces
no other effefl than rendering it fluid, and is not fhown
by the thermometer- So likewife the condenfation of
fleam, though little if at all hotter than boiling water,
communicates much more heat to a refrigeratory, than
the fame quantity of water equally hot, and therefore it
contained more heat. The quantity of heat which con-
ftitutes the difference between the feveral llates of the
body, has been improperly called latcfit heat.
Problem. The ratio of the capacities of the fame bo¬
dy in the folid and the fluid ftates, and alio the num¬
ber of degrees the fluid would increafe in temperature by
the heat which would Amply melt the folid, being given ;
it is required to determine the number of degrees of the
lame thermometer, between the natural zero, or ahjolute
privation of heat , and the temperature of the l'olid juft
melting.
The whole quantity of heat in the folid, when juft
melting, will be denoted by the number of degrees of
its temperature from the natural zero: and the whole
quantity of heat in the fluid will be denoted by the fame
number added to the number of degrees the temperature
of the folid would have been railed by the heat applied
to melt it, if its capacity had not been changed by melt¬
ing. This lalt number coniifts of the obferved increale of
temperature in the fluid augmented in the inverfe ratio
of the capacities. Now the capacities of the l'olid and
fluid being as their whole quantities of heat, it will fol¬
low that
The difference between the numbers exprefling the ca¬
pacities.
Is to the number exprefling the capacity of the folid ;
As the difference between their refpe&ive quantities of
heat in the thermometrical degrees of the folid,
Is to the number of degrees expreffmg its whole quan¬
tity of heat, or its temperature from the natural zero.
This in the form of a practical rule, is. Multiply the
number expreffmg the capacity of the fluid into the num¬
ber of degrees the fluid would have increnfed in tempe¬
rature by heat iufficient to melt the folid ; divide this
product by the difference between the numbers exprefling
the capacities, the quotient will be the number of de¬
grees of temperature from the natural zero. From ex¬
periment, it appears, that the natural zero is 1268’ of
Fahrenheit's fcale below o, or 1300 degrees below the
freezing point of water.
Corollary. The difference between the zero of any
fcale, and the natural zero, being once determined from
experiment, it will be eafy in all cafes, where any two
of the three quantities, the capacity of the fluid, the ca¬
pacity of the lolid, and the number of degrees the fluid
would be railed by beat futlicient to melt the folid, are
given, to find the third.
The foregoing theory of heat maybe applied to explain
all the changes of temperature in bodies, from the Ut-
moft violence of ignition to the moll intenle cold. For
whenever by condenfation or freezing, or by a change in
the chemical combinations of bodies, the capacities are
diminilhed, a part of the heat contained will be applied
in railing the temperature. And, on the contrary, cold
will be produced whenever bodies are melted, or evapo¬
rated, or any chemical procefs goes forward, by which
the cap ici ties are increafed.
Tne diminution of temperature produced by evapora¬
tion, had been obferved by Marian, and accurately de¬
scribed by Richmannj but it was iirft referred to its pro-
I S T R Y.
per caufe by Dr. Cullen, in bis Eftay on the Cold pro¬
duced by evaporating Fluids. In the 78th volume of the
Philofophical Tranfadlions, Dr. Darwin has related feve¬
ral experiments, to prove that a diminution of tempera¬
ture takes place when the air is mechinically expanded;
and converiely, that the temperature riles when rhe air
is condenied. He has applied this doitrine With great
ingenuity to explain a variety of curious phenomena.
D a Cullen had obierved that a thermometer fufpended
in the receiver of an air pump, finks always two or
three degrees while the air is exhaufted.
1 The grand queftion, whether heat be merely a vibra¬
tion of the parts of bodies, or a peculiar fluid, is not de¬
cided. If heat be merely vibration, it will be fcarcely
poflible to account for its not being univerfaily commu¬
nicated to bodies according to their mafl'es, as the efta-
blilhed laws of motion require; but if heat be a peculiar
fluid, rhe notion of a greater or lefs capacity for that
fluid, whole variations of denfity will be the caufe of
change of temperature, will very naturally account for
the different quantities required to be imbibed or given
out by bodies of equal weight, before a like denfity or
temperature can be produced in all. Neither will it be
at all difficult, according to this hypothelis, to give ve¬
ry probable accounts of what happens when bodies change
their Hates of folidity, fluidity, or vapour. But the va¬
rious theories rel'pedting beat, conlidered as matter, and
a component part of bodies, are not fufiiciently grounded
ondecifive fahts, to admit cf a curlory difeuflion, or in¬
deed to be ranked with the cftabiifhed doftrines collected
and arranged in this place ; though it muff be allowed
that feveral of them do honour to the genius and abilities
of their inventors. The late Dr. Black of Edinburgh,
Profeffor Wilcke of Stockholm, Dr. Irwine of Glalgow,
Dr. Crawford of London, are among the leading names
of philofopliers who invented and illuftrated this excel¬
lent theory; and it is fincerely to be vriihed, that fome
cotemporary writer would fettle their reipedtive claims
before the lapl'e of time fliall have rendered it difficult.
There are two opinions concerning the change of tem¬
perature which bodies undergo when they change their
llate or their mode of combination. By luch changes it
is found that heat is either ablorbed or given out ; or to
fpeak more unexceptionably, the alterations of tempera¬
ture are either lets or greater than would have been in¬
ferred from general reafoning. Some philofophers lay,
that the capacities of the bodies are changed, and there¬
fore require more or lefs heat to occafion limilar muta¬
tions of temperatuie than they did befoie ; others affirm,
that the heat which dilappears or appears has no relation
to the capacity, but is either received in combination, as
a principle of bodies, or given out as luch. 1 hefe poii-
tions are not matter of opinion, but relate to fafts, about
which philofophers will acquire more knowledge by ex¬
periment than by realoning. If the natural zero be de¬
termined truly by Dr. Ii wine’s theorem, noted above,
and the capacities of various bodies in their ftates of io-
lidity and fluidity, be found from direft experiment, the
corollary to that theorem wiil give the number of degrees
the fluid would be railed by heat that would Amply melt
the folid. If this deduftion (hould be found in all cales
to agree with the fads, the former opinion is true ; but
if not, there is a portion of heat not accounted for, which,
if heat be matter, may probably be a princjple of bodies.
There are two methods of determining the capacities
of bodies for caloric. The one confifts in mixing toge¬
ther equal quantities of different bodies at different tem¬
peratures, and oblerving the temperature of the mixture
as foon as it becomes uniform. The capacities of the
bodies are in this cale inverfely, as the changes of tem¬
perature. The other method coniifts in railing the tem¬
perature of different bodies to, the fame degree, enclofing
equal quantities of them feparately in a lphere of ice,
and colleding the quantity of water Whidi is obtained
from the thawing of the internal furface of the ice, while
CHEMISTRY.
the body placed within it is cooled down to the tempera¬
ture of 32°. The capacities in this cafe are direftiy as
the quantities c'f ice melted. The fine of thefe methods
has been praftifed by Dr. Crawford. The fecond was
contrived by Lavoifter and La Place. It is ftill a quef-
tion among chemifts, whether the whole quantities of ca¬
loric contained in equal weights of different bodies, hav¬
ing the fame temperature, be-proportioned to the capa¬
cities of thefe bodies ? It has been -afeertained, that in
many chemical changes, caloric diiappears, is'abforbed,
or becomes Intent-, while, in the converfe of thefe chan¬
ges, precifely the fame quantity of caloric re-appears, is
evolved, becomes free or fenfible. Thus, when n pound
of ice at 32" is mixed with a pound of water at 167^,
the ice is liquefied, but the temperature of the mixture
continues at 320; that is, ice abforbs as much caloric in
thawing, as would raife the temperature of an equal
quantity of water 1 3 50. In the fame manner, when wa¬
ter at ii2° is converted into fleam, the fleam abforbs
as much caloric without having its temperature increaf-
ed by it, as would raife tire temperature of an equal
quantity of water 94.3°, if tire water were not converti¬
ble, at that temperature, into fleam. But the capacity
of fleam for caloric, is greater than the capacity of wa¬
ter, and the capacity of water is greater than the capa¬
city of ice. Confequently, more caloric will be necef-
fary, to give water the temperature of 320, than to give
ice the temperature of 32° ; and more'will be required
to give fleam the temperature of 21 20, than to give wa¬
ter the temperature of 2120. It may then be queftion-
ed, whether the whole caloric that difappears in the melt¬
ing of ice, and in the converfion of water into fleam,
has been abforbed by the water and fleam refpeftively,
in confequence of their change of capacity r Or, whe¬
ther fome part of it has net been chemically united with
the water and fream refpeftively, in fuch a manner as
not to affeft their temperatures? Dr. Crawford in->
clines to the former of thefe hypothefes ; the French che-
miils aredifpofed to admit the latter.
It is principally with the view of determining whether
the fpecific caloric of bodies be proportioned to their ca¬
pacities, that the inquiry after the real zero, or point of
total privation, has been purfued. It is taken for grant¬
ed, in this inquiry, that whenever caloric is abforbed or
evolved by a lyftem of bodies, the quantity abforbed or
evolved has the fame ratio to the whole caloric exifting
in the fyflem after the experiment is concluded, which
the difference between the former. and prefent capacity of
the fyflem has to its prefent capacity. An example v/ill
illuftrate the manner in which the real zero is calculated
from thefe principles. When ice is converted into wa¬
ter, its capacity is increafed in the ratio of nine to ten,
according to Kirwan ; and as much caloric is abforbed,
according to La Place, as would be fufficient to raife the
temperature of water 1 3 5 0 . Let us fuppofe that the
whole of this abforption depends on the change of capa-.
city in the ice; it will follow, that i-roth of the whole
caloric contained in water at 320, is fufficient to main¬
tain the temperature of the water at 135°; and, confe¬
quently, the remaining 9-iotbs will be able to maintain
its temperature, 1350 x 90=:i2i5o. That is, the whole
caloric contained in water at 320, is fufficient to com¬
municate the temperature of i3 5op to a body, having the
fame capacity with water; and therefore theabfolute ze¬
ro, or point of total privation, as determined by this cal¬
culation, is 1328° below o of Fahrenheit’s feale.
When we confiderthe expanfive power of caloric, and
its conlequent tendency to the flate of equilibrium, it is
evident that the real zero, or point of total privation,
mull be the fame in bodies of every kind ; and the pre¬
ceding calculation will therefore conduct us, in every
infiance, to the fame point, provided the principles on
which it is founded arejufl, and provided the neceffary
experiments have been made with accuracy. It is in this
view, that the inquiry after the real zero, ferves to uf-
Yol. IV, No. 1880
185
certain whether the hypothecs be true, that the fpecific
caloric of bodies is proportioned to their capacities.
For, if different experiments fhall, without exception,
indicate the fame po;nt, as the abfolute zero, it may be
inferred, that the liypothefis in queftion is juft ; and, on
the contrary, if the conclufions from different experi¬
ments (hall difagree, and if their differences be greater
than what may be reafonably allowed for, on account of
the difficulty of conducting experiments of fo great nice¬
ty, it may be inferred, that the fpecific caloric of bodies
is not proportioned to their capacities ; that the abforp-
tion and evolution of caloric, in different proceffes, de¬
pend not entirely upon the changes of capacity in the
f’ubftances employed, but, in fome meafure, on the en¬
trance of caloric into chemical combination. The expe¬
riments that have been hitherto made, to afeertain the
real zero, are not fufficiently numerous, nor fufficiently
free from objeftions, to authorife either of the preceding
conclufions, though they are infinitely more favourable
to the latter than to the former.
The diffufion of caloric among a fyflem of bodies,
which was thought analogous to motion, feems to de¬
pend on two caufes; on their refpeftive capacities for
caloric, and on their refpeftive conducting powers. M.
PiCtet has illuftrated the manner in which thefe caufes
co-operate, with Angular perfpicuity. It is impoflible
to place the fubjeft in a clearer point of view than by a
free tranflation from his work. Let us fuppofe a focus,
from which flows a conflant and uniform ftream of calo¬
ric; and let us place at equal diflances from this focus,
and connected with it by the fame medium, a number of
bodies, having the fame nature, and the fame magni¬
tude. Thefe bodies will be filled with caloric in the fame
manner, their temperatures will rife bjr fimilar grada¬
tions, and will ceafe to rife when the caloric they con¬
tain fhall have acquired an expanfive power fuflicient to
refift the introduction of more caloric from the focus.
But let us place at equal diflances from the fame focus, a
number of bodies,' having the fame weight, and differing
in their nature, fuch as a pound of water, a pound of
glafs, a pound of mercury, &c. Thefe bodies will be
filled with caloric as the former bodies were, and they
will arrive at length at the fame common temperature,
but in different times, and by diflimilar gradations.
This difference will depend on the combination of two
caufes. The one is, the different permeability of the bo¬
dies to caloric, or their different conduCling powers, in
confequence of which caloric will take a longer or fhort-
er time to penetrate their fubflance. The other is, the
different capacities of the bodies for caloric, in confe¬
quence of which they will require unequal quantities of
free caloric to arrive at the fame common temperature ;
that is, to the flate in which the free caloric of the whole
fyflem of bodies tends to expand itfelf with the fame force.
We have little accurate information refpefting the
permeability of bodies to caloric. We owe to Dr. Frank¬
lin the obfervation, that the non-conduftors of electrici¬
ty are alfo bad condudtors of caloric, and that the belt
conductors of eleftricity are alfo excellent conductors of
caloric. We have examples of this analogy between the
eleCtric fktid and caloric, in metals upon the one hand,
and in glafs and refinous fubflances on the other.
But this rule is liable to many exception's. The com¬
mon torriceliian vacuum affords a ready paffage to the
eleClric fluid; but Sir B. Tbompfon found, that it was
lefs permeable to caloric than atmofpheric air, which
itfelf is a very bad conduCror of caloric. Sulphur and
oils, which are non-conduftors of eleftricity, are repre-
fented by Humboldt as among the bed conductors of ca¬
loric. In order to conflruft a table of the permeability of
bodies to caloric, it would be necefl'ary to know the times
during which equal weights of different bodies acquire
the kune increafe of temperature when expofed to equal
calorific caufes, or fultain the fame lofs of temperature
when expofed to equal cooling caufes. It would
3 B be
1 86 C H E M ]
be alfo necefiary to know the capacities of the bodies for
caloric. The conducing powers would be diredtly as the
capacities, and inverfely as1 the times, when the chan¬
ges of temperature were equal. But in the attempts that
have been hitherto made to calculate the permeability of
bodies to caloric, the confideration of their capacities
has been uniformly negledted ; and in many of Sir B.
Thompfon’s experiments, unequal weights of different
fubilances were ufed, and no attention afterwards paid
to this difference in calculating the conducting powers,
Be makes, for example, the conducting power of mer¬
cury : conducting power of water : : 1000 : 313; but in
the experiments from which this eftimate is taken, he
had ufed equal volumes of the water and mercury, and
conlequently had communicated the fame increafe of
temperature to more than thirteen times as much mat¬
ter in the one experiment as in the other.
The following table of the condudtingpowers of differ¬
ent fubilances is taken from the Journal de Fhyfique for
OCfober 1793. It is there given as the tranflation from the
German of an efihy by Humboldt, on the Conducting
Powers of different Bodies for Caloric. From the fliort ac¬
count prefixed to it in the Journal de Phyfique, it would
appear to be defective in this refpeCt, that the conduct¬
ing powers of the fubilances which it contains have been
calculated without regard to the differences of their ca¬
pacities; but, as it is the lateit and molt co'mprehenfive
table of the kind, it has been thought the molt proper
for inlertion. It is necefiary to mention, that the con¬
cluding powers given in the table refer to the fame vo¬
lumes, and not to the fame weights, of the fubilances
enumerated.
TABLE OF CONDUCTING POWERS.
Conducing Media.
Specific
Gravities.
CrowI?e Authorities.
Torricellian vacuum
o'i76oSirB.Thomp-
Atmolpheric air, denfity
= 1
*0012
o-2 55oThefame[fon
Rarefied air, denfity=
1“
24th
0-2490 The fame.
Wood allies . . •
1-556°
0-7072 Humboldt.
Sulphuric acid . .
1*7000
0-7764
Rult of iron . . .
4*5000
0*8889
Copper ....
8-5760
0-8970 Richmann.
Iron .
7-8076
0*9430
Brafs .
8-3960
.0-9430
Cow’s milk . . .
1*0300
0-9727 Humboldt.
Vinegar ....
1*01 TO
0-9900 Mayer.
Water ....
I OOOO
1*0000
Gold .
I 9*0400
1-0504 Humboldt.
Moilt air . . .
1-0543 Tliompfon.
Nitrous acid . .
1-5800
1-0989 Humboldt.
Silver .
10*0010
1-2195
Muriatic acid . .
1*1 500
1-2787
Calcareous earth .
2-8570
*•3674
Olive oil ... .
0-9130
1-547-2
Tin .
7-2910
1-5410 Richmann.
Zink .
6-8620
1-5455 Humboldt.
Oxyd of lead . .
8-9400
1-6474
Antimony . . .
6-86oo
1-6952
Alcohol ....
o-8i 50
2*0379
Lintleed oil . . .
09280
2*04I2
Pitcoal ....
1*5000
2-4003 Humboldt.
Mercury ....
iV58o°
1-9700 Mayer.
Lead .....
u'4459
0-3138 Richmann.
Bifmuth ....
98610
2-3584 Humboldt.
E {fence of turpentine
0*7920
2-67 52
Sulphur ....
I'Sooo
3-0358 Humboldt.
Ice .
0-9160
1*21 30
Mercury ....
13-5800
3-1948 Tliompfon.
II. The capacities of bodies for caloric have been fuc-
cefsfully inveftigated by a variety of chemifts. The fol¬
lowing table exhibits the principal conclufions refulting
from thofie experiments. But it is necefiary, in the firlt
place, to explain, what is meant by the permanence of
S T R Y.
the capacities of bodies for caloric. The capacity of a
body for caloric is faid to be permanent , while the fame
quantity of caloric that has railed its temperature any
given number of degrees, continues to be fufficient to
raife its temperature an equal number of degrees. The
capacity of a body for caloric is faid, on the contrary, to
increafe, when more caloric is required to raife it a cer¬
tain number of degrees than was required to raife it an
equal number of degrees, when it had a different tempe¬
rature ; and the capacity is faid to decreafe, when lefs
caloric is required for that purpofe. Dr. Crawford has
made a variety of experiments on this fubjedt. He found
that the capacity of water is permanent from the freezing
to the boiling point ; and afterwards, making ufe of wa¬
ter as a ftandard, he tried fimilar experiment with molt
of the metals and metallic oxyds. The general refult
of thefe experiments tended to prove, that the capaci¬
ties of bodies, while they retain the fame form, are not
liable to be varied by a change of temperature. This
conclufion is corroborated by the uniformity of the law
which bodies obferve in parting with caloric, when they
are placed in a temperature inferior to their own. This
law, firfi invefiigated by Sir Ilaac Newton, and fince cor-
redted and tried experimentally by Martine and MufT-
chfenbrock, fliovvs, from its application to the cooling of
different bodies, that the capacities of thefe bodies are
either permanent, or, if they change, that the changes
are precifely fimilar in all of them.
But thefe experiments embrace only a fmall number
of natural bodies ; and Dr. Crawford’s in particular were
neceflarily confined to a mere point in the fcale of tem¬
perature. It is, therefore, departing from the ft rift lie fs
of induction to conclude, as Dr. Crawford has done,
that the capacities of all bodies are permanent at all
temperatures, provided they do not change their -form.
We have, indeed, the molt complete proof that this
principle is riot to be received -without many limitations.
The capacity of air is increafed by mechanically expand¬
ing it, and diminifhed by mechanically condenfing it.
(Pidtet fur le Fen, and Darwin’s Frigoric Experiments on
the Mechanical Expanfion of Air, Philofophical Tranfac-
tions for 1788.) Mr. Wedgwood’s clay thermometer has
its capacity for caloric diminifhed one-third, when burnt
to 120° of his fcale; and as it loles in weight, during
this operation, little more than two grains on a pound,
while its volume is reduced one-half, the diminution of
capacity rauft be attributed to its condenfation. Thefe
fadts prove decifively that the capacity of a body may be
changed without any change of form ; and the free ca¬
loric evolved from fo many bodies by fridtion and attri¬
tion, while its produdtion is iiluftrated by thefe obfer-
vations, ferves at the fame time to multiply the examples
of a change in the capacity of bodies without a change
in their form. See Wedgwood’s Paper on the Light pro¬
duced by Attrition, Philofophical Tranfadtions for 1792.
It is proper to mention, that Lavoifier and La Place, in
their Memoires fur la Chaleur, had called inqueltion, upon
very plaufible grounds, the fuppoied permanence of the ca¬
pacities. Reafoning from the known effedts of fufion and
evaporation upon the capacities, they fuggefted, as ex¬
tremely probable, that the capacities would alfo vary
with the degree of dilatation, and poffibly according to
a different law for every different body. Subfequent ob-
fervations feem to juftify their conjedture with refpedt to
many bodies at lead.
TABLE OF CAPACITIES.
Authorities.
Hydrogen gas . -4000 Crawford,
Oxygen gas . 4- 7490
Atmolpheric air . 1-7900
Steam or aqueous vapour .... 1 5500
Carbonic acid gas . .1- 4.54.
Arterial blood . . . 1-0300
Water
C H E M
Authorities.
Water . rcooo Crawford.
Cows milk . . '9999
Venous blood . *8928
Azotic gas . . '7936
Hide of an ox with the hair . . . *7870
Lungs of a fheep . '7690
Mufcular fielh of an ox ' . . . . ’7400
Alcohol . '6021
Rice . '5060
Horfe-beans . '5020
Spermaceti oil . '5000
Fruit of the pine-tree . ’5000
Peafe . : . . . '4920
Wheat . . "4770
Barley . "4210
Oats . ’4160
Sulphuric acid . '4290
Pitcoal . '2771
Charcoal . . '263 1
Chalk . '2564
Ruft of iron . ‘2500
Walked diaphoretic antimony . . *2272
Oxyd of copper nearly freed from air '2272
Quicklime . "2229
Cinders . ’1923
Alhes of pitcoal . *1855
Ruft of iron nearly freed from air ’i666
Wafhed diaphoretic antimony do. -1666
Alhes of elm wood . ’1402
Oxyd of zink nearly freed from air ’1369
Iron . ‘1269
Brafs . "1123
Copper . ‘i in
White oxyd of tin almoft free of air '0990
Zink . '0943
Allies of charcoal . -0909
Tin . . . . . '0704
Yellow oxyd of lead almoft free of air -0680
Antimony . ’0645
Lead . '03 52
Snow . '9000 Magellan.
Ice . '9160 Humboldt.
Bar-iron ......... ’1099 Lavoilier&
Rock-cryftal . ’1929 La Place.
Mercury . • 0290
Quicklime . . ’2168
Mixture of 9 parts of water with 16
of quicklime . '4391
Sulphuric acid, having the fp.gr. ofi'87 1 ’3345
Mixture of 4 parts of this acid with
3 parts of water . '6031
Mixture of 4 parts of the fame acid
with 5 of water . ‘6631
Nitric acid, having the fp. gr. of i-29895 -6613
Mixture of 9! of this acid with 1
of quicklime . '6189
Mixture of 1 part of the nitrat of
potalh with 8 parts of water . . -8167
Sulphur . -1830 Kirwan.
Lintfeed oil . -5280
Cryftallized muriat of foda . . . -2260 Gadolin.
Saturated folution of muriat of foda in
water (containing 372 parts of the fait
to 1000 parts of water) .... '793°
Fourcroy feems to be of opinion, that caloric to feme
fubftances imparts additional ponderofity. But fo far
from caloric adding to the weight of bodies, it would
appear, from an experiment very accurately related by
Dr. Fordyce, that caloric ditninijbes the weight of the
bodies into which it enters, as latent caloric. It was found
in this experiment, that 1700 grains of water acquired
by freezing the additional weight of very nearly i-i6th
part of a grain. The water and ice were both weighed
S T R Y. 187
at the temperature of 320. (Philofophical Tranfaflions,
2d Part, for 1785.) This experiment has been confirm¬
ed, in a very fatisfadtory manner, by Sir Benjamin
Thompfon. Water was counterpoifed with fpi.it of
wine, and the apparatus was then placed in a low tempe¬
rature, where the water was frozen, while the fpirit of
wine remained liquid. The water, as in Dr. Fordyce’s
experiment, became heavier, in confequence of its con-
verfion into ice. It is proper at the fame time to ftate,
that, in a fimilar experiment, Lavoilier found no differ¬
ence between the weight of the ice and water. The
quantity of water which he made ufe of in this experi¬
ment was one pound, and it weighed precifely as much
before as it did after it was frozen. The balance he em¬
ployed was fenfible to the difference of i-iotb of a grain
when loaded with eighteen or twenty ounces. (Me-
moires de l’Academie de Sciences, 1783, page 419.) An
attempt has been fince made by Dr. Higgins, to afeer-
tain whether the caloric emitted during the flaking of
lime produces any fenfible difference in the weight of
the materials employed; but the experiment failed.
Since latent caloric appears, from Dr. Fordyce’s ex¬
periment, to diminifh the gravity of bodies, there is
reafon to enquire, whether f ree caloric has not a greater
tendency to afeend than to defeend. M. Pictet has made
feveral experiments to afeertain this point. A cylindri¬
cal bar of copper was placed vertically within a glafs
tube, which was afterwards exhaufted of air, by means
of the air-pump. The concentrated rays of the fun
were thrown upon the middle of the cylinder, and the
fucceffive dilatations of two mercurial thermometers,
connected with its two extremities, were carefully ob¬
served. It was found, that, in the fame times the mer¬
cury in the upper thermometer rofe to a greater height
than in the under one; and, after the light was with¬
drawn, the under thermometer funk fafter than the up¬
per one. EJfai fur le Feu, chap. 2d.
M. Pidftec has publiflied feme experiments on the calo¬
ric produced by friction. He had imagined that the ca¬
loric evolved by friftion was obtained from a mechani¬
cal decompofiticn of the air between the rubbing furfa-
ces; but he found that the fame degree of friftion railed
the thermometer iomewhat higher in vacuo than in the
open air. This difference wasno doubt occalioned by the
greater conducing power and greater capacity of the air
than of the vacuum ; but ftill the experiment lliowed
that his firft conjecture had been unfounded. In hisfub-
fequent experiments, it appeared that more caloric was
evolved by the fridtion of foft bodies againft this fric¬
tion-machine than when hard bodies were employed ;
and the fridtion of a fmall quantity of cotton upon the
bulb of his thermometer, increases the effect molt re¬
markably. EJfai fur le Feu, cliapitre 9.
Notwithftanding thele various refearches into the na¬
ture and principles of light and heat, and the very able
difcuifions of the phlogiltic and antiphlogiftic writers on
chemiltry, it is to be lamented that no abfolute decilion
has yet been made on this long controverted fubjeft.
After the ingenious Lavoifier had fuccefsfully combated
and refuted the phlogiltic lyftem of former chemifts,
M. Bucquet and Macquer endeavoured to rellore the.
fame dodtrine under a different form.
M. Bucquet, in his latter courles cf lectures, explains
upon this principle the greater part of the phenomena of
combuftion, calcination, and reduction .of metallic calces;
but it does not afford adequate reafons for the flame
which is produced by bodies in a ftate of ignition, nor
the rapid motion and other changes that attend it. M.
Macquer, though well aware of tne influence of the mo¬
dern diicoveries on chemical theory, advanced an opinion
that they do not entirely overthrow the phlogiltic doc¬
trine of Stahl ; and he has found means to unite the pneu¬
matic doctrine of the moderns, with that of phlogifton,
by confidering this principle as light fixed in bodies. After
having Ihown that pure light, luch as is emitted by the
*88 C H E M
fun, may be regarded as the true matter of fire, and that
by admitting it as fixed in bodies, it conftitutes the
phlogifton of Stahl, he conceives that in every infiance
of combuftion, the pure air dilengages the light or phlo¬
gifton from inflammable bodies, and occupies its place;
fo that calcination may be regarded as the precipitation
of air, and difengagement of light. When, on the con¬
trary, phlogifton is reftored to neutral fubftances, the
matter of light ferves to dilengage in its turn the air
fixed in thole bodies, by which means they again reiutne
the metallic ftate. In this theory, which perfectly an-
f'wers the intention of its author, by uniting the doctrine
of Stahl with that of the moderns, Macquer thinks that
phlogifton can unite with bodies even in clofed vefiels,
becaufe light, which he regards as the true phlogifton,
paifes through glafs vefiels, as every one knows, and
even penetrates metallic or earthen vefiels when heated
to ignition. Scheeie has propofed a different theory,
which alio had its adherents among the northern chemifts.
He fuppofed that fire, heat, and light, were compounds
of vital air and phlogifton ; that, by palling through the
veflel, the light was decompofed, it depolited its phlo¬
gifton, and the vital air was difengaged as in the reduc¬
tion of the metallic calces or oxyds. But this ingenious
theory, by the afiiftance of which Scheeie explained the
influence of Tolar light and heat differently modified, in a
great number of chemical phenomena, does not afford
the reafon of the increafe of weight in metals, fulphur,
phofphorus, & c. after their combuftion.
The attention of chemifts was next drawn from the
hypothefis of Macquer, to the very ingenious defence
of the ddCtrine of phlogifton by Mr. Kirwan. Accord¬
ing to this philofopher, phlogifton, or the inflammable
principle, may exiit in two different ftates ; ill, Combin¬
ed, as in all bodies fufceptible of combuftion. adly, Free
and ifolatcd, as in inflammable air. Befides the evolution
of light and heat, combuftion, therefore, is fuppofed to
confift in the union of this inflammable principle with
oxygenous gas, and in the confequent generation of car¬
bonic acid. A full account of this hypothefis, which the
author has fince very candidly retraced, may be leen in
the laft edition of Kirwan's Effay on Phlogifton. The
hypothefis of Macquer has alfo of late been revived with
Tome flight alterations by Richter, Gren, Lichtenberg,
and others in Germany. Phlogifton, or the inflammable
principle, according to the fa r ft of thefe chemifts, is mere¬
ly the bafts of light united to coinbuftible bodies. In
combuftion, this bafis is difengaged, and, uniting with
a portion of caloric, produces the light or flame which
ufually accompanies that procefs. The combuftion of
any inflammable fubftance, phofphorus for inftance, is,
therefore, to he confidered as the effeCt of a double affi¬
nity. The bafe of the oxygenous gas, unites with the
pholphcrus to form phofphoric acid, while a portion of
the caloric, difengaged from this gas, unites with the
phlogifton, or bafis of light, to produce flame. The va¬
rieties which occur in the quantity of light emitted by
different bodies, and in the colours which it exhibits, are
fuppofed to depend on the quantity of phlogifton con¬
tained in thefe bodies, and on the proportions in which
it is united to caloric. See Critique des Antiphlogifchen Syf-
tones non J.B. Richter, Brefllau, 1793. SjJlematiches Hand-
buck des Che?nie van F. A. C. Gren. Halle, 1794-
Dr. Hutton has likewife publiflied a new modification
of the phlogiftic doCtrine, together with feveral objec¬
tions to the French theory of combuftion. The follow¬
ing are his principal conclufions upon thefe fubjeCts :
1. The caloric, which becomes free by combuftion, did
not previoufly exift as latent caloric, either in the oxy¬
genous gas confumed, or in the coinbuftible body. 2.
The immediate effect of combuftion is the di/engage¬
ment of light, and this light produces free caloric, by
its aCtion, in the bodies upon which it is incident. To
ufe .Dr. Hutton’s own words, “it is not heat which is
the.caufe of light in fire, but it is the light of fire which
a
I S T R Y.
is then the caufe of heat.” 3. The light which is difen¬
gaged during combuftion previoufly exifted in the burn¬
ing body in the ftate of phlogifton. This phlogifton is
a peculiar modification of the folar fubftance, exifting
in combultible bodies, and diftinCtfrom any modification
of heat. It neither adds to the weight of bodies, nor
does it feem, like latent caloric, to impair their weight.
It communicates duCtility and fplendour to the metals.
It is feparated from its union with gravitating matter
during combuftion, and appears in the form of light. It
is formed in plants during the procefs of vegetation, and
may be transferred from one body to another. See Dif-
fertaiions on Different Subjeds in Natural Phi/ofophy, and
Dffmtations upon the Philosophy of Light, Heat, and Fire,
b/jamesglutton, M.D.
It would be an endlefs, as well as ufelefs talk, to enu¬
merate ail the, different modifications of phlogifton which
have been propofed by the partizans of that doCtrine,
fince Lavoifier firft ventured to queftion its exiftence.
Thofe readers who will take the trouble to perufe all the
different writings on this controverfy, will immediately
perceive that no two -chemifts are agreed with regard to
the precile nature and properties of this principle, and
that it is merely for the name, and not for the thing,
that plilogiftians fo eagerly contend. It would be eafy
to illuftrate the truth of this remark, by a reference to
the writings of Prieftley; Kirwan, Wiegleb, La Methrie,
Macquer, Richter, Gren, &c. but this reference is un-
neceflary. Stahl is univerfally allowed to have been ig¬
norant of the principal phenomenon that occurs in every
inftance of combuftion; and does it not feem ftrange,
that we fhouid adhere tenaceoufiy to the theory which
he invented to explain that procefs, and continue to ufe
the language of a fyftem now fo avowedly defective?
The theory of Lavoifier, if we may to give it that name,
is merely a fimple relation of faffs. Unable to difcover
the fource from which the light is derived in combuftion,
that philofopher, in his Elements of Chemiftry, has taken
care not to mix any hypothefis concerning it with the
faffs he had fully aiccrtained by experiment. Whether
future dif'coveries flia.Il ftiow, that heat and light are mo¬
difications of the fitme fubftance, or that they are cflen-
tially different from each other; whether the whole of
the light difengaged in combuftion (hall be found to
come from the oxygenous gas, or from the coinbuftible
body, or partly from both, the theory of combuftion, as
eftabliflied by Lavoifier, will remain unalterably the fame.
Difcoveries with regard to the origin and nature of light,
can only tend to widen and toftrengthen its bafis.
It now remains that we inveftigate the properties of
heat as a chemical agent, employed in the proceffes of
decompofing and of combining. natural produflions. The
firft circumllance to be attended to, is the meafure of the
degrees of heat neceflary to effeft the changes of which
the matters under examination are fufceptible. The de¬
grees of heat are generally confidered under two princi¬
pal divifions ; one comprehending thole under the tem¬
perature of boiling water, and the other fuch as are above
that temperature. The fcale of the thermometer ferves
to diftinguifh the former; the latter, for the greateft
part, can be eftimated only from the fufibility of diffe¬
rent fubftances.
The firft divition of heat below the boiling water point,
extends from 45° to 6o° of Fahrenheit. This tempera¬
ture favours putrefaction, vegetation, flow evaporation,
&c. It is not commonly ufed in chemiftry, becaufe not
confiderable enough ; except in certain macerations made
during winter, or for the cryftallization of laline mix¬
tures, after due evaporation, placed in caves, or other
fituations of this temperature. The fecond divifion ex¬
tending from about 68’ to 8o°, continues to promote pu¬
trefaction. It excites the f'pirituous fermentation in fac-
charine liquors, and facilitates evaporation, and the flow
cryftallization which follows. This is the ordinary heat
of temperate climates. It is ufed for digeftion, f’aline
l'olutions
C H E M I
folutions, fermentations, 8cc. The third divifion lies be¬
tween the 88th and 100th degrees of the thermometer.
In this temperature the acid or acetous fermentation in
vegetables is bell carried on, and plants are fuccefsfuily
dried for practical ufe. It is adopted for fome faline i'o-
lutions, and to promote fermentations. The fourth di~
vifion is at, or near, the temperature of about 14.50.
This is called the mean degree of heated water, and is
that of the veffels called balneum marias. It deltroys the
organization of animal matters, and volatilizes the more
lubtile parts of effential oils, efpecially the lpiritus rec¬
tor. It is ufed in the diftillation of vegetables and ani¬
mal matters, whofe phlegm and principle of fmell are
intended to be feparated. The temperature of boiling
water, or in°, is ufed in decoftions, the extraction of
effential oils, Sec.
The firlt divifion of heat above boiling water, melts
fulphur, burns organized matter, or gives a low red heat
to glafs velfels. The fecond extends from the fufion of
the fofter metals, fuch as lead, tin, or bifmuth, to that
of the fofter kinds of glafs. The third divifion may be
conlidered as including the fufion of metals of a middle
confidence, fuch as antimony, filver, and gold. The
fourth l'erves to bake porcelain, and fufes the more re-
fraCtory metals, fuch as cobalt, copper, iron, &c. The
laft and higlieft of all is found in the focus of the burning
glafs. This extreme heat calcines, burns, and vitrifies,
in a very fliort time, all bodies fufceptible of fuch a
change. A fimilar degree of heat may be excited by a
llream of vital air or oxygenous gas thrown upon char •
coal, by means of the bellows or blow-pipe. M. Monge
is of opinion, that by prefenting atmofplieric air in a
ftate of compreflion, to combuftible bodies in a date of
inflammation in the furnace, an effeft may be produced
fimilar to that excited by vital air. This procefs may
hereafter be applied to operations in the large way.
Though thefe divifions above boiling water are deter¬
mined by phenomena well known to chemiils, their ad-
meafurement has not the defired precifion. A11 inftru-
ment capable of indicating with exaCtnefs the degrees
employed in thefe operations, would be an acquifition of
reat value and importance. Mr. Wedgwood has con-
rufted a pyrometer for this purpofe; it is formed of
fmall pieces of clay half an inch in diameter. Thefe
pieces, when contracted by heat, advance to a greater or
lefs diftance between two rules of copper convergent to¬
wards each other, upon a plate of the fame metal. In
this manner, by means of a fcale drawn upon thefe rules,
the degree of contraction, and confequently bf heat,
which they have experienced, is afeertained.
The heat required in chemical operations, is produced
by the combuftion of charcoal, or common mineral coal.
For this purpofe, various furnaces of different forms and
names are conftruCted, according to the purpofe they are
intended to anfwer. The manner of communicating
heat to bodies in the various chemical proceffes, likewile
<delerves attention. If the combuftible matter be applied
to the fubftance itfelf or the veffel immediately contain¬
ing it, the operation is faid to be performed by a naked fire.
If any fubftance be placed between the fire and the veffel
containing the matter under examination, the interpofed
fubftance is called a bath. Hence the names balneum ma-
riae, or water bath, fand bath, dung bath, cinder bath, &c.
The form of the veffel s employed in the treatment of
bodies by fire, and the different phenomena prefented by
the matter expofed to its aCtion, have occafioned a con-
fiderable number of operations to be diflinguifhed by
particular names. Such as roafting, calcination, fufion,
reduftion, vitrification, cupellation, cementation, ltra-
tifkation, detonation, decrepitation, fulmination, fubli-
mation, evaporation, diftillation, rectification, concen¬
tration, digeftion, infufion, decoftion, lixiviation -. and
thefe operations, performed by the agency of fire, eon-
ftitute much of the practical part of chemiftry.
Roafting is a procefs by which mineral fubftances are
divided, fome of their principles being volatilized, and
Vox.. IV. No, 188.
S T R Y. tSq
others changed, fo as to prepare them for other opera¬
tions, to which this may be regarded as preliminary.
Minerals are fnbjeCted to this, in order to feparate their
fulphur or arfenic, and to render them more pulverable
or friable. In the fmall way, this is' done in crucibles,
roafting nets, or capfules of earth or iron, and generally
with accefs of air. Sometimes it is performed in clpfed
velfels, for which purpofe two crucibles are uluaily luted
mouth to mouth.
Calcination is, as it were, a more advanced ftage of
the procefs of roadting. Minerals are by this deprived
of their water, calcareous (tones are thus converted into
lime, and the mefals into metallic oxyds. The fame vcf-
jfels are employed for this purpofe as for roafting.
By fufion, bodies are made to pafs from the folid to
the fluid ftate, in confequence of the application of heat.
Salts, fulphur, and metals, are the chief bodies fubjeCt-
ed to this procefs. Crucibles of baked clay of porcelain,
of courfe grit of iron and platina, of various kinds and
figures, with metallic cones or ingot moulds, are the in-
llruments chiefly ufed. Thefe laft give the figure to the
matter, which, after being melted and cooled again, has
the form of a bar, or ingot, or a button. The facility
with which metals may be united by fufion, after they
have been divided, is probably the circumftancfe that in¬
duced mankind to ufe them as the mediums of exchange,
or figns of value of all other commodities.
In reduction or revivification, the oxyds of metals are
reltored to their metallic ftate by the afliftance of fire,
with charcoal or oils, or other inflammable matter.
Vitrification, is the fufion of fubftances capable of af¬
firming the briglitnefs, tranfparency, hardnels, and other
properties, of glafs. Verifiable earths with alkalis, and
metallic oxyds, are the principal matters fubjeCtea to this
operation.
Cupellation is the purifying of perfeSl metals, and the
extraction of the imperfect mixed with them, by means
of aft addition of lead. This promotes the vitrification
of the imperfeft metals fo that thefe laft are carried off,
and the perfeCt metals are left nearly pure. The name of
this operation is taken from the veffels made ufe of, which
are a kind of flat crucibles, fimilar to fmall cups, called cu¬
pels. Thefe are formed of the earth of bones, which, on
account of its porofity, eafily imbibes the glafs of lead.
Certain powders made ufe of for including particular
bodies intended to be changed by their aCtion, in clofe
veffels, fubjeCted to heat, are called cements. Thus it is
that iron is cemented with powder of charcoal to con¬
vert it into fteel ; and glafs with nlafter orft’and, to con¬
vert it into a kind of porcelain. Cementation, in certain
cafes, requires a very ftrong heat.
Stratification is a procefs nearly fimilar to the forego¬
ing : it confilts in the arrangement of various folid bo¬
dies in a crucible, or other veffel capable of refilling the
fire. Thefe are generally in the form of bars or plates,
and are blended with pulverable matters, capable of al¬
tering their nature. The form and the difpofition of
thefe matters in beds or layers, ftrata fuper Jirata, has
given rife to the name ftratification. In this manner
copper or filver are treated with fulphur, in order to effeCt
a combination. This procefs differs from fufion, calci¬
nation, or vitrification, only in the particular difpofition
of the matters fubjeCted to it.
Detonation is peculiar to nitre, and thofe matters of
which it is a component part. It confilts in the greater
or lefs noife produced by the explofion of thefe fubftance*
•when heated, fuddenly or llowly, and by degrees in open
or clofe veffels. Decrepitation which differs from deto¬
nation in its noife being much lefs, and in the kind of
crackling found with which it is accompanied, is peculiar
to fuch falts as burft afunder by heat, which caufes their
water of cry flail ization to expand, and make its efcape.
It is particularly oblerved in common fait or muriat of
foda. Fulmination is a quick and fudden detonation
obferved in fulminating gold, fulminating powder, and
the combuftion of inflammable and pure air, &c.
3 C The
$9* C H E M I
The operatioft of volatilizing by beat, fucli fubftances
as are in a dry, folid, and often cryftall'ine ftate, is called
fublimation. The lublimatory veffels are of glazed
earthen ware, or earthen cucurbits, with glafs heads, or
pots of earthen ware, or porcelain, called aludels, ma-
traffes, &c. Sulphur, arfenic, cinnabar, and many mer¬
curial preparations, home vegetable matters, and in par¬
ticular camphire and benzoin, are the chief fubftances
which are raifed in. fublimation. In this procefs, the
condenfed vapours, which generally aflume.a powdery
form, are called flowers : fuch are the flowers of brim-
■ftone, of benjamin', of zink. &c. Solid products obtain¬
ed in this way are called fublimates.
Evaporation is the aCtion of heat upon liquids, in or¬
der to diminifli the fluidity and quantity of the refiduum,
and to obtain the fixed bodies it may hold in folution.
In this way the water of the fea or fait fprings is driven
off, and the fait is left. This operation is made in broad
veffels of earth, glafs, filver, or other metals, according
to the nature of the liquids under examination. Eva¬
poration is performed by an open fire, or with accefs of
■air, in order that the fluid intended to be driven off may
be at liberty to expand and be diflipated, and that this
may be effefted more quickly by virtue of the diflolvent
•power of the air on fluids in a ftate of vapour.
Diftillation is a procefs nearly of the fame nature as
the preceding, but performed in clofed veffels ; which
are either alembics, or retorts, calculated to feparate the
volatile from the fixed principles,- by means of heat. Dif¬
tillation is improperly diftinguifhed into three kinds, by
afcent, per afeenfum ; by defeentr, per deccnfuvi ; and lide-
■vvays, per latus. Thefe diftinCtions, which are but futile,
feem to have been taken from the form of the veflels.
Matter in a date of vapour always tends to rife, but dil-
tiilation by alembics has been called per afeenfum, becaufe
■the capital being immediately above the body, the va¬
pours rife in an obvious manner. The diftillation by
retorts has been called per latus, becaufe the neck of the
retorts come out at the fide of the apparatus, though the
•roof of the retort be higher than its neck, and though
•the vapours pafs over only after having been condenfed
by the external cold in the roof, or highefi part of the
retort. As to the diftillation per defeerifum, it is an un¬
skilful and ill-contrived operation, which is no longer
tifed, becaule its produCts are for the molt part loft, and
■thole which are obtained are in a foul and imperfect
Hate. It was performed by placing fome vegetable fub-
ftance on a cloth extended over the mouth of a glafs vel-
fel containing fome water ; on this was -laid a metal dilh
containing live coals. In this way-cloves, and feveral
“odoriferous matters w.ere in the ancient pharmacy, and
rfor perfumers’ ufe, diftilled to obtain their effential oil.
The produCt palled through the linen, and was condenf¬
ed by the water ; but the greateft part made its efcape be¬
tween the metallic dilh cover and the cloth. A diftinc-
-tion relating to the manner of heating bodies intended
'to be diftilled, is much more neceffary to be made than
■thole we have been (peaking of. The water bath, the
vapour bath, the land bath, the bath of allies, ccnflft of
thefe fubftances contained in proper veffels over the fire.
In thele the diftillatory veffels are plunged, and are by
that means kept at a more certain and equal heat. The
jiaked lire is alfo ufed in diftillations, as is alfo the flame
of a lamp, or of fpirit of wine.
Rectification is a fecond diftillation, in which fub¬
ftances are purified by their moft volatile parts being
trailed by heat carefully managed. Thus fpirit of . wine,
ether, & c. are rectified by their feparation from the lets
-volatile and foreign matter, which altered or debafed
itheir properties.
Concentration is the inverfe of rectification, aWt is
Untended to deprive fixed fluids of the water which
'weakens them. This operation implies, it is evident,
.that the matter to be concentrated is heavier than water,
•and is ufed for -certain acids, particularly the fulphuric,
•i
S T R Y.
phofphoric, and alfo for folutions of alkaline and neu¬
tral falts.
Digeftion is an operation in which fuch matters, as
are intended to aft flowly on each other, are expofed to
a flow heat continued for a long time. It is particularly
ufed in the extraction of luch parts from vegetables as
are Ibluble in fpirit of wine, or other fluids uled for this
purpofe. The ancient chemifts held this procefs in great
eftimation. Though this confidence feems well founded,
in confideration of the change which, after ftriCt exami¬
nation, it is found that moft vegetable and animal fub¬
ftances undergo by a too powerful heat, yet it is not
carried to that entbufiafm which the alchemifts Ihewed
in their purfuits. Thefe men, with more afliduity and
labour than their pretended art delerved, made digef-
tions of many years duration, and believed, by that
means, that it would be in their power to work a great
number of miracles. Digeftion is now confined to the
preparing of tinClures, elixirs, cordials, &c. and it is
fuccefsfully uled in the extractions of vegetable or ani¬
mal principles without alteration. It is likewife ufed to
advantage in feveral proceffes with minerals
Infufion is a procefs well known. It conlifts in pour¬
ing water of any required degree of temperature on fucli
fubftances as have a loofe texture, as thin bark, wood in
lhavings or fmall pieces, leaves, flowers, &c. It is very
ufeful in feparating the moft loluble parts of thefe, and
is applied in a great number of chemical operations.
DecoCtion, or continued ebullition with water, is em¬
ployed to feparate fuch parts of bodies as are only foluble
at this degree of heat. It greatly alters vegetable and
animal matters, coagulates the lymph, melts the fat and
refills, hardens fibrous parts ; and is advantageoufiy ufed
in chemical operations, by fuch as are acquainted with
its effeCls.
Lixiviation is the operation of diffolving or extract¬
ing, by the help of hot water, the Inline and foluble mat¬
ter contained in the allies of plants, or the relidues of
diftillation, or combuftion, or of coals, or natural earths,
intended to be analyfed. As, by this operation, halts of
the kind termed lixivial are generally obtained, it was
natural to give it the name which it bears : the fynony-
mous word leffive, is, at prefent, more frequently uled in
France, than even the term lixiviation. This operation,
therefore, is nothing more than a folution by the aflift-
ance of heat, and does not differ from infufion, except
in the particular application of the latter to vegetable
and animal matters, while the former is applied to fub¬
ftances that have the properties of minerals.
Such are the different operations performed in clie-
miftry, by the afliftance of fire.: and as nothing was for¬
merly done -without this agent, this fcience was then no
more than an art, and was called Pyrotechnia. At pre¬
fent it is much lei's ufed, in conlequence .of the difeovery
of more certain methods of analyling natural fubftances.
The aCtion of folvents, or menftruums, employed with¬
out the application of any heat beyond the temperature
of the air, is fufficient to effect the moft lingular changes,
and is productive of clear and valuable deductions. This
method is purfued with luccefs in the examination of falts,
earth, vegetable matters, &c. Heat is now regarded only
as an auxiliary agent, by which combinations are for¬
warded. As it is employed in different degrees, it would
be a valuable acquifition if we knew bow to apply it
with uniform intenfity, A furnace of this kind has long
been a defideratum among chemifts, and the manipula¬
tions of artifts have hitherto been the only guide to the
chemift; but it is impofiible by this means to have the
degree of precifion fo much to be defired. The late Dr.
JBlack. feems to have fucceeded bell in contriving fur¬
naces proper to produce a regular and uniform heat, and
is therefore much recommended.
As the whole of the praClical part of chemiftry conlifts
in placing bodies in contaCl with each other, fo that they
may exert their refpeCtive attractions or powers of com •
hinatkut
14- iJB>
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C H E M
bination without intermixture or difiurbance of other
bodies not intended to enter the propofed experiments,
and alfo in raifing or lowering the temperature of fuch
bodies under examination, it is evident that the degree
of fuccefs attending thefe refearches mult greatly depend
upon the veflels or apparatus adapted to that purpofe.
The inflruments that have from time to time been tiled
with this intent, are many and various. Modern che-
miftry however, has rejected feveral which only caul'ed
trouble and confufion ; for which reafon we (hall coniine
ourfelves to the deicription of thofe only in prefent ufe,
Th.e MODERN CHEMICAL APPARATUS.
The articles which firft prefent themfeives, as being
immediately requifite, are crucibles or pots, adapted to
■the purpofes of roafling, calcination, and fufion. The
moft perfeft of thefe are laid to be made of Groffallme-
rode and Elltrode in HefTe, manufactured by refraCtory
clay and fand. Some of them are large and round, fome
triangular, having Hands and covers. Some are fmaller,
■called fet-crucibles, becaufe they are of different fizes, and
fitted into one another like fets of chip-boxes. In lome
cafes iron and filver crucibles are ufed. Thofe of Ips in
Upper Auftria, or of Hafnerzell; confifls of black lead
and fand ; they are made of different fizes, and are very
■durable under every change from heat to cold ; but im¬
proper for melting many ialine fubitances. In the che-
■xniftry Plate I. is delineated at fig. i, a round crucible,
with its cover and fl;and ; fig. 2, a triangular crucible,
on its Hand. For the melting of ores in fraall quantities
dor docimaflic purpofes, afi'aying crucibles are employed,
made of the fame materials as the earthen ones. They
■have, in their inner cavity, the form of a double cone,
bellying out in the middle, and contrafted at both ends ;
one of thefe is fhewn at fig. 3. The chalice-form cruci¬
bles, and the fcorifying tells and capfules, are alfo of
•this clafs.
Cucurbits, or matraffes, are glafs, earthen, or metal¬
lic veffels, ufually of an ovate or egg fhape, and open at
the top. They fer.ve the feveral purpofes of digeftion,
evaporation, folution, &c. Two of thefe are fhewn at
•fig. 4 and 5, in the plate. That with the ring on its
meek, at fig. 4, renders it capable of being fufpended by
a firing.
Retorts, are globular veffels of earthenware, glafs, or
Tnetal, with a neck bent on one fide. Some retorts have
another neck or opening on their upper 'part, through
which they may be charged, and the opening may be
afterwards clofed with a Hopper. Thefe are called tubu¬
lated retorts; the other Jirnple. The tubulated retort is
.ufed, when, on account of the two rapid extrication of
gafes or acids, its neck muH be luted to the receiver or
balloon, before the materials are introduced, or the fire
applied. Holes are alfo fometimes drilled on the upper
•parts of Ample retorts, to let out, by opening their Hop¬
pers, the elaftic fluids when too copious. Fig. 6, a Ample
.retort, with its neck introduced into a receiver. Fig. 7,
a tubulated retort.
Receivers, or balloons are veffels, ufually of glafs, of
a fpherical form, with a. large flraight open neck, into
which the neck of the retort is ufually inferted. When
any proper fubflance, in the different chemical experi¬
ments, is put into a retort, and heated, its volatile parts
pafs over into the receiver, where they are condenfed.
•But in fome operations, fuch a prodigious quantity of
.vapours are difengaged, that it is dangerous to condenfe
■them ; and there is alfo a confiderable lofs in the product:
to obviate or remedy thefe defefls, Woulf introduced
his ingenious and elegant apparatus. Fig. 8, reprefents
a fiHall receiver with the neck of a retort introduced into
.it. Fig. 9, a large balloon; fig. 10, a phial, often ufed
as a receiver; fig. n, a proof or difengaging bottle ; fig.
■12, a tubulated proof, with a moveable bent glafs tube;
<fig, i 3, adopter?, or glafs veffels, open at both ends, and
I S T R y. 191
let into each other, for the purpofe of forming tubes, to
unite certain parts of the different apparatus.
The alembic, is a veffel ufed for difiillation, when the
products are too volatile to admit of the ufe of the lafl-
mentioned apparatus. It confifls of a matrafs or cucur¬
bit, to which is adapted a head, of a conical figure, with
its external circumference or baf'e depreffed lower than
its neck, fo that the vapours which rife, and are condenf¬
ed againH its fides, run down into a circular channel
formed by its depreffed part, from whence they are con¬
veyed by the nole or beak projecting from the head, into
the receiver; as fhewn at fig. 14. This inflrument is
lefs Ample than the retort, which certainly may be ufed
for the molt volatile products, if care be taken to apply
a gentle heat on fuch occafions. But the alembic has its
conveniences. In particular, the refidues of diflillations
may be eafily cleared out of the matrafs ; and in experi¬
ments of fublimation, the head is very convenient to re¬
ceive the dry products, while the more volatile and elaflic
parts pafs over into the receiver.
Fig. 1 5. is the drawing of an alembic on a larger fcale,
commonly made in metal : this is placed on the common
fmall furnace. It is extremely uleful for many experi¬
ments in the fmall way.
Fig. 16, is the delineation of the common Hill ufed in
the difiillation of ardent fpirits. Inllead of ufing a re¬
frigeratory or receiver, the fpirit is made tc pafs through
a fpiral pipe called the worm, which is immerfed in a tub
of cold water, and reprefented by the dotted fcroll on
the tub. During its pafl'age it is condenfed, and comes
out at the lower extremity of the pipe, in a fluid form,
and is let off by a cock into a receiver or jug. Fig. 17,
is a copper veffel for diddling in water-bath ; it fits into
the mouth of the Hill, and the fame head ferves for both.
The mod eflential article in operations made by fire,
is the furnace ; and yet the bed conflruflion of a furnace
does not appear to have been well afcertained from ex¬
perience. There are fa<5ls which fhew that a fire made on
.a grate near the bottom of a chimney, of equal width
throughout, and open both above and below, will pro¬
duce a more intenle heat than any other furnace. What
inay be the limits for the height of the chimney is not
afcertained from any precife trials ; bu.t thirty times its
diameter would not probably be too high. It feems to
be a difad vantage to .contrail tire diameter of a chimney,
fo as to make it fmaller than that of the fire-place, when
no other air is to go up the chimney than what has pafled
through the fire; and there is no profpeil of advantage
to be derived from wideni ngit.
Ftg. 18, exhibits the common fmall evaporating fur¬
nace. This is not only ufed in evaporations, but likewife
for digedion, diffolution, difiillation; and all thole ope¬
rations which require a heat neceffary only for the ebul¬
lition of liquids. Sometimes the veffels are placed di-
reilly over the coals, which is called working with an
open fire ; fometimes fand or water is interpofed, when it
is either called the fand-batb , or balneum maria. This
furnace is compofed of an afh-hole and a fire-place, part¬
ed by a grating which holds the fuel. There are gene¬
rally two or three flits made through the walls of the fur¬
nace,, towards the top, to favour afpiration and com-
buflion.
Fig. 19, fhews the reverberatory furnace. This is ne-
ceflary for the dilliilation of fubitances, for which a re¬
tort mull be idled, and which require a higher degree of
heat. It is compofed of four parts ; the afh-pan, to give
pafl’age to the air, and to receive the allies which fall
down ; the fire-place, heated off by a grating to fuflain
the fuel ; a portion of a cylinder, called a. laboratory, be¬
caufe it is this part which receives the retorts employed in
the labour of dilliilation ; thefe three pieces are covered
with a dome, or ponion of a fphere, perforated in the
middle to give paflge to the air, and which forms the
chimney. The dome ferves to reflect the flames, and
cauies-
CHEMISTRY.
192
caufes tlieir. to furrolind the veffel, which is by that means
more ftrongly heated ; whence this furnace gets the name
of reverberatory. Without this circumftahce the retort
would only be heated in its bottom, the vapours railed
from the contained fubftance would condenl'e in the up¬
per part, and a continual cohobation would take place,
without any thing palling over into the receiver ; but,
by means of this dome, the retort is equally heated in
every part, and the vapours being forced out, can only
condenl'e in the neck of the retort, or in the receiver
placed on its fide.
Fig. 20, is Macquer’s do'cimaftic or allaying and tu-
pelling-furnace, which lerves for allaying metals, refin¬
ing gold and lilver, &c. Its conftrudtion is as follows :
A. the body of the furnace, built fquare, from 12 to 15
inches each fide, of fire-proof clay, or thick iron-plates,
and terminating in a truncated open pyramid. B.B.B.
three Itrong iron-bands, fixed with fcrew's, and morticed
in the front for grooves to the fiiders. C.C. the Aiders
with handles. The femicircular and oblong apertures
in front are contrived for infpedting the operation, and
fo. placed, that when the fiiders are fliut, or meet in the
middle, they do not reach the open part of the muffle.
D. the afii-pit, with a femicircular aperture. Immediately
above it is the grate. E. a femicircular aperture, of a
proper fize to receive the muffle. F. holes through which
iron bars are inferted for fupporting the muffle. G. a cir¬
cular hole, by which to manage the coals. H. a pyrami¬
dal cover, with a chimney, that may be added or re¬
moved, and occafionally heightened by an additional
tube, in order to increafe the intenfity of heat. The
fuel is put in at top. The dimenfions are fliewn by the
fcale. . K. the muffle, formed of baked clay, open in
front, and clofed behind. Its form is half a cylinder cut
length- ways. Theopenings on the fides are to admitmore
heat, yet without admitting allies. L. a fcorifying teft.
M. two allaying tells, or cupels of a fmaller fize : one is
circular; the other of an inverted, truncated, pyra¬
midal form. On their fpherical cavities the materials are
placed.
The great defideratum in the conftru6tion of furnaces
is, to obtain an intenfe and equable heat. The failure
of moll of them in this particular, induced the late Dr.
Black to try many experiments for their improvement,
and in which, by means of regilters, he was enabled to
fucceed in a very conliderable degree. Dr. Black’s fur¬
nace being therefore in high ellimation, we have, in the
Chemiltry Plate II. given an exaft reprefentation of it,
as follows : A. fig. 1, a perlpedtive view of the furnace.
The larger hole at top lerves for introducing the fand-
pot, &c. and is often the mouth of the furnace. On the
fmaller aperture, the vent or chimney B is fixed. C.
the alh-pit, feparable, and a little than the furnace, which
is inlerted into it, and relts on its projeiting border.
Fig. 2, a pei fpeitive fedion of the furnace. Fig. 3, a
perfpedive view' of the alh-pit, provided with a ftnall
door, and a damping-plate, or regilter, of fix different
fized holes. Ti e leftion of the grate is fliewn in the fi¬
gure above. Fig. 4, a ring with three hooks, to be funk
about one foot deep into tiie furnace, and on which the
retort relts when diftilling, &c. in open fire. This fur¬
nace is of an elliptical form, made of Itrong wrought-iron.
Its infide is coated in fuch a manner as to reprefent an in¬
verted cone. The lower opening for the grate is not in
the middle of the bottom, but purpolely nearer to one
end of the ellipfe, towards the larger aperture at top.
Charcoal is the fuel molt commonly ufed in furnaces,
It produces an intenfe heat without fmoke, but it is con-
fumed very fall. Coke or charred pit-coal produces a
very Itrong and lading heat. Neither of thefe produce a
Itrong heat at a didance from the fire. Where the a£tion
of flame is required, wood or coal mull be burned. Se¬
veral inconveniences attend the ule of coal, as its fuli¬
ginous fumesj and its aptitude to Hop the paffage of air
by becoming fufed. It is ufed however in the reverbera¬
tory furnaces of glafs-houfes, and is the belt material
where veffels are to be fupplied with a great quantity of
heat at no great intenfity, fuch as in diltilleries, &c.
In various experiments condufted) with furnaces, it is
neceffary to guard the retorts from the immediate action
of the fire, to condenfe 'and retain the vapours, which
are expanfile, fubtile, and often corrofive ; for thefe pur-
pofes lutes are employed. A lute, which is to clofe the
joinings of veflels muff be as impermeable as the glafs it-
lelf, infomuch that no matter, how fubtile foever, except
caloric, can penetrate. To prevent glafs veffels from
cracking by the fudden variations of heat, and to render
them capable of preferving their figure in a higher de¬
gree of heat than they could fuftain without it, it is.
ufual to put over them a covering of earth : this is call¬
ed a coating: it may be made of fat earth and frefh
horfe-dung ; or clay and fine fand well worked together
into a pafte with the addition of fome hair, fuch as brick¬
layers ufe; either of thofe compofitions may be laid upon
the veffel in fucceffive thin coatings. When it is necef-
fary to condenfe or prevent the elcape of vapours of a
corrofive and volatile nature, the compolition called the
fat lute is ufed. Firft take boiled linfeed oil, that is, lin—
feed oil, which has been oxygenated and rendered drying
by the addition of litharge, or femi-vitreous oxyd of
lead. This is known in the fhops by the name of drying
oil, and is thus prepared: Put into a copper-pan 100
parts of linfeed oil with nine parts of litharge ground to
a fine powder and (trained through filk ; place the- veffel
in a furnace, and heat it fufficiently for the oil to diffolve
the litharge ; ltir the mixture continually' with a wooden
fpatula till the litharge is entirely diffolved ; then take
the veffel off the fire ; leave it to cool ; and preferve the
oil thus prepared in ajar well corked. To make the fat
lutt, take a certain quantity of clay, wafli it, then dry
it well, and reduce it to a very fine powder or duff, which
pafs through a filken fieve ; put it into an iron mortar,
add a fufficient quantity of the oil as above ; beat it well
a long time, till it makes a thickilh palte, which does
not however (tick to the hands. As this lute does not
harden, but rather grows fofter by the heat, it requires
to be fecured in its place by Itrips of bladder or linen
dipped in a lute made of lime and whites of eggs, which
is called the dry lute. Here we mult obferve, that upon
exaftnefs and nicety in luting, depends all the fuccefs of
chemical operations conduced by means of intenfe heat.
Little diflies of baked earth are uled for calcining ore
or metallic fubltances ; this is called the roajling-difn : it
fiiould be broad and flat, very even, that it may com-
modioufly receive all the metallic oxyds or powders
which are put into it. The cupel, as Ihewn in Plate I.
fig. 20, is a flat crucible, wide and broad, hollowed al-
molt hemifpherically, in the form of a cup, whence the
name : it is formed of the calcined bones of fheep’s trot ¬
ters, pulverifed, drained through lilk, and well waflied 5
the powder is mixed with water, and cupel formed in a
mould.
An ingenious ftudent in chemiltry, when he has fami¬
liarized himfelf with the firft principles, will foon per¬
ceive that there are few philoiophical enquiries, if any,
in the fmall way, that require a large apparatus of fur¬
naces or veffels. A tobacco-pipe is a very ufeful cruci¬
ble, in which a great number of operations may be per¬
formed in a common fire, efpecially if urged with a pair
of good double bellows. An earthen pot, or iron ladle,
will contain a fand-bath ; and apothecaries phials, or
Florence flafks, ferve very well for matraffes. Chafing
diflies, or fmall iron ftoves, may be applied to ferve many
ufeful purpofes. And the blow-pipe and fpirit-lamp, with
a let of fmall retorts and receivers, may be adapted to
the performance of almoft every part of experimental
chemiltry. The black lead crucibies are alfo very convenient
for couftru&ing a variety of moveable furnaces. They
may
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CliEMI ST11Y,
Pla/SH.
6
CHEMISTRY.
may be cut without difficulty by a faw wliofe teeth are
fet wide, and very eaiily admit of being fcraped, drilled,
or ground with fand, to give them the requifite figure.
In Dr. Lewis's conftrudlion, the crucibles which are in¬
tended to be applied to each other, are ground flat upon
a Hone, with a little fand, the holes are fawed with the
common compafs-faw of the carpenters, and are made
a little narrower externally than internally, by which
means it is eafy to fit them with Hoppers. Three or four
hoops of copper-wire, about the thicknefs of a crow-quill,
and firft foftened by heating it red hot, are faftened round
the pots in the moll convenient places, to render them
more durable by keeping their parts together, after they
may have been cracked. A thin copper hoop ferves to
fiecure the place of junction o f two pots. Large crucibles,
from twelve to fifteen inches high, are alfo employed for
portable furnaces ; and are capable of a vaft number of
operations. The conftru&ion of one of thefe is given in
the above-mentioned plate, viz. Fig. 5, Ihews the cruci¬
ble, perforated on its lower part, and fupported by a
Hand. The cover is made of iron-plate, or tile. Its
fmaller circular holes ferves to put in additional fuel, and
to give vent to the air. It may alfo be provided with a
moveable chimney. The larger hole admits the land-pot,
with the retort, or other veflel. Fig. 6, is a fefition of
the furnace and grate. Fig. 7, the fand-pot, which alfo
may ferve for a water-bath, or for calcining.
Every effect of the moll violent heat of furnaces may
be produced by the flame of a candle or lamp, urged up¬
on a fmall particle of any lubllance, by the blow-pipe.
This inllrument confilts merely of a brafs-pipe about one-
eighth of an inch diameter at one end, and the other ta¬
pering to a much lefs fize, with a very fmall perforation
for the wind to efcape. The fmaller end is bent on one
fide. For philofophical or other nice purpofes, the blow¬
pipe is provided with a bowl or enlargement towards the
fmall end, in which the vapours of the breath are con-
denfed and detained, and alfo with three or four fmall
nozles, with different apertures, to be flipped on the
fmaller extremity. Thefe are of ufe when larger or fmaller
flames are to be occafionally ufed, becaufe a larger flame
requires a large aperture, in order that the air may effec¬
tually urge it upon the matter under examination. See
this inllrument at fig. 8, in the plate.
There is an artifice in the blowing through this pipe,
which is more difficult to defcribe than to acquire. The
effedl intended to be produced is a continual ftream of
air for many minutes, if neceflary, without ceafing. This
is done by applying the tongue to the roof of the mouth,
fo as to interrupt the communication between the mouth
and the paffage of the noftrils ; by which means the ope¬
rator is at liberty to breathe through the noftrils, at the
fame time that by the mufcles of the lips he forces a con¬
tinual ftream of air from the anterior part of the mouth
through the blow-pipe. When the mouth begins to be
empty, it is replenifhed by the lungs in an inftant, while
the tongue is withdrawn from the roof of the mouth,
and replaced again in the fame manner as in pronounc¬
ing the monofyllable tut. In this way the ftream may
be continued for a long time without any fatigue, if the
flame be not urged too impetuoufly, and even in this
cafe no other fatigue is felt than that of the mufcles of
the lips.
A wax candle of a moderate fize, but thicker wick
Shan they are ufually made with, is the moft convenient
for occafional experiments ; though a tallow candle will
do. The candle fiiould be fnuffed rather fhort, and the
wick turned on one fide towards the objeil, fo that a part
of it fhould lie horizontally. The ftream of air mult be
blown along this horizontal part, as near as may be with¬
out linking the wick. If the flame be ragged and irre¬
gular, it is a proof that the hole is not round or fmooth ;
and if the flame have a cavity through it, the aperture
of the pipe is too large. When the whole is of a, proper
figure and duly proportioned, the flame confilts of a neat
Vox, IV. No, 189.
193
luminous blue cone, furrounded by another flame of a
more faint and indiftindt appearance. The ftrongeft heat
is at the point of the inner name. The body intended to
be adted on, by the biow-pipe ought not to exceed the
fize of a pepper-corn. It may be laid upon a piece of
clofe-grained well-burned charcoal, unlefs it be of fuel*
a nature as to fink into the pores of t hat lubllance, or to
have its properties affedted by its inflammable quality.
Such bodies may be placed in a fmall fpoon made of pure
gold or fiiver, or platina. Many advantages may be de¬
rived from the ufe of this Ample and valuable inltru-
ment. Its fmallnefs, which renders it fuitable to the
pocket, is no inconfiderable recommendation. The moft
expenfive materials, and the minuteft fpecimens of bo¬
dies, may be ufed in thefe experiments, and the whole
procefs, inftead of being carried on in an opake veil'd,
is under the eye of the obferver from beginning to end.
It is true, that very little can be determined in this way
concerning the quantities of produdls ; but, in moft cafes,
a knowledge of the contents of any lubllance is a great
acquifition, which is thus obtained in a very Ihort time,
and will at all events ferve to Ihew the bell and lealt ex¬
penfive way of condudling proceffes with the fame mat¬
ters in the larger way.
The blow-pipe has defervedly, of late years, been con-
fidered as an elfential inllrument in a chemical labora¬
tory, and feveral attempts have been made to facilitate
its ufe by the addition of bellows, or feme other equiva¬
lent inftruments. Thefe are doubtlefs very convenient,
though they render it lefs portable for mineralogical re-
Tearches. It will not here be neceflary to enter into any
delcription of a pair of double bellows fixed under a
table, and communicating with a blow-pipe which palfes
through the table. Smaller bellows, of a portable fize
for the pocket, have been made for the fame purpofe.
The ingenious chemift will find no great difficulty in.
adapting a bladder to the blow-pipe, which, under the
preffure of a board, may produce a conftant ftream of
air, and may be replenilhed, as it becomes empty, by
blowing into it with bellows, or the mouth, at another
aperture furnifhed with a valve opening inwards. The
chief advantage thefe contrivances have over the com¬
mon blow-pipe is, that they may be filled with vital or
dephlogifticated air, which increafes the a£li vity of com-
buftion to an aftonilhing degree. Little need be faid
concerning the manner of making experiments with fluid
bodies in the common temperature of the atmofphere.
Bafons, cups, phials, matraffes, and other fimilar veffels,
form the whole apparatus required for the purpofe of
containing the matters intended to be put together; and
no other precaution or inllru6lion is required than to ufe
a veflel of fuch materials as (hall not be corroded or alli¬
ed upon by its contents, and of fufficient capacity to ad¬
mit of any fudden expanfion or frothing of the fluid, if
expedited. This veflel muft be placed in a current of air,
if noxious fumes arife, in order that thefe may be blown
from the operation. The more complicated, and very
elegant chemical machines, which have, within a very
few years paft, been invented, fliall be deferibed as we
come to fpeak of their ufes, by which means we hope t®
make them better known and readily underftood.
Of OXYGEN GAS.
Different fubftances may be ufed for obtaining oxygen,
gas: 1. Red oxyd of mercury, or precipitate per fe. 2.
Red oxyd of mercury by nitric acid. 3. Oxyde of man -
ganefe, either alone or fprinkled with fulpliuric acid.
4.. Super-oxygenated muriat of pot-afh. 5. Leaves of
plants, & c. There are feveral other fubftances from
which oxygen gas may be obtained ; of thofe we fhall
fpeak as we may have occafion to detail the ufes of them.
But, before we defcribe the proceffes for extradling oxy¬
gen gas, it will be proper to premife fomething on the
general methods of obtaining gales. For this purpofe
the pneumatic chemical apparatus muft be employed ;
3D ae
i94 C H E M ]
as reprefented at fig. 9, in the fecond chemiltry plate. It
eonfifts of a ciftern of wood, lined with Iheet lead, on
tinned copper about two feet long, fixteen inches wide,
and thirteen deep; at one end of which mull be placed a
ihelf, having feveral holes in the nature of funnels, over
which the jars and other velfels are to be placed in pneu-
matical experiments. When this apparatus is ufed, the
tub is to be filled with water to fuch an height as to rife
about one inch above the upper furface of the Ihelf. The
glafs jars are to be inverted with their mouths downwards
upon the fnelf. If tliefe, or any other velfels open only
at one end, be plunged under the water, and inverted
after they are filled, they. will remain full, notwithftand-
ing their being raifed out of the water, provided their
mouths be kept immerfed : for in this cafe, the water is
fuftained by the prefi'ure of the atmofphere, in the fame
manner as the mercury in the barometer. It may without
difficulty be imagined, that if common air, or any of the
gafes, be fuffered to enter thefe veffels, it will rife to the
upper part, and the furface of the water will fubfide. If
a bottle, a cup, or any other velfel, in that ftate which is
ufually called empty, though really full of air, be plunged
into the water with its mouth downwards, fcarcely any
water will enter, becaufe its entrance is oppofed by the
elafticity of the included air; but, if the veifel be turn¬
ed up, it immediately fills, and the air rifes in one or
more bubbles to the furface. Suppofe this operation to
be performed under one of the jars which are filled with
water, the air will afcend as before ; but, inftead of efcap-
ing, it will be detained in the upper part of the jar. In
this manner, therefore, we fee that any of the elaftic fluids
may be emptied out of one veflel into another by an in¬
verted pouring, in which the air or gas is made to afcend
from the lower to the upper veflel, in which the experi¬
ments are performed, by the aftion of the weightier fluid,
exaftly fimilar to the common pouring of denfer fluids,
detained in the bottoms of open veflfels, by the Ample
aftion of gravity. To this apparatus, at A, is affixed a
glafs bottle, whofe bottom is blown very thin, that it
may fupport the heat of a candle fuddenly applied, with¬
out cracking. In its neck is fitted, by grinding, a tube,
curved nearly in the form of the letter S. This kind of
veflel is very ufeful in various chemical operations, for
which it will be convenient to have them of feveral fizesr
In the figure, the bottle is reprefented as containing a
fluid, in the aft of combining with a fubltance that gives
out gas, which paflfes through the tube into the jar B,
under whofe mouth the other extremity of the tube is
placed. At C is a retort of glafs, or earthen-ware, whofe
neck being plunged in the water, beneath the jar B ; is
fuppofed to emit the elaftic fluid, extricated from the
contents of the retort, which is received in the jar. At
D is a brafs cock, to let ofF the water when needful.
In order to expel the gas from folid fubftances by means
of heat, a gun-barrel, with the touch -hole fcrewed up
and rivetted, may be ufed inftead of an iron retort. The
fubjeft may be placed in the chamber of the barrel, and
the reft of the bore may be filled with dry fand, that has
been well burned, to expel whatever air it might have
contained. The ftem of a tobacco-pipe, or a fmall glafs
tube, being luted in the orifice of the barrel, the other
extremity mult be put into the fire, that the heat may
expel the gas from its contents. This gas will of courle
pafs through the tube, and may be received under an in¬
verted veflel, in the ufual manner. But the moll accu¬
rate method of procuring gas from divers fubftances by
means of heat, is to be put them, if they will bear it,
into phials full of quickfilver, with the mouths inverted
in the fame, and then throw the focus of a burning lens
or mirror upon them. For this purpofe, their bottoms
Ihould he round and very thin, that they may not be
liable to fly with the violent application of heat. Many
gales combine with water, and therefore require to be
treated in an apparatus in which quickfilver is made ule
©f. This fluid being very ponderous, and of confidera-
1
S T R Y.
ble price, it is an objeft of convenience as well as econo¬
my, that the ciftern Ihould be fmaller than when water
is ufed. But, as wood is permeable to mercury, it is to
be feared, if the ciftern be made of wood, that the junc¬
tures may feparate, or the mercury efcape through the
crevices ; if glafs, earthenware, or porcelain, be ufed,
there is a rifk of its breaking. After feveral trials of
different materials, Lavoifier found marble to be the bell
fubllance for conftrufting the mercurial ciftern, which
is perfeftly impenetrable by mercury, and not fubjeft to
any of the inconveniences attending the other fubftances
wq have juft mentioned. One of thefe fmall mercurial
cillerns is delineated at fig. to, in the plate. Fig. 11, a
feftion of the fame, to fhew the retort and receiving jar.
Gales are either extrafted by the aftion of fire, or by
means of acids. When difengaged by means of fire, a
retort is always ufed : a bent tube is alfo to be adapted
to the orifice of this retort, whofe extremity is plunged
into the water or the mercury of the pneumatic ciftern,
under a jar filled with the fame fluid, as fliewn in the fi¬
gure. When gafes are feparated by means of acids, we
make ufe of phials or bottles, with one or with two necks,
having tubes adapted to them. To this end, perforate
a cork with a round file, and infert a bent glafs tube 3
lute the joints well and clofe. This apparatus is not ex-
penfive, and it is eafily prepared.
To tranfmit gafes from one veflel to another, it is ne-
ceffary, 1. That the latter be full of water, or fome fluid
heavier than air. 2. That the aperture of the veflel be
turned down, and cover the hole in the Ihelf of the cif¬
tern, as reprefented in the plate, at fig. 9. Things being
thus difpofed, reverfe alfo the veflel which contains the
gafeous fluid, and plunge it perpendicularly into the wa¬
ter of the ciftern, as lhewn in the pneumatic apparatus
at E ; then, luppoling this veil'd to be corked like a bot¬
tle, uncork it in the water, and Hope it fo that its neck
may Hick under the excavation of the flielf. The gas
prefently el'capes from the bottle, and paflfes into the jar
dellined to receive it ; there it rifes in the form of bubbles,
which burft at the top of the veflel, and drive out a pro¬
portionable quantity of the liquid contained therein. In
whatever manner the operation is performed, the necef-
fity of the excavation under the Ihelf mull be evident ;
it is dellined to receive the gas which efcapes from the
immerfed jar, and to direft it towards the veflel which is
to contain it; otherwife the gas which efcapes from the jar
would bejfpread over the whole cavity of the ciftern, inftead
of being carried to the place of its deftination. Lavoifier
and others have contrived inllruments for meafuring the
volume of gales, to which they have given the name of
gafometer ; of which we lhall hereafter give a figure <md
defeription.
The firft of the elaftic fluids which ought to engage
our attention, is oxygen gas. To extraft oxygen gas
from luper-oxygenated muriat of potalh, put a quantity
of this muriat into a glafs or earthen retort ; adapt a bent
tube, the other end of which is to be plunged into the
pneumatic ciftern, under the jars or decanters. When
the apparatus is in proper order, heat the retort, and in-
creafe the aftion of the caloric by degrees. The oxygen
gas is thus difengaged ; and is commonly very pure.
There is another very Ample method of procuring this
gas. Put into an apothecary’s phial three parts of oxyd
of manganefe in powder ; pour in two parts of concen¬
trated lulphuric acid, or rather as much as is neceflary to
make a foft thin palle ; cork the phial ; the cork is to be
perforated in the middle, and one end of a hollow bent
tube is to be introduced, while the other end opens under
the excavation in the Ihelf of the ciftern. When the appa¬
ratus is thus prepared, expofe the mixture in the phial to a
gentle heat. Then heat, eft'ervefcence, and dilengagement
of oxygen gas, takes place of the water contained in the
jar placed for that purpole. To obtain oxygen gas from
the leaves of plants, fill a bell-glafs with water, pafs the
leaves underneath, and place thisglals in a veflel contain¬
ing
CHEMISTRY. 195
jrtg water alfo. Expofe it to thecontad of the fun's rays,
and v,ery pure oxygen gas will be produced. The emifiion
of vital air is in proportion to the ftrength of the plant,
and the brightnefs of the light ; but a direct emifiion ot
the rays of the fun is not neceffary to the production of
this gas ; it is fufficient that it is placed in a good light,
for it to refpire oxygen gas. The general properties of
this gas are — It is heavier than atmol'pherical air; it is
the only air proper for refpiration, as is proved by expe¬
riment. Fill a tube with oxygen gas, and put therein a
lighted taper; the flame will fpread at the inftant of im-
merfion, and it will burn with fuch brightnefs as the eye
can hardly endure ; a ftrong and adive heat is alio pro¬
duced under tliefe circumftances. The fame efleds will
be produced if a lighted coal be introduced into the tube ;
or, if bits of wood, lighted and extinguifhed, be plung¬
ed fuddenly into the jar, they will flame again.
The lovers of chemiftry have endeavoured to exhibit
this experiment in different ways ; we are indebted to In-
genhouz for having prefented it in a manner at once link¬
ing and agreeable : take a very fmall piece of very thin iron
wire twilled fpirally; flick one end of it into a cork intended
to flop the bottle to be made ufe of; fallen to the other
end of the wire a little bit of tinder. Then fill the bottle
with oxygen gas ; light the tinder, and introduce it into
the bottle with the wire, which, having the cork with it,
prefently clofes the bottle. As foon as the tinder gets
within the oxygen gas, it begins to burn very blight; it
communicates inflammation to the iron, which burns
and throws out bright fparks, that fall to the bottom of
the bottles in round globules, which become black as
they get cool. The iron thus burnt is more brittle than
glafs itfelf; it falls entirely to powder. When a lighted
taper or other body is plunged into a tube filled with
oxygen gas, a fubilance is brought into contad with it,
which has more affinity with the bale of this gas, than
that bale has with caloric. Lavoifier and Erhman expol'-
ed almoll all known bodies to the adion of fire, alimen-
tated by oxygen gas only ; and obtained effeds from them
which even the burning lens could not produce. For this
purpofe, a bladder is filled with this gas ; and it is di¬
rected, by means of a metal or glafs tube, againll a light¬
ed coal which had been previoully hollowed that it might
contain the fubilance to be wrought upon.
Oxygen gas is more falubrious than atmofplierical air.
Take two birds of the fame kind, and of the fame degree
of ftrength ; place one of them under a jar containing
two meafures of oxygen gas ; put the other at the lame
time under another jar, full of atmofpherical air, of the
Fame capacity as the firll : it will be found, that the bird
placed under the jar filled with oxygen gas will live about
three quarters of an hour, and after it is taken away the
air will Hill be fufficiently pure ; but the bird confined
in common air dies in a quarter of an hour, and the air
will be found quite contaminated, and unfit for re¬
fpiration.
We lhall not now examine the various opinions rela¬
tive to the nature of this gas. Modern chemills fuppol'e
every aeriform fluid to be compofed of a bafe , and of ca¬
loric. The bafe then is what ought to draw our atten¬
tion at prefent. Every combullible matter may ferve as
a means to come at this knowledge ; but we lhall prefer
phofphorus, which more particularly polfelTes the pro¬
perty of extracting from caloric whatever fubilance is
united with it, in order to form oxygen gas. For this
experiment, take a bell-glafs or jar of about 350 cubic
inches capacity, and fill it with oxygen gas over water 3
place it over the mercury bath by means of a Aider; then
place under the jar a cafe containing pholphorus ; raile
the mercury in the jar to a certain height by means of
a glais lyphon palled under the jar; that this may not fill
In pafl'mg through the mercury, twill a bit of paper at
its extremity ; then, with a piece of bent red-hot iron,
light the pholphorus. The combultion of the pholpho¬
rus is very1 rapid, accompanied with a large flame and
great heat. In the firll moment of combullion, the oxy¬
gen gas is confiderably dilated by the heat; but, foon
after the mercury riles above its level, and there is a con-
fiderable ablorption ; as the combullion proceeds, the in-
fide of the jar is covered with light fnowy flakes, which
are nothing but concrete phofphoric acid.
For Seguin’s experiment, pafs a little phofphorus un¬
der a jar filled with mercury ; the phofphorus, being
lighter than the mercury, riles to the top of the jar ; it
is heated, by palling a burning coal round the jar. When
the phofphorus is melted, put in the oxygen gas. A ra¬
pid inflammation takes place ; and, it the gas be very
pure, there is no refidue, and the mercury riles to (die
top of the jar. This is a good procefs to try the purity
of air; and Seguin calls it the eudiometer. If the expe¬
riment be made with impure oxygen gas, or mixed with
azotic gas or any other elaltic fluid nof favoui able to
combultion, the mercury will not rife to the top of the
jar; there will be a refiduum. What has been faid of
phofphorus may be faid equally of fulphur, carbon, &c.
The greater part of combullible bodies which are burnt
in oxygen gas is always converted into acid. In fliort,
oxygen gas has confiderable lhare in all the great pheno¬
mena of nature, fuch as combullion, refpiration, and ve¬
getation. It is the only air proper for combultion.
Of COMBUSTION.
It is very difficult to define combullion : it is an aggre¬
gate of effects produced by combullible matters, heated
with the concurrence of air, and whofe principles are
heat, motion, flame, rednefs, and a change in the burnt
matter. 1. In all combullion, there is an abforption of
the bale of oxygen gas; of which the experiment with
phofphorus affords an evident proof. In the oxydation
of metals by acids, in the reduction of metallic oxyds
by carbon, in the combullion of fulphur, phofphorus,
carbon, &c. by nitric acid; in all thefe cales certainly
there is no oxygen gas ; but concrete oxygen exills ill
one of the bodies compoling the mixture; and it is on
the paflage of the oxygen more orlefs folid from the body
which contains it into that which is dellitute of it, that
combultion depends.
a. The refiduum of the combullion is always heavier
than the body was previous to its being burnt. Metals
in general acquire greater weight when combined with
oxygen ; xoo parts of lead yield by combultion no parts
of oxyd ; fuipliur yields more fulphuric acid in weight,
after combultion, than it weighed of itfelf. It has been
erroneoully faid, that there exilled fubltances, fuch as
oils, alcohol, wood, and ether, which loll a confide; able
part of their weight by combultion. It is certain that
combullible bodies, whofe inflammable parts are volatile,
prefent to our fienfes much lefs of their weight by cOmbuf-
tion ; but this lofs only takes place in appearance: it is
eafy to be fatisfied of this, if we conlider, that what re¬
mains fixed after combullion, is not the only refidue of
the combullible body ; and that all thofe which are vo¬
latile, change by combultion into aeriform fluids which-
dilfipate, and are not feen. Ether and alcohol are ex¬
amples of this truth.
3. The increale of weight acquired by the burnt body
is equal to the weight of the ablorbed oxygen gas. When
the refidue of the combullion is fixed, this is eafily afcer-
tained. Lavoifier has demonllrated, by accurate experi¬
ment, that, if calcination or oxydation of metals be made,
either under beli-giafl'es, or in doled vefiels, with known
quantities of air, the oxygenated part of the atmofphe¬
rical air is abl'orbtd during the oxydation, and that
oxyded metal gains as much in weight as the atmolpheric
ail lofes by the oxydation of the metal.
4. In all combui.ion, there is a dilengagement of ca¬
loric and light. When combultion is made by the con-
tad of air, the body which burns has more affinity, or
elective attmdion, towards the bafe of the oxygen gas,
than that bafe has with the caloric. Jn conlequence of
this
x96 C H E M
this attraction, the bafe fixes and combines with the 5g-
nel'cent body: it quits, therefore, the caloric; and the
caloric, becoming free, produces heat, and feeks to com¬
bine with the fubftances it meets on its paflage. If com-
buftion be made without air, the oxygen produced is
not then melted into an aeriform fluid by the caloric and
the light; there is fcarcely any dilengagement of thefe
fluids : thefe combuftions alio are generally wrought with¬
out flame, and the heat produced is never confiderable.
From thele four principles it is eafy to form an idea of
what is to be underftood by combultion. Combuftible
bodies are tliofe which have the property of decompofing
oxygen gas. Hence it appears, that the heat refides par¬
ticularly in the oxygen gas which promotes the combuf-
tion ; that, the more of the oxygen is abforbed in a given
time, the ftronger will be the heat; the mode of pro¬
ducing a great heat is to burn bodies in the pureft air;
that the fire and heat will be the more intenfe, as the
air is more condenfed ; that ftreams of air are neceflary
to maintain and haften combultion. On this laft prin¬
ciple is founded the theory of cylindrical lamps : the
current of air through the tube renews the air every mo¬
ment; and, by feeding the flame continually with frelli
oxygen gas, it acquires a heat fufficient to burn and de-
Itroy the fmoke. See the feCtion on fixed oils.
Refpiration is a phenomenon very analogous to corn-
bullion. Like combultion it decompofes the air : it can
only be carried on in proportion to the quantity of pure
or vital air which is prelent, and, when all that air is de-
Itroyed, animals perilh in the mephitic air which re¬
mains. It is a flow combultion, in which part of the
heat of the vital air pafles into the blood, which circu¬
lates through the lungs, and is with it dilperfed through
all the organs : thus it is that the animal heat is repair¬
ed, which is continually carried off by the atmofphere
and by furrounding bodies. The maintenance of the
heat of the blood is therefore one of the principal ul'es
of refpiration ; and this happy theory explains why ani¬
mals which do not refpire the air, or which refpire it
very little, have cold blood. Meflieurs Lavoilier and De
la Place have difcovered a fecond ufe of air in refpira¬
tion ; namely, to ablorb a principle which exhales from
the blood, and appears to be of the fame nature as- char¬
coal. This body, reduced into vapours, combines with
the oxygen of the vital air, and forms carbonic acid,
which ilfues out of the lungs by the expiration. This
formation of carbonic acid which takes place in atmof-
pheric air refpired by animals, at the fame time that the
mephitis is feparated, clearly (hews the dangerous con-
fequences which refult from too great a number of per-
fons being included in clofe places, fuch as theatres, hof-
pitals, &c. and the noxious eftefits, which air vitiated by
refpiration produces on perfons of delicate conftitutions,
are no longer to be wondered at.
Of ATMOSPHERICAL AIR.
Air is one of thofe natural objedts upon which mo¬
dern phyfics have made fo many and great difcoveries.
The phyfical properties of air, are, i. Its fluidity, which
renders it fufceptible of thofe frequent and rapid mo¬
tions of its parts, which are called winds. It is not,
however, of that fubtlety, as to pafs through the pores
of many bodies. Tranlparent l'ubltances, through which
light pafles with extreme facility, are not penetrable by
air. Water, faline folutions, oils, and fpirit of wine, pals
through a great number of bodies, wliofe texture is not
penetrable by air. Nor has it that property by which
liquids infinuate themfelves into the pores of certain bo¬
dies, and caufe them to expand. *. Its invifibility, as
not being obvious to our fight. 3. Its infipidity : this
opinion, however, is not univerfal : fome allow this pro¬
perty in air, others deny it ; but, if we attend to the
confequences of this fluid touching any bare nerve of an
animal, as is the cafe in wounds and other limilar cir-
= «umftances, we may conclude that it has a kind of fapi-
I S T R Y.
dity, which habit has probably rendered infenfible. In
fadt, the expofure of wounds to the air is often attended
with very acute pain. It is fufficiently bfcertained, by the
experiments of Dr. Beddoes, that thefe effects of air de¬
pend upon its oxygen, which probably combines either
with the matter difcharged from the ulcerated or raw
furface, or combines with the furface itfelf. It was long
ago fuggelted by Berthollet, that the caulticity of metal¬
lic oxyds depended on the affinity of their oxygen with
animal matter; and the truth of this opinion was con¬
firmed experimentally by Fourcroy; Annales de Chimie,
tom. 7. An infant, at the inftant of its birth, fufficiently
fliews, by its cries, the difagreeable imprefiion this con¬
tact occafions. This acrimony in the air appears to be
the caufe of that difficulty with which wounds cicatrize,
if not kept covered ; atmofpherical air- alfo prevents ci¬
catrization in vegetables which have been deprived of
their bark ; and the production of this membrane is
known to take place, only when the external air is ex¬
cluded.
4. The air, according to Fourcroy, is perfectly inodo¬
rous ; who fays, that, in thofe cafes in which a fort of fe¬
tid fmell is perceived, it is eafily accounted for, by at¬
tention to the foreign bodies interfperfed through it, as
milts or vapours : but this account does not appear to be
flriCtly accurate, fince the purelt atmofpheric air that has
yet been found contains a mixture of carbonic acid gas.
Cauftic alkalis become mild, lime-water acquires a pel¬
licle on its furface, and metallic oxyds become eft'ervef-
cent in acids, after expofure for a fufficient length of
time to atmofpheric air. Thefe changes take place in
every fituation in which the experiments have been pro¬
perly tried. Even upon the lummit of Mont Blanc,
there was a fufficient quantity of carbonic acid gas in
the atmofpheric air to produce, in feven quarters of an
hour, a pellicle upon the furface of lime-water, and to
communicate, in an hour and a half, the property of ef-
fervefcing to caultic potalh. It farther appears, that this
fmall quantity of carbonic acid gas adheres fo ftrongly
to the atmofpheric air, that the latter does not produce
the flighted: cloud when agitated with lime-water. It
was this, and other effects of the fame kind, which in¬
duced Mr. Kirwan to conclude that the quantity of car¬
bonic acid gas in atmofpheric air is abfolutely inappre¬
ciable. Morveau has pointed out the circumltances
which occafioned the failure of Mr. Kirwan’s experi¬
ments, and has Ihewn that atmofpheric air contains a
fmall quantity of carbonic acid gas, even when it is un¬
able to produce the fmallell cloudinefs in lime-water.
Atmofpheric air alfo contains water ; the quantity of
which varies according to the temperature and denfity of
the air, and according to the nature and qualities of the
fubftances to which it has been recently expofed. It ap¬
pears from the accurate experiments of Sauflure, that a
cubic foot of atmofpheric air, having the temperature of
65°, diflolves about eleven grains of water, in paffingfrom
extreme drynefs to extreme humidity. Confult upon this
fubjeft Sauflure’s EJfais fur I'Hygrometrie, § 97, 180.
5. Its weight ; which is one of the molt valuable dif¬
coveries in natural philofophy. It was not well efta-
bliffied till about the middle of the feventeenth century,
though it is affirmed, that Ariftotle knew that a bladder
is heavier when full of air, than when empty. The an¬
cients had no idea of the weight of the air; but attri¬
buted all the phenomena arifing from that weight to an
occult quality which they called the horror of a vacuum.
The impoffibility of railing water by the common pump
to a greater height than thirty-two feet, engaged certain
workmen to confult the famous Galileo, who was much
furprifed at the fa6l. Death, in all probability, prevent¬
ed his fagacity from difcovering the true caufe of this,
which was rel'erved for his difciple Torricellius. He was
led to it by the following reafoning : the water appeared
to him to rife in the fucking-pump folely in confequence
of an exterior caufe, which, by preffure, obliged it to
follow
e H E M I
follow tlie piftori . Tlie aflion of this caufe is evidently
limited, as appears by its fuftaining a column of no more
than thirty-two-feet of water. If, therefore, it were to
abl on a fluid fpecifically heavier than water, it ought to
raile and luftain to a height inverfely as its fpeciiic gra¬
vity. From tliefe reflections he was induced to take a
tube of glai's hermetically fealed at one end, and thirty-
fix inches in length. He filled this with mercury, the
doled end being downwards ; then, ckffing the extremity
with his finger, he railed the other end uppermoft, and
plunged the unlealed end beneath the furface of a veflel
of mercury. Upon removing iiis finger, he obferved the
mercurial column to delcend, till after feveral ofcilla-
tions its upper furface remained at twenty-eight inches
above the furface of the mercury in the baton : and hence
the invention of the barometer. By comparing this height
with the height of thirty-two feet, to which water is
railed in pumps, he found it correfponded accurately to
the inverl'e ratio of the weights ; for the fpecific gravity
of mercury and water being in round numbers, as four¬
teen to one, the mercury was found to Hand in the va¬
cuum at only one-fourteenth of the height of the water.
It was not till after much meditation, that he lufpefted
the weight of the air to be the caule of the fufpenfion of
water in pumps; and this doCtrine was not incontrover-
tibly eftablilhed until after the ingenious experiment of
Pafcal. This celebrated philofopher imagined, that if
water were fuftained at the height of thirty-two feet in
pumps, and mercury at twenty-eight inches in the Tor¬
ricellian tube, by the lole gravity of the air, the heights
of thele fluids ought to vary with that gravity; that
they ought not, for example, to be the fame on the top
of a mountain and in a 'valley, becaufe the length of a
column of the atmolphere mult be Ihorter, and conle-
quently its weight lels in the former than in the latter cafe.
In purfuance of this idea of Pafcal, M. Perrier, on the
*9lh of September, 1648, at the foot and at the fummit
of the mountain Puits de Dome in Auvergne, made the
famous experiment, which has for ever fixed the opinion
of philofophers on this I'ubjeCt. The barometer, or Tor¬
ricellian tube filled with mercury, and fixed to a fcale of
thirty-four inches, (hewed a fall or diminution of the
mercurial column equal to four inches, in attending
from the foot of the mountain to its fummit, which is
five hundred toifes higher. By this it was al'certained, that
the mercury varies about an inch for every hundred fa¬
thoms ; and this inflrument has fince that time been very
fuccefsfully applied to meafure the height of mountains.
The weight of the air has great influence on a number
of phyfical and chemical phenomena. It compreffes all
bodies, and oppoles their dilatation. It is an obftacle to
the evaporation of fluids. The water of the fea is, by
this caule, prelerved in its liquid Hate, without which it
would take the vaporous form, as we fee in the vacuum
of the air-pump. The preffure of the air on our bodies
•preferves the date both of the lolids and fluids ; and
from the want of this due preffure it is, that on the fum-
mits of lofty mountains the blood often iffues from the
pores of the Ikin, or from the lungs, and occailons he¬
morrhages.
6. Its elallicity, by which it is capable of being very
much condenfed, and fuddenly regains its former ftate
when at liberty. A great ntimber of fafts prove the
truth of this affertion. We lhall here mention one or
two of the molt obvious and conclufive. If mercury be
poured into a tube in the form of the letter U, and doled
at one end, the air in the clofed end will contract in its
dimenfions, in proportion as the quantity of mercury by
which it is comprtffed is greater. The foot-ball of chil¬
dren, confifting of a bladder filled with wind, and en-
clofed in leather, Ihews the fame elallicity, by its re¬
bounding when it falls on hard bodies. The fountain,
by compreffed air, (hews the fame thing. This is a veflel
half filled with water, and air is ftrongly compreffed iii-
to its fuperior part : the re-a&ion of the air on the water
Vox.. IV. No. 189.
S T R Y. 107
forces it out to a confiderable height through a tube.
A withered apple, put under the receiver of. an-air-pump,
and the air fucked out, becomes plump and looks frelh ;
but, when air is re-admitted, it becomes as before. Fillies
and birds lhew the elallicity of the air : the fifli has re¬
ceived from nature different modes of action ; its phyfi¬
cal means are the bladder, which it has the power of
compreffmg or dilating, to rife in the water or to dc-
fcend; its tail, which is very mufcular, forms a point of
refinance againlt the water. It is eftimated that air may
be compreffed into the 128th of its ulual volume.
Keat producing a contrary efteCt to that of compref-
fion upon air, ferves to lhew, that its volume may be ex¬
ceedingly augmented by the increafe of its Ip ring. When
a bladder full of air is expofed to the heat of a furnace,
the air is dilated fo as to burlt the bladder with an ex-
plolion. This phenomenon is partly the occafion of the
burfting of chemical veffels, which often happens where
due precautions are not taken to prevent it. The ab-
fence of the preffure of the atmolphere, or the total ab-
ltraClion of the circumambient air from beneath the re¬
ceiver of an air-pump, caufes a bladder enclofed therein
to burlt by the fpring of the included air, which then
aCts without opposition.
From this account of the gravity and the elallicity of
the air, it may be readily inferred, that thele properties
are the leading caufes of the numerous atmolpherical
changes, and the variations in the mercurial column in
the barometer. In fa<St, the inferior llrata of the atmof-
phere mull luftain the weight of the air above them, and
are therefore in a ftate of compreliion, which diminifhes
with the greater elevation of places : and the continual
change of temperature mult alfo greatly affedt the gravity
of the air, by augmenting or diminifhing its elallicity.
Thus, as we have already noticed, the air is lighter,
keener, and more agitated on the tops of mountains
than in lower regions ; and it is only from the conlide-
ration of the combined efftdls of the heat, gravity, and
elallicity, of the atmolphere, that the . barometrical
changes can be accounted for. M. de Luc and M. de
Saullure have paid great attention to this important fub-
jedt for fome years pall : and the barometrical meafure-
ment of elevations has been well treated of, both prac¬
tically and fcientifically, by fir George Shuckburgh and
colonel Roy, in the 77th vol. of the Philolophical Tranl-
adlions.
The chemical properties of air, come next under con-
fideration. Van Helnjont, Boyle, and Hales, having per¬
ceived that air, or at leall a fluid poffeffmg all its appa¬
rent properties, was obtained from many natural fub-
ftaitces, adopted the opinion that this element combines
with, and becomes fixed in, bodies. Such is the origin
of the term fixed air, which was given to the elaltic fluids
obtained in chemical operations. The early philofophers
fuppofed thefe fluids to be air; but the difeoveries of
Dr. Priellley have fliewn, that there are many bodies
which have the phyfical properties of air, though they
dilfer from it effentially in many refpedls. It is, there¬
fore, neceflary to attend to thofe other properties, in or¬
der to diftinguilh air from other aeriform fluids, which
relemble it in invifibility and elallicity. Thele properties
are chemical ; and the experiments which confirm the
chemical properties of air, are thole which are made for
analyling this fluid.
Take a bell-glals of a given height; turn it down in
a faucer half full of wafer, in the middle of which fix a
taper on an iron-wire ; the flame prelently (brinks, turns
blue, and goes out; the water in the faucer rifes near
one-fourth up the giafs. This experiment will be more
curious, if we place in the faucer feveral lighted tapers
of different heights ; they will be extinguilhed in luc-
ceflion, beginning with the tallcft. Thefe experiments
prove at once, that atmolpherical air is compoled of
two elaltic fluids, one of which maintains combultion,
and another which cannot.
S 2-
Sulphat
C HEMISTRY.
198
Sulphure of potafu has alfo the property of decompofmg
atmofpherical air. Put two or three bits of fulphure,
as big as a pea, into a retort, which fill with water,
taking care to (lope it fo as to let all the air which might
be m the globular part pafs into the neck ; flop the ori¬
fice with your finger, and put its neck downwards into
the pneumatic cittern, to let in the gas for trial in the
ordinary way. By inclining it again, with care, different
ways, all the water will be difplaced, and the fulphure
remain in the bulb. This done place the retort in a ver¬
tical pofition, infert the end of it into a glafs tube under
water, and put a fmall lighted taper under the bulb.
The firft impreffion of the heat dilates the gafeous fluid ;
and, as the fulphure begins to bubble up, the Water riles
rapidly; and if the air is pure, there is a total abforp-
tion ; if it be common air, only a certain quantity of
water rifes into the retort, which reprefents exadtly the
volume abforbed. Upon this experiment is founded the
Utility of Guyton’s eudiometer.
If chopped vegetables, flowers, or fruit, be placed un¬
der jars filled with atmofpherical air, they confume the
oxygen, and there remains an elaftic fluid improper for
combuftion or refpiration. The fame refult takes place
with phofphorus, fulphure of potafh, & c. That refpi¬
ration, as well as combuftion, decompofes common air,
the following experiments will prove: 1. Pafs the gas
which comes from the lungs through lime-water, and a
precipitation takes place. 2. Draw the fame gas through
tinfture of turnfole, it will turn red; if pure alkali be
fubftituted for the tinfture of turnfole, it becomes effer-
vefcent. All thefe differences prove, then, that air is
decompofed, fince, on the one hand, a gas improper to
combuftion is produced ; on the other, a'fixation of oxy¬
gen gas in the bodies brought into contaft with com¬
mon air; and, laftly, by the afl of refpiration, a pecu¬
liar gas is produced, which forms frelh combinations.
Atmofpherical air is compofed of tweniy-feven parts of
oxygen gas, and about feventy-two of azotic gas.
Of combustible bodies.
Azotic gas. — This elaftic fluid, which forms more
than two-thirds of the air of the atmofphere, was at firft
called mephitis by Lavoifier, becaufe it extinguilhes bo¬
dies in combuftion, and deftroys animal life ; but as all
the gafes, except vital and atmofpherical air, are equally
noxious, and as the name of mephitis is a general ex-
preftion which belongs to them all alike, and has always
been given to elaftic fluids, which are not refpirable,. the
name of azotic gas, is now given to this aeriform fluid;
and this denomination admits the name azot, as the
fubftantive, to the bafe of this gas, which, like that of
vital air, or oxygen, becomes fixed by combining with
various lubftances. To give in this place foine informa¬
tion refpeffing the nature of this azotic gas, we (hall
defcribe iome of its properties. It is fomewhat lighter
than atmofpheric air, and occupies the upper part of
rooms in which the air is altered by refpiration and
combuftion. Though it is very noxious to animals in
its ftatq of elaftic fluidity, yet its bafe, or azot, is one of
the component parts of their bodies, from which it is
obtained in very great quantities. It is one of the con-
ftituent parts of volatile alkali, or ammoniac, and of the
nitric acid. It is abforbed by vegetables, and perhaps
by animals. It is likewife very probable that it forms
one of the principles of all the alkalis, and that it may
be confidered as the true alkaligen, oppoled to the bale
of vital air or oxygen. The atmofphere would be then,
according to thefe confiderations, an immenfe refervoir
of the acidifying and alkalifying principles, without be¬
ing itfelf either acid or alkaline.
There are feveral modes of obtaining azotic gas. 1. By
fulphure of potalh expofed under a bell-glafs in a quan¬
tity of atmoipherical air. 2. By Bertholiet’s method of
treating mufcular flefli, or the fibrous parts of blood well
walhed in weak nitric acid. For this purpofe, cut the
3
flelh in pieces ; put it either into a retort, or into a phial
or matrafs; pour thereon weak nitric acid; adapt a tube
to the retort or phial, and lute it; place the apparatus-
over a fand-bath, and pafs the tube under a jar in the
mercurial pneumatic apparatus : the water ciftern may
ferve alfo when the experiments are not required to be
very exact. 3. Fourcroy oblerved, that the air-bladders
of the calk contained azotic gas. To obtain it, nothing
more is neceffary than to bruife them in jars filled with
water. 4. It may be obtained by expofing a mixture of
iron and fulphur beat up in water, over mercury, in at¬
mofpherical air. 5. By the oxydation of metals, the ran¬
cidity of oils, the combuftion of phofphorus, &c. 6. By
the decompolition of animal and vegetable lubftances,
the leaves of plants, See. All thefe fubftances decompofe
atmoipherical air;, and the relidue is azotic gas.
Its properties. — This gas is deftruftive of combuftion
and refpiration : it is ealy to prove this by plunging a
lighted taper into a cylindrical tube filled with this gas;
the light goes fuddenly out ; and animals die in it. This
gas is not acid : if it be put in contadl with water, lime-
water, and tindiure of turnfole, the nature of thefe bo¬
dies is not changed ; the azotic gas ftill remains pure.
By mixing azotic gas and oxygen gas, a re-compofition
of atmofpherical air is produced. Put under a bell-glafs
filled with water, three parts of azotic gas and one of
oxygen gas ; in the fluid which is the refult of this ex¬
periment, put a light, and it will burn as in atmofpheri¬
cal air. The bafe of azotic gas is not fufficiently known.
Hydrogen gas. — This is always belt obtained by a
decompofition of water: for this purpofe-pafs a gun-bar¬
rel through a furnace, obferving to Hope it towards the
narrow-eft end. In the upper extremity infert a bent
tube, as (hewn at A, fig. 12, in the engraving; while the
other extremity is terminated by a tube, B, which is
palled into the pneumatic ciftern, under a jar. The ap¬
paratus being thus difpofed and well luted, make the
gun-barrel red-hot: when the barrel begins to be very
hot, put water, drop by drop, into the tube A : the wa¬
ter will run through ; and, as foon as it comes in con¬
tact with the gun-barrel, it is decompofed ; the iron takes
up the oxygen, and the hydrogen is difengaged in a gafe¬
ous ftate through the tube B.
This gas is obtained alfo by pouring fulphuric acid
upon iron-filings or zink. Take an apothecary’s phial,
or a fmall matrafs containing iron-filings or zink ; pour
over it weak fulphuric acid, whole fpecific weight to
that of water (hall be only as eleven to ten ; adapt there¬
to a bent tube, which is to be palled under a bell-glafs.
As foon as the fulphuric acid is in contadl with the iron,
it excites a brilk effervefcence ; the water which ferves
as a vehicle to this acid is decompofed, the oxygen ftrikes.
upon the metal, and the hydrogen is difengaged. Till j
gas is likewdfe furniflied by the Ample diftiliation of ve¬
getable fubftances, animal putrefcence, and vegetable
fermentation .
Its properties,— It has a difagreeable fmell ; is invifible,
elaftic, and twelve times lighter than atmofpherical air;
on the lightnefs of hydrogen gas, or inflammable air,
depends the theory of the air-balloon. This gas is not
proper for maintaining combuftion, as will appear from,
the following experiment: Having introduced hydrogen
gas into a bell-glafs filled with mercury, put in a fmall
laucer with I'ome tinder and a little phofphorus ; touch
the phofphorus with a red-hot bent iron-wire thruft
through the mercury, and the phofphorus melts imme¬
diately, but there is no flame.
Hydrogen gas and atmospherical air. — Fill a
bell-glafs with hydrogen gas, draw it out of the pneu¬
matic ciftern, and put to it immediately a lighted taper;
the gas lights, and the flame is feen fucceffively to de-
feend in the bottle. There are feveral other ways of
producing this effedt. Put iron-filings into a bottle with
two necks, as reprefented at fig. 13, in the plate. To one
of the oecks adjuft a tube of glafs terminated by a capil-
CHEMISTRY.
lary tube ; pour weak fulphuric acid in at the other neck.
At the inftant the gas is difengaged,. prelent a lighted
taper, the gas catches flame, and forms what is called
the philofophic candle, which burns as long as there is
any difengagement of gas.
This experiment may be made in a different way. Fill
a large bell-glafs, as fliewn at fig. 14, with hydrogen gas ;
at the neck put a flop-cock, luftaining a copper tube
either ftrait or bent; comprefs the gas by putting the
bell-glafs below the level of the water in the pneumatic
ciflern; then turn the cock, and prelent a lighted taper
to the extremity : the gas takes fire immediately. Or a
bladder may be tied to a flop-cock, or, more Amply flill,
to a fmall giafs tube ; drive out the gas by preflure, and
the effect will be the fame. From thefe experiments it
appears, that hydrogen gas, which is not inflammable
of itfelf, only enjoys this property when in contact with
atmofpherical air.
Hydrogen gas, mixed with atmospherical
air.- — Fill a bottle with atmofpherical air and hydrogen
gas, fo that the atmofpherical air forms about two-thirds
of the mixture ; and apply a lighted taper. The flame
is not then feen to defcend by degrees into the bottle :
the inflammation is fudden, and accompanied with real
explofion or detonation.
Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.- — Pafs under an
inverted jar two-thirds of hydrogen gas, and one-third
of oxygen gas ; apply a light to the mixture ; the in¬
flammation is total and initanianeous, and the detona¬
tion very loud. The mixture of thefe two gafes is called
thundering air. If hydrogen gas alone be blown through
a bladder into foap-liids, and a lighted taper be brought
in contaft with the bubbles thereby railed, the com-
buftion is fucceflive and without noile ; but, if the fame
experiment be made with a mixture of hydrogen gas
and oxygen gas, there will be a ftrong explofion. The
loudnefs of the detonation arifes only from the due pro¬
portion of the mixture, which is totally burnt.. Hydro¬
gen gas is improper for relpiration. Take a bell-glafs
and fill it with hydrogen gas, pat in a bird or other ani¬
mal, and coverit over to preventthe fluid from efcaping:
The animal is immediately feized with violent convul-
fions', and foon dies.
Of CARBON.
Carbon, or coal, the bafis of animal and vegetable
fubftances, is prefent alrnoft eveiy where. Five fpecies
may be diftinguifhed : vegetable, animal, and foflile, coal ;
wood charred in the earth, wood charred in water. The
two firft fpecies arife from the diflillation of animal and
vegetable fubftances : but pure carbon is not produced
this way ; it is previoufly neceflary, by proper walkings
in clear water, to extract all the lalts which are mixed
and confounded therewith ; then the carbon is to be
dried with a violent heat in clofed veffels ; this is a ne-
ceflary precaution, for the laft drops of water adhere fo
ftrongly as to be decompofed, and furnilh hydrogen gas
and carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid produces alfo, by decompofition, very
pure carbon. Put into a giafs tube, clofed at one end,
one part of phofphorus, and over that five parts of cal¬
careous carbonat in line powder ; let the tube end in a
point by means of a capillary point; place the tube in
the middle of a furnace, fo that the fuel can only heat
the carbonate, the end of the tube containing the phof¬
phorus being then in the alh-hole, as reprefented in the
plate, at fig. 1 5 ; fallen the tube with a wire, and heat
it ; when the fait is very hot, raife the tube that the phof¬
phorus may burn. At this temperature the phofphorus
feizes on the oxygen of the carbonic acid, and becomes
phofphoric acid, which unites with lime to form a cal¬
careous phofphat, while the carbon is left to itfelf. By
walhing the relult of this operation in water, the carbon
is feparated.
Expofed to the air, carbon burns, reddens, and gives
*99
out light, but no flame. If the experiment be made un¬
der a bell-glafs filled with atmofpherical air, the com-
buftion of the carbon abforbs only about fifteen parts of
the oxygen, becaufe the azot which is difengaged, fur-
rounds the charcoal, and leflens the combullion. II char¬
coal be burnt under a bell-glafs, or in ajar filled with
pure oxygen gas, the combullion is complete ; the car¬
bon takes up all the oxygen, and makes a frelh com¬
bination : this is called carbonic acid. If water be palled
under the giafs, and it be put in motion, the gas is dif-
folved in the water, and the refult is liquid carbonic acid,
which is known by its properties.
Charcoal is very greedy of air. If a piece of charcoal,
well dried, be put under a jar, in a mercurial bath, filled
with that metal, the charcoal will be leen to abforb the
air, and the mercury to rife pretty quick ; but, if aque¬
ous gas be palled under the jar, then the charcoal ab¬
forbs the humidity in preference : it takes the water and
leaves the air, and the mercury finks again.
Carbon melts in hydrogen gas: if carbonated hydro¬
gen gas be burnt with oxygen, water and carbonic acid
are the produdls. The hydrogen gas, which has dif-
folved carbon, acquires a greater fpecific gravity. Car¬
bonated hydrogen gas is difengaged in general in all
diftillations of vegetable and animal fubftances ; for the
hydrogen exifts in a folid. ftate in plants, and goes off
in gas only by means of the caloric communicated to it
by the fire employed in the diflillation ; and it diftblves
charcoal.
Of PHOSPHORUS.
Phofphorus was originally obtained from urine. Ac¬
cording to Leibnitz, the diicovery of phofphorus is due
to an alchemift named Brandt, a citizen of Hamburg,
who difeovered it in 1667. Kunckel afl'oeiated with a
certain perfon named Kraft't, to purchafe this fecret ; but
the latter having purchafed it, and refufing to commu¬
nicate it to Kunckel, he refolved to make a l'eries of
experiments on urine, from which he knew it was ex¬
tracted, in order to difeover it. His inquiries were at¬
tended with fuccefs, and therefore he ought to be re¬
garded as the true inventor. Some perfons likewile at¬
tribute the honour of this difeovery to Boyle, who in
faff depofited a fmall quantity, in the year 1680, in the
hands of the fecretary of the royal fociety of London ;
but Stahl affirms that Kraft't told him that he communi¬
cated the procefs of making phofphorus to Boyle ; Boyle
communicated his procels to a German, named Godfreid
Hanckwitz, who had a good laboratory at London, and
was for a long time the only perfon who made phofphorus,
and fold it to all the philofophers throughout Europe. Not-
withftanding a great number of receipts for making phof¬
phorus, and among others thofe of Boyle, Kraft't, Brandt,
Hoffman, Teichmeyer, Frederic Hoffman, Neiwentyt.and
Wadelius, have been publillied, fince the year j68o, to
the commencement of the prefent century, no chemift fuc-
ceeded in preparing it ; and the procels was in reality a
fecret, till a ftranger, in 1737, offered at Paris to com¬
municate a fuccefsful method of making it. The aca¬
demy nominated four chemifts, Hellot, Dufay, Geoffroy,
and Duhamel, to attend this operation in the laboratory
cf the royal garden. The procefs fucceeded very well,
the. minifter rewarded the foreigner, and M. Hellot de-
feribed it very accurately, in a memoir inferted among
thofe of the academy for the year 1737- The operation
confifts in evaporating five or fix hoglheads of urine, till
it is reduced into a granulated, hard, black, and Ihining,
fubftance ; this refidue is calcined in an iron-pot, whole
bottom is heated red-hot, till no more fumes arile, and
a fmell like that of peach-bloffoms is perceived ; the cal¬
cined matter is lixiviated with about twice its weight of
hot water, and is dried after the waterhas been decantedofF.
Three, pounds of this matter are then mixed with One
pound and a half of coarfe land, or pounded flone-ware,
and four or five ounces of the powder of charcoal of
beechj.
200
C H E M ]
beech. This mixture being moiftened with half a pint
ot water, is introduced into a HefTian retort; the matter
is affayed, by making a portion red-hot in a crucible:
if it emit a violent flame, with a fmell of garlic, it is a
proof that phofphorus will be afforded. The retort is
placed in a furnace built on purpofe, and a large receiver
is adapted, one-third full of water; the receiver muff
have a fmall hole pierced in it ; and M. Hellot confiders
this as one of the moll neceffary circumftances to enfure
fuccefs. Three or four days after the apparatus has been
put together, a fire is made fo as very gradually to dry
the furnace and the lutes. The fire is raifed by degrees
to the moft extreme heat, and kept up -in that Rate from
fifteen to twenty hours ; the phofphorus does not come
over till about fourteen hours after the commencement
of the operation, which in the whole lafls twenty-four
hours. A large quantity of ammoniacal carbonat firft
riles, which is partly difl'olved in the water of the re¬
ceiver: the volatile or aeriform phofphorus, firft pafles
in luminous vapours; the true phofphorus next comes
over, in the form of an oil, or refembling melted wax.
When no more pafles over, the apparatus is left to cool
for two days ; the receiver is then unluted, and water is
added to lool'en the phofphorus adhering to the fides ;
the phofphorus is then melted in boiling water, and cut
into fmall pieces, which are introduced into the necks
of matraffes, cut towards the middle of the body in the
form of a funnel, and plunged in boiling water; the
phofphorus melts, is purified, and becomes tranlparent,
by the feparation of a blackifh matter, which rifes to the
top ; it is afterwards plunged in cold water, by which it
is rendered folid.
Modern chemifts obtain phofphorus by decompofing
calcareous phofphat with fulphuric acid, &c. When the
phofphat is very pure, it is tranlparent, and of a conflu¬
ence like wax. In order to mould the phofphorus into
flicks, take a long-necked funnel, or tube ; flop the ori¬
fice with a cork or bit of wood; fill it with water, and
put in the phofphorus ; plunge the tube into boiling wa¬
ter, and the phofphorus will melt and run ; then plunge
the tube into cold water; and, when the phofphorus is
congealed, take away the cork, and pufti it out of the
tube or mould with a fmall flick or rod. Pelletier con¬
trived the following method: Take a tube about feven
inches long, with an aperture not too large to be clofed
with the top of the fore-finger; melt the phofphorus in
boiling water, then immerle one end of the tube, hold¬
ing the other end in the mouth; make a flight infpira-
tion, that the phofphorus may rife in the tube, but flop
the moment the phofphorus is within an inch of your
mouth ; then flop the end of the tube with your finger,
and plunge it into an earthen pan full of cold water ; the
pholphorus will foon congeal, and, by a flight fhake, may
be driven out of the tube.
In breaking a flick of phofphorus, the elements of cryf-
tallization are fometimes apparent ; but, to obtain it cryf-
tallized in oflahedrons, it mull be difl'olved in water of
31 or 32* temperature ; as it congeals, prick it, and let
the ftill-liquid phofphorus run out : the refult is a mafs
of cryflals in needles. Pelletier alfo obtained cryftal-
.Hzed phofphorus from its l'olution in a volatile oil, by
cooling only, or in adding alcohol to the folution ; and
at length a precipitate was formed, which was of eight
lides with the upper and lower angle blunted. The phof¬
phorus fhould always be melted under water. By put¬
ting it under water for melting, the temperature of its
fufion may be eflimated. To preferve phofphorus, it
fhould be kept under water and without light ; for, when
expofed to the light, it becomes covered with a red pel¬
licle ; this is a beginning of combultion or oxydation.
Ip preferving pholphorus under water, care mull be taken
that it be not aerated.
Phofphorus, when extrafled from the fubllances which
contain it, is commonly dirty and impure; it contains
charcoal-d ult and phofphorus half burnt; which gives it
S T R Y.
a red or brown colour. To obtain it pure, it fhould be
melted, and paffed feveral times through chamois-leather
in hot water : the leather can ferve only once, as the fe-
cond parcel of pholphorus put into it would be coloured
by it. Phofphorus volatilifes eafily in diftillation with
water; it becomes liquid, and rifes in vapour, with the
heat of boiling water. It may be diftilled by filling the
veflels previoufly with carbonic acid, or any other gas
not proper for maintaining combuflion.
The various colours under which phofphorus is ob¬
tained, arife from the greater or lels quantity of oxygen
it has abforbed, but yet not to become acid : this is oxyd
of phofphorus. To feparate the phofphorus from its
oxydated part, put a given quantity of it into a tube,
- which plunge into hot water; the phofphorus melts, and
the oxyd floats on the furface, provided the oxydated
portion is not foluble in the fame degree of heat. This,
therefore, exhibits another mode of purifying phofphorus.
If phofphorus be expofed to atmofpherical air, it burns
flowly, and exhales fntoke all over its furface ; this va¬
pour, which gives out a itrong fmell of garlic, is phof¬
phorus acid. Put each cylindrical flick of phofphorus
into a little glafs tube, whole extremity is clofed funnel-
fafhion, with a fmall aperture for the palfage of the little
drop of acid which is produced : prepare feveral of thefe
tubes, and pat them into a large funnel under a bell-
glafs or jar, as reprefented in the Chemiftry Plate II.
fig. 16. Place this in a difh containing water, and cover
the whole with a large glafs dome, with apertures at the
fides, that the duft may not fall upon it, and alfo to keep
the air moift, which greatly forwards the decompofition
or infenfible combuflion of the phofphorus.
Take a tube of glafs, clofed at one end, about fixteen
inches long and half an inch thick, widened at bottom
that it may (land firm. Introduce into it a fmaller tube,
at the end of which fallen a Hick of phofphorus." Place
the apparatus over water. The phofphorus takes up all
the oxygen of the air; and the azot, which melts the
phofphorus, does not unite with it, but holds a part of
it in folution, which even catches fire at once, if not
kept in a proper temperature. This is Berthollet's eu¬
diometer. The prefence of the phofphorus, thus held in
folution by the azot, may increal'e the volume fo as
caule l'ome miltake in experiments with the eudiometer,
if you only verify the volumes without proving alfo the
weights.
Take a tube of glafs or cryflal, of an inch in diameter
and fix inches long, clofed at its upper end, and widened
at the lower extremity. Fill this with mercury, and put
in a little phofphorus, which, having lefs fpecific gravity,
rifes to the upper part of the tube; melt the phofphorus
by means of a lighted coal applied on the outfide of the
tube ; then introduce into the tube the fmall portions of
air to be wrought upon, which have been previoufly gaged
in a jar graduated for that purpofe. The combuflion con¬
tinues till the end of the operation ; but, for greater ex-
attitude, heat the refidue very llrongly; and, when cold,
pafs it into a little jar gaged at the fame time with the
firll : the difference in the two volumes (hews the quan¬
tity of oxygen gas which the ait contained that was ufed
in the experiment. This is the whole artifice of Seguin’s
eudiometer.
Humboldt has lately proved, by a great number of ex¬
periments, 1. That phofphorus, whether it be burnt or
nearly made lucid in contact with atmofpherical air, is
an eudiometrical fubflance extremely irregular and un¬
certain, flnee oftentimes it abforbs only o-i5 to o‘2o of
oxygen, inftead of o'T.'j ; and the fame gas efl'ayed in
different tubes gives different refults. That nitrous
gas dilcovers almoft conllautly fome hundredth parts of.
oxygen in the refiduum of the phofphoric eudiometer.
3. That all azotic gafes, in which phofphorus throws out
no light, and which do not decreafe in volume with ni¬
trous gas, cannot be confidered as devoid of oxygen.
There are cafes where 0-13 of oxygen remain concealed
201
CHEMISTRY.
in a gas, irt which pholphorus, at the temperature of 50°,
melts without light, and on which nitrous gas works' no
alteration. 4. That phofphorus dilTolves equally in azo¬
tic gas and in oxygen gas, forming oxyds with double
bales of phofphorus and azote, oxydated azotic phof-
phures, which the nitrous gas decompofes but in part.
If the experiment be made with the pneumatic appa¬
ratus before-defcribed, the refult of the combuftion is
always phofphoric acid. It is concrete, if water be not
palled under the jar ; to obtain it liquid, water is put in,
and alfo upon the partitions ; then the phofphoric acid
is dilfolved with eafe. Pelletier has pointed out another
method : his apparatus is a lengthened cylinder, in which
the phofphorus is put with water. This cylinder is put
into a velfel, containing boiling water, to keep the phof¬
phorus in a liquefied ft ate ; then there is a bent tube,
one of whofe apertures is plunged into the phofphorus,
and the other is adapted upon a large jar, which has a
fecond neck or aperture, by means of which a funnel is
mounted, furnilhed with a ltop-ccck, as delineated in the
lame plate, at fig. 17. Things being thus prepared, pour
water into the funnel ; then, by turning the cock, the
water runs into the jar and' drives the air into the tube :
the water, palling through the phofphorus, combines
with, and produces combuftion in, the phofphorus, which
is thereby changed into phofphoric acid. When the jar
is full of water, it is drawn out by a cock in the lower
part, and adapted for that purpofe.
Pholpboeus dilfolves in all oils, and renders them lu¬
minous. Spielman has difcovered that it dilfolves in al¬
cohol, and that this folution emits fparks when it is
poured into water : part of the phofphorus is precipi¬
tated in a white powder during this operation. Phof¬
phorus is as yet very little ufed either in medicine or in
the arts. Menzies, Morgenftern, Hartman, &c. affirm,
that they have experienced very happy effects in malig¬
nant and bilious fevers, when the ftrength has been ex-
haufled, and in the biliary fever; others have recom¬
mended it in tdie fcarlet fever, the peripneumony, rheu¬
matic pains, epilepfy. &c. but though feveral difiertations
have appeared in Germany on the medicinal virtues of
phofphorus employed internally, nothing can yet be elta-
blillied concerning it, till experience has afeertained its
virtues with greater certainty.
The moll authentic information relative to the medi¬
cal properties of phofphorus, feems to be that of M. Le-
roi, profeflor of the Medical School in Paris, publiffied
in 1798. His obfervations are as follow : r. Phofphorus
adminillered internally in confumptive difeafes appears
to give a certain degree of activity to life, and to revive
the patients, without railing their pulfe in the fame pro¬
portion. The author relates feveral inllances that oc¬
curred to him in the courfe of his praftice, one of which
is as follows : Being called to attend a woman, at the
point of death, who was quite worn out by a confumptive
diforder, with which Ihe had been afflidted for three years,
in compliance with the earned defire of her hulband, who
requelled him to give her fome medicine, he compofed
one of a portion of fyrup diluted with water in which a
few flicks of phofphorus had been kept. Next day the
woman found herfelf much better. She was revived for a
few days ; and did not die for about a fortnight after.
2. He himfelf, as he acknowledges, was fo imprudent
as to take two or three grains of folid phofphorus com¬
bined only with treacle, and experienced the mofl dread¬
ful fymptoms. At firft he felt a burning heat in the
whole region of the flomach. That organ feemed to be
filled with gas which efcaped by the mouth. Being dread¬
fully tormented, he tried to vomit, but in vain, and found
relief only by drinking cold water from time to time.
His uneafy fenfations were at length allayed ; but next
morning he feemed to be endowed with an afloniffiing
mufcular force, and to be urged with an a] moll irrefif-
tible impulfe to try its energy. The effect of this medi-
Voi.. IV. No, 189.
cine at length ceafed, adds the author, a In fuite d'un
priapifitie < violent .
3; In many cafes the author employed, and fhli em¬
ploys, phofphorus internally, with great benefit, to re-
(tore and revive young perfons exhaufted by excefies.
He divides the phofphorus into very finall particles, by
fnaking it in a glafs filled with boiling water. He con¬
tinues to fliake the bottle, plunging it into cold water,
and thus obtains a kind of precipitate of phofphorus,
exceedingly fine, which he bruifes (lowly with a little oil
and fugar, or afterwards employs as liquid eleftuary, by
diluting the whole in the yolk of an egg. By means of
this medicine he has effected altonilhing cures, and re-
flored the ftrength of his patients in a very fliort time.
4. In malignant fevers the ufe of phofphorus internally,
to check the progrefs of gangrene, has fucceeded- beyond
expedlation. The author relates feveral inftances.
5. Pelletier told him, that having left, through negli¬
gence, fome phofphorus in a copper bafon, that metal
was oxydated, and remained fufpended in the water.
Having thoughtlefsly thrown out the water in a fmall
court in which ducks were kept, tliefe animals-drank of
it, and all died. Mats le male, fays the author, couvrit
toutes fes femelles jufqu'au dernier injlant de fa ‘vie. An
obfervation which accords with the effedt experienoed by
the author.
6. The author relates a fa£l which proves the aflonilh-
ing divifibility of phofphorus. Having adminillered to
a patient fome pills, in the compofition of which there
was not more than a quarter of a grain of phofphorus,
and having had occafion afterwards to open the body, he
found all the internal parts luminous ; and even the hands
of the perfon who had performed the operation, though
waffied and well dried, retained a phofphoric fplendor
for a long time after.
7. The phofphoric acid, employed, as lemonade, has
been ferviceable to the author in the cure of a great
number of difeafes.
8. Leroi allures us that he oxydated iron with phof¬
phorus, and obtained, by the common means, a white
oxyd, almoft irreducible, which he thinks may be em¬
ployed with advantage in the arts, and particularly in
painting with oil, and in enamel, inflead of the white
oxyd of lead. This white oxyd of iron occafioned vio¬
lent retchings to the author, who ventured to place a
very fmall particle of it on his tongue. He does not he-
fitate, therefore, to confider this oxyd as a terrible poi-
fon. He was not able to reduce it, but by fixed alkali
and the glafs of phofphorus.
9. The author aflerts, that by means of phofphorus he
decompofed and feparated from their bafes the fulphuric
muriatic and nitric acids ; that, by help of the phof¬
phoric acid, he tranfmuted earths ; and that, with calca¬
reous earth, he can make, at pleafure, confiderable quan ¬
tities of magnefia. He declares that to his labours on
phofphorus he is indebted for procefles by which he ef¬
fects the diffipation ( opere la fritej of rubies, the fufion
of emeralds, and the vitrification of mercury.
Phosphorated hydrogen gas. — There are various
modes of producing this gas, of which we ffiall only mention
the principal. Fill a bell-glafs or inverted jar with pure
hydrogen gas ; place it over mercury, and introduce the
phofphorus at the bottom of the veflel ; bring the fun’s
rays, by means of a burning lens, in contadl with the
middle of the jar, as (hewn in the Chemiflry Piate III.
fig. 1. The hydrogen gas will be prefently changed
into phofphoric hydrogen gas, which exhales ah in-
fupportable finell of (linking fifh. It takes flame as loon
as it comes in contadl with the air: the inflammation
gives birth to water and phofphoric acid, and circular
crowns of fmoke are formed from its bubbles. When
the hydrogen gas has burned, the bubble of water which
encompaffed it is combined with the phofphoric acid
which is produced ; and hence the fmoke riles in a cir~.
3 F ^ culm
202
C H E. M
cular form* This gas is more combuftible than phof-
phorus with oxygen gas ; phofphorated hydrogen gas
burns with great rapidity ; infomuch that the experiment
is even dangerous. Attempts have been made to fubftU
tute this fluid, inftead of other combuftible matters, for
the ordinary purpofes of life; to give light and heat, to
charge fire-arms, &c. Volta has confidered it in this
lad point of view, and has propofed feveral methods of
applying it. Neret, in the Journal de Phyfique, has given
a defcription of a cbafing-diih heated by inflammable air.
Meflrs. Furftenberger of Bal'd; Brander, mechanic at
Augfburg; Ehrmann, leflurer in natural philofophy at
Strafburg ; have defcribed lamps which may be lighted
in the night by the eleftrical fpark. Very pretty artifi¬
cial fires are alfo made by means of this gas, with glafs
tubes, bent in different direhtions, and pierced with a
great number of finall apertures. The inflammable gas
is introduced into thefe tubes, from a bladder filled with
that fluid, and fitted with a copper cock. When the
bladder is prefled, the '^inflammable air, being made to
pafs into the tube, ifliies out of all the fmall apertures,
and is fet on fire by a lighted taper.
Water abforbs phofphorated hydrogenous gas 3 it is
then decompofed. It is the air which is in the water
that.burns it, and the phofphorus flicks againft the fides
of the veflel. This gas is very injurious to refpiration :
animals put into it expire immediately.
Of SULPHUR.
Sulphur is a combuftible, dry, very brittle, body, of a
lemon yellow, which has no fmell, unlefs heated, -and
whofe tafte is very weak, though lufficiently perceptible.
It becomes eleftric by friftion ; if a piece of a confidera-
ble fize be expofed to a fudden, though gentle heat, it
breaks to pieces, with a crackling noife. Sulphur is
found naturally in great quantities, fometimes pure, and
fometimes in a Hate of combination. We fhall in this
place fpeak only of the firft : the following are the varie¬
ties of form in which it is found pure. i. Tranfparent
fulphur, cryftallized in o&ahedrons, whofe two pyra¬
mids are truncated : it is depofited by water, moft com¬
monly upon .the fiirface of calcareous fpar. Such is that
of Cadiz. 2. Tranfparent fulphur in irregular pieces ;
from Switzerland. 3. Whitifli pulverulent fulphur, de¬
pofited in iiliceous geodes : flints filled with fulphur are
found in Franche Comte, &c. 4.. Pulverulent fulphur,
depofited at the furface of mineral waters ; fuch as thofe
of Aix la Chapelle, of Enghien near Paris, & c, 5. Cry-
ftalline fulphur, fublimed ; it is tranfparent, and found
in the neighbourhood of volcanos. 6. Pulverulent lul •
phur, fublimed by volcanic fires, without any regular
form, and often interpofed between loft Hones, as is ob-
ferved at Solfatara, near Naples. 7* Stalaftites of ful-
iphur, formed by volcanic fires.
Befides thefe feven varieties of pure mineral fulphur,
this combuftible fubftance is found combined with dif¬
ferent matters. It is ufually combined with metals,
which it converts into py'rites, or metallic fulphurs and
ores. It is fometimes united to calcareous earth, in the
form of a fulphuric or an earthy liver of fulphur. The
hepatic calcareous ftones, the fetid fpar, and lwine-ftone,
appear to be of this nature. Later difeoveries have ad¬
ded to the foregoing varieties. Sulphurfeems to be con¬
tinually formed in vegetable and animal matters which
begin to putrefy. Though thefe fpecies of fulphur do not
appear elfentially, to belong to the mineral kingdom, yet
we think it proper to join them with the preceding varie¬
ties, to render its natural hiftory more complete. 8.
Cryftallized fulphur, formed by the flow decompofition of
acuinulated animal matters, fuch as that which has been
found in the ancient lay-ftall, or dunghill, near the gate of
St. Antoine. 9. Pulverulent fulphur, formed by the va¬
pours difengaged by animal fubftances in a Hate of putre¬
faction. It is collected on the walls of ftables, pi ivies,
&c. to. Sulphur obtained from many vegetables, e(pe=
l s T R y.
cially the root of the baftard rhubard (Lapathum), the
fpirit of cochlearia, & c. This dilcovery, as well as the
following, was made by Deyeux, member of the college
of pharmacy, and lecturer in chemiftry. rx. Sulphur,
obtained in the analyfis of animal matters, particularly
white of egg, by Deyeux. 12. Sulphur obtained from
horfe-dung. This combuftible body has been found at
the inftant of its being emitted. It is probable, that
lubfequent inquiries will difeover this body in a great
number of animal fubftances.
None of thefe fulphurs are ufed in the arts. The ful¬
phur of commerce is extracted, by diftillation, from me¬
tallic fubftances, called pyrites. In Saxony, and in Bo¬
hemia, this mineral is put into earthern tubes, placed on
a long furnace ; the ends of the tubes, which ifl'ue out of
the furnace, are received in fquare iron veflels, contain¬
ing water ; the fulphur is collected in thefe receivers, but
is very impure. In order to purify it, it is melted in an
iron ladle ; the earthy and metallic parts fubfide to the
bottom. It is then poured into a copper boiler, where it
makes another depofit of the foreign matters' which con •
taminated it. After having been kept a certain time in.
fufion, it is poured into cylindrical wooden moulds,
which give it the form it ufually has in commerce ,- that
which is precipitated to the bottom of the boiler during
the fufion, is grey, and impure : it is very improperly
called fulphur vivum. In other countries, as at Ram-
melfberg, the fulphur is extracted from pyrites, in a
more fimple manner. The fulphur, which is found
melted among the mafles of pyrites, roafted in the open
air, is taken away with ladles, and purified by a fubfe-
quent fufion.
Sulphurated matchesare commonly notliingbut threads
of cotton dipped in melted fulphur; the fame thing is
done with little bits of wood, then called matches, and
likewife pieces of ftraw.
_ Aclion of Caloric upon Sulphur. — Put fulphur into a cru¬
cible; place it upon burning coals, it foon enters into
fufion. This firft fufion is liquid ; but, keeping the ful¬
phur a few moments longer on the fire, it acquires a
much firmer confidence. While in this ftate, pour it
into an earthern pan full of water; it will be found to
have acquired a red colour, and to be as loft as wax ; it
yields to the touch, inftead of being dry and brittle like
common fulphur. In this ftate, it is fuccefsfully ufed
for taking impreflions of feals or engraved ftones. Sul¬
phur may alfo be eafiiy reduced to gas and volatililed ;
but this gas is not permanent, it becomes folid in a cool¬
er temperature : this property ferves to its purification.
Common fulphur in powder is put into a cucurbit of
glafs, or glafed earth, to which aludels are adapted,
which mutually cover each other. Thefe are all perforated
at the bottoms, except the laft, which is terminated by
an inverted funnel. Place the cucurbit in a fand-bath,
and put on the head ; lute the joinings with (trips of pa¬
per dipped in (larch ; add a receiver to the neck of the
veflel merely to prevent communication with the exter¬
nal air ; then proceed to fublimation with a moderate
heat. As foon as the fulphur begins to melt, it fublimes
rifing in a white thick fmoke, which is condenfed, and
adheres to the infideof the head in form of a powder.
When a fufticient quantity is obtained, let the fire out,
leave the veflels to cool, unlute the head, and colleft the
fublimed produft with a feather : this is called fulphur
in flowers, or flowers of fulphur. Then proceed to a frefli
fublimation, and fo continue till you have fublimed all
the fulphur. Sublimed fulphur contains oftentimes a
little fulphuric acid, formed by the combuftion of a
finall portion of the fulphur by means of air contained
in the veflels. It is thoroughly purified by walhing.
Sulphur ought to be prepared in this way for all medi¬
cal, and the nicer chemical, purpofes.
If, inftead of taking the fulphur in a ftate of thicknefs
or congelation, it be drawn from the fire immediately af¬
ter it is melted, and left to cool (lowly, its parts take a
(ymmetj'ical
C H E M :
iymmetrical arrangement, difpofetl in needles ; which
forms a cryftallization of lulphur. If fulphur be melted
in oil, it is fuper-faturated, and holds in fo lut ion more
than it can diffolve; when cold, it gives over the excels
in the form of eight-fided cryftals.
Slow combujiion of fulphur. — Take a large bell-glafs, and
put beneath it a little cup withflowers of lulphur lighted ;
let this in a dilh, and ltirround it with water. A white
fmoke will arife, which diffolves in the water, and be¬
comes acid ; this is fulphureous acid.
Rapid combujiion. Take a great balloon with a large
aperture ; fufpend in the infide an iron fpoon, contain¬
ing a mixture of fulphur and nitrat of potalh compofed
of feventy-two parts of fulphur to feven of the nitrat.
Set fire to the mixture, and Hop the aperture of the bal¬
loon. Or, put lighted fulphur into oxygen gas ; it
burns with extreme rapidity. In both cafes, a little wa¬
ter mult be put in the bottom of the balloon, to abforb
the acid which is produced : this is fulphuric acid. It ap¬
pears, therefore, that, according to the manner in which
the fulphur is burned, it abforbs more or lefs oxygen,
and becomes more or lefs acid. With fulphur and azot
there is no adtion or effedt.
Sulphurated hydrogen gas. — This may be obtain¬
ed in various ways, which we lhall explain as we come to treat
of thofe bodies from which it may be drawer. The only
method we can defcribe in this place is, to pafs hydro¬
gen gas through fulphur in fufion ; at the moment that
the hydrogen gas is difengaged, throw in fublimed ful¬
phur, and under the gas will be found fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas. The bell method is to put into a gun-bar¬
rel fome fulphur in powder; pafs the barrel through a
furnace; fix at the lower extremity a bent tube which is
to go under a jar in the mercurial apparatus ; fix on at
the upper extremity the apparatus for producing hydro¬
gen gas itlelf, as reprefented in the Chemiftry, Plate II.
fig. 12. Melt the fulphur with a gentle heat ; when it is
melted, let the hydrogen gas run through it ; and under
the jar will be found fulphurated hydrogen gas.
Properties of this gas. — It is an elaftic fluid, very light,
quickly volatilifing in the atmofphere j it kills animals
•very quickly; turns fyrup of violets to a green colour;
extinguifhes a taper; mixed with atmol'pherical air or
oxygen gas, it flames, and detonates by the eledlrical
fpark ; it burns with a reddifh blue flame, and lets fall
fome fulphur. Atmofpherical air deltroys this gas, as
may be perceived by placing them in contadl under a
jar. Oxygen then has more attraction for hydrogen than
fulphur has for oxygen ; the oxygen and hydrogen com¬
bine and form water. It is remarkable that this experi¬
ment cannot behnade at a high temperature, becaufe the
fulphur would burn, and that a low temperature is infuf-
flcient to make it burn ; this fulphur fpreads itfelfon the
f urrounding bodies. Hence arifes the fulphur which we
fee about mineral fprings ; and why the gas difengaged
from thofe fources turns filver of a black colour. Ni¬
trous acid and fulphureous acid decompofe it. It is ab-
forbed by water. Sulphurated hydrogen diffolved in
water, reddens the tinfture of turnfole, the paper ftained
therewith, and the tindture of radifli ; it combines with
alkalis, barytes, lime, and magnefia ; and with thefe
fubftances it forms combinations, which, mixed with
metallic folutions, change the bafes. It decompofes
foap, and takes the place of oil, in alkalis ; it precipi¬
tates, in a great meafure, the fulphur in the folutions
of fulphure of potafh or of lime, and tends to form a
triple combination with the remainder. It precipitates
metallic diffolution : yet fulphur and carbon have no ac¬
tion.
Combination of pbofphorus with fulphur. — Put a mat-
trafs one part of phofphorus with an eighth of its weight
of fulphur, and thirty-two parts of diftilied water ; in a
gentle heat the pholphorus liquefies, and dilfolves the
lulphur. The new combination affumes a yellow colour
S T R Y. 203
and remains fluid under the water till the 20th degree
above o in Reaumur’s thermometer ; after that it con¬
geals. One part of phofphorus, with half its weight of
fulphur, give a product which remains fluid under water
at 8° above o. One part of phofphorus and two of ful¬
phur combine very well in a gentle heat, and always un¬
der water; this combination is fluid at io° above o;
but it forms a cryftallization, fo that one portion ap¬
pears fluid, the other, concrete. One part of phofphonas
may aifo unite with three of fulphur : put into a matrafs
one part of phofphorus with fome diftilled water; heat
the matrafs till the phofphorus melts ; then add the ful¬
phur, which muft be divided into three parts : the firft part
is prefently diffolved by the phofphorus, fome bubbles
of air are difengaged alfo in the moment of combination ;
then add the fecond part of the fulphur, and afterwards
the third, which are diffolved in like manner ; and the
new produft remains fluid under the water as long as it
maintains 30® of heat; but, as the water gets cold, the
combination becomes concrete and friable.
Some of the more remarkable properties of alkaline
fulphures, have been recently inveltigated by the fociety
of Dutch chemilts. By expofmg two equal quantites of
frefh fulphur of potafh to equal volumes of atmofpherical
air, the one confined by mercury, the other by water,
thefe chemifts obferved, that at the end of a few days
the volume of the air over the mercury was not dimi-
nifhed, while that of the air over the water in the fame
fpace of time was diminifhed nearly one fourth. This
air, on examination, was found to be completely depriv¬
ed of its oxygen gas. Effedts quite fimilar were produc¬
ed by ufing fulphure of barytes. The abforption of oxy¬
gen gas took place alfo in the air over mercury when the
fulphure had been previoufly moiftened with a little wa¬
ter. A confiderable difengagement of caloric was pro¬
duced at the moment the water came into contadt with
the fulphure.
In expofmg nitrous gas to alkaline fulphures this gas
was deprived of its oxygen in the fame manner as atmof¬
pherical air. The dry fulphures, however, had no adlion
on this gas, but as foon as a little water was added, an
abforption of oxygen gas immediately began to take place.
Thefe fadls were fufficient to fhow that the attradlion of
the fulphure for oxygen, in thefe experiments, was not
exerted diredtly, but only through the intervention of
water. With a view to difcover the fliare which water
has in producing this abforption of oxygen gas, a quan¬
tity of aqueous vapour was made to pafs through hot
alkaline fulphure, and it was found that fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas alone puffed over into the receiver. When
muriatof barytes was added to a lolution of the fulphure
ufed in this experiment, a copious precipitation of fulphat
of barytes took place. This experiment (flowed that it
was the water which had been decompofed, and that it
‘was the oxygen of this fluid which had united with the
fulphur of the fulphure to form fulphuric acid. Sulphure
of lime, through which aqueous vapour had been pafled,
afforded the fame refults. Thefe chemifts, however, were
not able to effebt the direbt combination of fulphur with
hydrogen, by paffmgthis gas through alkaline fulphures
in a high temperature. Sulphurated hydrogen gas was
quickly abforbed by the cauftic folutions of ammoniac,
foda, and potafh. Lime water produced the fame effedt,
but with lefs rapidity. The fulphurated hydrogen gas
could be feparated from the alkali by the addition of' an
acid in a quantity equal to that which had been ablorb-
ed. Alkalis, in their dry ftate, did not abforb this gas;
but the addition of a little moifture occafioned an im¬
mediate abforption. When fulphurated hydrogen gas
was brought into contact with ammoniacal gas, a com¬
bination took place, and the gafes were deprived of their
elafticity. The fulphurated hydrogen gas could be dif¬
engaged by adding an acid, which united with the am¬
moniac. By expofmg the fulphurated hydrogenated
ammoniac
204 C H E M I
ammoniac to a fivong fire, tlie fmoking liquor of Boyle
was produced. Carbonic acid feemed to deftroy the affi¬
nities of alkalis for fulphurated hydrogen gas.
The fixed alkalis alfo, faturated with fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas , were found to poffefs the property of abforb-
ing oxygen when expofed to the atmofphere; the ful¬
phur, in combination with the alkali, forming with this
oxygen a fulphat. The oxygen of the water feemed to
be attracted in preference to that of the atmofphere. In
this cafe the hydrogen of the water has a tendency to
combine with the other portion of the fulphur, and to
form fulphurated hydrogenated gas. An alkaline ful¬
phure diifolved in water contains therefore alkaline ful-
phure, properly fo called, or the fimple combination of
fulphur with alkali ; 2dly, Sulphat of alkali ; and, 3dly,
Sulphurated hydrogen gas diifolved in the alkaline l'ul-
phure. It is this fulphurated hydrogen which abforbs
oxygen from the atmofphere. When expofed to that
fluid, the hydrogen has a tendency to refume its oxygen,
and to form water, while the fulphur which had been
united to the hydrogen remains in combination with the
alkali. But the water thus formed is decompofed in its
turn ; and thefe operations go on alternately till every
particle of the fulphure is converted into a fulphat.
Journ. de Pbyf 1792, Vol. I. p. 409.
Berthollet diftinguiffies the combinations of fulphurat¬
ed hydrogen with alkaline or earthy bafes by the name
of bydro-fulpbures. The hydro-fulphures of potalh and
foda are procured by receiving fulphurated hydrogen gas
in a folution of thele alkalis in water. The alkali is al¬
lowed to abforb an excefs of the gas, which may be af¬
terwards diilipated by heat. The hydro fulphures of
lime and magnefia are prepared in the fame manner.
When preferved carefully from the air, thefe hydro-ful-
phures are colourlefs ; but contail with that fluid gives
them immediately a yellow tinge. In expofing a folution
of fulphure of potalh to the aition of fulphurated hy¬
drogen, Berthollet obferved that a great part of the ful¬
phur was precipitated. Water impregnated with fulphu¬
rated hydrogen produced alfo tire fame effeft.
The affinities of the earthy and alkaline bafes for ful¬
phurated hydrogen have been but very curforily examin¬
ed. Berthollet thinks that barytes has the Itrongeft affi¬
nity, alumine little or none. When hydro-fulphure of
potalh or of ammoniac is mixed with an acid folution of
lime, magnefia, or barytes, no precipitation takes place,
either becaufe there is no exchange of bafes, or becaufe
the refults of the new combinations are all foliible in
water. The folution of alumine is precipitated, and
Berthollet propofes this as a convenient method of fepa-
rating alumine from other earths diifolved in acids.
In order to determine whether fulphurated hydrogen
be formed at the moment water is added to a fulphure,
or whether the action of an acid contributes to its forma¬
tion, Berthollet made the following experiment. Dry
fulphure of potalh was diifolved in alcohol, and fulphat
of potalh was formed. On mixing the liquor, which
was of a very deep colour, with diftilled water, it became
muddy, and depofited a confiderable quantity of fulphur.
To this liquor, after it had been allowed time to fettle,
he added muriatic acid ; by which a large quantity of
fulphurated hydrogen gas was difengaged, and the re¬
mainder of the fulphur precipitated. A folution of mu-
riat of barytes, poured into this liquor, did not difturb
its tranfparency; a proof that neither the fulphuric nor
fulphureous acids are formed when a fulphure is decom¬
pofed by muriatic acid. From this experiment, Berthol¬
let concludes that the fulphurated hydrogen is produced
from the decompofition of the water furnilhed by the al¬
cohol, and that the a&ion of the acid confifts merely in
giving a gazeous form to the produft, by the caloric
which it difengages.
A folution of hydro-fulphure of alkali dilfolves ful¬
phur in the cold. If oxygenated muriat of potalh be
JE .
S T R Y.
added to a folution of fulphure of potalh, fulphur will be
precipitated. Tire fulphurated hydrogen, in this expe¬
riment, is deftroyed by the oxygen of the muriatic acid
and the fulphur precipitated, becaufe the alkali has a
greater attraftion for the water than for the fulphur.
The union, therefore, between a fulphure and water is
produced folely through the intermedium of fulphurated
hydrogen. To the combination of the hydro-fulphure
of alkali with fulphur, Berthollet gives the name of by.
drogenated fulphure. The combination of alkalis, there¬
fore with iulphur, according to this nomenclature, are
either fulphures, bydro-fulpbures, or hydrogenated-fulphures.
In the diftillation of fulphure of ammoniac, it is only
the liquor which comes over firlt that is fmoking. Ber¬
thollet added fome muriatic acid to equal portions of the
fmoking and of the unfmoking liquors obtained in this
diftillation, and of hydro-fulphure of ammoniac; very
little fulphurated hydrogen was evolved from the fmok¬
ing liquor, and only a fmall portion of fulphur depofited.
The acid difengaged more of the fulphurated hydrogen
gas, and of fulphur, from the unfmoking liquor. A
much more confiderable quantity of fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas was difengaged by this acid from the hydro-ful¬
phure of ammoniac; but this difengagement was unac¬
companied by any depofition of fulphur. By mixing
nearly equal parts of ammoniac with the unfmoking lit
quor, and with the hydro-fulphure of ammoniac, thefe
two liquors immediately began to fume, and to referable.,
in their colour and other qualities, the fmoking liquor
which comes firlt over in diftillation. Berthollet, from
this experiment, is inclined to afcribe the fmoking qua¬
lity of the liquor to the prefence of a portion of uncom¬
bined ammoniac.
Sulphure of ammoniac is capable of difiolvinga con¬
fiderable quantity of fulphur in the cold. In the fuming
ftate, it dilfolves a quantity of fulphure fufficient to fa-
turate the excefs of ammoniac, and ceafes to be fuming.
The fulphure of ammoniac, faturated with fulphur, has
a deep colour and oily conliftence. Sulphurated hydro¬
gen does not produce in it a precipitation of fulphur j
but this fubftance is depofited by the contafit of air,
which a£ls immediately on the hydrogen. The folution
of fulphur in fulphure of ammoniac forms, then, accord¬
ing to the nomenclature of Berthollet, an hydrogenated
fulphure of ammoniac. When muriatic acid is added
to an hydrogenated fulphure of alkali, a fmall quantity
of fulphurated hydrogen gas is produced ; but while the
greater part of the fulphur is feparated, there is another
portion of it which combines with the fulphurated hy¬
drogen, acquires an oily appearance, and finks to the
bottom of the veflel in which the experiment is made.
This combination Berthollet terms Hydrogenated Sul¬
phur. It was Scheele who firft obferved the formation
of this hydrogenated fulphur; but fince his time it has
not been mentioned by any chemift.
Hydrogenated fulphur gives out fulphurated hydrogen
gas when expofed to the adlion of a gentle heat. Contaft
with air alfo fpeedily difengages this gas. In both thefe
cafes, the hydrogenated fulphur gradually lofes its flui¬
dity, and is at laft: changed into pure fulphur. A fmall
degree of heat is produced by mixing potalh with hydro¬
genated fulphur, and a fmall quantity of fulphurated hy¬
drogen difengaged from that portion of the hydrogenated
fulphur which does not combine with the alkali. The
remainder combines with the alkali, and forms an hy¬
drogenated fulphure of potalli. Sulphurated hydrogen
gas is not decompofed by oxygen gas in the ordinary
temperature of the atmofphere. It is the fame when this
gas is diifolved in water. In the latter cafe, the air at-
trails it from the water in which it is diifolved ; it is not
fo with the hydro-fulphures. When pure, thefe fub-
ftances have no colour, but they receive a yellow tinge
from the action of air.
If to a colourlefs hydro»fulphure, fulphuric, muriatic,
or
C H E M I
or any other acid, be added, which has no aflion on hy¬
drogen, fulphyr aired hydrogen gas will be dil'engaged,
without any depofition of fulphur; but, if the hydro-ful-
phure has become coloured, a depofition of fulphur will
take place in proportion to the changes which the lul-
phurated hydrogen has already Undergone. It is the hy¬
drogen, therefore, which is firlt diminifhed in the decom-
pofition of lulphurated hydrogen. In combining with
the oxygen of the atmofphere to form water, it quits the
fulphur, but a portion of the fulphur is loon changed
into an acid ; and when the fulphurated hydrogen has
been reduced to a certain point, the oxygen a&s equally
in decompofing it upon the hydrogen and the fulphur.
If an hydrogenated fulphure be expofed to the a&ion
of the air, it abforbs oxygen, which a£fs on the hydrogen
and fulphur. In proportion as hydrogenated fulphur is
decompofed, there is a depofition of fulphur produced ;
but in the decompofition of a hydro-fulphure, no depo-
fition whatever takes place. It is the fulphuric and not
the fulphureous acid which is formed, when water is de¬
compofed, to produce fulphurated hydrogen, but it is the
fulphureous acid which is formed by the fpontaneous ab-
forption of oxygen from the atmofphere. In the former
cafe the oxygen is more completely deprived of its calo¬
ric, and confequently difpoled to enter into a clofer union.
Sulphureous acid, in contact with fulphurated hydro¬
gen, yields its oxygen to the hydrogen ; and the fulphur
contained in the fulphureous acid, as well as that in the
fulphurated hydrogen, is precipitated. Nitric acid alfo
decompofes fulphurated hydrogen, by yielding its oxygen
to the hydrogen. But this adtion of the nitric acid is
dedroyed, or, at lead, greatly weakened, by diluting it
with water. Ann. de Chem. tom.xxv. p. 233.
Of METALS.
Metals are a peculiar clafs of combuftible bodies. Me¬
tallic oxyds are nothing more than combinations of me¬
tals with oxygen. Some of thefe oxyds even pafs into
the acid date ; fuch are, arfenic, tungden, molybdena,
and chrome. A certain quantity of oxygen deprives
metals for a time of their metallic brightnefs ; a larger
quantity dedroys that brightnefs entirely ; and the pro¬
portion of oxygen may be increafed fo as to give the
oxyds a complete earthy appearance.
Metals have not the fame elective attraction for oxy¬
gen. In a general view they may be divided into two
claffes, acidifiable metals, as arfenic. See. and oxydable
metals, as copper, tin, &c.
Metallic acids may be obtained in two different dates,
namely, arfenious acid, and arfenical acid. There are
alfo different dates of oxydation in metals, as, grey oxyd
of zink, and white oxyd of zink. Metals prelent alfo
two forts of combudion, the flow and the rapid : zink
may furnifh an example of each, the dow being perform¬
ed by fufion in an iron fpoon with air, the rapid by in¬
flammation in a crucible. The peculiar properties of
metals will be hereafter deferibed.
Of WATER.
Water is to be confidered as prefenting itfelf, in three
forms ; the lolid, as ice ; the liquid, as common water;
and the gafeous, as fleam or vapoxir.
Ice, or solid Water. — Ice feems to be water in its
natural date; for the natural date of a body, chemically con-
fidered, is that in which it has the Arongeflpoflible aggre¬
gation. But, as water is mod abundantly found in the li¬
quid date, this lad has been condantly regarded as the na¬
tural date of water. The formation of ice is attended with
feveral concomitant circumdances, which well deferve to
be confidered. A heat of fome degrees of Reaumur’s ther¬
mometer is produced in the water by the adt of free zing,
as is always the cafe when a liquid body is changed into
a folid. This thermometer, plunged into the water be¬
ginning to freeze, will indicate a temperature fome de¬
grees above zero ; though another thermometer, placed
Vol. IV. No. 190.
S T R Y. 205
in the furrounding atmofphere, fufficiently cold to freeze
water, will remain at this point, or even fink below it.
It follows, therefore, that a portion of the heat which
was fixed in the liquid water is dil'engaged when it be¬
comes converted into a folid ; and accordingly we find
the fpecific heat of ice inferior to that of water. The
lame heat is obfervabte in the crydallization of falts.
The accefs of air favours the production of ice. Water
in a well-clofed vefiel freezes very flowly ; but if the vef-
fel be opened, it freezes much more quickly, and fiome-
times in the inflant of expofure to the contact of the air.
This phenomenon is fimilarto that which happens in the
crydallization of falts. Solutions of frdts in doled
veflels frequently exhibit a fudden crydallization when
uncovered, and expofed to the contact of air. A flight
degree of agitation likewife accelerates this formation ;
in which refpeft, alfo, we find a fimilitude between this
and the crydallization of falts. By agitating certain fa-
line folutions which do not ufually afford crydals, it is
fometimes found that they are by that means produced.
We have often feen this in folutions of calcareous ni-
trats and muriats. Thefe analogies between the for¬
mation of ice and of faline crydals prove tbit the former
is obtained by a true crydallization.
Ice feems to have a greater bulk than the water had be¬
fore it was frozen, and even breaks, by its expanfion,
the veflels in which it is formed. This expanfion of wa¬
ter, while converting into ice, is fo great, as to be al-
mofi incredible. Several philofophers have endeavoured
to mealure the degree of this force ; and from their com¬
putations it would appear, that the expanfion of a cubic
inch of water, during its converfion into ice, isfuflicient
to raife a weight of 27001b. The knowledge of this fait
affords a ready explanation of the hunher in which trees
are often fplit, and even the harded'rocks rent al'under,
during intenfe froff. Fourcroy fays, it is not the water
which acquires a greater expanfion in this cafe ; but the
air, which is feparated from the water during congela¬
tion, that is the true caufe of the increafe of bulk. But
this explanation is by no means adequate to account for
the phenomenon. The force with which the ice expands
is greater than what can poflibly arife from the fucceflive
difengagements of fmall portions of fo comprefiible a
fluid as air ; and befides, it is known that the volume of
a given quantity of water, deprived completely of its
air by boiling, or by means of the air-pump, is very fen-
fibly increafed during its converfion into ice. We are,
therefore, inclined to aferibe, with M. Mairan, this in-
creale of bulk to the new, regular, and cryflallized, ar¬
rangement which the particles of water affume in freezing.
Properties of ice. — 1. When flowly formed, its crydals
have the figure of needles, eroding each other at an angle
of 60 or of 120 degrees. Sometimes its crydallization
takes a determinate and regular form. M. Pelletier ob-
ferved, in a piece of fidulous ice, crydals in the form of
flat quadrangular prifins, terminated at the ends by di¬
hedral pyramids, though with great varieties. If, on
the contrary, water, in a confiderable mafs, be frozen
fuddenly, it forms only an irregular folid, in the fame
manner as happens when fidine liquids are too much eva¬
porated, and cooled fuddenly. 2. Its confidence is fuch,
that it may be reduced to dud. In very cold climates
the ice is lb hard, that it is cut like flones, and has been
employed in the conflrudtion of edifices. We are allur¬
ed, that even cannons have been bored out of ice,
which have been charged with powder, and difeharged
feveral times before they melted. 3. Its eladicity is very
flrong, and much more remarkable than that of fluid
water. A ball of ice, thrown on a hard lurface, rebounds
in the lame manner as other folids. 4. It has a lively
taffe, approaching to caudicity. The imprelfion of ice
on the ienfe of feeling is univerfally known. Phyficians
employ it as a tonic or difeutient, &c. 5. Its fpecific
gravity being lei's than that of water, it fwims on the
lurface. The fpecific gravity of ice is faid to be about
v, 3 G i-toth
2o6 C H E M
i -loth lefs than that of water; but it muft obvioufiy
vary in proportion to the quantity of air which the wa¬
ter contains, the degree of cold to which it is expol'ed,
the fuddennefsof the congelation, &c. Hence ice form¬
ed from water previoufty deprived of its air is found to
be harder, more tranfparent, and heavier, than common
ice. The property of expanfion by freezing is common
to many other bodies, inch as butter, tallow, wax, &c.
And not only water, but home of the metals (iron for
example), appear to expand a little in palling from the
liquid to the folid date. We have a proof of this in the
very ltrong impreffions metals receive from the moulds
in which they are call. 6. Its tranfparency is lefs than
that of water, in conlequence of the bubbles of air which
it contains, at leaft in iuch malfes as are not regularly
cryftallized. This may be eafily feen by an attentive
examination of a piece of ice; and, if the cavities be
opened under water, the air is diltindlly feen to blue out
in bubbles. 7. It melts at fome degrees of temperature
above o° in Reaumur’s fcale (or 32° of Fahrenheit), the
liquefaftion proceeding gradually from the furface to the
internal parts. Ice evaporates all'o at a temperature be¬
low that at which it melts into water. This is proved
not only by the dilappearance of hoar froft from polifhed
plates of metal during their expofure to dry frofty winds,
but alfo by direft experiments, in which the weight of
folid pieces of ice was diminifhed by expofure in the lame
circumltances.- This evaporation or folution of ice- in
air takes place likewile in durations where there is no
current of air, and even in air confined in cloJe 'vellels.
8. fa its pafiage from the lolid to the fluid Hate, it pro¬
duces cold in the. furronnding atmofphere. Modern ihe-
jr.ids think that it ablorbs heat in meltings and that this
abforption is equal with regard to the quantity of caloric
which becomes fixed, and the quantity of heat which is
dilengaged when it becomes congealed. All bodies ca¬
pable of freezing and melting, exhibit tlie fame appear¬
ance, according to the different temperatures to which
they are expoled. Hail and fnow are only modifications
of ice ; hail may be confidered as produced by the lud-
den difengagement of the eleftric fluid, which tends to
render water fluid.
Of Fluid Water. — In this'ftate, water has feveral
peculiar properties, diftimfl from its other modifications.
Its tafte is lefs lively, fince fome' philofophers regard it
as infipid. It is elaftic. Its flate of liquid aggregation,
renders its ftrength of aggregation greater. It unites
with a great number of bodies, and even promotes great¬
ly their reciprocal combination. It does not unite with
light, which only goes through it. Caloric dilates it,
and brings it to the gafeous ftate : its pafiage from a ftate
of liquidity to thht of an aeriform fluid conftitutes-its
ebullition.
The weight of the atmofphere has a lingular influence
on the ebullition of water; in proportion as this weight
is greater, fo much the more does itoppole the tendency
in the water to dilate and aflume the form of vapour.
When the weight of the atmofphere is taken oft' by means
of an air-pump, and water is "placed in the receiver heat¬
ed previoufiy to 40°, we oblerve it to boil with great
violence, and become converted into vapour. And for
this reafon, liquors eafily evaporated and very volatile, as
alcohol, ether, ammoniacal gas, &c. lofe the greateft
part of their ftrength on high mountains.
If water be heated in doled vellels, with an apparatus
proper to receive the vapours, thele laft, when condenf-
ed by cold, form di (tilled water. By this means, it is
bbtained pure, and leparate from the faline and earthy
matters by which natural waters are almoft always con¬
taminated. and which do not rife with the vapour. Che-
rnifts, who require very pure water for their experiments,
procure it by diftillation. They put river or Ipring wa¬
ter into a cucurbit of copper, lined with tin, to which
a head of the fame metal, with a refrigeratory, contain¬
ing very cold water, is adapted ; and the diftilled water
_ 2
S T R Y.
is received in very dean glafs vciTels. It is proper to be
oblerved, that in order to have very pure diftilled water,
the veflels Ihould be ufed for no other purpole. The
vcffels intended to„diftil quickly, fliouid be made on the
new principles; that is to lay, the cucurbit and its head
Ihould be of a flattened figure, their horizontal being
much longer than their vertical diameter. Water obtain¬
ed by careful diftillation, thus conduced, is perfectly
pure. Chemifts formerly made ufe of i'now or rain water;
but it is at pTefent well known, that thele waters often
contain foreign bodies in Solution.
Diftilled water has a flat or faint tafte, and caufeS a
fenfation of weight at the ftomach ; but by being 'Itrongly
agitated in contacl with air, it acquires a lively tafte, and
may be drunk without inconvenience. Diftillation makes
no change in pure water, except that of depriving it of
the air it naturally contains, which gives it that frelh
and lively tafte required to make it potable. Boerhaave-
diftilled the lame water five hundred times, without ob-
ferving any change produced in it. Some philolbphers
have affirmed, at different periods, that water becomes
changed into earth ; becaufe, at each diftillation, it leaves
a certain quantity of earthy matter at the bottom of the
veffel. M. Lavoifier has made experiments relpecling
this fafl. Having weighed the vefiels be ufed in diftilling-
water, as well as the quantity of water, and the relidue
it affords, he has fhown that this earth is nothing but the
matter of the vellels gradually corroded by the water.
In addition to thele obfervations on fluid water, it may
be oblerved, that its temperature ceafes to increale When
the evaporation has arrived at a certain degree of rapi¬
dity ; that this ftationary point is higher in proportion
to the difficulty the vapours find in making their eicape;
that if the vapours be prevented altogetherfrom eicaping,
as is done in the digefter of Papin, it will acquire, by the
application of heat, a temperature approaching to igni¬
tion, add will diffolve or ail on earths and other bodies,
which in other cafes it does not fenflbly afteil.
Of Wat erin Steam, or in the Gaseous State. —
To convert wafer into gas, Lavoifier arid La Place firft
made the following experiment. Fill a glafs jar with
mercury, and place it with its mouth downwards in a
large faucer or difh filled with the fame ; pafs a little wa¬
ter under the jar, and fufpend this apparatus by means
of a weight and pulley, fo as to give the mercury a heat
of 95 or 100° by lowering it into a boiling copper full of
pure water of nitre, or of fea-falt, as reprelented in the
Chemiftrv Plate III. fig. 2. The water quickly rarefies,
and fills all the capacity of the jar with {he gas.
When water is thus reduced to the ftate of vapour by
the aftion of fire, it acquires feveral properties, whicu
it had not in its two former ftates of aggregation. Dr.
Black firft difcovered that water, in palling from the li¬
quid Hate to that of an elaftic fluid, ablorbs a quantity
of caloric, which becomes latent, or which does r.ot add
to its temperature. It is perfefliy invifibie when receiv-*
ed in the atmofphere, provided the thermometer Hands
higher than 65°, and the air be not already too highly
charged with humidity. If, on the contrary, the atrrioi-
phere have a temperature below 550, and be charged
with humidity, the vapour cf water forms a whitifh
cloud, fenflbly opake ; which ariles from the va¬
pour not being abforbed, or dilTolved by the humid air,
and confequently to a true precipitation. Its dilatation
is i'uch, that, from an experiment made by Dr Black and
Mr. Watt, it was found that water in the form of fteam
occupies, a fpace fourteen hundred times greater than in
its ordinary liquid ftate. Its elafticity is fuch, as to pro¬
duce the inoft terrible explofions when confined. This
power is ufefully employed in mechanics, of which ap¬
plication the engine for raifing water, commonly called
the fteam engine, is an admirable inftance, well known
both to philofophers and artifts- According to one of
the moft conftant laws of the affinity of compolition, it
has a fti'onger tendency to combination in this ftate, .
wherein
/
' \ »
CHE M I
wherein its aggregation is the molt feeble, than in either
t>f the two others. Chemilts have frequent occaiion to
obferve with what rapidity water, in the Hate of vapour,
diffolves (alts, foftens extractive and mucilaginous mat¬
ters, corrodes and calcines metals, & c. It is perfectly
dilfolved in air. When it is flowly depofited out of the
atmoiphere, it conllitutes dew. This diflolutiqn is per¬
formed in the lame manner as thole of falts in water.
One of the mod lingular phenomena relpefting water in
a Hate of vapour, is the property it poffeffes of accelerating
the combuition of oil when on fire ; as is leen in the ex¬
periment of the eolipiie applied to the enameilers lkmp,
or to common fires of pit-coal or wood, or fats in a lfate
of inflammation, which cannot be extinguiflied by water,
and even the burning of, which it increafes. Thefe phe¬
nomena induced Boerhaave to conclude that flame is,
for the moil part, compofed of water. Laflly, Water in
the form of vapour, and diffoived in the air, is condenf
ed and precipitated in part when expyfed to a degree of
cold fome degrees above the freezing point, it then re¬
lumes its liquidity, as is feen in the falling dew. Some¬
times, when the cold is beneath the freezing point, it is
converted into fmall cryflals of ice. Such is the origin
of thofe ramified incruflations of ice formed on the in¬
ternal furface of the glals in windows during in ten (e
frofls ; and the fame caufe in Siberia, and other very
cold climates, converts the moiflure of the breath into
a kind of fnow.
Chemical Properties of Water. — There are fix
kinds of water prefented to our view ; rain-water, Ihovv-
waier, the water of hail, of fprings, of lakes, of rivers,
and of the lea. Waters are difiinguifhed alio from the
manner in which they aft upon the flomach, upon loan,
boiling of vegetables, &c. in hard or loft water. Such
are waters which contain faline fubHances, carbonic acid,
clay, iron, extrafts of vegetables changed by putrefac¬
tion. All thefe waters are improper to drink.
From the union of water and caloric, the produfts are.
Boiling water, difiilled water, and water in vapours.
Water unites in two ways with atmospherical air : it ab-
forbs the elaflic fluid, aiid becomes charged with it while
in its liquid Hate ; it is even demonltrated, that to this
combination with air its frelh and agreeable taHe is owing.
Water may be deprived of its air either by ebullition or
diflillation.
To try whether water is aerated or not, put in fuiphat
of iron well ciyltaliized. If the water be net aerated,
the cryHal remains tranfparerit ; the contrary happens if
the water be aerated, for it attrafts a yellow duH. Boil¬
ing water, and diltiiled water collefted with care, are
examples of water not aerated. Thefe waters may alio
lie tried with metallic fulphures : the changes which
fake place fhew the prefence of air. The prelence of air
in water is fhewn alio by the concentrated- lulphuric
acid. When the acid is poured out, there is effervel-
cence ; the two fluids concentrate, they work upon each
other; and the effervefcence is only the dilengagement
of the contained air; but this air is purer than atmoi-
pherical air ; which proves that water, in difiolving air,
has more hold upon oxygen than upon azot. If this
experiment be made with a tube, on inverting it, the air
will be leen to rife, and then you may weigh and calcu¬
late the quantity of air contained in the water ; then by
fiirring the acid, ltrire or channels appear, which (hews
the mixture of the two liquids. But water with hydro¬
gen gas, has no aftion.
Thefe. details on the chemical properties of water, have
only fhewn it as a very powerful agent in combinations,
and capable of uniting with a great variety of fubHances :
but in many of thefe combinations it fuffers a Angular
alteration, which was not difcovered till the year 1784.
It had long been known, that water, in certain cafes, fa¬
vours combuflion, as in the enameilers’ lamp, the in¬
flammation of oil, at great fires, &c. but it was little
thought that moll of thefe phenomena were produced by
S T R y. 207
the decompofiticm of the water; it Iras referved for the
genius of Lavoiiier to carry this point to the degree of
certainty and precifion to which it is now arrived. That
eminent client ill tvas led to this difeovery, by having re¬
marked, with M. De la Place, that, when iiiflamjnable
gas is burned with vital air in clofed veliels, pure water
is always produced ; whence he concluded, that water
was formed' in this experiment by the combination of
pure and of inflammable gas, which he regarded as its
conflituent principles, This theory of the nature of wa
ter, by winch M. Lavoifier deprived it at once of its pre¬
rogative as a Ample body and as an element, met with
fucli oppofition, as convincethhim that the deco.mpofition
of water was a proof neceffaryto be added to the iynthe-
tical examination of that lubflance. He therefore en¬
deavoured to decompole this fluid; by prefenting to it
fuch bodies as might be expefted to feparate one of its
principles. He allociated himfelf with M. Meufnier for
the purpofe of making thefe inquiries; and thefe two
philofophers rend a Memoir at the Royal Academy of
Sciences, the aift of April 1784, wherein they eltablifh-
ed that water is not a Ample lubflance, but is compoled
of the bale of inflammable gas and pure air, or Qxygen,
which may be e.dily decoflipofed, or. feparated from each
other. Meffrs. Lavoiiier and Meufnier alio deduced, that
this fluid is compoled of lix parts of oxygen, and one of
the bale of inflammable gas ; or, more accurately, o-8 6
ol the former, and o 14 of the latter of thefe fubltances :
That iron, charcoal, and oils, having a greater affinity
with oxygen than the lali has with the bale of inflamma¬
ble gas, leize it, and decompole the water entirely ; the
inflammable air e lea ping in an elaflic form : that water"
is recompofed by burning thele two kinds of air together,
which, if carefully performed, affords a quantity equal
in weight to that of the two fluids made ule of: that
water is thus produced in a great number of chemical
operations; as for example, when fpirit of wine or oils
are burned under a chimney, adapted to the worm-pipe
of a Hill, whofe other extremity is adapted to a recipient,
a quantity of water is collefted, which is aim off always
greater than that of the inflammable fluid made ule of;
which is occafioned by the inflammable gas of thefe li¬
quids combining with the vital air of the atmoiphere, by
which their combuition is maintained. Water is now
therefore defined to be a compound of the b^le of vital
air, or oxygen, and the bale of inflammable gas, or hy¬
drogen ; and as many bodies are inflammable in the Hate-
of elaflic fluids, luch as alcohol, ether, the volatile, oils,
&c. we diltinguilh this principle of water, in the aeri¬
form Hate, by the term hydrogenous gas-
Decomposition of Water. — 1. With charcoal. The
product is carbonated hydrogen gas, and carbonic acid
gas Take a tube of glals or porcelain ; pals it through
a furnace, giving it a few degrees of inclination; put
into the tube fome charcoal which has been previoully
heated in dole veliels ; to the upper extremity of the
tube adapt a glafs retort containing a determinate quan¬
tity of diflilled w'ater; and to the lower extremity a bent
tube or worm, which communicates with a doubly-tu¬
bulated bottle ; to one of the openings or necks of the
bottle another tube is adapted, which is to convey the
aeriform fluids under a jar. Next, light a lufficient fire
to keep the water boiling in the retort ; at the fame
time make a fire in the furnace where the tube is, and
make it red-hot. When the operation is finilhed, only a
little alhes remains in the tube; and under the jar is
produced carbonic acid gas and carbonated acid gas.
This decompofition may be wrought more quickly, but
with lefs exaftnefs ; put a red-hot coal underneath a
bell-glals filled with water, and the refult is the fame.
Put over mercury, in a little bell-glafs, a given quan¬
tity of pure, diflilled water, and foft iron in thin plates
rolled up fpirally : the latter fubflance loon becomes rutt¬
ed, and hydrogen gas is difengaged. The iron is alio.,
burnt by the w'ater, producing a black oxyd. In the hot
way
208 CHEMISTRY.
way, it is obtained cryftallized. By parting red-liot iron, refervoir of oxygen gas, from which the balloon is to be
or even bricks, under jars filled with water, the water filled. The third tube a T)d, "communicates by its ex-
will become decompofed. tremity */N, with a refervoir of hydrogen gas. The ex-
The following is a very fimple' experiment : Take a tremity d of this tube terminates in a capillary opening,
gun-barrel and place it in a furnace, as fhewn in the through which the hydrogen gas contained in the refer-
Chemiftry Plate II. Jig. n; to its raifed end adjuft a voir is forced, with a moderate degree of quicknefs, by
funnel to contain the water, and to let it out only in the preflure of a column of one or two inches of water.
drops by means of a cock; inliead of a large funnel, a
tube bent fyphon-faffiion, with a fmali funnel at the end,
may be ufed. At the other end of the gun-barrel place
a tubulated receiver, or a two-necked bottle, to catch the
water which runs out without being deconipoied ; to one
of the openings adapt the pneumatic chemical apparatus ;
then make the gnn-barrel red-hot, and let in the water
drop by drop : hydrogen gas will be the refult.
2. At the Royal Inftitute in London, on the 28th of May
j8oo, Dr. Garnett, in his LeCture on the Compofition
and Decompofition of Water, made a curious experi¬
ment, on which we cannot /refleCt without thinking that
it may lead to feme important enquiries, and may throw
light on feVeral phenomena of the animal economy.
Decompofition of Water by the Galvanic Influence. — A num¬
ber of pieces of zink, each of the fize of a half-crown,
were prepared, and an equal number of pieces of card
; cut in the fame form : a piece of zink was then laid up¬
on the table, and upon it a half-crown ; upon this was
placed a piece of card moiftened with water ; upon the
card was laid another piece of zink, upon that another
half-crown, then a wet card, and fo alternately till more
than forty pieces of each had been placed upon each
other ; a perfon then having his hands well wetted,
touched the piece of zink at the bottom with one hand,
and the half-crown at the top with the other; he felt a
ftrong fhock, which was repeated as often as the contaCf
was renewed. See the article Galvanism. Whenthe
pieces were touched with pieces of metal held in the
hand, the effect was the fame, or rather more ftrong ; but
when fealing-wax, glafs, or any other non-conduftor,
was ufed, no fhock was perceived. This apparatus feems
to form an artificial torpedo. A glafs tube being filled
with water, and corked at each end, and a copper-wire
forced through each cork, fo that the ends of the wires
were about three inches diftant from each other in the
water, the other extremities of the wires were made to
communicate, the one with the bottom piece of zink,
and the other with the top piece of filver ; bubbles of
hydrogen gas immediately role from one of the points of
the wire within the water, which moved upwards in a
continued ftream, and united at the top of the tube,
while the other point of the wire was quickly oxydated,
the oxyd falling down rapidly to the bottom of the tube.
M. M. Van Trotzwick and Deiman have difeovered
that water is decompofed by the pafl'age of the eleChic
fpark ; and that it is feparated into two elaitic fluids,
which inflame and recompofe water, when this fpark is
excited in them. This beautiful experiment affords a
fuliicient anfwer to the greater part of the objections
which have been made to the decompolition of this
fubftance.
Recomposition of Water. — It is not fufficient to
have decompofed water into its conftituent principles
oxygen and hydrogen ; hut it is alfo necelfary, with a
view to bring full conviction of its being a compound
body, even to reform the water with the elements which
have been produced from its decompofition : modem
chemiftry enables us to accomplifh this very curious
operation. The apparatus which was cofltrived for this
purpofe by M. Lavoilier, is exhibited in the Chemiftry
Plate III. fig. 3, clefcription as follows : A is a balloon of
glafs or cryital, holding about thirty pints, having a large
opening, to which is cemented the plate of copper B
pierced with four holes, in which four tubes terminate.
The firft tube H h is to be adapted to an air-pump, by
which the balloon may be exhaufted of its air. The fe-
,cond tube gg communicates by its extremity M, with a
The fourth tube, GL, contains a metallic wire, having
a knob at its extremity L, intended for tranfmitting the
eieClrical fpark from L to d, on purpofe to Jet fire to the
hydrogen gas : this wire is moveable in the tube, that
the operator may be able to move the knob L to or from
the extremity d of the tube D d. The three firft-men-
tioned tubes are all provided with flop-cocks.
That the hydrogen gas and oxygen gas may be as much
as poflible deprived of water, they are made to pals, in
their way to the balloon A, through the tubes M and N,
of about an inch diameter; and thefe are filled with lalts,
which, from their deliquefeent nature, greedily attraCt
the moifture of the gas : fuch are the acetit of potafh,
and the muriat or nitrat of lime. Thefe falts mult only
be reduced to a coarfe powder, that they may not run
into lumps, and prevent the gafes from palling through
their interfaces.
Being provided with a fufficient quantity of the oxy¬
gen and hydrogen gafes (the latter in the proportion of
two to one of the former,) and having adjulted every
thing properly, as above-direCfed, the tube H h mull be
adapted to an air-pump, and the balloon A exhaufted of
its air. Next admit the oxygen fo as to fill the balloon,
and then by means of preflure force a ftream of hydro¬
gen through the tube D d, to which fet fire by an elec¬
trical fpark fent down the wire contained in the tube
GL. By means of the above-deferibed apparatus, the
mutual combuftion of thefe two gafes may be continued
for a long time, as the operator has the power of fup-
plying them to the balloon from their refervoirs, in pro¬
portion as they are confumed. In proportion to tire ad¬
vancement of the combuftion, there is a depofition of
water upon thy inner furface of the balloon A : the wa¬
ter gradually increafes in quantity, and, gathering into
large drops, runs down to the bottom of the veflel. /It
is eafy to aicertain the quantity of water collected, by
weighing the balloon both before and after the experi¬
ment. Thus we have a twofold verification of the com¬
ponent parts of water, by afeertaining both the quanti¬
ties of the gafes employed, and of the water formed by
their combuftion : thefe two quantities muft be equal to
each other. By an operation of this kind it was afeer-
tained, that it required eighty-five parts by weight, of
oxygen, united to fifteen parts of hydrogen, to compofe
one hundred parts of water. This decompofition and
recompofition of water is perpetually operating before our
eyes, in the temperature of the atmofphere, by means of
compound eleftive attractions. The phenomena atten¬
dant upon vinous fermentation, putrefaftion, and even
vegetation, are produced, at leaft in a certain degree, by
the decompofition of water. It is very extraordinary that
this faCt fiiould have been fo long overlooked by natural
philolophers and chemifts. Indeed it ftrongly proves,
that in chemiftry, as in natural philofophy, it is extremely
difficult to overcome prejudices imbibed in early educa¬
tion, and to fearch for truth in any other road than the
one we have been accuftomed to follow.
Another experiment of Lavoifier’s may be offered for
the recompofition of water. -Under a large bell-glafs
filled with atmofpherical air, and inverted over mercury,
introduce a lamp containing alcohol; flick a morfel of
phofphorus upon the match, and light it with a bent
iron- rod, made red-hot, parted underneath the glafs. The
mercury foon rifes in the glafs, and fliews by its rifing,
in lpite of the heat, a rapid and confiderable diminution
of air ; after combuftion, a great quantity of drops of
water is vifible on the fides of the glafs and on the fur-
face of the mercury. This water, gathered with care,
always
CHEMISTRY.
slwiiys exceeds, by about an eighth, the quantity of al¬
cohol conl'umed during the operation ; whence it appears
that alcohol contains one of the elements of water, which
is hydrogen ; and the atmofpheric air furnifties the other,
which is oxygen. By an experiment fimilar to this, La-
voilier found that fixteen parts of alcohol furnifhed by
combuftion from feventeen to eighteen ounces of water.
An ingenious apparatus for recompofing water by the
combuftion of hydrogen gas in oxygen gas, has lately
been invented by Mr. Cuthbertfpn, and is evidently an
improvement upon that of Lavoifier. The letters ABCD,
at fig. 4, in the laft-mentioned plate, reprefen t the in¬
ftrument; and abcff Ihew the veflel to which it is af¬
fixed. The glafs balloon AD, which may contain 1000
cubic inches of water, has a brafs-cap which fcrews off
at the top, and is perforated at the botto*5>?fai which the
piece e f (fig. 5.) is fere wed. B and C are two glals re¬
ceivers, with proper mountings, the tops of which pafs
through EF, a ftraight bar of brafis, are made faft to the
bar by female fcrews put on thefe tops, which are per¬
forated perpendicularly, and have alio a fide-hole cor-
refponding with a hole in the brafs-bar and with two
holes in ef communicating with the large bottle. At m
and n are two lion-cocks in the brals-bar, to fhut or
open the communication between the receivers and the
bottle. FR and EN are two flat pieces of brafs made'
faft to the veflel containing the receivers, and which is
nearly filled with water, by means of fcrews at a and b.
O, a metallic wire, made faft to the brafs cap at A : the
lower part of this wire is made of platina, and is brought
as near as poflible to the piece ef, but not to touch it.
When the inftrument is to be ufed, the ftop-cocks being
kept fhut, the large veflel mull be detached from the re¬
ceivers, by unferewing the female fcrews Cf_Q, filled with
oxygen gas by any of the common methods, and again
put in its place. The receiver B, which has a hole in its
fide at 0, mull then be filled with oxygen gas, and C with
hydrogen; and, while electric fparks are made to pafs
from the wire O to the aperture e, the qock n mult be
opened, by degrees, till the gas takes fire. Stop the
eleftric fparks and regulate the flame by turning the
cock one way or the other. The cock m , which fupplies
the oxygen gas, mu ft be kept quite open, and the re¬
ceivers be kept fupplied, C to its lip and B to the hole
o, by known meafures of the gafes, from time to time,
while the procefs is continued. The paflage that leads
from the hydrogen ghs to the large veflel is made fmaller
than that from the oxygen, that the gas may enter in a
very fmall ftream. The hole in the fide of the receiver B
is for the purpofe of preventing more oxygen gas being in-*
trodyced than will fill it to that point, that the column
of water may always be heavier upon the hydrogen gas,
which has to force its way through a fmaller aperture
than the oxygen gas. The fame end would be gained
by making B only about half the depth of C. Both thefe
receivers are open below, to receive the gas introduced
under them. Several other inftruments for the recom-
pofition of water lrave been lately projected ; but as they
do not feem to poflefs any advantages over thofe we have
mentioned, it were fuperfluous to delcribe them here.
The folubility of water in air is a fact highly deferring
the attention of chemifts, as this circumftance may often
occafion confiderable variations in the refult of experi¬
ments which require great degrees of accuracy. The
property of abforbing water does not feem to be confined
to atmofpherical air, but to be common to molt, if not
all, bodies capable of affuming the elaltic form. Our
knowledge of this fubjeft is, how'ever, at prefent ex¬
tremely limited ; nor has it hitherto obtained that atten¬
tion which its importance demands. Sauffure relates
fome experiments which prove the folubility of w'ater in
.hydrogenous gas, and in carbonic acid gas ; but he has
omitted to mention the quantity thefe fluids are capable
ct diflolving. Dr. Hutton has made a very happy appli¬
cation of our knowledge of this fubjeft: to explain the
Vo 1.. IV. No. 190.
209
produftion of rain. The diflolving power of the air, he
oblerves, muff be either in the fame ratio with the in-
creale of temperature, or it muft be in a lefs or in a greater
ratio. If in the fame ratio, the temperature of two equal
portions of air, faturated with water, and mixed together,
at different temperatures, will be found to be the arith¬
metical mean between the extreme temperatures ; fo
there will be no precipitation of water. If in a left ra¬
tio, then it is evident that the mixtures of two portions
of fatuiated air, at different temperatures, will produce
no condenfation of water; but, on the contrary, wili be
capable of diflolving an additional quantity of that fluid.
If in a greater ratio, the mixture of the two faturated
portions of air will produce a condenfation of water. It
is this laft cafe only that can be applied to explain the
phenomena of vapour, and the formation of rain. Ac¬
cording to this hypothefis, therefore, whenever two ftreams
of air, or two contrary winds, of different temperatures,
meet together, vapour or rain muft neceflarily be pro¬
duced. For the numerous fails in proof of this inge¬
nious theory, fee D-iffertations on different Subjefls of Natu¬
ral PhiioJ'ophy.
Count Rumford, lately fir B. Thompfon, has made a
Angular difeovery with refpeft to the non-condufting
power of water for caloric. It had always been fuppofed
that caloric was diffufea in all direftions through water
in precifeiy the fame manner as through folids of every
kind. From a feries, however, of ingenioully- contrived
experiments, this philofoplier has been led to infer, that
although the particles of water receive caloric from other
bodies, and communicate it to them again, yet that
among the particles of this fluid themfelves no commu¬
nication ofcaloric whatever takes place. Caloric, according
to him, is diffuledin waterfolely by the motion of thofe par¬
ticles which have had their lpecific gravity increaled ordi-
miniftied in confequence of a change in the ftate of their
temperature. This diffufion, therefore, may be obllruft-
ed, either by dimihifhing the fluidity of water, or by
mixing with it fubftances that mechanically retard the
motion of its particles. The effeft of thele caufes he has
evinced by a number of comparative experiments. Ac¬
cidentally perceiving the motion of iome fine particles of
duft in a ipirit of Wine thermometer, this philofopher
was led to contrive the means of exhibiting to view thole
internal motions of the particles of water which accom¬
pany every change in the ftate of its temperature. To
render this motion vifible, he mixed a Imall quantity of
amber, finely pulverized, with water, the lpecific gravity
of which had been raifed to the fame ftandard by the ad¬
dition of an alkaline fait. On plunging a glals globe,
with alongcylindrical neck, containing this mixture, into
boiling water, fome very interefting phenomena were ob-
lerved. Two currents, in oppolite directions, began at
the fame inftant to move with great celerity in the liquid in
the cylindrical tube ; the afeending current occupying
the fides of the tube, while that which moved down¬
wards occupied its axis. As the faline liquor grew
warm, the velocity of thefe currents gradually diminilh-
ed ; and at length, when the liquor had acquired the
temperature of the furrounding water in the jar, thefe
motions ceafed entirely. On taking the glafs body out
of the hot vs'ater, the internal motions of the liquor re¬
commenced, but the currents had changed their direc¬
tions ; that which, occupied the axis of the tube being
now the afeending current,' When the contents of the
glafs body had acquired th,e temperature of the air of the
room, thefe motions ceafed ; but they immediately re¬
commenced on expofmg the inftrument to any change
of temperature. The motions in oppolite direftions in
the liquid in the tube were exceedingly rapid on the hid¬
den application of a ftrong heat, and afforded a very en¬
tertaining fight : but to a fci,entific obferver they were
much more than amufing; they detefted nature, as it
were, in the very aft, in one of her molt hidden opera¬
tions, and rendered motions vifible in the midft of an
3 H ‘ iiivilibje
•210
-CHEMISTRY.
invifible medium, which never had been feen before,
and which mod probably had never been fufpecled. It
leemed to follow as an obvious conclulion from thefe
phenomena, that caloric cannot be propagated down¬
wards in water while the particles of that fluid continue
to be condcnfed by cold ; but the truth of fo Angular a
conclufion required to be confirmed by Hill more decifive
experiments, the refult of which led the count to decide
“ that water is a perfect nonconduftor of heat, and that
heat is propagated in it only in conl'equence of the mo¬
tions which the heat occafions in the inlulated and foli-
tary particles of that fluid.” See Count Rumford's Expe¬
rimental Ejfays.
We cannot help thinking this conclufion by far too
general. The experiments related undoubtedly prove
that caloric is communicated very {lowly from one par¬
ticle of water to another: but it would require more nu¬
merous and diverfified experiments to eltablilh the fact
that no communication whatever occurs.
CARBONIC ACID GAS.
We have (hewn that carbon has the property of de-
Compofmg oxygen gas, and of taking the bale from ca¬
loric ; but the acid which refults from this combultion
does not condenfe into the degree of prelfureand tempe¬
rature in which we live : it remains in the ftate of gas,
and requires a great quantity of water to abforb it. Car¬
bon united with oxygen forms therefore carbonic acid.
Of all the known acids, the carbonic is the moll abun¬
dant in nature. It is found under three forms: i. In
gas. 2. As a mixture. 3. In combination. There are
divers artificial methods of forming it. i. By oxygen gas
and charcoal. — The combuftion of the charcoal may be
performed, like that of phofphorus, under a bell-glafs
filled with oxygen gas, inverted in mercury; but, as
the heat of red-hot iron would not be lufiicient to light
it, a little bic of tinder and a morfel of phofphorus mull
be laid on the charcoal : the phofphorus is eafily fet in
combuftion by a red-hot wire ; the flame communicates
to the tinder, and then to the charcoal. Lavoifier fays
it requires feventy-two parts by weight of oxygen to ia-
turate twenty-eight parts of charcoal.
2. Extruded from marble by fire. — Reduce marble to
powder, put it in a gun-barrel, which lay acrofs a fur¬
nace ; adapt a tube which is to be bent at the lower end,
and carried under ajar in the pneumatic chemical appa¬
ratus : urge the fire fo as to make the gun-barrel red-hot,
and the carbonic acid gas is difengaged at that tempe¬
ra tu ret
3. Extruded from carbonat of lime by an acid. — -When
carbonic acid gas is in a ftate of combination, as in chalk,
■&c. it is eafily obtained by the afilion of other acids.
Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic, acids, may be ufed in¬
differently ; but they mull be exhibited in water; fix
times its volume of water ftiould be mixed with the ful-
phiiric acid.
The apparatus for thefe experiments may be varied in
infinitum. The moft Ample when we wi(h to obtain it
without the pneumatic apparatus, is exhibited in the
Chemiftry Plate III. fig. 6. Take a large long-necked
matrafs, perforated at the lower part for adjufting a tube
which is to ferve the office of a cock. By the fide of this
place a jar with two necks, commonly called a Woulfe’s
bottle; which mull contain a weakened acid; in one of
the openings fix a perforated cork, and through the hole
introduce a glafs tube about three-tenths of an inch in
diameter, terminated by a funnel ; the other end of the
tube mull be drawn to a point, that it may the more ea-
iily enter the cork ; introduce a fmaller tube within this,
with lorae hemp or cotton at the end of it, that it may
ferve as a piiton. From the other neck or mouth of the
bottle goes another tube, which is adapted to the large
matrdfs. The apparatus being thus difpofed, l'oak the
chalk in water; pour the diluted chalk into the tube,
and fet the pifton to work, As foosn as the chalk comes
in contact with the acid, a brilk effervefeence is produC-*
ed, and the carbonic acid gas is difengaged': this is to
be received into a jar, through the tube or cock placed
in the lower part of the matrafs for that purpole. As
this acid gas may be decanted or drawn off, it is fafe and
eafy to receive it into jars; this arifes from its different
denfity from atmofpherical air. The gas may alfo be
drawn off through the cock of a lamp for inflammable
gas. If you wilh to colled it under jars-in the pneuma¬
tic apparatus, a fmall matrafs is then to be ufed, or a
doubly-tubulated bottle, to which two tubes are adjuft-
ed, one for receiving the diluted chalk, the other for car¬
rying the gas under the jars.
4. By fermentation, in the manner defcribed under
that head.
5. By the decompofition of metallic oxyds. The ufual pro¬
portion is one part of the red oxyd of lead, and three of
black flux. For this purpofe we ufe a Hone retort, to
which a bent tube is adapted, which goes into a Woulfe’s
bottle with two necks ; from the other neck paffes ano¬
ther tube, whole extremity goes under a jar in the pneu¬
matic apparatus. The lead is quickly reduced to its me¬
tallic ftate, and carbonic acid gas is obtained. This gas
may be produced alfo by decompofing nitrat of potaftt
with dry charcoal ; but it is a dangerous experiment.
Its properties. — It is invifible, elaitic, inodorous, heavier
than atmofpherical air ; .it is the weakeft of acids ; it is
not altered by light; caloric dilates it, but makes no
change in it, not even if put into porcelain tubes made
red hot.
This aeriform fluid is truly an acid perfe. The proofs
are thefe : 1. It is always the fame, whether difengaged
by acids, or by any other means. 2. It turns tinfture of
turnfole ot a purplilh red, not entirely red like other
acids; and what is remarkable, the red colour produced
by this acid paffes of itielf into blue pr violet, which is
a Unking charafteriftic to know this acid from any other
which may be in the colouring liquor. 3. It diffolves in
air, of which it conftitntes a fmall part, namely one in
four. It will mix alfo with oxygen gas, one part in three.
This gas is not proper to maintain combuftion. Take
three glafs tubes ; rill the firft with atmofpherical air, the
fecond with carbonic acid gas, the third with oxygen
gas. Introduce fucceffively and quickly a lighted taper
into each tube, in the order we have named them. In.
the tube filled with atmofpherical air, the taper burns as
ufual ; it is prelently extinguiftied in the tube filled with
carbonic acid gas ; but takes fire afrefh in the tube con¬
taining the oxygen gas, and exhibits a dazzling bright-
nefs. This experiment confirms a truth already eftablifh-
ed, namely, that oxygen gas is much more favourable
to combuftion than atmofpherical air ; and is a complete
proof that inflammable bodies cannot burn in carbonic
acid gas.
This gas is hurtful to refpiration. The epiglottis and
trachea arteria of animals are ftrongly clofed by it, refpi¬
ration is flopped, and the animal dies. The Grotto del
Cane at Naples is filled with this aeriform fluid, whence
the danger of exploring it.
This gas is hurtful to vegetation. Roots put in water
impregnated with carbonic acid, foon perifh. Senebier
has obierved, that plants which are made to grow in wa¬
ter (lightly acidulated with this, gas, tranfpire much more
oxygen gas, becaufe in that cafe this acid is decompofed;
and the carbonic principle is combined and fixed in the
plant, while, the oxygen is driven out.
It diffolves in water, but (lowly ; the colder the water,
the more it diffolves : Bergman calls this aerated water *
There is an apparatus foreffe6ling this purpofe, invented
by Dr. Nooth, and improved by Parker and Magellan;
but its price, and frangibility, have occafioned it to be
little ufed. We have given a view of it, at fig. 7, in the
preceding plate. It is conltruifted of three gla(s veffels,
formed purpofely for this ufe. The lower part, or bell-
glafs C, contains the effervefcent materials 3 it has a (mall
orifice
21 1
CHEMISTRY.
orifice at D, flopped with a ground- ftopper, at which an
additional fupply of either acid, or water, or chalk, may
be occafionally introduced. The middle vefiel B, is per¬
forated both above and below. Its inferior neck is fitted
by grinding into the neck H of the lower vefiel. In the
former is a glafs valve, formed by two pieces of tube,
with a lens, which is moveable, between them. This
valve opens upwards, and fufFers the air to pafs; butthe
water cannot return through the tubes, partly becaufe
the orifice is capillary, and partly becaufe the flat lens
covers the hole. The middle vefiel is furnifhed with a
cock E, to draw off its contents. The upper veffel A is
fitted, by grinding, into the upper neck, of the middle
vefiel. Its inferior part confifts of a tube. that pafles al-
m oft as low as the centre of the middle veffel. Its upper
orifice is clofed by a ground ftopper F. When this ap¬
paratus is to be ufed, the effervefcent materials >are put
into the lower vefiel, the middle veffel is filled with pure
water, and put in its place ; and the upper veffel is nearly
flopped, and likewife put in its place. Theconfequence
is, that the carbonic acid gas pafling through the valve
at H, afcends into the upper part of the middle veffel B,
where by its elafticity it re-afiis on the water, and forces
part up the tube into the veffel A ; part of the atmof-
pherical air, in this laflr, being comprefled, and the reft
efcaping by the ftopper, which is made of a conical fi¬
gure, that it may be eafily railed. As more carbonic
acid gas is extricated, more water rifes, till at length the
water in the middle vefiel falls below the lower orifice
of the tube. Carbonic acid gas then pafles through the
tube into the upper vefiel, and expels more of the atmof-
pherical air by railing the ftopper. In this fituation the
water in both vefiels being in contact with carbonic acid
gas, becomes ftro'ngly impregnated with that fluid, after
a certain time. This effect-may be haftened by taking off
the middle and upper veflels together, and agitating
them. The valve is the moft defective part of this appa-
tus ; for the capillary tube does not admit the air through,
unlefs there be a confiderable quantity condenfed in the
lower veffel ; and the condenfation has in fome inftances
burft the veffel.
Progreflive improvement has fuggefted more Ample me¬
thods of effecting the fame purpofe. A little calk filled
with half carbonic acid gas, and half water, agitated by
fufpenfion in the air, may ferve the purpofe of a flight
experiment. But the moft complete apparatus for pro¬
moting the diffolution of acid gas in water, is the follow¬
ing; which may ferve not only to make carbonats of fo-
da and potafh, but in general to mix all gafes which re-
fufe to unite with liquids, becaufe the furfaces are re¬
newed. This machine is reprefented in the fame plate,
at fig. 3, of which the following is the explanation :
A, B, are bottles to a£l alternately; chalk is firil putin,
and over that pour fulphuric acid weakened with water,
by means of a convoluted columnar tube, with a funnel
at the top, to pour in the liquor; it is thus conftrudted
to counterbalance the expanfion of the gas, and thus
force the acid to combine with the water. The tube
which goes from G to the jar I, is to laturate with the
acid in gas when required. E and F are bottles of equal
fize. Put the water to be acidulated in E ; it might in¬
deed be put into C ; however the firil bottle may be left
to receive the impure acid which pafles off; but then the
branch which comes from the bottle F mull not be
plunged therein. When preffure is ufed in E, it com¬
municates to G and F, and even to D, by means of the
fyphons ; fo that the liquor is moved in fucceflion : when
all the fluid is arrived, the acid is made to a£l on the
chalk in B, which a£ls by preffure in its turn, and drives
it back to the other fide, and fo in conflant alternate fuc¬
ceflion, till any quantity of water is aerated that may be
required.
Water, thus faturated with carbonic acid gas, differs
from natural mineral waters only by the other elements
which they hold in diffolution. Hence by adding ten
drops of tindlura martis cum fpiritu l'alis, to each pint
of water, after it is impregnated with the carbonic acid
gas, 'it will referable the genuine pyrmont water. But
to render it chalybeate, add only one grain of fait of fleel,
to the fame quantity of water. It has the property of be¬
ing heavier than diflilled water; it turns blue paper red.
If placed under the receiver of an air-pump, and a vacu¬
um be made, it imbibes falter than Ample water; and yet
this gas, in its difengagement, takes away fome caloric,
and occafions cold, which muft leifen the aftion of the
fire; the water imbibes alfo, and the thermometer is far
from 6o°.
Water, charged with carbonic acid, lofes that acid by
being expofed for a certain time to the air. Caloric dil-
engages this acid with rapidity, and with a fort of effer-
vefcence: but the latter portions adhere very ftrongly to
the water, and muft he boiled a long time before they
will leparate ; fo certain is it that the lalt elementary par¬
ticles of a compound body flick together with great ob-
ftinacy.
This liquid acid precipitates lime-water ; when the lime
is faturated with theacid, the precipitate is infoluble ; but
by adding more of the acid, the precipitate difappears. It
is to be obferved, that it is no longer the lime which is dif-
folved, butthe compound carbonatof lime which was form¬
ed ; this is proved by pouring cauflic potafh over it, which
only abforbstheexcefsof acid, and the carbonatof lime ap¬
pears again. With airexpired from the lungs, afimilareffedl
is produced. Lavoifier has proved, that refpiration is a
continual combination of atmofpherical air with the hy¬
drogen and carbon of blood. This water appears in va¬
pours during refpiration in a cold air, and it is called pul¬
monary tran fpiration: carbonicacid gas is difengaged alfo.
It is certain that carbonic acid gas is compofed of car¬
bon and oxygen. The following experiment will farther
demonftrate the truth of the aflertipn. Take a glafs tube
clofed at one end. Put in a bit of phofphorus, and then
fome carbonat of foda dried and reduced to a fine pow¬
der; put one part of phofphorus to five of the carbonat
of foda : then clofe the tube, making it end in a finall
capillary tube. Place the tube in a furnace, but fo that
the extremity where the phofphorus lies may not feel the
adlion of the caloric; pafs it through the grate of the
furnace, and furround the tube with lighted coals, and
heat till the carbonat is melted: then raile the tube, and
warm the phofphorus. The phofphorus burns, and de-
compofes the carbonat of foda; pholphat of foda is form¬
ed, and the carbon of the carbonic acid is left to itfelf ; a
little phofphoric hydrogen gas is previoufly difengaged.
Here then two affinities are employed: i. The affinity
of the oxygen for the phofphorus ; 2. Of the phofphoric
acid, which has been formed, for the foda. To get at
the carbon refulting from the experiment, take the black
mafs and wafh it in diflilled water; then ftrain. The
phofphat of foda is held in folution in the liquor, and
the carbon finks. Clouet has a very ingenious and Am¬
ple experiment, which fliews that carbonic acid may be
difengaged to form Heel. For this we muft refer to the
fefrion on iron.
Several chemifts have obferved, that this acid, in its
elaflic Hate, pofiefles the property of preferving animal
fubftances, by retarding putrefadlion, and even diminifh-
ing its effects after it has commenced. Hence it was,
that M’Bride fuppofed that it unites with the putrid fub-
ltance, and reftores the acid it had loft during the time
of putrefaftion. This laft phenomenon, according to his
doflrine, arifes from the natural decompofition of orga¬
nic bodies, andthediffipation of the carbonic acid, which
he calls fixed air : for which reafon he fuppofed that the
application of this acid was indifpenfably necefl'ary to
compenfate the lofs fuftained in the animal economy, and
to reltore the fluids to their former ftate when changed
by heat and motion. He admits the exillence of this
acid
212
C H E M
acid in freffi vegetables, efpecially fuch as are fufceptible
of fermentation, as the decoftionof barley which has been
flittered to germinate, or the infufion of raitins, &c. all
which he thinks are equally ferviceable in f'eptic or fcor-
butic diforders, Water impregnated with carbonic acid,
has likewiie, in feveral cafes, been fuccefsfutly prefcribcd
in putrid, bilious, fevers, in pulmonary complaints, and
various diforders of the lungs. It has been ftrongly re¬
commended as a lithontriptic, or folvent of the hone in
the bladder ; but we are nor in pofteffion of any authen¬
ticated fafts in proof of its efficacy in that complaint.
The public prints contain accounts of feveral inftances
of the cure of the cancer made by the application of- the
■carbonic acid. We can nevertheleis aifert, that this
means has been ufed feveral times without luccefs. Af¬
ter the firft application, the cancerous ulcer exhibits a
more favourable appearance ; the fanies, which com¬
monly flows, becomes white, confiftent, and laudable ;
the flefli affumes a lively colour : but thefe flattering ap¬
pearances do not continue ; the ulcer foon returns to its
former ffate, and paffes through the ufual changes with
unabated violence. It is to the firft difcovery of this acid
■ by Dr. Black that we mult fix one of the molt brilliant epo-
ciias of chemiltry. To determine the influence of this
.difcovery on the fcience, we fhall here offer the following
remarks: i. It has added one to the number of acids.
2. It has fliown the caufe of the effervefcence which
.mild alkalis, chalk, calcareous ipar, and magnefia, pro¬
duce with ftronger acids than itlelf. sdly, It has caufed
a diitindlion to be made of all alkaline matters into two
lfates, the ftate of purity or caufticity, and the mild
ftate, having the property of effervefcence. qthly, It
has greatly enlightened the hiftory of the elective attrac¬
tions of acids for ammoniac and lime, fthly. It exhibits
the firlt inftance of an acid which prefers lime to fixed
alkalis. 6thly, The hiftory of mephitic caverns, in which
animals cannot live, is become very clear and fimple, in
confequence of this difcovery. 7thly, The analyfis of
.waters has been rendered more perfeft from the accurate
knowledge of fuch as are called gafeous, fpirituous, aci¬
dulous, and in confequence of that knowledge we
have fucceeded in perfeftly imitating them. Stilly, It
has thrown great light on the folution of iron in many
waters, and on the means of procuring martial waters
entirely fimilar to thofe in nature. 9thly, It has exhi¬
bited a clafs of neutral earthy, alkaline, and metallic
halts, in which the carbonic acid is a principle part; and
which are diftinguiflied in this Treatife by the generic
name of carbonats. Laftly, It has opened a new field to
the refearches of chemifts, and has excited that ardour
to which we are indebted for all the brilliant dilcoveries
made fince that period.
The carbonic acid gas is the choks-datnp of miners, fo
called from the fatal effefits it produces on thofe who
breathe it. The miners are Informed of its prefence, by
the faintnefs with which their lights burn, or by their
total extinction. It is fynonymous with the fixed air of
the Engliffi chemilts 5 the mephitic acid of M. Bewly ;
the mephitic gas of Macquer 5 the aerial acid of Bergman ;
and the cretaceous acid of Bucquet. It exifts in^great
abundance in chalk, limeltone, marble, calcareous fpars,
&c. forming nearly one third of their fubitance. Jt is
alio extricated in confiderable quantity from putrefying
animal matter. According to Lavoifier, its fpecific gra¬
vity is to that of common atmofpherical air, in the pro¬
portion of 1-8454 to i’23o8.
Of PHOSPHORIC ACID.
It was long fuppofed that this acid exifted ready form¬
ed in phofphorus ; but Lavoifier has demonftrated that
it is a combination of phofphorus with oxygen, He af¬
firms that too parts of phofphoric acid is composed of
■28J- parts of phofphorus united to 71-t parts of oxygen.
Methods of obtaining phofiphoric acid. — 1. By the rapid
cojabuftion of phofphorus in oxygen gas, it is obtained
a
.A
I S T R Y.
in white flakes. 2. By paffing a flream of vita! air thro'
phofphorus melted under water. Thefe experiments are
already detailed in page 201. 3. By decompofition of
bones. 4. By nitric acid. In treating of thefe two daft
fubftances, we fhall defcribe their aftion and manner of
operating,
Its properties. — Obtained, without the addition of wa¬
ter, in vital air, it is in white flakes, fnovvy, light, deii-
quefcent, and with a tafte very ftrongly acid. Expofed
to the air, it attracts its humidity very ftrongly. In con¬
tact will water, it eafily melts, furn idling- a white fluid,
without fmell, of an oily confidence, very heavy. Ex¬
pofed to the aCtion of fire in a clofe retort, a clear water
is produced ; the acid concentrates, and becomes heavier
that fulphuric acid ; it gains confidence and opacity by
degrees; by leaving it to thicken, ftill more, it becomes
like a jelly. In a violent heat, it vitrifies, melting into
a tranfparent, hard, and very eleCtric, glafs. If this vi¬
treous phofphoiic acid be expofed to the air, it foftens it,
and by degrees makes it become entirely liquid.
Phofiphoric acid and hydrogen gas. — Put vitreous pliof-
phorie acid into a porcelain tube, and to the upper ex¬
tremity fix the apparatus already deferibed for obtain¬
ing h)’drogen gas ; the other extremity is to be furniflied
with a tube, which goes into a two-necked bottle, whence
is lent out another tube which is palled under an invert¬
ed jar in the pneumatic apparatus. The tube muft be
made red-hot to melt the phofphoric acid, and the hy¬
drogen gas is to be palled through it. The hydrogen de¬
prives the acid of its oxygen ; water is formed 3 and at
the end of the operation phofphorus is found in the tube.
Phofiphoric acid and charcoal. — Take phofphoric acid of
the confiftence of jelly ; add powder of charcoal, very
dry, about one-fourth of the weight of phofphorus, or
as much as will. make the Inals of a friable confiftence;
dry the mixture in a melting-pot, until the greater part of
themoifturebediffipated. Then put the mixture into a luted
earthen retort, and an inverted retort, containing water,_
is -uled for a receiver; but Pelletier recommends a re¬
ceiver of copper, lhaped like an inverted retort. Put
water into the receiver in fuch a manner, that the phof¬
phorus, as it paffes off, may be flopped, and not come
in contaft with the air. By this method, a great quan¬
tity of phofphorus efcapes combullion, fince it mull pafs
through a column of water of fix inches before it comes
in contafit with the air. The apparatus thus prepared,
bring the retort by degrees to a very ltrong flaming heat
in a reverberatory furnace. In the early Itage of the ope¬
ration, hydrogen gas and carbonie acid are difen gaged,
arifing from the decompofition of the water by the char¬
coal. When the pholphoric acid begins to be decom-
poled, the hydrogen gas diflfolves a little phofphorus,
which gives it the property of flaming in the dark by the
contact of air; finally, when the heat is ftrong enough,
the phofphorus is converted into an oil, which falls into
the water of the recipient, and there coagulates. This
experiment fhews, that at a high temperature the carbon
has more affinity with the oxygen than the phofphorus
lias.; that this laft has more than the hydrogen, Alice
water is decompofed before phofphoric acid ; laftly, that
hydrogen is capable of diffolving a certain quantity of
phofphorus. It appears that the water of the receiver
keeps the hydrogen pliofphorated ; for, as foon as it is
expofed to the air in the dark, even after filtration, it
throws out very bright pholphoric fparks, efpecially
when the furfaces are renewed by agitation.
By heating phofphoric acid over oxyd of phofphorus,
the oxyd changes the pholphoric acid into phofphorous
acid. Sulphur will not decompofe phofphoric acid ; but
it unites with metallic oxyds, and forms falts, as yet but
little known.
PHOSPHOROUS ACID.
To produce this acid, which is phofphorus lefs oxyge¬
nated than in the ftate of phofphoric acid, the phophorus
muft
C H E -M I S T R Y.
nuift be ,burnt by a very flow fpontaneous combuftion
otfer a glafs funnel leading into a cryftal phial ; after a
few days, the phofphorus is found oxygenated, and the
phofphorus acid, in proportion as it forms, attrabls moif-
ture from the air, and drops into the phial. Seethe lec¬
tion on Phcfphorus, p. 100. This acid may be formed
alfo by decompofing phofphoric acid; anda'certainquantity
of it is always difengaged in the operation for phofphorus.
Phofphorous acid may be regarded as phofphoric acid
holding a little phofphorus in dilfolution. This acid
gives out a fetid and difagreeable odour when rubbed,
and efpecially when heated; one part of it volatiiifes in
white vapour very Iharp and pungent; it is therefore
more volatile than phofphoric acid. If this experiment
be made in a bulbous tube, or in an apothecary’s phial,
phofphoric fparks arife from the middle, and bum in the
air, which does not take place with the phofphoric acid
faturated with oxygen. By thus heating the phofphorous
acid, it becomes phofphoric acid ; it feems that the parts
which fly off in vapour by the ablion of the fire, are more
apt to be difengaged by caloric, and are lefs faturated
with oxygen ; and that it is when they are difengaged in
this manner, that the remainder is phofphoric acid ; and
even the burnt bubbles, faturating themlelves with oxy¬
gen, fall down again in part into. the phofphorus acid
Hate. This property alone would be fufticient to diftin-
guilh this acid from phofphoric acid.
SULPHURIC ACID.
Sulphur, as we have already remarked, burns only in
proportion as oxygen gas is united with it, The methods
of obtaining fulpfiuric acid, are two : 1. By extracting it
from fuch'fubltances as contain it. z. By manufacturing
It. In the firft cafe, a dillillation is made from fulphat
of iron, or vitriol of iron, copper, or zink, or even of
alumine, or of lime ; whence this acid has been called
s vitriolic , and, according to its degrees of concentration,
J'pirit of ‘vitriol, oil of • vitriol , and concentrated or frozen
oil of ‘vitriol. But, in modern times, it is procured at a
much cheaper rate, by the combuftion of fulphur.
In the manufaStories for making fulphuric acid in the
large way, a mixture of nitre and fulphur is burnt in
clofe built chambers lined with lead. Suppofe it were
required to make 4oolbs. of this acid in a day, a chamber
of thirty feet long, as many broad, and twenty high,
will anfwer the purpofe of obtaining that quantity ; for
t3olbs. of the acid, there will require about 9olbs. of
fulphur, and 7|- of nitrat of potafli. Sulphuric acid re-
f jilts from the combuftion of the fulphur, which, in burn¬
ing, combines with the bale of vital air, or oxygen,
which is contained in the atmofplverical air, and in the
nitre added to the fulphur ; the mixture is fet on nre, and
the vapours are received in the chamber, which has a
little water at the bottom for facilitating the condenfa-
tion of the vapours. In this fecond cafe it is fulphur
completely burned ; the acid therefore is radically formed.
When taken out of the chamber, the fulphuric acid
is black, impure, not concentrated, is mixed with a fu-
perabundant quantity of water, and retains the fmell of
fulphurous acid and fomewhat of nitrous acid ; by leav¬
ing it for lome time expoied to the air, the odour of ful¬
phurous acid is diflipated. Yet this is not fufficient; then
it is made to evaporate by dillillation in large retorts or
open veflels, which reftifies it from the nitrous acid. To
have it perfectly reflified and pure, it will be neceflary,
after having leparated the firft; portion, which is weakly
acid, to continue the dillillation till no liquor remains in
the retort ; this is called dillillation to ficcity or drynels.
The refiduum is a imaU quantity of alkali which proceeds
from the nitre, and which remains combined with the
excels of fulphurated acid ; this is acid fulphat of potalh ;
a little fulphat of lead is often found alfo. For this
rectification choofe a retort not too high, and fix it well
in the furnace, that the motion occafioned by tire-ebullition
jof the acid may not break it,
Vo Li IV, No. jgo.
213
It requires but a very finall quantity of animal or ve¬
getable fubftance to give this acid a brown colour.
Sulphur may be converted into fulphuric acid by oxy¬
genated muriatic acid, as will be hereafter lhewn. By
diitilling nitric, acid over fulphur, fulphuric acid is pro¬
duced alfo. For the experiment, fee on Nitric Acid.
Properties of fulphuric acid. — It is thick, running in
ropes like oil ; it is inodorous, it burns, it carbonifes, it.
dcltroys qll animal and vegetable fubltances ; it burns,
and corrodes the lion, therefore mult be handled with,
caution. It is much heavier than diftilled water, and
imparts a bright red to blue vegetable colours. It in-
creafes in abfolute weight by being expofed to the air, be-
caufe it ablorbs tire humidity of the atmofehere very
quickly; but, on the other hand, it becomes weaker,,
and loles in Jpecific weight.
To perform the experiment, place a porcelain tube
acrofs a furnace, and adapt thereto a couple of tubes of
glafs; one mull communicate with a machine for obtain¬
ing hydrogen gasj as before deferibed ; the other with a
retort containing pure concentrated fuphuric acid ; the
lower end is t;o be furnilhed with a bent tube, whidi goes
under a jar with mercury, in order to obtain fulphuric
acid gas. Then heat the porcelain tube, and firft let in
the fulphuric acid boiling; then the hydrogen gas. The
experiment is dangerous, as it often happens that there
are ftrong expiofions. In the cold way, fulphuric acid,
is not decompofed by carbon ; but by heat it is changed
into fulphurous acid ; for this purpofe, put charcoal in
powder, v<?ry dry, into a retort; pour fulphuric acid,
over it, and then heat it. If a tube be adapted to the
retort, carbonic acid gas will be obtained.
According to the experiments of Pelletier, fulphuric
acid is not decompofed by phofphorus ; neither is it de¬
compofed by pure fulphur. By boiling fulphuric acid
over red oxyd. of fulphur, the fulphuric is changed to
fulphurous acid.
Certain metals decompofe fulphuric acid ; and fulphu¬
rous gas is the produbl. Others, on the contrary, mull
be burnt before they will dilfolve in fulphuric acid ; in
that cafe they decompofe the water; but, inilead of ful¬
phurous gas, hydrogen gas is difengaged ; in this man -
net is generally wrought the dilfolution of zink and of
iron, by the aqueous fulphuric acid. \
Concentrated fulphuric acid has a great affinity with,
water, and alfo with caloric. When this acid is mixed
with water, the heat rifes, and the node made in the
union ariles from the air contained in the water. The
mixture attains a heat of 120°, fo that water may_.be
boiled in it. Four parts of fulphuric acid and one of
water give out a very ftrong heat. At a low temperature,
when the acid is pure, it congeals and cryftaUiftk in prifms
of fix fides. It Ihould be left to congeal in a mixture of
fait and ice, and be ilirred : this was called frozen ful¬
phuric acid.
Sulphuric acid is decompofed by all combuftible fub-
ftaifces. Straws turn black in this acid, becaufe hydro¬
gen, which is the principle of vegetation, combines with
the oxygen, and leaves the carbon of the vegetable at li¬
berty ; fuCh alfo is the theory of the carbonization of all
vegetables.
The fulphuric acid is ufed in many of the arts, parti¬
cularly in hat-making, and in dying. It is one of the
moil common and molt hecelfary loivents ufed in chemif-
try : it is employed in medicine externally, as a power-
ful'cauftic; and internally, when diluted with water, lb
as to be fcarce fenfibly acid, as a refreftung, cooling, and
antifeptic, medicine.
SULPHUROUS ACID.
This is produced by the fecond degree of oxygenation;
of fulphur. There are two modes of obtaining it. 1. By
combining the fulphur with fuch a quantity of oxygen
only as is neceflary to change it into fulphurous acid. z„
By feparating from fulphuric add that portion of oxygen
which is over and above the nature of fulphuric acid.
3 1 > . Take
Take one part of mercury, an.d two of fulphuric acid ;
put tliefe into a long-necked mattrafs, to which adapt a
bent tube which goes to the bottom of the water contain¬
ed in a VVoulfe’s bottle. The fulphuric acid, which is
dilengaged at the lame time with the fulphurous acid
gas, is arretted and diffolved in the water of this firft
bottle : from this goes a fecond tube, to conduct the
fulphurous acid into jars inverted over mercury, or into
bottles filled with water, if it be required to have it liquid.
The fecond method is by the flow combulrion of ful-
phur. Put fu’olimed fulphur into a fmall veffel of earth
or porcelain; heat them (lightly, and fet'fire to the lul-
phur with a coal ; when it is well inflamed, cover the
fulphur with a jar ftlfed with air: place in a diih, and
pour water round it. A white fmoke rifes, which is dif-
folved in the water ; this W'ater becomes acid : this is ful¬
phurous acid. The fulphurous gas is in form of (moke
or cloud under the jar, becaule it is combined with the
water contained in the air in the jar : in a dry air, it is
very traniparent. This acid was formerly called J'pint
of fulphur.
Sulphurous acidgasisinvifibleand elaltic, with a briflc
penetrating fmell ; it is neither proper for combuftion
nor refpiration ; \ its tafte is lively, warm, and pungent.
It reddens and difcolours molt of the blue vegetable tints ;
it has the property of cleaning and whitening filk, and
giving it a glofs. It is employed in dying; and is ufed
to take out ipots occafioned by vegetable juices, &c. It
is' twice as heavy as atmofpherical air. In a high tempe¬
rature, it is faid by Prieftley, Bergman, and Bertholet,
to produce fulphur; but Fourcroy and Vauquelin, after
new and careful experiments, deny the faft. It combines
flowly with oxygen ; but at length fulphuric acid is the
refult. There is no aftion between hydrogen gas and
fulphuric acid gas when cold ; but, by putting into a
red-hot porcelain tube, a mixture of three parts in vo¬
lume of hydrogen gas, and one part of fulphurous acid
gas, the laft is decompofed ; a little fulphurated hydrogen
gas is formed ; and at the extremity of the tube oppoflte
to that through which the gafes palled, a quantity of cry-
ltals of fulphur will be found.
With the following apparatus, as delineated in the
Chemiifry Plat.e IV. fig. i. may be exhibited two fets of
experiments proper to fhew the nature of fulphurous
acid : the one with oxygen gas, the other with hydrogen
gas. A is the furnace ; B, a retort, containing one part
of mercury, and two of fulphuric acid : the fulphuric
acid is decompofed, and fome fulphurous acid gas is dif-
engaged : this laft paffes through a bent tube C, into the
common refervoir G; into which comes alfo the tube D,
to which is faltened a bladder F, pierced by a copper
cock E, fixed to the end of the tube D, that, by fqueef-
ing the bladder, its contents, whether oxygen or hydro¬
gen, may be injected upon the fulphurous acid gas, which
paffes into G. In the refervoir G fhould be put alfo a
little mercury, which in oxydating purines the fulphuric
acid gas. H is a tube to continue the communication:
II, is a pipe of luted glafs or porcelain, capable of lup-
porting a itrong heat, and placed acrofs the furnace K.
L is a bent tube adapted thereto, whofe other extremity
is plunged into a two-necked bottle M, which contains
a little water ; from the other aperture of this bottle
goes out a bent tube of fafety, which goes under the
jar at N, inverted over mercury, or in a trough of wra-
ter, to gather the remainder of the gales. If you prefs
the bladder which contains the hydrogen over the ful¬
phurous acid gas, and make them run together in a por¬
celain tube made red-hot, at that temperature the hydro¬
gen feizes on the oxygen of the fulphurous acid, and
fulphur is precipitated on the tubes and fides of the bot¬
tles. The hydrogen combines with the oxygen forming
water ; and the excels of the uneombined hydrogen gas
is fet at liberty, and paffes under the jar N. If the blad¬
der be filled with oxygen gas, inftead of hydrogen, this
gas pafips with the fulphurous acid gas, combines with
S T R Y.
the acid gas, and reftores to it the oxygen it had loft by
oxyding the metal in the retort. Sulphuric acid is form¬
ed, which is diffolved in the water of the bottle or re-
fervoir G. This experiment, which will fucceed only
at a high temperature, (hews that at that time the hydro¬
gen has more affinity with the oxygeg than with the ful¬
phur, which is not the cafe when cold. Thus fulphu¬
rous acid is changed into fulphuric acid by means of
oxygen at a high temperature ; and, by means of hydro¬
gen, fulphurous acid is decompofed ; then, taking from
that the portion of oxygen which kept it acid, the ful¬
phur remains.
Pholphorus has no adlion with fulphurous acid. By
heating fulphurous acid with carbon, fulphur is obtain-
. ed ; and a little fulphurated hydrogen gas is difengaged.
In water cooled by ice, the combination is fo rapid, that
not a bubble rifes to the furface ; ice from a cellar melts
very quickly, which (hews a confiderable dilengagement
of heat; the w’ater at this temperature increaies 0-15 of
its weight, or nearly a feventh part. The fpecific gra¬
vity of liquid fulphurous acid faturated, is to that of
diftilled water as 1020 to 1000.
Expofed to the temperature of 15-I-0, this faturated
water throws up a vaft quantity of little bubbles ; this
is fulphuric acid gas, which dt that temperature can no
longer remain combined with the water. If a veffel filled
with liquid fulphurous acid be plunged into water, it
boils with aftonifhing rapidity, and the liquor loles a
great part of its lmell and its acidity. Water faturated
with fulphurous acid freezes at fome degrees below o j
but not an atom of gas is dilengaged, as happens with
carbonic acid ; the lulphurous acid therefore has more
attraction for the water.
If fulphurous acid gas be put into concentrated ful¬
phuric acid, a concrete acid is obtained, which is Cub-
limed in the neck of the retort.
O? NITRIC ACID.
Nitric acid is one of the mod important in nature, on
account of its frequent ufe and great utilityin chemiftry.
It gives out its oxygen fo eafily to combultible bodies,..
that.it has been the,* inftrument of many difcoveries.
The ancient chemifts knew no fuch thing as white nitric
acid ; they defcribed it as very red, giving out yellow
vapours, &c.
Nitric acid is extracted from a fait known in the arts,
by the name of faltpetre, the method of producing it we
(ball hereafter delcribe in (peaking of the nitrat of potafh.
This acid, pure and concentrated, is heavy, with a white
fmoke. When diftilled in a glafs retort with the pneu¬
matic apparatus, in a heat futficient to make it boil, a
red vapour is exhaled, which condenfes in the receiver
into a liquid of the fame colour ; and a little oxygen gas
paffes under the jar.
Put coloured nitric acid into a retort ; adapt thereto a
balloon with a little water in it. Place the retort in a
fand-bath, and diftil : a red vapour is thrown off, and
the acid becomes white. If nitric acid, very much con¬
centrated, be left in contaft with atmofpherical air, it
attracts the humidity of the atmofphere, and is thereby
weakened.
If very pure nitric acidbe expofed to therays of light, it
may thereby be decompofed. For this purpofe put ni¬
tric acid, very pure, into a bottle; fix in a bent tube
which is to go under an inverted jar in the pneumatic
apparatus ; be careful that the tube does not touch the
acid :. in a certain time the acid changes colour, becom¬
ing yellow, green, and then red ; and fome oxygen gas
is difengaged. It is not the affinity of the light tor the
oxygen which decompofes the nitric acid ; it is becaufe
there is at the fame time a great affinity between nitric
acid and the nitrous gas which is formed. The action of
light will not proceed fo far as to take away all the oxy¬
gen from the nitric acid, fo as to reduce it to an azot 5
but, by continuing the experiment, nitric acid may be
^ con-
llillill
Plate JV.
J* emfan . P:ib7ur7ieti ,2.t t7ie. Piet eiiret'£t. DecPjS. i Soo. by J. JViZ&sj'.
C H £ M ]
converted or decompofed into nitrous gas. Nitric acid
may be deconipofed alfo by being made to pats through
a heated porcelain tube, about two feetand a half long :
if the tube be, very hot, oxygen patfes over, and the re-
fidue is azot ; but, if not hot enough, much of the ni¬
tric acid will not be decompofed; frequently indeed this
nitric acid will attraft azot, and fo form nitrous acid.
By this decompofition a fort of aimofpheric air is pro¬
duced ; but nitrous acid cannot be decompofed in this
way.
Nitric acid may be made , by paffing ammoniacal gas
over oxyd of manganefe. This experiment, and the
preceding, may be performed with the fame apparatus
as exhibited in the Chemiltry Plate IV. fig. 2 ; and the
following defeription may lerve for both. A is a retort
containing eight parts of liquid ammoniac ; B, a porce¬
lain tube fixed to the retort, and going acrofs a furnace,
and containing three parts of oxyd of manganefe in pow¬
der; at the other extremity is a bent tube C, which
runs into a two-necked bottle D, one fourth part filled
•with diftilled water. It is neceffary, to prevent ablorp-
tion, not to plunge the tube into the water; it need only
touch the furface. From the fecond neck goes out a
tube of fafety E, which runs under, an inverted jar F, in
the pneumatic apparatus. Make the tube red-hot, and
then heat the ammoniac; red vapour will pafs over,
then a wdiite fmoke, which is azot and water in vapours ;
afterwards nitrat of ammoniac is formed : if the tube be
not fufficiently heated, a little oxygen gas is difengaged
at the beginning of the operation. By evaporating the
water contained in the bottle, nitrat of ammoniac is ob¬
tained, whence the nitric acid may be re-drawn by
means of fulphuric acid. Under the jar will be found,
,3. Oxygen which comes from the manganefe, which is
decompofed quicker by the caloric than the ammoniac.
2. Hydrogen gas, which arifes from the decompofition
of the ammoniac.
This acid fets charcoal in a flame ; but it mud be very
dry and warm, and the nitric acid much concentrated!
It difengages nitrous acid and carbonic acid; the red
fmoke arifes from the nitrous gas. To perform this ex¬
periment, put the charcoal into a glafed earthern pan.
Take a Hick a yard long; i'plit it at one end, and between
the cleft introduce the neck of an apothecary’s phial;
tie it fait ; the operator is by this means free from dan¬
ger. When you want to fet' fire to the charcoal, pour
the nitric acid into the phial, and with it fprinkle the
charcoal, it takes fire immediately. — Phofphorus catches
flame in the fame manner, and the fmoke that flies off is
phofphoric acid ; which proves, not only that nitric acid
contains oxygen, but likewife that the oxygen is in a
ftate ready for difengagement.
Sulphur alfo decompofes nitric acid, and reduces it to
nitrous gas; for only thus far has the fulphur more affi¬
nity with the oxygen than the nitric acid, or rather than
the azot ; for tl\e fulphur does not attack the nitric acid :
fulphuric acid and nitrous acid are therefore formed.
Put fix parts of nitric acid, of 300 to one of fulphur : by
diltillation the nitric acid will -be decompofed, nitrous
gas will be difengaged, and fulphuric acid will be form¬
ed. — If you would operate with phofphorus, take a tubu¬
lated retort with a ftopperof cryftal ; put in nitric acid of
30° ; then through the tube introduce iome little bits of
phofphorus, about one part of phofphorus to fix of the.
acid. Place the retort over a fand-bath, adapt a receiver,
and heat the retort gently. The phofphorus is diffolved
with effervefcence; the nitrous gas efcapes at the fame
time in vapours : then increafe the fire fo as to drive away
the lafl: portions of the nitric acid; and phofphoric acid is
found in the retort, partly in a concrete form, and part¬
ly liquid.
Water combines with nitric acid in all proportions, and
caloric is dilengaged during the combination : with two
parts of concents ated nitric acid and one of water, the
mercury in Reaumur’s thermometer will rife to 350, By
S T R Y. 215
ufing fnow inftead of water, contrary effects are pro¬
duced, that is to' fay, there is an abforption of caloric^
and the thermometer may be made to fall from o to 220
below, by mixing four parts of fnow with one of nitric
acid ; by cooling in this firft mixture fome freffi acid. and
freffi ice, and then ftirring them together in the midft of
this bath, the temperature may be brought down to 32 or
3 3° below o. This property in the nitric acid to produce
fuch extreme cold with ice, arifes from the great affinity
it has to unite with water ; and in fome degree forces
the bale, with which in that ftate it cannot unite, to
take from the neighbouring bodies the caloric of which
it Hands in need to become liquid. It furniffies to clie-
mifts fome ufeful -hints, of which perhaps they do not
take fufficient advantage, for examining the properties
of bodies at a low temperature ; it was this which de-
monftrated that mercury became a folid body at 31 or
320 below o.
What we call aqua fortis, is nothing but nitric acid
diluted with water. When we come to fpeak of nitrat
of" potafh, we fliall give the method of obtaining it by
means of potter’s clay.
Molt metals ad upon nitric acid, and occafion a change
therein, which, has of late greatly affifted chemifts in
their enquiries into the nature of its principles. Metals
ad upon nitric acid in two different ways : 1. Some are
completely oxydated, as tin, antimony, &c. and decom-
pole the nitric acid entirely. 2. Some are oxyded, and
decompofe the acid but in part, as copper, &c. Nitrous
gas is produced both ways.
The nitric acid cf commerce- often contains muriatic
acid and fulphuric acid, which are very troublefome in
all operations. The method of purifying it is as follows:
Put lome femi-vitreous oxyd of lead, or litharge, into a
glafs retort; pour the nitric acid over it: diltil to dry-
nefs There will remaih in the retort, a muriat and a
fulphat of lead, if the nitric acid contained fulphuric
acid. Another way is to ufe nitrat of lead or filver: a
precipitate is immediately formed, which is muriat of
lead or of filver : then draw off the acid, or rather diftil
to drynefs. This laft is a very good method when mu¬
riatic acid only is mixed with the nitric acid ; but, when
there is fulphuric acid, the firft method is to be preferred,
feeing that a fuiphat and a muriat of lead are formed at
the fame time.
Of NITROUS GAS.
Nitrous gas is the appellation of that aeriform fluid which
is difengaged during th? aftion of iron, copper, filver, or
mercury, upon nitric acid. To get this fubftance pure,
free from azotic gas, as required for eudiometrical ex¬
periments, it is not a matter of indifference what com-
buftible is ufed ; for there are fome which aft fo ftrongly
upon oxygen, that they draw it entirely from fome parts
of the azot, and then the nitrous gas will be mixed with
azotic gas. Silver and copper are the bell metals for the
purpole ; and the denfity of the nitric, acid fhould not
exceed 20 or 25° of Baume’s aerometer; otherwife its
aftion would be too brilk, the nitrous gas would be dif¬
engaged too rapidly, and might burft the apparatus ; be-$
fides, it is not lo pure in that cafe. • Humboldt has (hewn,
by careful experiments, that, by pouring nitric acid up¬
on copper wii e, a part of the acid was decompofed en¬
tirely, and thereby the nitrous gas was mixed wfith
azot; but, that, by employing a folution of fulphat of
iron, the nitrous gas was totally abforbed, and the quan¬
tity of azot might be meafured, amounting to from 0-07
to 0-67, and even beyond.
To obtain this gas, take clean copper-filings ; put them
into a phial or fmall matrals ; pour in nitric acid of 20
or 2 50, llop the phial with a cork, to which a glafs tube
is adapted, whole bent extremity is plunged into the wa¬
ter-trough of the pneumatic apparatus.; on the fnelf of
the trough is *a bell-glafs filled with water, which corre-
Iponds to the orifice of the bent tube. Things thus pre¬
pared-,
si& C H E M 1
pared, expofe the mixture in the phial to a very gentle
h.eat; and the're will be eftervefcence amVtlifengagement
of nitrous gas. This^gas is an elaftic fluid, without co¬
lour or fmell, and does not redden tincture of turnfol.
It is hurtful to relpiration, neither will it maintain com-
buflion nor. forward vegetation ; yet it is fuppofed to pre¬
vent putrefaction. It has more affinity with caloric than
nitric acid ; liencethis property is made ufe of to take
away the nitrous gas which injures nitric acid. Expofed
to the action of caloric in a red-hot porcelain tube, it
undergoes no alteration ; for this body is not decompofed
by a red heat, while nitric acid by the 'fame means un-
dergoes a total decompoiitioh ; it would feem, from this
experiment, that it could lofe, at the utmofl, only that
portion of oxygen which was "fuperfluous in the compo-
fition of nitrous acid ; but this do£s not appear to be the
cafe. For this experiment the following apparatus is con-
ft rafted, as (hewn in the preceding plate, fig. 3. where
BB is a porcelain tube laid through a furnace ; A, a glafs
tube, bent like a fyphon, and terminating in a funnel ;
this tube is adjuded to the bottle C, in which fome cop¬
per-filings are put, and through the tube the nitric acid
is to be poured upon them. At the lower extremity of
the porcelain tube, a tube of fafety with a bulb, is adapt¬
ed, which goes under the inverted jar D. The nitrous
gas is difengaged, and paffes through the hot porcelain
tube without being decompofed.
Van Marum affects, that nitrous acid, if the eleftric
fpark be pafl'ed through it, is reduced to one third of its
volume; no longer becomes red in atmofpherical air, but
is converted into azotic gas and nitrous acid.
Put pure nitrous gas into a tube, and invert it in the
pneumatic cifter'n, and introducing fome pure oxygen
gas ; the vapour becomes red ; it is nitrous acid that is
forming, and which is foon difl'olved in the water, fo that
it rifes in the tube. If the oxygenous and nitrous gafes
are pure, not a bubble will remain under the jar ; care
mult be taken to introduce the oxygen gas gently, that
too much may not get in. Caloric from 30 to 350,
of the thermometer is difengaged during the operation.
If the oxygen be not pure, the bubble remaining at the
upper part of the jar is the reiidue of the azot, of the
hydrogen, or of the carbonic acid gas, &c. which the
oxygen gas might have contained ; for the latter is im¬
mediately abforbed by the nitrous gas.
Lavoifier obferved, that 073 of -nitrous gas would ob-
forb 0-40 of oxygen gas. The acid refulting from this
combination is not perfectly white ; it throws up red va¬
pours when united with alkalis or lime. But this will
be fet in a clear light by the following experiments of
Humboldt. 1. If nitrous gas be combined with oxygen
over mercury, no more nitric acid in a liquid form will
be produced, than there was, water in the apparatus.
The abforption feems very fmall, becaufe the acid con¬
tinues dilated in a gafeous date, till the ammoniacal gas
is precipitated. 2. Mixtures of nitrous, gas and oxygen
prelent different volumes in tubes than in wide veflels ;
becaufe in the fird, the nitric acid, railed from the fur-
• face of the water, remains in a gafeous date; this di-
■ minilhds the quantity in appearance from 2 -6 to i-S, and
even lower. 3. Thefe fame mixtures of nitrous gas and
oxygen, do not exhibit abforptions of an equal volume
with the experiments made in atmolphericai air; and
acids more or leis oxygenated appear in this cafe to be
formed. The difference is from 3*2 to 2-8. 4. A mixture
of azotic gas and oxygen gas differs from the atmofphe¬
rical air; becaufe the oxygen of the fird is more free,
and more inclined to combine with a large quantity of
nitrous, gas. 5. By taking the refiduum, after a mixture
of equal parts of nitrous gas and atmofpherical air, and
analyfing it by means of fulphat of iron, it may be found
cxaftiy what quantity of oxygen is contained in atmof¬
pherical air. 6. Nitrous gas, which afts mod uniformly,
and which is obtained by acids diluted with water, from
S T R Y.
17 to 210 of Baume’s aerometer, contains from 0-12 to
0-15 of azot.
Nitrous gas with aUnofpheric.air. — Under a bell-glafs
filled with water, 'and inverted on the (held of the pneu¬
matic mercurial cidern,' pals one mealure of nitrous gas
and two of atmofpherical air. ’ The two fluids combine
quickly, and diminffh prodigioufly. A brilk heat is ex¬
cised ; the vyatef aicends in the bell-glafs, and affiorbs
all the red vapours which arife from the combination of
thefe aeriform fluids.
The property of very pure nitrous gas, (that is, de¬
prived of azotic gas,) of rapidly abforbing' the oxygen
of htmofphericnl air, gave PrielHey and Fontana the idea
of their eudiometer, a word which fignifies a meafure for
air-, and m fact its delfination is to meafure the oxygen,
contained m atmofpherical air. The proof conlids in
employing known quantities of thefe two gafes, and to
ob'ferve how much is rieceflary to their complete and-re-
ciprocal faturation 5 the lefs of common air is neceflary
for faturating the nitrous gas, the more pure is that air,
and ‘vice ‘verfa. Various inflruments have been contriv¬
ed ; thofe or Fontana, Landriani, and Magellan, are the
mod remarkable. They differ in flrape, but their objeft
is the fame, namely, to determine the falubrity of at¬
mospheric air, or any other, in diderent places. Of the
mod approved of thefe, a plate and delcription will be
given.
Nitrous gas fets phofphorus in a flame ; it lofes part of
its volume, and the refult of the combuflion is azotic gas
and carbonic acid gas, and fulphurous acid. If a lighted
coal be plunged into nitrous gas, inflammation takes
place. The fame elfeft takes place with phofphorus :
fill a bell-glafs with mercury ; introduce the nitrous gas,
and the inflammation takes place. Mix hydrogen gas
with nitrous gas, and bring a lighted taper to the orifice
of the jar; the hydrogen gas will burn, and a green flame
will be feen. Shake didilled water and nitrous gas toge¬
ther, and nitrat of ammoniac will be formed by ade-
compofition of the water; the effeft of a double affinity.
The principle ferving to combuflion exids therefore in
nitrous gas, fince it promotes the inflammation of certain
combuflible bodies which have a great affinity with oxy¬
gen, as fulphure of potaflr, pyrophorus, phofphorated
hydrogen gas, iron, &c.
Nitrous g^s combines with fome acids, and particular¬
ly with nitrifc acid, on which it beflows new properties.
By palling nitrous gas into white concentrated nitric acid,
it is fird produced yellow, then orange-colour, then very
dark green. If you fake the orange-coloured nitrous
acid, and mix it with water, nitrous acid of a green-
emerald colour is produced : take the dark -green nitrous
acid, mix it with water, and you' have blue nitrous
tacid . Prieflley found that 100 parts of nitric acid, of
the weight of fourteen, abforbed in two days 90-29 of
nitrous gas : he lays, that, when about leven parts were
abforbed ; the acid affirmed an orange-colour, a green
when eighteen parts were taken up, and that, when the
90-29 were combined, it arole in the form of red va¬
pours. — This fucceflion of colours is uniform and con-
flaiit 5 repeated experiments furniffi the fame refults.
Of NITROUS ACID.
It will be feen, from the preceding. experiments, that
nitric acid when yellow, green, & c. contains lefs oxygen
than when white; for it is evident, that by combining
nitrous gas, which has itfelf been already 'deprived of a
part of this principle, the quantity in the nitric acid
mud be diminifhed. As by this modification the acid
acquires frelh properties, modern chemids have given it
the name nitrous acid, to diflinguifh it from that wherein
the azot is completely faturated with oxygen.
Nitric acid, loaded with nitrous oxyd, and confequent-
ly more deconipofable in that part of its compofitlon,
produces alfo front the fame caufe, much more effeft upon
x other
C H E M I
other combuftible bodies. Hence it is that nitrous acid
•flames with phofphorus, the volatile oils, lome metals,
&c. upon which nitric acid has comparatively but very
weak effefts. When nitric acid, more or lefs charged
with nitrous gas, is put in contail with gold, there are
two attractions which aft fuddenly and together, that of
the oxygen of the oxyd of azot for the gold, and that
of the nitric acid for the oxyd of the gold. And thus,
by charging nitric acid with nitrous gas, Deyeux contriv¬
ed to dilfolve gold therein.
TJie nitrous vapour is a faturated combination of ni¬
tric acid and nitrous gas. Thus, if nitric acid and cop¬
per be put together into a bottle, nitrous gas is the pro-
duft. Pal's this nitrous gas into a fecond bottle contain¬
ing concentrated nitric acid, nitrous acid is obtained,
and a nitrous vapour is difengaged. Draw this nitrous
vapour through potafh, and colleft the gas difengaged
thereby, nitrous gas and nitrat of potalh will be produc¬
ed in the bottle. Hence alkalis have more attraction for
the nitric acid than this has for the nitrous oxyd; and
this is the reafon why nitrits are not formed, but nitrats
only, with fixed alkalis and the nitrous vapour, any more
than with the fame bales and with liquid nitrous acid.
If this nitrous vapour be palfed through concentrated
fulphuric acid, it is obtained in a cryftallifed form. Work
as follows : — Put filings of copper into a two-necked bot¬
tle ; one opening ferves to pour the nitric acid in order
to difengage the nitrous gas. From one of the apertures
goes a tube which is lent into another bottle containing
concentrated nitric acid; this lait bottle is furnilhed with
another bent tube which goes under a jar two-thirds filled
with concentrated fulphuric acid. Then difengage the
nitrous acid, and it runs into the concentrated nitric
acid : the nitrous vapour rifes, and, as the fulphuric acid
feizes upon it, it appears in the form of fmall needled
cryftals.
If nitrous vapodrbe mixed with oxygen gas, there will
be no abforption ; but, if this vapour be put into nitric
acid, an abforption takes place. Fill a bottle with nitrous
vapour, and add water boiled, or deprived of air by any
other means; the nitrous vapour will not mix with the
water; but with water containing air it will mix.
_ With refpeft to the four metallic acids, there are many
circumftances in which metals may be united with oxy¬
gen ; yet in general they feem reducible to three. The
firlt is the contaft of air affifted by caloric ; the fecond is
by the decompofition of water; the third, by that of acids.
There are four metallic fubftances capable of being com¬
pletely acidified : arl'enic, tungften, molybdena, and
chrome, lately difeovered by Vauquelin. As we can only
fpeak of them here as having a name among acids in ge¬
neral, we (hall hereafter relate the manner of preparing
them, and their properties, under the reipeftive heads of
the/'e metallic fubftances.
Of MURIATIC ACID.
This acid exifts abundantly in nature, and is united
with different bales, principally foda, lime, and magnefia.
Its conftituent parts are unknown. It is not found alone;
to obtain it therefore, it will be neceffary to difengage it
from its combinations. It was formerly called marine
acid, fpirit of fait, acid of fait, See. The manner of ex-
trafting it will be {hewn when we treat of muriat of foda.
Muriatic acid, free from every other fubftance, is al¬
ways in the form of a permanent gas, which nothing hi¬
therto has been able to render liquid. Muriatic acid
gas may be obtained, r. By diftillation. 2. By feparating
the muriat of foda by means of fulphuric acid. 3. If it
be diffolved and concentrated in cold water, it is difen-
, gaged by heat, and the gas is collefted under jars with
mercury. Put fuming muriatic acid into a phial or re¬
tort ; to the orifice adapt a bent tube, which is to be
plunged into the ciftern of the mercmial pneumatic ap¬
paratus, under a veffel filled with this metallic fluid. Heat
the liquid gently, and an aeriform fluid is difengaged,
Vol. IV. No. 151.
S T R Yo 2i7
which drives the mercury out of the veffel, and takes its
place. This aeriform fluid is muriatic acid gas. This
gas is abfolutely colourlels when pure ; it is fo cauftic as
to corrode the lkin, and to caufe intolerable itching; it
reddens the blue vegetable colours, fuch as fyrup of vio¬
lets and tinfture of turnfol ; it deltroys animal life, and
extinguilhes flame. It has been remarked, that the flame
of the taper, previous to being extinguiftied, grows yel¬
low at the dilk towards the upper part. Fourcroy lays
it is enlarged by the addition of a green or bluilh cir¬
cumambient flame, but the caufe of this is not known.
It is obferved alfo that the flame of the taper, when go¬
ing out, turns very white : this is becaufe the water,
which is difengaged by the combullion of the hydrogen
and the oxygen of the taper, combines with the gas, and
thus becomes cloudy and vifible. Light does not feniibly
change it. Caloric rarefies it, and increafes its elafticity
prodigioufly. It is heavier than atmofpherical air, in the
proportion of 173^ to 100, and to dilliiled water as 1250
to IOOO.
In contaft with air, it produces white fumes or va¬
pours, caufed by the combination of the gas with the-
humidity of the air; therefore thele vapours are not vi¬
fible on high mountains, where the air is very dry. This
gas melts ice as quickly as if it were thrown upon live
coals. It eafily diffolves in icy water, but not in warm
water ; fo that it is neceffary to preferve the muriatic
acid in water at a very low temperature ; for, if the bot¬
tle be not ltrong enough to refill the expanfion of the
gas at a different temperature from that in which it was
combined with the water, it burfts the corks, and by its
vapour fpoils all copper utenlils.
This gas in general unites rapidly with water, and con-
ftitutes liquid muriatic acid. Water, at About 120, ab-
forbs o' 30 of its weight ; in proportion as the gas unites
with the water, it loies its elallic fluidity ; for the caloric
which gave it this property is fet at liberty and heats the
liquor. The lower the temperature, the more the water
diffolves of it, and vice *uerfa \ fo that water which was
faturated with it at 6, imbibes at fixty and forae odd de¬
grees, and may be deprived of the greater part of this
acid at 8o°.
The prefence of the muriatic acid is eafily known,
wherever it exifts, by its property of decompofmg almoll
all muriatic fAlts, and elpecially fulphat of filver, with
which it forms a white precipitate, very heavy, which
becomes blue in the light; and of giving, with foda, a
fait of an agreeable tafte known to every one. This acid
in general diffolves metals and oxyds in whatever ftate
they may be ; for, if they are too much oxydated, the
muriatic acid takes away the excefs of oxygen andaffumes
it ; and, if the metal is not fufficiently oxydated, the
water of the acid will be decompoled, and furnilh the
neceffary oxygen ; fo that, by this reciprocal adlion, the
oxydation is carried juft to the degree neceffary that the
diffolution may take place.
Muriatic acid put into a long tube with concentrated
fulphuric acid, produces a lively effervefcence, and a.
gas which fills the whole capacity ot the tube : this gas
is no other than the muriatic acid, which the fulphuric
acid has taken up from the water of iolution, and to
which this laft has given the caloric, which it loft while
combining with the fulphuric acid. This experiment
proves, that fulphuric acid has more attraftion for water
than muriatic acid. _ _ a
Muriatic acid eafily unites with nitric, and feme inte-
refting phenomena are produced. It the acids are con¬
centrated, a motion is obferved throughout all the liquid ;
a gas comes over, which produces a brilk effervefcence ;
the liquor heats, and affumes a red colour more or lefs
dark. This gas is found to be oxygenated muriatic acid ;
hen mixing nitro-muriatic acid with water, it gives
tut nitrous gas, and lofes its red colour.
This acid is formed by the mixture of two parts of
pure nitric acid and one of concentrated muriatic acid,
3'K It
2iS CHE M
It is lighter than the two acids of which it is coinpofed ;
and it has a fmell peculiar to itfelf; its colour is com¬
monly that of a lemon, but fometimes, of an orange; by
contact with light, oxygen gas is difengaged from it ;
caloric i'eparates from it oxygenated muriatic acid ; it
combines with water, and becomes heated in it. It would
feem natural to conclude, that. the muriatic acid would
have more affinity with oxygen than nitrous gas would
have;' but by the inverfe experiment, that is, by mixing
gas, or nitrous oxyd, with oxygenated muriatic acid gas,
the contrary will loon appear ; for, while thefe gafes are
in contact, they penetrate each other, lofe their elafticity,
and give, birth to red vapours, which are true nitrous
acids. If the proper quantities be ufed, not an atom of
refidue will be found. Hence it is only by the help of
a double attraction, that muriatic acid can decompole
the nitric ; namely, that of the oxygen for the muriatic
acid, and that of the nitrous gas for the nitric acid.
Though we are ignorant of the exiltence of oxygen in
the muriatic acid, we at lead know that it may be combin¬
ed with that principle by means which we are now going
to detail.
The muriatic acid is varioufly employed in the arts ;
but more elpecially in the art of allaying in the humid
way. In medicine it is adminillered in a very diluted
date, as a diuretic and antifeptic ; anddt is the principal
ingredient in the celebrated remedy of Chabrieres, for
ruptures. It is externally ufed as an elcharotic ; and
like wile in gangrenes of the throat, aphthae, &c. Mixed
with a certain quantity of water, it conltitutes a bath for
the feet, which is a great fecret with lorae petitioners,
and is ufed for the purpofe of removing the leat of the
gout from the nobler to the inferior parts.
Of OXYGENATED MURIATIC ACID.
Seheele difcovered that this acid, diftilled with oxyd of
• manganefe, takes all at once the form of gas; ana that
this gas was of. a yellow colour, with a Imell analogous
to '-nitre-muriatic acid, &c. Berthollet, taking up the
experiments of Seheele, found in this acid many proper¬
ties ufeful in the arts. The ancient chemifts called it
dephtojgtflicated marine acid.
, Tlie cold method of obtaining it was by pouring mu¬
riatic acid over oxyd of manganefe in powder ; but this
procefs was long and expeniive, becaule it was neceilary
liril to extract the muriatic acid, and much of it was loft.
The materials ufed for making it atprefent are ioo parts
of muriat of feda, ©'75 of iulpliuric acid in fifty parts
of water, and 37^5 of powdered oxyd of manganele. Or,
two parts of fulphuric acid, three of muriat of loda, and
one of oxyd of -manganefe.
Put the muriat of foda and the oxyd of manganefe into
a large long-necked matrafs, A, placed on a land-bath,
as exhibited in the Chemiftry Plate IV. fig. 5. The mat-
rals is flopped with a cork, B, having two holes, or per¬
forations ; in one of which is fixed, the tube D, bent down
to E, ending at the top with a funnel F, by means of
which the fulphuric acid is poured into the matrafs : the
other hole in the cork receives the end or a tube, G,
which bends down till it enters the three-necked bottle
H, about an eighth part filled with water, into which
comes alfo the tube of lafety K, to prevent abforption.
This bottle communicates with the balloon M, by means
of the tube N, furnifhed like wife with a tube of lafety.
This fecond veffel is half-full of water, and communicates
with a two-necked bottle, O, in which is a tube commu¬
nicating with the bottle P. Clofe all the joints with fat
lute, covered with bits of linen dipped in white of egg
and lime : heat the matrafs by degrees.. As this acid
dillolves llowiy and with difficulty, a great deal of
water mult be ufed, coliefted in the different vellels, or
difpofed in a very high column, fo that, by comprelfing
the gffs, and giving it a long way to run, it may be com¬
pletely dillolved. The fize of the apparatus muft vary
according to the quantity of oxygenated muriatic acid
required. Inftead of Woulfe’s bottles, depidted in the
I S T R Y.
Plate, calks may be ufed, or (lone receivers, as pradlifeif
at Jouy, Where a great quantity of this acid is advan*
tagebufly employed in the bleachiqg of linen.
Concrete oxygenated muriatic acid. — If the
bottles be furrounded with ice, the oxygenated muriatic
acid is obtained cryftalliled at the temperature of © ; it
is in yellowilh l'pangles ; but it regains its expanliori, and
would break the velfels, unlefs care be taken to prefer ve
the lame temperature, or to leave room for their expan¬
fion. In this ftate, the acid lofes its fmell ; it is fixed ;
not being volatile, it cannot have any fmell. In this
operation,- the fulphuric acid adls immediately upon the
muriat of foda, to the bafe of which it unites: the mu¬
riatic acid, in its turn, attacks the oxyd of manganele;
one part combines with the oxygen, ami the other to the
oxyd returning to the metallic ftate; hence refult, ful-
phat of foda and muriat of manganefe, which remain i:i
the veffel, and oxygenated muriatic acid which paffes in
the galeous ftate into the water of the Woulfe’s bottles
O and P where it diffolves.
This acid may be obtained in the gafeous fta'te, by
making it pals through a fmall quantity of water. For
this purpofe, put the mixture before deferibed into a me¬
dicine-phial, or linall matrafs, ftopped with a perforated
cork ; adapt a bent tube, which is to go under a jar, in
the . pneumatic apparatus.
This gas is diftinguilhed by peculiar properties. It
exhales a ftrong penetrating odour, which affeils the
throat ; it has a ltyptic talte, provokes coughing, and
draws rheum from the brain ; it will even occalion the
fpitting of blood ; it dulls the lenfes ; afterwards occafions
vomiting, probably by fympathy between the pituitary
membrane or throat and the itomach ; it cauies liead-
ach. The belt remedy for Hopping its effects is liquid
ammoniac.
This gas' is net invifible; it is of a greenilh yellow co¬
lour. It diminifties and reddens the flame of a taper
without extinguishing it ; but animals cannot breathe in
it. It is heavier than atmofpherical air : calorie and
light make no vifible change in it. It burns and flames
with many combuftible bodies, as metals, lulphur, phof-
phorus, alkaline and metallic fulphures, volatile oils.
See. Thus, by throwing iron, antimony, arlenic, or feveral
metals, in finepovyder theyflameandexhibitalhowerof fire
very wonderful to thofe who are not acquainted with thefe
effefls. It does not redden tincture ofturnfule, nor the other
blue vegetable colours ; but it has the faculty of deltroy-
ing them, and rendering them colourlefs. If any flowers,
except yellow ones, be put under a glafs filled with this
gas,, their colour is quickly deffroyed ; green leaves of
plants undergo the lame change. This effeft can be at¬
tributed only to the abforption of the oxygen ; this gas,
which contains it in excels, gives out a part of it ; this
the flowers abforb greedily, and this abforption deprives
them of colour : then oxygenated muriatic acid gas be¬
comes common muriatic gas again.
. This gas combines in fmall quantity with water, to
which it communicates fome of its properties, luch as
its colour, fmell, and tafte. In this ftate, oxygenated
muriatic acid is not heavier than common water ; which
lhevvs that it lofes no great quantity of caloric in the
combination: a proof of it is, that the temperature of
the water is little altered by combining with this acid.
This liquid acid has a four aftringent tafte. Expofed to
the rays of the fun in a tranfparent bottle, oxygen gas
is clilengaged from it; in proportion as this gas is thrown
off, the acid lofes its colour and fmell,. and returns to
the ftate of Ample muriatic acid : this is the pureft oxygen.
As we laid of the acid gas, this liquid gas does not
redden blue vegetable colours, but deltroys thifem almoft
all. This property cauled Berthollet to propole bleach¬
ing of thread, linen, and cotton, by its means. Take
unbleached thread or linen ; difeharge the colouring
principle, by boiling in a ley prepared of twenty parts
of water with one of potalh, which may be rendered
more active by means of one-third of lime ; then put
C H E, M
die thread or cloth into oxygenated muriatic acid. Care
mult be taken to move the (tuff about, and to wring it ;
then rince it in clear water, to take away the fmeli it has
contracted ; it might even be palled through foap-fuvls.
Or dip for a moment into the oxygenated muriatic acid
fome bits of coloured matter, whether linen or cotton,
flowers or leaves, &e. and obferve the effeft.
Oxygenated muriatic ,acid has alfo the property of
whitening wax, fuch as fhe green wax of America, the
yellow wax of Louifiana, which is an oily vegetable with
yellow wax ; but it mult not be drawn out in round Hicks,
as is common, becaufe the wax would remain yellow in
the middle, as the aftion of the acid could not penetrate
to the centre. The following is the molt approved me¬
thod of whitening wax : Cut the wax in pieces, and put
it into a fmall matrafs with water; place the .matrafs in
a fand-bath, and heat it fo as to keep the wax in a liquid
ftate. Adapt to the matrafs the apparatus for collecting
oxygenated muriatic acid gas above defcribed. As foon
as this gas is putintdthe liquid wax, it leizes every part
of it, and whitens it: but the aftion of the fire under
the wax muff be moderated, and even the action of the
acid muft be reftrained ; for, if it goes beyond a certain
point, part of the wax will be burnt and reddened : it
is very effential to obferve this, T he fame apparatus
will lerve to thicken oils.
Cliaptal ufed the oxygenated muriatic acid gas with
advantage for cleaning mildewed paper and old prints :
they acquire by this means a very bright whitenefs, and
are cleared of all (pots and ftains. Common ink is dil-
charged by this galeous fubftance ; but printing ink re¬
mains. In fome paper-mills it is ufed for bleaching the
rags ; and it is found profitable, though expenfive, becaufe
they avoid the lots by rotting, which was confideraSle
in the former tedious fix-months procefs ; another advan¬
tage is, that the workmen are not incommoded by the
fmefl of putrefying or rotten rags. This acid is a'fo ufed
for difcharging the madder- dyed ground from painted
cloths, ir.ftead of cow-dung'; but great caution is requi-
fite for fear of changing the other colours.
This acid burns fulphur very well at a proper heat;
for in the common temperature, the fulphur has more
attraction for the oxygen than the muriatic acid has.
Put powdered fulphur. into a medicine-phial ; pour the
oxygenated muriatic 'acid over it ; then heat them. The
fulphur turns to fulphuric acid, which is known by the
muriat of barytes or the r.itrat of filver ; muriat of lilver
is formed. By heating, the prefence of the iulphunc
acid is ffill more plain ; for the muriatic acid fifes off in
vapours, and the fulphuric acid is left naked. The lame
experiment may be made with phofplvorus. It a folu-
tion of phofphorus in oxygenated muriatic acid be heat¬
ed, the muriatic acid is difengaged, and the phofphoric
ac’d is fixed.
The oxygen of muriatic acid oxyds metals ; the mu¬
riatic acid formed by the difengagement of this oxygen,
feizes upon the oxyd of the metal thus oxydated: in fa ft,
muriatic acid is one of thole which has the greateft attrac¬
tion for metallic oxyds.
Oxygenated muriatic acid will diffolve gold. Put leaves
of beaten gold into water faturated with this aeriform
fluid; they will prefently diffolve. M. le' Sage produced
a gold precipitate under the form of fmall threads or
flakes, which appeared at the bottom of a flafk of this
faturated water, in little brilliant maffes, on which were
observed triangular lr.mulae, the elements of the cryftal-
lization of that metal.
Oxygenated muriatic acid gas is ufed to fweeten the
air of prifons, hofpitals, &c. fb as to deltroy the miai-
mata- or impurities. It might alfo be ufed for taking
away the fmeli of rooms painted in oil-colours, by dil-
en gaging this gas into the atmofphere. This acid fhould
be preferved in bottles covered with black paper, to keep
out the light, which would decompofe it.
The oxygenated muriatic acid is of coufiderable ufe
I S' T R Y. 219
in the arts, particularly in bleaching. Berthollet thinks
that it may be ufed for the purpofe of difeovering, in a
few minutes or hours, the effefts which expofure to the
air will produce on certain dyed fluffs, and that their du¬
rability may by that means be afeertained. Several im¬
provements have been made in the method of bleaching
firft introduced by Berthollet, through the medium of
this acid. The principal of thefe conlift in combining
the acid with alkalis or lime. In this ftate of combina¬
tion, it has not been found to corrode, or in any way to
injure the cloth. This improved procets is now employ¬
ed in fome of the molt extenfive bleaching concerns of
this country, and muft undoubtedly be confidered as one
of the moft valuable donations which modern chemiftry
has yet conferred on the arts.
- Of FLUORIC ACID.
Fluoric acid was firft difeovered by Scheele. This
name was given it becaufe it is obtained from a kind of
earthy neutral fait, called fluor fpar, phofphoric mineral,
and fluat of lime.
As the-fluoric acid will corrode and even diffolve glafs,
and bring it into a gafeous ftate with the help of a flight
heat, it is neceffary for obtaining it pure, to have veffels
of fuch metals as are leaft affefted by the aftion of this,
or the fulphuric acid : lead is the belt. To obtain fluoric
acid free from every combination, put one part of fluat
of lime jn powder into a leaden retort; pour in three
parts of liilphuric acid, and fix a receiver, of lead alio,
half full of water. This experiment fhould be made in
a water-bath ; for which purpofe the retort is to be put
into a veffel of copper or iron containing water, or into
a falt-bath- Give a gentle heat, and the fluoric acid will
be abiorbed by the water of the receiver as faft as it is
difengaged. As this acid is naturally in the form of gas
in the degree of heat and preffiire we live in, it may be
collefted in that ftate : thus inftead of a receiver, adapt
to the orifice of the retort a bent leaden tube, whofe ex¬
tremity goes into the quickfilver-trough, in the pneu¬
matic apparatus.
When this acid is to he obtained with an apparatus of
glafs, the thickeft glafs fhould certainly be preferred. Ufe
a retort with a. tube adapted, which goes -into a bottle
containing diftilled water. As this acid has the power of
difiolving glafs, it prefently feizes upon the (ilex, which
appears in the form of white flake,s. .Be careful to em¬
ploy wide and large tubes when you operate with glafs ;
for, unlefs it has fufficient room to pals, the gafeous acid
is com prefled in the retort, its action on the glafs increaf-
ed, and the retort fo much the (boner corroded and de-
ftroyed. Margraaf, in diltiliing fiuor fpar with fulphuric
acid, law, with aftonifhment, that the retort was pierced
with numerous holes, and that a portion of the receiver
was alio diffo|ved. The filex, in this experiment falls
down into the water, becaufe the water has more affinity
with the acid, than the acid has with the filex. If this
gas be confined under a bell jar of glafs, it diffolves the
filex. If an extinguilhed taper be plunged in, it becomes
encrufted ; becaule the water which runs from the (huff
diffolves the acid charged with filex tyhich furrounded if,
and the filiceous earth of this (olutioh is driven upon
the wick.
This gas is heavier than atmofpherical air ; extinguiflies
flame, deftroys animal life, reddens blue vegetable co¬
lours, and has a penetrating fmeli, fimilar to that of
muriatic acid gas. It corrodes the (kin ; undergoes no
change by the aftion of light ; in contaft with air, it
throws out white fumes.
If animals,’ moiftened fpungC.s, charcoal, &c. be ex-
poferi to the vapours of this gas in glafs veffels, the hu¬
midity contained in the fpunge, Ac. will diffolve the
'acid, and the filex enemfts the fubftances under exami¬
nation. By this inode, an appearance of petrifaftion
may be given to lizards, rhoiil worms, fruits, &c. and
thefe fubftances, thus covered with a hard cafe of (ilex,
will
223
C H M
v/i:' T:?'-p for a lang time. But in veflels of metal, this
p • facia, m does not. t -ke place ; fo that it is very plain
ti- : the or! by f ' fiance, or filex, which is precipitated
1. the comae’. o, the 'fluoric acid gas and the water, is
only a portioned 'the glafs which is attached and aCtually
diiiolved by the aeriform acid.
Info abcil-jar filkd with fluoric acid gas, and refting
"n:ion mercury, lprinkle a little water over the lurface of
this metallic fluid: heat is produced, and the mercury
i in the jar. It often happens alfo, when this gas is
pu: into water, that the; filex falls down in a quartzous
pellicle ; each bubble of the acid, as it touches the wa¬
ter, is covered with the filex, leaving in its way, to rife
to the lurface, a trace in the fhape of tubes, which
Frieftley calls organ pipes, tapering upwards to a point,
becaufe the bubble diminilhes in proportion as it is dif-
folved by the water, and that the fllex is thus taken
away. The filex, which firft falls down in the veflels, is
foon after re-diflolved by the excels of the acid, in pro¬
portion as the water is Saturated ; for the water, at firft
imperfe&ly faturated with the acid, has not ftrength to
hold the filex in diflolution.
Bergman obtained fluat of filex cryftallized. When
the fluoric acid is manufactured in veflels of glafs, filex
is thereby thrown down, then dill'olved again by the re¬
action of the acid : this is true fluat of filex, inftead of
pure fluoric acid. Alkalis may be ufed to afeertain the
prefence of the filex. The tafte of this acid diflolved in
water, is like fulphuric acid diluted with water, or vinegar.
If a iolution of fluoric acid in water be expofed to
the fire, part of the acid flies off in vapours 5 but the laft
molecules adhere fo ftrongly, that the water and the reft
of the acid will volatilile if the heat be increaled in pro¬
portion. The fluoric acid has no action on gold, filver,
lead, mercury, tin, antimony, bifinuth, cobalt, nickel,
arfenic, and manganele, in their reguline ftate. It dif-
folves them, however, in that of oxyds. Iron and zink
diffolve in this acid ; and their folution is accompanied
by the evolution of hydrogen gas. This acid fiiould be
preferved in bottles coated with wax melted in oil, or in
veflels of lead or platina.
The property of the fluoric acid gas for corroding
glafs, gave M. de Puymaurin the idea of engraving on
glafs, by ufing this acid in the fame manner as nitric
acid is ufed for copper ; but the acid mult be very pure,
for, if at all containing filex, it will not eat into the glafs.
For engraving on glals, cover the plate with wax melt¬
ed in oil ; trace the figures to be engraved witha pointed
inlirument through the wax ; then expofe it to the va¬
pour of this acid gas. Guyton has availed himfelf of
this property for engraving bottle-labels, efpecially for
thof'e containing acids, which always burnt the paper
ones. Thus has a new art been created, which may one
day become highly valuable. The elements of this acid
are as yet entirely unknown.
Of BORACIC ACID.
Boracic acid was firft made known to us by Homberg,
a German phyfician : he called it fedative fait, or narco¬
tic fait, and employed it in medicine, as poffefling vir¬
tues both fedative and narcotic : but the London college
has with much propriety rejeCled it.
This acid is obtained from borax, or borat fuperfatu-
rated with foda. To extraCt itfrom borax, take a faturated
diflolution of this fait heated and drained; pour in ful¬
phuric acid by little and little, very gently and.carefully,
for a brifk dil'engagement of caloric takes place, which,
driving the water fuddenly. into vapour, makes a report,
crackles, and might end in an explofion : take care alfo
to put in enough of the acid, that the liquor may ac¬
quire a flight acidity. The fulphuric acid leizes upon
the foda, and the boracic acid is precipitated by the cold
in little fpangles of a very white colour.
The fecond way is by lublimation. Put into a retort
or cucurbit of glafs, with a head, feme borax, with fui-
[ S T R Y.
phuric acid and a little water; heat the mixture till it
melts ; by means of the water, a part of the acid, fepa-
rated from the borax by the fulphuric acid, rifes in va¬
pours, which are condenled and depofited as they grow
cold, in the upper part of the apparatus, under the form
of very bright thin filvery-white feales. To purify it,
diflolve it warm, and it will cryftallize. Wafti it alfo
in cold diftilled water, in order to feparate the acid fui-
phat of foda.
This acid is du&ile under the tooth, reddens the blue
vegetable colours; is inodorous. It bladders up with
heat ; the water of cryftallization is difengaged ; in this
ftate it is called calcined boracic acid.. In a greater heat
it melts, and forms a white folid glafs, provided the
experiment is made in a crucible of white clay ; for, if
the crucible be coloured, the glafs will be fo likewife.
This glafs, upon expofure to the air, becomes opake,
and covered with a light while powder. It is ufed in
the compofition of pafte jewels. If this glafs be diffolved-
in water, after being reduced to powder, it cryftallizes
in fpangles. It is of great fixity, and is not volatilized
by fire; but it changes the crucible, which Ihews that it
is in fufion ; -it mull alfo be very dry. This fixity has
made it fuppofed that it was an artificial produCi or
compofition ; for it has beCn remarked that Ample bo¬
dies are in general volatile.
The boracic acid is not changed by the aClion of at-
mofpherical air, whether it be hot or cold, moift or dry s
the cryftals remain bright, ihining like pearls. It is fo-
luble in water, requiring twelve parts of cold wrater to
one of the acid : three or four parts of hot or boiling wa¬
ter will be enough ; and this is the method of obtaining
it cryftallized. It will volatilize by dillillation with wa¬
ter ; but itmuft be of a thick confluence, or in an aque¬
ous diflolution it will not volatilize at all. Sublimation
cannot take place but in above 8o°, which can only be
endured by a body almoft folid, not one which is liquid,
aqueous, or little faturated. This proves that fixed bo¬
dies, when pure, become volatile when united withfub-
ftances which enjoy this property to a certain degree,
and that, in fuch cafe, the water feems to have a itrong
attraction for the boracic acid. The fpecific principles
of this acid are not' known. It is ufed in many chemical
operations as a flux, under which character welhall here¬
after have occafion to mention it.
Of EARTHY SUBSTANCES.
Nature prefents to us feveral kinds of earths. No fuch
thing as elementary earth is now admitted ; for, inftead
of one, feveral earthy fubftances have been afeertained,
which have each an equal right to be called the elements
fince each enters into the compofition of feveral bodies.
Among the earths which are known, there are feveral
which approach the alkaline form : Fourcroy calls theie
falino-terreftrial fubftances, faline earths, alkaline earths,
and terreftrial alkalis.
There are now reckoned eight terreftrial fubftances,
called earths : viz. filex, alumine, glucine, zircone, mag-
nefia, lime, barytes, and ftrontian.
Each of thefe earths is diftinguifhed by fpecific charac¬
ters, befides thole which belong to them in common,
which Fourcroy terms generic. The generic characters
are drynefs, not being changed by fire, infufibiiity, not
to be decompofed, and in combinations to remain as Am¬
ple and indeltruClible fubftances.
Humboldt difeovsred, that not only vegetable earth,
but alfo clay, drawn from a great depth, and efpecially
Ample earths, have the property, by mere contaCt with
atmofpherical air, of depriving it of all .its oxygen.
Alumine, barytes, and moiftened lime, will each let at
liberty pure azot; and this is a new method of meafuring
air more aCtive than pholphorus and fulphuret of potalh.
Earth feems not to aCl upon air in the dry ftate; and
hence moiftened magnelia and filex do not prelent the
fame phenomena as alumyie.
SlLEXo
221
C H E M I S TRY.
Sit-EX. — This ear.th is never found pure. To obtain
it, therefore, reduce tranfparent cryftals of quartz to
powder; put them into a crucible with four parts of pot-
afh, and increafe the fire till the mixture melts. Then
diflolve it in diftilled water ; add fulphuric acid, which
attacks the potafh, and the fiiex is precipitated ; wafh.it
in waters till the laft water -remains infipid. It is necef-
ary to put an excels of acid, to feparate all other earths
from the fiiex. Another method of obtaining it very-
pure, is by feparating it from fluoric acid, as defcribed
under that article.
Many Hones contain fiiex in great quantity, as rock-
cryltal, flint, jafper, agate, grit-ltone, &c. as (hewn in
the works of Kirwan, Bergman, Buffon, Daubenton,
Pott, Bucquet, Fourcroy, De Born, See. — Pure fiiex has
an extraordinary roughnefs and afperity to the touch.
It is free from vifeofity, audits molecules when foaked
in water are precipitated with great eafe. It has neither
tafte nor fmell ; it is always^ tranfparent in its very laft
articles. Its fpecific gravity is It cannot alone
e fufed in fire; but may be melted with the addition of
borax and alkalis ; the blow-pipe will not meit it. Air
makes no change in it. It cannot be difl'olved in water
by chemical methods: it ablbrbs part of it; flicks round
it, and takes a regular form : this is rock-cryftal. It will
unite with the phofphoric, boracic, and fluoric, acids:
by fufion, a coloured glafs is, produced. Muriatic acid
holds it in fufpenfion ; but, as foon as the acid is warmed,
the fiiex is precipitated. Other acids have no efrebt up¬
on fiiex.
Alumine. — This name has been appropriated to this
fubftance, becaufe it conftitutes the bale of alum : fome
authors call it argil, or argillaceous earth : it is never
found pure : it is procured in abundance from all kinds
of clay, potters’ earth,. fchiftufes, fteatites, the ruby, fap-
phire, Sc c.
To obtain pure alumine, melt common alum, or acid
fulphat of alumine, in water; add a folution of potalh,
or carbonat of potalh, or rather liquid ammoniac : a
plentiful white precipitate, will be the refult. Heat the
mixture a little. Ammoniac is preferred, becaufe it has
not the property, like the other alkalis, to re-diffolve
the alumine, if too plentiful. Strain the liquor, and a
white mafs remains, which mult be walked feveral times,
to leparate all the faline matters it may retain.
Alumine is white, opaque, foft to the touch, taftelefs,
bur adhenve to the tongue. It dries in the fire, con¬
tracts into a lefs volume than in its natural ftate, and be¬
comes fo hard as to ftrike fire with fleel. This property
of diminution, or extreme aggregation, when expol'ed to
the adtion of heat, has cauled it to be uled by Wedge-
wood to conftruft his pyrometrical inftruments, for.mea-
furing the expanlion of bodies by heat. After it has
been well baked, it is no longer capable of being knead¬
ed in water into a dubtile mafs. Lavoilier has proved,
that pure alumine is fufceptible of a kind of tenacious fu¬
fion by a current of oxygen ; after which it will cut
glafs like a diamond, and is hardly to be touched by a file.
It abforbs humidity from the atmofpbere, and a little
carbonic apid. Alumine makes a paite with water, and
may be kneaded very ealily. It becomes very hard by
mixture with water and fiiex. It is employed in many of
the arts ; it forms the bafes of potteries, from bricks to
the fineft porcelain. Its exabt nature is unknown.
Glucine. — Vauquelin is the dilcoverer of this earth,
and he called it earth of beryl, becaufe he firft found it in
the beryl ; he found it alfo in tire emerald of Peru. To
ext raft it, take beryl reduced to powder; melt this pow¬
der in cauftic potalh, and diflolve the produft in muri¬
atic acid. Separate the fiiex by evaporation ; and, hav¬
ing walhed it, decompofe the remaining liquor with the
potalh of commerce; walh the depofit, and diflolve it
again in fulphuric acid ; by adding fulphat of potalh to
this folution, alum is produced. As the combination
of this earth does not cryftallize fo eafily as alum, it re-
Vol. IV. No. 191,
mains in the clear water ! to feparate it entirely from the
laft remains of the alum, decompofe this water with an
excefs of carbonat of ammoniac ; the earth is hereby dif-
folved again, and the alumine is precipitated. Then,
evaporating the carbonat of ammoniac by means of heat,
the new earth is depofited in the ftate of carbonat ; the
quantity obtained is fixteen in 100 of the beryl made ule
of. Its name, glucine, is from the Greek Xyvy.m;, Iweet,
on account of its molt charafteriftic property of forming
faccharine falts with acids.
This earth is white, infipid, infoluble in water, adher¬
ing to the tongue ; infufible per fe. Soluble in fixed al¬
kalis ; infoluble in ammoniac, but foluble in carbonat
of ammoniac. Soluble in moift acids, except the carbo¬
nic and phofphoric, and forming with them faccharine
falts flightly aftringent. It is very foluble in the fulphu¬
ric acid by excefs. It is fufible in boriax, forming with
it . a tranfparent glafs. It abforbs one fourth of its weight
of carbonic acid; decompofes aluminous falts; is not
precipitated by hydro-fulphures well faturated.
It is not yet known of what ufe this earth may be in
the arts. If it fli'ould be found more plentiful hereafter,
fays Vauquelin, in combinations from which it might
be more eafily obtained, it may be applied to many ufe-
ful purpofes in the arts, in chemiftry, and in medicine.
It has already been remarked to have a ftrong affinity for
animal and vegetable fubftances ; fo that it very probably
might ferve, like alumine, as a cauftic in dying. The
faccharine and fiightly-aftringent tafte of its laline com¬
binations, leave little room to doubt but it muft poffefs
fome valuable properties as a medicine ; and it certainly
would prove the moft agreeable phyfic that could be taken,
on account of its grateful tafte.
Zircone, C[rcon, or Jargon. — Klaproth firft dis¬
covered this earth in the zircon or jargon of Ceylon, and
afterwards in the hyacinth, as a predominant principle
and peculiar fpecies of earth.
To extraft this earth, take hyacinths of Ceylon well
pulverized ; mix them with eight ermine parts of alkali ;
put the mixture into a red-hot crucible, a fpoonful at a
time, fullering each fpoonful to melt before another is
put in. When the whole is in fufion, make the lire very
ftrong, and keep it fo for an hour and a halt, or more,
according to the quantiiy of matter in fufion. After¬
wards let the crucible get cold, break it, reduce the con¬
tents to powder, which boil in fpring-water in a leaden
veffel : let it fettle ; decant the clear liquor, and conti¬
nue thus to walh the earth, till the water uled no longer
produces any precipitation in a folution oi muriat of
barytes. The mafs, thus purified, is to be diluted with
twenty pints of water; and pour in pure muriatic acid
till there is an excels ienfible to the tafte ; boil thefe fub-
ftances for a quarter of an hour, in a leaden veffel. When
the folution is finilhed, ftrain off the liquor, and eva¬
porate to’drynefs, in veffels of the fame kind, to feparate
the portions of fiiex which the.muriatic acid may have
difl'olved. The fait is to be diffolved once more in wa¬
ter ; filtre again, and the zircone is precipitated with
lire carbonat of foda. Then the zircone is found com¬
ined with carbonic acid, which in drying becomes
brighter than pure zircone.
This earth calcined is of a white colour, very heavy,
rough to the touch like fiiex, taftelefs, not foluble in wa¬
ter, but forming a kind of jelly therewith. Of itfelf,
it is not to be melted by the blow-pipe; but with borax
it melts into a tranfparent colourlefs glafs. Separated
from its folutions - by cauftic alkalis, it retains, as it
dries in the air, a great quantity of water, which gives it
a tranfparency, and the appearance of gum arabic,
flightly yellow, and exhibiting even the fame vitreous
cracks : the water increafes its weight about one fourth
part. Urged now by a ftrong heat, it will melt, and af-'
fume a faint grey colour; it thereby acquires fuch a de¬
gree of hardnefs, that it will ftrike fire with fteel, and
leratch the hardeft glafs. It unites with acids, and forms
3 L '
222
CHEMISTRY.
fa Its, fome infallible, fame very foluble. Its action upon
filex, alumine, and glucine, has not yet been afcertained.
The compofition or component parts of zircone are riot
known.
Magnesia. — This earth is never found pure and na¬
tive ; iome affirm, however, that it is found in complete
maffes in Savoy. It is met with either combined chemi¬
cally with different acids, or mechanically mixed with ter-
reftrial fubftances, fuch as talcs, fteatites, foap-rock, fer-
pentines, lapis cllaris, afbeftos, mountain-cork, carbonat
©f magnefia and of lime, fulphat of barytes, alumine,
and iron: this combination forms amianthus, and all
the calcareous ftcnes.
To obtain it pure, diffolve in diftil led water cryftalsof
fulphat of magnefia, orEpfom fait, which is to be afterwards
deeompofed by carbonat of potaffi. Wafh well the pre¬
cipitate, and calcine it to difengage the carbonic acid.
Pure magneiia is in the form of a very fine white powder,
or in little brittle fragments; it has no fer.fible tafte, but
it dries and leaves a flight fenfation of bitternefs on the
tongue. It purges gently the ftomach and bowels. It
turns fyrup of violets and mallows of a greenifh colour,
and turnfole to a blue. It is not altered by a common
fire ; but in a very ftrong heat becomes brittle or friable.
Heated in a retort, it acquires a phofplroric property.
Expofed to the air, it infenfibly takes in carbonic acid,
and becomes effervefcent. It requires near 2000 parts of
water to diffolve it. With acids, it forms very loluble
falts. Guyton has made feveral experiments in the way
of combining magnefia with other earths : he produced a
kind of vitrification. Magnefia has hitherto been ufed
only in medicine : it afts in various manners, according
to the Hate in which it is given ; whether crude, calcined,
or combined with acids.
Lime. — Though lime, otherwife called calcareous earthy
(from calory Lat. heat,) be met with almoft every where
in the bowels of the earth mixed with carbonic acid, it
requires a procefs to obtain it pure. For this end, let
chalk be waflied in diftilled boiling water ; then diffolve
it in diftilled acetous acid, and precipitate it by means
of carbonat of ammoniac, wafh the precipitate, calcine
it, and the refidue is pure lime.
Another method is to extract it from oifter-fhells, as
follows : Wafh the ffiells in feveral waters, then boil them
to remove the mucilage which generally adheres to them;
the water diffolves fome faline particles alfo. Put them
into a furnace, and calcine them to wdiitenefs. After
this firft calcination, put them into a retort of earth or
porcelain, and make them red-hot. The refult is very
pure lime, called quicklime. Topreferve this, put it in
glafs veflels well flopped, and it will keep without altera¬
tion for years.
In preparing lime for ufe in the arts, it often happens
that it is burnt; it then has no longer the qualities of
quicklime, but is covered with a kind of plalter like an
imperfedt vitrification.
Calcareous earth, deprived of water and acid, and re¬
duced to a fimple ftate, is a whitifh fubftance ; its tafte
is urinous, acrid, hot, almoft cauftic ; it gives fyrup of
violets a deep green colour, and makes no effervefcence
with acids. Expofed to the air, it attradls the humidity
of- the atmofphere as it comes into the ftate of Jlaked lime :
this moifture caufes it to lwell, break, and fall to powder;
its weight is increafeft, and its union with the carbonic
acid which it has drawn from the atmofphere makes it
effervefcent: it repaffes infenfibly into the ftate of calca¬
reous earth, and from quicklime becomes Jlaked lime. The
effects are quicker and more remarkable when the atmof¬
phere is very moift. Heat is excited during this flaking
in the air, or dry flaking. It is attended with heat ; for
it contains water in a dry aud fblid ftate, and the ther¬
mometer rifes in it to 1 20“. The dilatation is fufficiently
ft rots g to burft cafks or other wooden velfels in which
lime is contained.
It is ealy to deprive flaked lime of the moifture and the
acid it at trailed from the air. To this end put fomer
flaked lime into a gun-barrel, or an earthen retort ; bring,
it to a red heat, and the lime returns to its original ftate
of quicklime.
The adlion of water on quicklime is very remarkable*-
When a fmall quantity of this fluid is poured on lime,
it is quickly ablorbed, the lime appearing as dry as be¬
fore : after a fhort interval of time, it burits into pieces,,
producing a degree of heat fufficient to reduce the water
into vapours, with a remarkable hiffing noife. Thefe va¬
pours have a peculiar fmell, and give a green tinge to
paper ftained with mallows: the lime foon falls into a
white powder; the heat, the agitation, and the vapours,
gradually dilappearing. If this extinilion be made during
the night, or in a dark place, many luminous points are
obferved on the furface of the lime. All thefe pheno¬
mena are confequences of the activity with which this
falino-terreflrial fubftance unites with water; but, in or¬
der that they may take place, it is required that no more
water be ufed than the lime can very quickly abforb, fo
as to become immediately dry. It feems that the difen-
gagement of heat from thefe two bodies during this rapid
union changes their ftate, and that flaked lime in its pul¬
verulent form, contains water in a dry and folid ftate.
This dry ftate of water, which takes place in many com¬
binations, attended with heat, and which produces folid
compounds, whole fpecific heat is lefts coniiderabie than
before, has not been enough attended to by chemifts, or,
to l'peak more properly, has been totally unobi'erved till
lately. When lime, in this experiment, has ablorbed as
much water as it can combine with and remain dry, it is
called dry flaked lime ; it then no longer produces heat
by the addition of water, but is diffolved without any
fenfible motion. By mixing with this fubftance the quan¬
tity of water neceffary to dilute it, milk of lime is produced ;
if the quantity of water be Hill greater, the lime is per-
feftly diffolved, and the liquor becomes tranlparent. Mr.
Kirwan affirms, that 680 parts of water are required to
diffolve one of lime, at the temperature of 60 degrees.
This folution, which is known by the name of lime-nvatery
is clear and limpid ; its fpecific gravity fcarcely exceeds
that of common water ; its tafte is acrid and urinous ;
and it readily converts fyrup of violets to a green, and
even deftroy s the colour. . "By evaporation in doled veffels,
very pure water is obtained, the quicklime remaining be¬
hind; but a red heat is neceffary to feparate the laft por¬
tions of water, which are retained with great force : after
this treatment, the lime becomes heated by the addition
of fmall quantities of water as before.
Lime-water expoied to the air becomes covered with
a dry pellicle, which gradually increafes in thicknefs and
folidity : if this pellicle be taken away, a fecond is form¬
ed, and after that a third, and fo forth, till the whole of
the water is evaporated. Thefe pellicles have been im¬
properly called cream of lime ; it was formerly thought to
be a peculiar fait formed by the union of the moft lubtle
part of the calcareous earth united to water; and much
has been written concerning this pretended fait of lime.
But it is now admitted, fince the experiments of the ce¬
lebrated Dr. Black, that the faline properties of cream of
lime are lefs intenfe than thofe of the lime itfeif ; and
that it is a peculiar neutral fait compofed of lime, and
an acid extracted out of the atmofphere. Hence it is
that the cream of lime cannot be formed without the
contafl of the air. The fait is, that the lime draws car¬
bonic acid frpm the atmofphere, as mentioned before,
and forms on the furface, at its diffolution, a cruft of
chalk, or of calcareous carbonat.
Lime unites eaffiy with acids, forming falts, fome in-
foluble, others very eafily foluble. It combines with fili-
ceous earth in the humid as well as in the dry way.
When fand is mixed with lime newly flaked, or with
quicklime fprinkied with a fmall quantity of water at
the time of mixing, thefe two bodies become confident,
and form what is called mortar. The ftate and quantity;
CHEMISTRY.
of the lime, as it is more or lefs perfeflly calcined ; its
previous flaking, with a greater or lei's quantity of water,
or the flaking of it at the time of mixture ; the nature of
the land with regard to its magnitude, its angular or
round figure, as well as its degree of moiiture ; produce
very conliderable differences in the feveral kinds of mor¬
tars. Clay baked in bricks, or puzzoiana, which is clay
baked by volcanic fires, and altered by expofure to air,
are likewife added to lime in the making of mortar.
Though lime, as well as filiceous earth, be perfectly
infufible alone, yet if they be heated together, the pro¬
portion of the former being much the greateft, they melt,
as has been obferved by Meftrs. d’Arcet and Gerhard.
Lime likewife ferves as a flux to one-third of its weight
of alumine : it appears to have a ftronger affinity with
this earth than with filex, as Kii wan informs us. The
mixture of thefe three fubftances melts ftill more eafily
and completely than lime with either of them fingly ; fo
that one part of lime, and one of alumine, will lerve to
fufe two parts, or even two and a half, of filiceous earth :
this fa£l fhews the caufe why many hard Hones giving
fire with Heel, and of a quartzofe nature, melt when ex-
pofed to a ftrong heat; the combination, or Ample mix¬
ture, of calcareous earth and clay, is the caufe of their
vitrefcibility. One part of calcareous earth enters into
f ufion with half a part of magnefia : the gflafs, formed by
this mixture, afterwards diltolves, and completely meits
a quantity of filiceous earth equal to the lime it con¬
tains : equal parts of filiceous earth, magnefia, and lime,
melt therefore by heat into a perfect glais.
The intimate nature of lime is not known. The early
chemifts, defirous of explaining, by phyfical realoning,
the phenomena exhibited by lime in its combinations,
and more efpecially in its extindlion, referred its caule
to the particles of fire fixed in the calcareous Hone during
its calcination. This was the theory of Lemery. M.
Meyer did not admit that pure fire was capable of com¬
bining in this manner, and therefore afferted, that it ex-
ifted in lime united with a peculiar acid : this l'ubtle kind
of fulphur was the acidum pingue or the caufticum of this
chemift; but his do&rine, though occalionally brought
forward unde; different names, has been overthrown by
a feries of experiments, which have completely fhewn its
fallacy. Many modern chemifts believe, that the matter
of heat exifts in a combined Hate in lime, and that the
light perceived by Meyer and Pelletier, with the ebulli¬
tion, the evaporation of the water, and the peculiar fatty
fmell during the extinction of the lime, are confequences
of its difengagement. Thefe obfervations fhew, that the
principles and compofition of lime are yet unknown, and
that we cannot, with any certainty, decide whether it is
the produft of an attenuation, or peculiar preparation of
tiie filiceous or aluminous earths; though that opinion
appears probable to lbme of the greateft naturalitts. It
feems indeed to be out of doubt, that it is formed by
marine animals ; that its conftituent parts are united
and combined in the water during the life of thefe orga¬
nic beings ; and that azot is one of its conftituent parts.
But it muft be confeffed, that this fketch is not ye: fuffi-
cient for the conviftion of modern philofophers, vho do
not form their opinions decidedly, unlels in confequence
cfrepeated and accurate experiments.
Lime is employed in a great number of arts, and efpe¬
cially in building. In medicine, diluted lime-water is
adminifterecl with fuccefs ; in the cure of ulcers, & c. it
has been cfteemed as a powerful lithontripfic ; but re¬
peated trials have fhewn, that it is not always attended
with the defired fuccefs ; and that its ufe, long continu¬
ed, produces an alteration in the animal fluids of a fcor-
butic or feptic nature.
Barytes. — This was firft called ponderous earth, terra
ponderofa , by Gulin anu Scheele, two Swedilh chemifts,
who found it to exiffc in ponderous fpar : but Bergman
gave it the name of barytes, from (3 Gr. heavy. It is
found always united with fulphuric and carbonic acids,
i
225
taking a blue or green colour from fire. On its nature
and properties we have been pretty full in the article Ba¬
rytes, in our fecond volume, page 767. The following
is the procefs of Fourtroy and Vauquelin for obtaining
k pure, by decompcfing nitrat of barytes by heat : Take
nitrat of barytes well cryftallized ; expofe it to the aftion
of fire in a porcelain retort, or rather in a crucible placed
upon burning coals. The nitrat melts, fwells, furniflies
much oxygen and azotic gas, but with hardly any nitrous
vapours ; when no more elaftic fluids are difengaged, there
will be found in the broken retort when coid, a grey mat¬
ter, folid, fomewhat porous, of a bitter tafte, and hotter
than quicklime : this is pure barytes.
This earth melts under the blow-pipe on a coal, boils
up, and forms globules, which foon penetrate the coal.
In the air it becomes turbid, breaks, burfts, fwells, heats,
and whitens ; melting thus rapidly, it abforbs o'zz of its
weight of water and carbonic acid. It turns fyrup of
violets of a green colour. It abforbs water with extreme
avidity, melts with a hilling noife like lime, heats con-
fiderably, folidifies the water, and forms compages like
beaten plafter, flicking hard upon glafs. A little water
changes it into a white powder. Covered entirely with
water, it diflolves wfith a violent biffing ; then cryftallizes
in tranfparent needles, which lie in heaps together, like
the molecules of plalhed mortar. Cold water dilTolves
one-twenty-fifth part of its weight; boiling water more
than half, depofiting, as it gets cold, beautiful tranfpa¬
rent prifms, which become turbid, and pulverize in the
air. A folution of barytes is fooner covered wfith a cruft
or pellicle by expofure to the air, and is more plentifully
precipitated, by carbonic acid, than lime-water is. Phoi-
phoric and phofphorus acids haften the folution of ba¬
rytes ; and the precipitates are re-diflblved by means of
the exceis of each refpefifive acid. With fulphuric and
fulphureous acid, it forms infoluble falts. It has been
endeavoured to combine barytes with iome other earths ;
but a per left vitrification has never yet been produced.
Strontian, or Strontites.— A great quantity of
this earth has lately been difcovered in France : M. Le-
lievre communicated to the national inftitutefat Paris,
that fulphat of ftrontian had been found in a clay-pit at
Bouvron, near Toul, in the department of La Meurthe.
M. Dolomieu at the fame time (hewed fome which he had
brought with him from Sicily ; and which, as well as the
preceding, had been analyzed by Vauquelin. The name
comes from Strontian , in Argylefhire, Scotland, where it
was firft found, united to carbonic acid in a fulfil called
gneis, in the lead-mines at that place.
Sulpnat of ftrontian is converted into a fulphure by
the help of charcoal, having previoufly feparated the car-
bonat of lime from it by means of an acid. Then the
fulphure is to be decompofed by nitric acid; and, by
heating this nitrat in a crucible, it is entirely decom¬
pofed, and the ftrontian remains pure. Expoled to the
air, it becomes turbid, and attracts the carbonic acid
from the atmofphere. It is foluble in water, and cryf¬
tallizes in cooling. It is foluble in 250 times its weight
of boiling water ; but of cold water it requires more. If
the lolution be expoled to the air, it becomes covered
with a pellicle like barytes, and forms carbonat of ftron¬
tian. The lame effefil is produced by letting air into the
folution with a blow-pipe.
This earth combines very well with acids ; and pro¬
duces falts, which will be examined hereafter. The Itron-
tian which js obtained by the decompofiticn of the ni¬
trat, combines very well with lome combuitible bodies,
as phofphorus, fulphur, and fulphurated hydrogen. Thele
combinations are produced in the lame manner as thole
with barytes, and poilels properties analogous to thole
combinations.
Of ALKALIS.
Alkalis are bodies either folid or liquid ; in tafte acrid,
caultic, and pungent or iixivial ; they are very foluble in
water ;
CHEMISTRY.
2H
water ; attraft the moifture'of the air ; give a green call to
blue vegetable colours; and unite Ilrongly with acids.
See Alkali, in our firft volume, p. 340. The known
alkalis are three in number , potajb, foda, and ammoniac.
Potash. — This fait has never been decompofed ; yet
there are many fafits which tend to (hew, that it is not a
Ample fubftance. It is of a' white colour, and extremely
sauftic, i.e. afting with great power upon animal fub-
fubliinces, diffolving them, decompoling them, and form¬
ing with them a kind of foap, feparating carbon, hydro¬
gen, and-azot, in the ammoniacal ftate. It is by burn¬
ing plants, which all contain a greater or lefs quantity
of potaih, that this fubftance is prepared, as we lhall ex¬
plain when we come to (peak of carbonat of potaih; at
prefent we have only to Ipeak of it in a ftate of purity.
The following is the rnoft Iimple procefs for obtaining
it pure.
The apparatus conftfts of feveral Ihallow troughs of
white wood ; put at the bottom fome river fand, which
muft be well wafhed ; over that lay another bed of fand
finer ft i 1 1 , and cover that with a cloth ftrewed with allies.
Make a hole at the bottom of the trough, and fix a glafs
tube to draw off the liquor as it filters. Things being thus
prepared, take equal parts of quicklime and potaih, if the
lime be very cauftic; if otherwife, put twenty parts of
lime to fifteen of potaih. Put water into an iron-pot;
when it is ready to boil, add the lime, which, as it (lakes,
caufes ebullition; when the lime is flaked, or killed, put
in the potaih, and make the mafs into the confiftency of
thick foup, which leave to cool a little, then pour the
mixture into troughs, and cover it with water immediate¬
ly ; to prevent the water from making holes in the mix¬
ture as it is poured in, lay a thin board which will rife
with the water. Veftels muft be placed, of courfe, to re¬
ceive the liquor which runs through the tube; and, in
order that the ley may not ablorb the carbonic acid con¬
tained in the atmofphere, thefe veflels Ihould be (lightly
clofed, fo as to hinder the circulation of the external air.
It is neceflary to keep water always upon the mixture;
and ceafe to collect it when it comes taftelefs through
the tube : but obferve that the fluid wiil become infipid
all at ’once, fo that the liquor obtained will be nearly dfi
the fame ftrengthat the end as at the beginning. Melt¬
ing-pots may be uled for evaporating the waters ; begin
with the weakeft, or laft runs, to avoid keeping the ftronger
ones too long in contadl with the air ; make a ftrong ebul¬
lition. When concentrated to a certain degree, the ful-
phat of potaih cryftallizes and is precipitated.
To obtain the' potaih cauftic, dry, in a folid mafs, pour
the concentrated liquor into a fmaller pot; then finilh
the evaporation to fuch a degree, that, as it drops on a
plate of iron or marble, it coagulates.
To purify this concrete potaih, put it into a bottle, or
jar, and pour over it very pure alcohol : the potaih only
will diflblve; the fulphat and muriat of potafh, the por¬
tions of earth, and even of carbonic acid, which it holds
fo Ilrongly, or which it has recovered from the air during
evaporation, remain at the bottom of the folution. Draw
off the clear liquor, put it into a retort, and diftil it. To
have it very pure, the folution muft be evaporated in a
filver-pan : it cryftallizes in cooling into white thin plates
fometimes four lines long. Inftead of leaving it to cryl-
tallize, it may be concreted to drynefs.
Potaih^ converts. the blue vegetable colours to a green.
It melts in a moderate heat ; in a very ftrong heat, fuch
as that of a glafs-houfe, it flies off in vapours. In con¬
tact with atmolpherical air, it foon liquefies, and attrafts
from it the, carbonic acid. In a ftate of purity, it makes
. no effervefcence with acids. It has, a great affinity for
water; it draws it from almoft all other bodies from which
It feparates a good deal of caloric.
Potafh combines very well with fulphur, forming a
combination which long went by the name of liver of
fulphur, but is how called fulphure. Thefe combinations
may be made either in the humid or the dry way. £0
the former method, boil the alkali and the fulphur toge¬
ther in water, but not in meta^ pots, for thele combina¬
tions a£l upon moll metals, and diffolve them more or
lefs. I11 the dry way, melt equal parts of the fulphur
and the alkali in an earthen crucibles ; the refult is a fo¬
lid mafs of a reddilh brown colour, refembiing the liver
of certain animals, whence thefe fulphures had formerly
the name of livers.
The fulphure of potaih is fufible ; it is foluble in
water, forming fulphurated hydrogen. This fulpimrated
hydrogen unites in great quantity with the alkaline bale,
making together a combination which Berthollet calls
hydro-J'ulphure. To obtain hydro-fulphure of potalli,
take potafh prepared with alcohol ; enfure a perfefit fatu-
ration, by letting the liquor take up an excels of lulphu-
rated hydrogen ; then drive off this excefs by heat. It
may be known what proportions of fulphurated hydrogen
are prefent in a fulphure, by precipitating, with the fo¬
lution, a folution of copper.
Alkaline fulphures, or combinations of fulphur with
an alkaline bale, can only exift in the dry ftate ; when
diffolved in water, fulphurated hydrogen is formed; Ber-
tholiet calls this combination of fulphur and fulphurated
hydrogen with a bale, by the name hydrogenated, fulphure.
Thus we have fulphures, hydro-fulphures, and" liy- '
drogenated fulphures: thefe cannot be confidered as in
a ftate of faturation of each of their rel’pective principles,
till the fuperabundant fulphur has been precipitated by
fulphurated hydrogen. See Berthollet’s Memcire, in the
Annales de Chimie, vol. xxv. p. 253. It is the more ne-
ceflary to point out the prefence of the fulphurated hy¬
drogen in the hydrogenated fulphure, as it is by means
of this that the fulphur remains united to the alkali and
to the water.
Sulphure of potalli, like all other fulphures, is de¬
compofed by the action of fire, which drives off the ful¬
phur, and fets the bale at liberty. They attraft the oxy¬
gen of the air. Acids decompofe them alfo, by attack¬
ing their bafes and precipitating the fulphur ; in this cafe,
fome fulphurated hydrogen gas is conlfantly produced,
whofe rapid difengagement produces an effervefcence
which is more or lefs brilk, according to the ftate of the
fulphures and the acids. If oxygenated muriatic acid
gas be palled through a folution of fulphure of potaih,
the fulphure is changed into a fulphat.
Potaih combines with filex in the dry way and abforbs
it in its fufion, forming a tranfparent body called giafs.
The glafs has different properties, according to the rela¬
tive quantities of fand and fixed alkali it contains. If
three or four parts of potaih be uled to one of filex, a
loft glafs is produced, which attracts the humidity of the
air, becomes opake, and at laft fluid. This glafs is folu¬
ble in water, by virtue of the fuperabundant alkali it
contains ; and the folution is called liquor of flints. To
prepare this liquid filiceous potaih, take one part of fand
reduced to powder, and four parts of potalli. Put thele
into a crucible, which is to be but half filled, and place the
crucible in a forge-furnace. When the matter begins to
melt, it fwells conliderably ; it continues turbid till the
alkali has diffolved all the filex ; keep the crucible open
as long as the effervefcence lafts; then cover the crucible,
increaie the fire fo as to make a complete fufion ; then
the contents of the crucible are to be poured into a very
dry iron mortar, or on an iron plate ; the matter con-
denfes as it cools into the form of glafs : this matter is
to be pulveriled and difioivedin water ; then it becomes
the liquor of flints. Acids decompofe it: they feize the
alkali, and precipitate the earth, called earth of flints. In
order that this precipitation may be well performed, the
liquor of flints muft not be too much diluted; for in this
cafe the particles of earth are in a ftate of fuch extreme
divifion, that they remain fufpended in the liquid, which
muft be evaporated -before any fenfible lubiidence can
take place. Several chemifts think that the earth of flints
is not fimilar to filiceous earth, and that it has been
changed
C H £ M I
dunged in confequence of its union with alkalis; they
imagine that it refembles aluminous earth, and is capa¬
ble of uniting with acids, and forming aluminous falts :
this was the opinion of Pott and Bauniej but Schecle
has fliown, that this foluble portion of the earth preci¬
pitated from the liquor of flints, is obtained from the
veffel of alumine in which the filiceous earth and alkali
are fufed. The fame experiments may be made with alu-
mine and potafli.
The exigence of potafn in the mineral kingdom has
of late been proved by accurate experiments. Klaproth,
in the analyiis of the fubftance which he terms leucit,
found that it formed about i-5th of that ftone. In the
lepidolite he obtained only 4-iooths. Vauquelin has^
fince fhown that potafli is contained in a large proportion
in the white Vefuvian garnet, and in the lava which
ferves as its matrix. He found alfo a fmall proportion of
this fubftance in zeolite from the Ferro Iflands ; and Dr.
Kennedy of Edinburgh has lately difcovered potafn in
an analyiis of the pumice-ftone.
Potafh has the property of feparating filex and alumine
from lime, when the fubftances happen to be found to¬
gether. The true- nature of potafli, however, ftill re¬
mains unknown. Only a few imp erf eft experiments have
as yet been made to decompoie it; and thefe in vain.
Analogy, however, would incline us to believe that it is
a compound body. Vegetable phyfiologifts are not
agreed whether this alkali be derived -from the foil in
which plants grow, whether it exifts uncombined with
anj' acid in plants, whether it be a produft of vegetation,
or whether it be not rather generated during the procefs
of combuftion. Thefe are queries highly neceflary to
fclve, and well deferring the attention of chemifts.
Pure Soda. — This alkali poffefles the ferae general
charafters as potafh ; and it is impoflible to diftinguifh
them when in a ftate of purity. It appears, however,
that cauftic l'oda attrafts the moifture of the air lei's pow¬
erfully, and is not fo quickly diffolved in water. It is
only by its efiefts in chemical combinations, and efpeci-
ally with 3cids, that potafh andfodacan be known apart.
Soda is produced from feveral fea plants by combuftion.
Solid cauftic foda, or cauterifing-ftone, is always found
mingled with other faline and terreftrial fubftances, from
which it muft be feparated ; fordoing which, the procel's
is the fame as already direfted for potafli. When pure,
its tafte is as ftrong as potafli ; it turns f'yrup of violets
green. It melts on the fire, and volatilizes in a violent
heat. It attrafts humidity from the air; is foluble in
water with caloric; combines well with fulpliur whence
refuits a fulphure. Hydro-fulphure of foda is produc¬
ed in the fame manner as that of potafli ; it combines in
the dry way with filex, and forms a kind of glafs. Glals-
m alters have obierved that this fait produces a more fu-
fible and folid glafs than potafh ; for which reafon they
prefer it in the manufaftute of that commodity : fo that
what we have faid relative to this art under the article
potafli, may be equally applied to foda. Like the potafn,
it combines with acids, and with a great number of bo¬
dies hereafter to be treated of. From thefe obfervations
it is evident, that the difference between the two fixed
alkalis, in a ftate of purity, is not very confiderable, an d
that their refpeftive properties can only be known with
certainty from th eir combinations. When united with
the fame acid, they produce neutral falts exceedingly
different in all their properties; a circumftance which
feems the more lingular, as it is abfolutely impoflible to
point out any difference between them in their pure and
cauftic ftate. Bergman adds, as a diliinguifhing proper¬
ty of thefe two falts, that their affinity with acids is not
the fame, that of the potafli being the ftronger ; fo that
it is capable of decompofing falts, whole bale is foda..
The intimate nature or compoiition of the foda, is not
more known than, that of the potafh. This fubftance,
however, in combination with carbonic acid, exifts in
confiderable quantity in various parts of the earth. In
VOL. IV. No. 131.
S T R Y. 225
this ftate it has been termed native mineral alkali. In
l'ome fituations it is depofited in beds under the furface
of the earth, as in China ; in others, at the bottom of
lakes, as in Hungary and Egypt. Efflorefcent cryftals of
mineral alkali, are often found on the infide of the wails
of houfes, in fulpterranean caverns, and on foils occa-
fionally overflowed by waters holding this fait in lolution.
The exiftence of this fubftance in mineral fprings has
been known for feveral years. Dr. Black found it un-
combined, as he conceived, in water brought to him
from the hot fprings in Iceland; but Klaproth, in an
analyfis which he has lately publifhed, affects that this mi¬
neral alkali is not free, but exifts in thefe waters in com¬
bination with carbonic acid. The fame ch^milt found
carbonat of foda in ccnfiderable quantity in tjie, mineral’
waters of Carlfbad. The fea and fait mines are, however,
the grand ref’ervoir in which this aikaii, united to the
muriatic acid, is contained. The variety of plants em¬
ployed for the purpofe of obtaining; foda, is very con¬
fiderable. In Spam this fubftance is procured from the
different lpecies of the f alfo l a falicortiia and bat is mariti-
ma. The xojlera r/iaritima is burnt in l'ome places on the-
borders of the Baltic, as is the anabafis aphjlla on thofe
of the Cafpian. In this country we burn the various
fpecies of fufi. Along with the falicortiia they burn alfo
the chenopodium maritimum in the fouth of P'rance. It is
deferving of notice, that fome plants, which in their na¬
tive foil yield only vegetable alkali, afford alfo the mine¬
ral, when they happen to grow in the neigbourhood of
the fea, or in lands occafionally wafhed with fea-water.
The native mineral alkali found in Egypt and Barbary,
is faid to be about fifty per cent, ftronger than common
foda. Mr. Kirwan confiders the cryftals of l'oda as a very
fit ftandard by which to try the ftrength of the other
kinds of mineral alkali, as the quantity of alkali in thefe
cryftals continues at all times very nearly the lame. See
Irijb Tranf. for 1790. A ready way to diftinguifh the
mineral from the vegetable alkali, is to drop a l'mall
quantity of the acid of fugar into a lolution of thefe fub¬
ftances in water. With the vegetable this acid will form
a very foluble fait; with the mineralone difficultly foluble.
The gradual decompofition of the muriat of foda by
lime, is one of thofe anomalous fails in chemiftry which
it is difficult' to explain. It forms an apparent deviation
from the laws of chemical affinity, for the muriat of lime
is decompcfed by the mineral alkali, either in its mild
or cauftic State. This experiment is the more valuable,
as it enables us to account for the prefence of mineral
alkali in many of thofe fituations in which it is now*
known to exiff.
In this country, various methods of obtaining mineral-
alkali are followed by different chemifts. Some of thefe
methods are carefully concealed, while others of them
are but very imperfeftly explained in the letters patent
which thofe who praftife them have obtained. In pre¬
paring this mineral alkali, on a large fcale, vre muft often
be direfted in the choice of our means by local circum-
ftances, by the nature and price of the materials that are
within our reach, and by the value and demand, not only
for the alkali itfelf, but alfo for the other ufeful fub*
fiances that may be procured in this interefting procefs;
for in this, as well as in every other mercantile concern,
calculations with regard to the expence, and the profits,
muft neceffarily form the bafis of every rational enterprife.
Ammoniac. — The name of ammoniac is given to the
fait known by the term volatile alkali. It is diftinguifh -
ed from the two foregoing by its ftrong and fuffocating
lhu 11, and its lingular volatility. Like the fixed alkalis,
this lalt was not known in its ftate of purity before the
ingenious-experiments of Black and Prieftiey : that which
was confidered as luch, is a fpecies of imperfect neutral
, fait, in a folid and cryftaliized form, pofleffing fome of
the properties of volatile alkali, but really compofed of
two faline fubftances, viz. carbonic acid, and ammoniac:
the charafteror property of effervefcing with acids, which
3 M was
226 * C H E M !
was formerly attributed to the volatile alkali, belongs
only to this neutral fait, of which we fhall afterwards treatr
The liquid known in chemical laboratories by the name
of cauftic, or fluor volatile alkali, and in pharmacy by
that of volatile fpirit of fal ammoniac, is not pure am¬
moniac ; it confifts of this alkali diffolved in water. Dr.
Prieftley has Ihewn, that, by the help of a gentle heat,
this liquor may be made to give out a permanent gas ;
and that the water deprived of this gas lofes its alkaline
properties'. This aeriform fluid is ammoniac, and is
known by the name of ammoniacal gas. Macquer has
well obferved, that this body mutt be examined, in order
to arrive at a knowledge of the properties of the volatile
alkali.
To obtain this elaftic fluid, a certain quantity of the
liquid ammoniac is put into a fmall retort, or matrafs of
glafs. A recurved tube is adapted to this veflel, and the
extremity of the tube is plunged beneath the mercury of
a pneumatic apparatus ; a veflel of glafs filled with the
fame metallic fluid being inverted over its orifice. The
bottom of the retort or matrafs is then heated, by means
of burning charcoal, or the flame of fpirit of wine. The
firft portion of elaitic fluid, confiding chiefly of the com¬
mon air contained in tile vcflel and tube, is differed to
efcape ; and when the ebullition of the fluid is llrong,
the gas is to be colledled. The dillillation mult not be
urged, fo as to caufe the water to pafs in the form of va¬
pour; or a fmall veflel fliouid be affixed in the middle of
the tube of communication, which, being kept cool,
may ferve to condenfe the aqueous vapour, and caufe
the ammoniacal gas to pafs in a very pure and dry Hate.
The gas obtained by this procefs refembles air in its
tranfparency and elalticity, as long as it is kept above
the mercury. It is rather lighter than the air of the at-
mofphere , its fmell is penetrating, and its tafte is acrid
and cauftic ; it readily and ftrongly changes the blue co¬
lour of violets, mallows, and radifhes, to a green ; but
the alteration produced is lefs than when pure alkalis are
ufed ; it deftroys animal life, and .corrodes the fkin, if
expol'ed for fome time to its aftion.
Though it is incapable of maintaining combuffion, and
extinguifhes bodies which are already on fire, yet it in-
creafes the magnitude of the flame of a taper before ex-
tinflion, producing a pale yellow colour round its edge,
which proves that alkaline gas is partly inflammable. At
.hit this light flame defcends from the top of the veflel
to the bottom ; if a lighted taper be only held to the
orifice of the veflel filled with ammoniacal gas, the yel-
low flame will rife more than an inch above thatof thetaper.
Ammoniacal gas is one of the elaftic fluids which are
the molt fufceptible of dilatation by heat. Atmofpheric
air does not combine with alkaline gas, but only mixes
with and dilutes it. Water quickly abforbs ammoniacal
gas. If the water be frozen, it immediately becomes
fluid, and produces cold ; whereas, on the contrary, fluid
water becomes heated by combination with this gas.
Water faturated with gas, or liquid ammoniac, is known
by the name of fluor and cauftic volatile alkali. We
fhall hereafter fee that the ftrongefl and moll pure volatile
alkali is produced by faturating diftilled water with this
gas. Liquid ammoniac has the fame properties as the gas
it holds in folution, but not in fo eminent a degree, be-
caufe the galeous being much lefs llrong than the .fluid
aggregation, the tendency to combine will, according to
one of our laws of affinity, be much more llrong in the
gas than in the ammoniac.
The fulphure of ammoniac is produced by a diililla-
,tion of a mixture of muriat of ammoniac, lime, and
fulphur : this is called the fuming or fmoking liquor of Boyle.
Mix in a marble mortar, three parts of lime flaked in
the air and fifted, one part of muriat of ammoniac, and
one half part of fublimed fulphur. Put the mixture
into an earthen retort, and adapt a receiver. Begin the
dillillation with a gentle fire : the firlt iiquor which pafies
over is of a light yellow colour, and fumes or fmokes ;
2,
S T R Y.
the fecond is of a deeper yellow, and is not fuming : then
increafe the fire till the retort is red-hot. According to
Berthollet, the fulphure of ammoniac owes its fuming
quality to an uncombined mixture of ammoniac ; it ap¬
pears that the ammoniac which does not enter into com¬
bination, evaporates while it holds in folution hydro-ful-
phure of ammoniac ; but in contatt with air it quits
this to combine with the air, which afterwards, if in
fufficient quantity, diffolves the very precipitate which
was juft formed. The fulphure of ammoniac may yet
diffolve, in thd cold Hate, a confiderable quantity of lul-
phur^ but in the fuming ftate,, that is, with an excefs of
ammoniac, it diffolves fulphur enough to faturate that
excels, and ceafes to fmoke. Sulphure of ammoniac fa¬
turated with fulphur, is of a dark colour and an oily
confluence ; fulphurated hydrogen precipitates no ful¬
phur even in that ftate ; upon the linaileft contafr of air
adding upon the hydrogen, it grows white, turbid, and
gives out fulphur.
Ammoniac alone will not attack fulphur; hence we
fee that it is by means alfo of fulphurated hydrogen that
the triple combination is formed ; that it ought to be
called hydrogenated fulphure of ammoniac ; and thats
while it is fuming; it is fulphurated hydrogen with an
excefs of ammoniac. Ammoniac unites with acids, and
forms falts, fome of which do not cryftaliize.
Experiments to demotjlrate the Nature of Ammoniac. — •
i. Mix two parts of oxygenated muriatic acid gas, with
one part by meafure of ammoniacal gas, in a veflel over
mercury. When thefe come in contaft, a llrong deto¬
nation is produced, accompanied by a yellow flame : the
two gafes are fo diminifhed in volume, that fcarcely a
third part remains ; a folid matter is formed which ad¬
heres to the fides of the veflel ; this is muriat of ammo¬
niac. The gas which remains has neither the fmell of
ammoniac, nor the colour of muriatic acid ; it no longer
diffolves in water, nor maintains combuftion; it is there¬
fore real azotic gas. It is alfo obferved, that there is a
clear tranfparent liquid condenfed on the fides of the vefi-
fel, which is nothing but water, with a certain quantity
of muriatof ammoniac in folution.
2. Through fome ammoniac, liquid or diffolved in wa¬
ter, pafs fome oxygenated muriatic acid gas : there will
immediately be produced, in the midll of the liquor, a
multitude of little bubbles of elaftic fluid, which rife to
thefurface, and are collected into a jar filled with water
by means of a tube communicating with the bottle which
contains fhe ammoniac. This gas is perfeflly fimilar to
that which remained in the preceding experiment.
3. Fill a long glafs tube three parts full of oxygenated
muriatic acid ; fill it up with liquid ammoniac, and in¬
vert it in a faucer or bowl full of water : the ammoniac,
by its lightnefs, pafies through the oxygenated muriatic
acid, but produces a rapid eftervefcence ; the elaftic fluid
which occafions it colledls in, the upper part of the tube,
and part of it fpreads in the bowl. The gas or produdt
is the fame as the preceding.
4. Pafs ammoniacal gas over oxyd of manganefe in pow¬
der, and made red-hot in a porcelain tube, communi¬
cating by a tube with an empty bottle plunged into ice ;
red vapours in abundance are prefently produced, to
which white vapours fucceed, which condenfe inlide the
bottle into a white tranfparent liquid, with a faline pun¬
gent fmell : diftil this liquid to drynel's in a gentle heat;
the produdl is infipid^ and without any fenfible odour :
it is water. What remains in the retort is of a white
colour; it is fufible over coals, and produces vapours of
nitric acid with the addition of fulphuric acid, and of
ammoniac with lime therefore it is nitrat of ammo¬
niac. The black oxyd of manganefe has changed its co¬
lour ; it is now of a pale brown, no longer producing
oxygen gas by the a<5lion of fire.
It is plain that in thefe experiments the ammoniac is
decompofed,; that in the three firft, one of its principles
only, the azot, being fet at liberty, is difengaged in the
form
I
227
C H E M I
form of gas, and that the oxygenated muriatic acid lofes
its oxygen, fince it forms common muriat of ammoniac;
that, in the fourth, nitric acid and water are produced,
and that the oxyd of manganefe is difoxygenated, fince
it no longer furnifhes oxygen gas with the help of fire.
Hence it is very eafy to conceive, that ammoniac is com-
poled of hydrogen and azot. Ammoniac may alf'o be
decompofed by the oxyd of copper ; in this cafe the me¬
tallic oxyd is received by means of the ammoniac: this
Berthollet has proved, with this oxyd combined with
ammoniac, and heated in the pneumatic apparatus.
To this analyfis of ammoniac we may join fynthefis,
by decompofing fimultaneoufly, or at the fame time, ac¬
cording to Guyton’s procefs, nitric acid and water,
with the help of tin, zink, &c. then nitrat of ammoniac
is formed which refults from the re-union of the azot
of nitric acid, decompofed with the hydrogen of the wa¬
ter, equally decompofed by the metals. But ammoniac
will never be fet free by this operation, becaufe, as fall
as it is formed, it unites to the portion of nitric acid not
yet decompofed, and even flops its decompofition. Prielt-
ley has difeervered, that the eleftric fpark palling through
smmoniacal gas, increafes its volume to three times its
former quantity, and changes it into hydrogen gas.
The caufe of this change is not yet well known. It ap¬
pears only that the alkali is decompofed in this experi¬
ment, and that its two component parts are feparated,
and put into the Hate of elaftic fluidity.
The experiments of Berthollet, as well as thofe of
Prieltley, have proved that four meafures of ammoni-
acal gas contained 2-9 of hydrogen gas and ri of azotic
gas; or, taking the weights of thefe two fluids, that of
the azotic gas contained in the alkali will be to that of
the hydrogen gas in the proportion of izi to 29.
For the purpofes of commerce and medicine, volatile
alkali is prepared only from the animal kingdom. Being
obtained by dillillation from the horns of animals, it has
been long known in the (hops by the name of fpirit of
hartfhorn. In this ftate it is very impure, containing
fome oil and much carbonic acid. In order to obtain it
free from thefe fubHances, it is necelfary to diffolve it in
muriatic acid, and afterwards to difengage it from this
combination by the addition of a fixed alkali, or of lime.
Two parts of burnt lime, and one of the caultic alkaline
fait, are the proportions to be added to one part of the
muriat of ammoniac. This mixture is introduced into a
retort, to which a feries of receivers, containing pure
diftilled water, is to be adapted. The flighted heat is fuf-
ficie'nt to difengage it in the ftate of gas. This gas paffes
over into the receivers, combines with the water and fa-
turates it. The quantity of gas which the water can ab-
forb has not yet been accurately afeertained. In this
ftate it is preferved in the Amps under the name of caultic
volatile alkali, or fpirit of fal ammoniac with quicklime.
Ammoniac, diluted with water, is ufed in a great
number of diforders ; it is aperient, and powerfully in-
cifive. It a£ts ftrongly on the lkin ; it is preferibed as a
remedy for the bite of vipers, and for cutaneous and ve¬
nereal diforders, See. As this lubllance is acrid and
caultic, it ought not to be ufed but with particular care.
Externally applied, it is found exceedingly ferviceable in
difeufling tumours, efpecially fuch as are formed by
coagulated milk, lymph, &c. It readily cures burns,
and is often and fuccefsfully employed in the cure of
chilblains. It has been conftantly ufed under different
names, as a very aftive ltimulant in fyncopes, apoplexies.
Sec. Its life, in the latter cafe, ought to be in very mo¬
derate quantities ; it is not prudent to adminiiter it in¬
ternally, without previous dilution in a confiderable
quantity of water. Dangerous excoriations have been
produced in the cefophagus, and the membranes of the
llomach, by the volatile alkali being given without this
precaution. See the article Ammoniac, in our firit vo¬
lume, p„ ^78,
S T R Y.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SULPIIATS.
Sulphats are bitter ; fome are foluble, fome not. They
melt and volatilize by the adtion of heat, but are not de¬
compofed. All are decompofed by charcoal, forming
fulphures, and carbonic acid. They all precipitate io-
lutions of barytes. There are three fiinple rules for
knowing a fulphat in diffolution in water : 1 . By barytes.
2. With the blow-pipe- a fulphure is formed. 3. Alco¬
hol precipitates immediately. all the folutions of fulpliats,
and in a cryftallized form. The order of attraction of
the bafes for fulphuric acid, is as follows : barytes, pot-'
alh, foda, ftrOntian, lime, ammoniac, magnefia, glucine,
alumine, and zircone,
S ul ph at of Barytes.— The barytic fulphat has
long been regarded as a ftone ; it was called ponderous
earth, and ponderous fpar. It is found in large quantities
mixed with alumine, and the metallic ores ; it is cryftal¬
lized in rhombs or fix-fided prifins; it is often white,
femi-tranfparent, grey, opaque, green, yellow, Sec. and is
frequently found with fulphure of iron. It has neither
tafte nor folubility ; its weight varies according to its
texture, or the foreign bodies it contains. By fire it loies
its water of cryftallization ; but can only be melted by a
violent heat, fuch as that of the porcelain furnace, Sec.
then it foftens and runs, but never in a liquid form ; it
melts in globules with the blow-pipe.
. Take fulphat of barytes in powder; mix with it one
eighth of its weight of charcoal ; heat the -whole in a cru¬
cible ; the produdl is a fulphure of barytes, which is to
be cryftallized : then reduce the cryftals to powder, and
pour over it nitric or muriatic acid : a nitrat or muriat
of barytes is formed, which is to be decompofed with
carbonat of potafh, the acid of which is driven oft' by
heat, or by a mixture of charcoal. When the nitric
acid is poured over the fulphure of barytes, water is de-
compoled; fulpliurated hydrogen gas and nitrous gas are
difengaged. The fulphur is almoll always mixed with
charcoal in precipitation : to be certain that the.decom-
pofition is complete, put an excefs of the acid.
In preparing the fulphure of barytes, fulphurated hy¬
drogen is formed in a much larger proportion than in the
other fulphures ; this arifes principally from the ftrong
tendency which barytes has for combining with fulphuric
acid, and from this arifes the brifle odour which is pro¬
duced in the decompofition of this fulphure more thaii
in others. Hence is feen the reafon why, when we dil-
folve a liilphure of barytes, a confiderable portion of
fulphat of barytes remains, but it is a regenerated fulphat.
The barytic fulphure is diftinguifhed by particular
characters which deferve confideration. If a frefh folu-
tion of barytic fulphure be evaporated, a confufed but
plentiful cryftallization is produced. Strain quickly the
cryftallized part, andprefs it in paper which may imbibe
the moifture, a white cryltalline l'ubftance is produced,
which is liydro-fulphure of baiytes ; the liquor which is
feparated is fulphure of barytes, and contains, like all
the diffolved fulphures, a confiderable portion of fulphu¬
rated hydrogen.
The barytic fulphure, as well as the fulphat, if taken
into the dark after it has been heated rather ltrongly,
exhibits a vivid blueifti light. Lenifry fays, that~an
Italian fhoemaker, named Vincenzo Cafciarolo, firit dif-
covered the phofphoric light of the Bologna ftone. It
is now however known, that this property is common to
all the varieties of barytic fulphat. The procefs confifls
in heating them red-hot in a crucible, reducing them to
powder in a glafs mortar, and forming the fame into a
palte, with a fmall quantity of mucilage of gum traga-
canth, in pieces of the thicknefs of the blade of a knife.
Thele being dried, are ftrongly calcined by placing them
in the middle of the coals of a furnace which draws well.
When the coal is all confumed, and the furnace grown
cold, the pieces are cleanfed from the allies by means of
„ a bel-
22
8 C H E M
a bellows. If thefe be expofed to the light for a few
minutes, and afterwards carried into an obfcure place,
they fhine like a burning coal. They even fhine when
immerfed in water. They lole this property by degrees,
but recover it on being again heated. Maby other fub¬
ftances likewife exhibit this appearance. Magnefia,
chalk, calcareous 1'ulph'at, and fluat, &c. become lumi¬
nous after having been heated. Macquer obferVed the
lame property in earth of alum, fulphat of potaffi, Bri-
ancon chalk, black flint calcined ; which proves, that the
prelence of an acid is not abfolutely neceflary tor the pro-
dufiticn of this phenomenon, though it feerns in fome
refpefit to contribute to its intenfity.
This fait isperfeftly infoluble in water, and is not afit-
ed on by eatths or falino-terreftrial fubftances. Pure
fixed alkalis do not decompofe it. This l.aft is one of its
moft fin gtflar properties. In faff, the other earthy and
lalino-terrelt rial fubftances have lefs affinity than fixed
alkalis to the fulphuric acid ; but barytes on the contra¬
ry, has more. Whence we have obi’erved, after Berg¬
man, that this earth decompofes the fulphats of potafli
and foda, as it does likewife fait containing ammoniac.
Mineral acids have no afition on fulphat of barytes, be-
caufe the fulphuric acid adheres more ftrongly than any
other to the earth, which forms the bafe ot this falf.
Neither do neutral falts produce any. change in it, if we
except the carbonats of potafh and ioda, which produce
a decompofition by double affinity. The barytes is fepa-
rated from the fulphuric acid, becaufe it is attacked by
the carbonic acid, at the fame time that one of the alka¬
lis feizes the former acid. To produce this decompofi¬
tion, a mixture of two parts of carbonat of potafh, and
one part of fulphat of barytes reduced to powder, are
ftrongly heated in a crucible. The matter which is femi-
vitrified is to be waflied in diddled water ; and the li¬
quid, after filtration and evaporation, affords fulphat of
potafli : the fubftance which remains on the filtre is car¬
bonat of barytes; which, when well wafhed, is in the
form of a very white and fine pulverulent matter, but ufu-
aily impure, becaufe it always contains a portion of ful¬
phat of barytes, which has efcaped the decompofition.
In the preparation of pure barytic earth, Vauquelin
prefers the nitric to the muriatic acid. The nitrat of
barytes is afterwards decompofed by expofure to the fire.
If the earth obtained in this manner be ufed for the pre¬
paration of the muriat of barytes, it is better not to add
to it di refit ly the muriatic acid, ‘but rather to decompofe
by it the muriat ‘of foda. The muriat of barytes' will
crydadize, and leave the alkali in a date of caudicity.
The alkali may be cryftallized, by adding to it carbonic
acid. See "Jcwn dePbyf. 1794-
Sulphat of barytes is not applied to any confiderable
ufe. Phofphoric cakes are prepared of this fubltance,
and- the ponderous earth is extracted for chemical experi¬
ments. Dr. Withering, in the Philofophical Tranfafifions
for 1784., points out a valuable chemical purpofe, to which
..the barytic muriat may be applied ; namely, the purifica¬
tion of the marine acid from the admixture of fulphuric
acid, by which it is often adulterated. The lolution of
this fait caufes the fulphuric acid to fad to the bottom,
together with the earth, in the form of ponderous fpar.
Sulphat of Potash. — This -fubftance exifts in cer¬
tain vegetables, whence it is extrafited by burning them
to allies. The afhes of fome vegetables contain it in
great abundance, efnecially thofe which grow at a dif-
tance from the fea; for thofe hear the lalt water rather
contain fulphat of foda. Some of the falts met with in
commerce contain half their weight of fulphat of potaffi.
This fait has formerly borne different names, as <vitri-
olated tartar, fe.l de duobus, arcanum duplication, and poly-
chref} fait.
To prepare this fait, put into an earthen or done pan,
four parts of potaffi which didblve in twelve parts of
hot water s pour on by degrees fulphuric acid acidulated ;
a. brilk efterve cence is produced if the potafli of com-
I S T R Y.
merce be ufed, for with pure potaffi there will be wone.
Then continue to pour on the acid till the liquor has no
longer an alkaline nor acid tade, or till it will not change
the colour of paper dained with turnfcle : this is what
is called the point of fiitu ration ; drain the liquor, and
evaporate it to a thin pellicle., It crydallizes in coding
into a lalt of a folid eighteen-fided ffiape, terminated at
each extremity by a fix-dded pyramid.'
Sulphat of potaffi has a difagreeable bitter tade. It is
not much altered by the afition of heat ; when thrown oh
fed-het coals, it flies into a number of finall fragments,
attended with noiie ; this phenomenon, called decrepi¬
tation, depends on the ludden rarefaction of the water
contained in its crydals. It loles none of its effential pro¬
perties by this decrepitation. It decrepitates in the lame
manner, and becomes dry, friable, and even pulverulent,
by the lofs of its water, when expofed to the afition of
heat in a crucible. It becomes red-hot before it melts,
and is not fufed but by the application of a confideralile
degree of heat. The melted mafs, when differed to
cool, is opaque, and not at all changed in its principles;
for folution in water reftores its cryftalline and tranfpa-
rent appearance. If it be kept in ftrong fulion, in an
open veil'd, it is volatilized without decompofition. The
reafon why the melted fulphat becomes opaque in cool¬
ing, aspnentioned above, is becaufe, when a (alt is dif-
folved in water, or by fire, its molecules or elementary
particles being divided and feparated, the light goes
through it; but, as the mafs grows cold, they concen¬
trate, or draw clofe together, lb that the light can 110
longer penetrate, all is dark.
Sulphat of poiaffi is not changed by expofure to the
air. It may be decompofed by charcoal. Expofe equal
parts of charcoal and fulphat of potaffi to a llrong heat
in a crucible, and fulphure of potaffi is the produfit;
the charcoal abforbs the oxygen of the fulphuric acid,
aud is difengaged in the date of. carbonic acid gas.
Thus, in the arts, may fulphat of potalh be changed in¬
to a fulphure with the help of charcoal ; and afterwards,
decornpofing this fulphure by means of lime, an infolu¬
ble fulphure of lime is produced, and the potalh is let
free.
This fait is foluble in fixteen parts of water, fome fay
eighteen, at the temperature of 150 of Reaumur; but
boiling water will diffolve near one fourth of its weight 5
it crylbillizes in cooling, provided the water be perfefitly
faturated with it; otherwise it is neceflary to recur to
evaporation. It is partly decompofed by nitric acid:
put into a glafs/etort equal parts of fulphat of potafli in
powder, and nitric afid, at 34.0. Adapt a recipient, and
place the retort in a fand-lieat, and diftil. Or, put the
mixture into a matrafs, and heat it till the fait be dif-
folved ; pour the liquor into a glafs veffel ; in cooling it
furniffies cryftals of nitre ; ftill all the fulphat is not de¬
compofed, acid fulphat of potaffi may yet be obtained.
Muriatic acid works the fame effefit.
Of all terreftrial fubftances, only barytes decompofes
this fait; which happens, according to Bergman, be¬
caufe it lias a ftronger affinity than potafli to the fulphuric
acid. If a finall quantity of this earth be added to a fo¬
lution of fulphat of potalh, a precipitate is formed, con¬
fiding of fulphat of barytes or ponderous fpar, which is
perfefitly infoluble ; the potafli, in its caultic and pure
llate, remains difl'olved in the liquid.
Sulphat of potafh is not ufed, except in medicine; it
is a good purgative, and is fometimes given alone, in
the dole of half an ounce or an ounce. It is moft com¬
monly adminiftered in a dofe of one or two drachms, to¬
gether with other purgative medicines. It is likewife-
ufed as a folvent in chronical diforders, and efpecially
in coagulations of the milk; it is then given in dofes of
a few' drachms, in proper liquids; but its virtue, in this
refpefit, is interior to that of many other more foluble
and lefs naufeous falts.
Acid Sulphat of Pate/h.— Sulphat of potafli has the pro¬
perty
C H E M I
*>erty of loading Itfelfwith a greater quantity of fulphuric
acid than is neceflary to conflitute a fulphat. If ful¬
phuric acid be diddled, and concentrated over fulphat
of potath, this 1 all is impregnated with the acid, and ac¬
quires frelh properties. It reddens tindlure of violets ;
it cryftallizes climbing up the lides of the vellels in
needles; it has been laid that they always creep towards
the enlightened fide of the vellels. Its tafte is very lharp,
pungent, and bitter. It makes an effervefcence with al¬
kalis faturated with carbonic acid. It melts by fire much
eafier than fulphat of potalh ; and produces a kind of
glafs, or white opaque enamel, of a very acid flavour.
It is much more foluble in water than neutral fulphat of
potafh : by adding fugar to the folution, an imitation of
a kind of laxative lemonade is produced.
Sulphat of Soda. — This fait is more abundant in
nature than fulphat of potafh; it is found plentifully in
fea-water, in fait fprings, and in feveral mineral waters
in Lorraine. It has been till now named Glauber's fait ,
from the name of a German chemifl who difeovered it.
To obtain it very pure, put cryllals of foda or carbonat
of foda into a flone veflel : diffolve it in a fufficient quan¬
tity of warm water; pour into the folution, by little and
little, weakened fulphuric acid a brilk effervefcence is
produced, which arifes from the difengagement of the
carbonic acid; continue to pour on the acid till the ef¬
fervefcence ceafes, and till the mixture is perfedlly fatu¬
rated as remarked under fulphat of potafh. Strain the
liquor, and evaporate. When left to cool, it affords
cryllals fo much the more beautiful in proportion as the
quantity of matter is larger, and the cooling more (low
and gradual. When the operation is performed in the
large way, fix-fided flriated prifms are often obtained, of
feveral inches in length, terminated by a dihedral pyra¬
mid or roof. In the formation of its cryllals, this fait
admits more than one half its weight of water. It has a
bitter faltifh tafte.
Fonrcroy diftinguifhes two kinds of fufion of which fa-
line matters are capable. The firft, called the aqueous
fufion, is produced by the water which enters into the
formation of their cryllals. It obtains only in fetch lalts
as are more foluble in hot than in cold water ; whence it
follows, as a confequence, that the water, which enters
into the formation of the cryllals, by being fo heated, is
rendered capable of diffolving the faline matter. The
aqueous fufion is therefore merely a folution in hot wa¬
ter. The fulphat of foda, therefore, after this fufion,
affumes a concrete form by cooling; but, if the heat be
urged, it becomes dry and white, and another fufion en-
fues, which is called the igneous fufion, becaufe produced
merely by the fire. Sulphat of potafh appears to be as
difficult to melt as fulphat of foda; and, like that fait,
is volatilized by a violent heat, without fuffering any al¬
teration in its principles.
After the ef'eape of the large quantity of water con¬
tained in the cryllals of fulphat of potafh, it becomes
converted into a fine white powder by expofure to the air.
This phenomenon is termed efflorefcence, becaufe the pul¬
verulent down of the cryllals refembles, in whitenefsand
form, thole matters which are obtained in chemiflry un¬
der the improper name of flowers. As this fait falls into
powder when in contadlwith air, merely from thelofs of
its water of cryllallization, the efflorefcence proceeds
more rapidly when the air is very dry, and confequently
greedy of moiflure. The phenomenon of efflorefcence is
therefore very analogous to the drying of this fait by
heat, both depending fimply on the evaporation of the
water, which is a eonllituent part of the cryllals. But,
as the water which enters into the cryllals of fulphat of
foda, and, in general, of every other efflorefeent fait, is
truly combined, the efflorefcence appears to take place by
virtue of a kind of eledtive attradlion between air and wa¬
ter, which is greater than between water and the faline
matter. The fulphat of foda lofes near half its weight
by efflorefcence, but its properties may all be rellored,
Vol. IV. No. 152.
S T R Y. 229
together with its cryflalline form, by the addition of the
water it had loft. Though no medical author has attend¬
ed to this circumftance, it is certainly of confequence to
-afeertain the quantity of water which the fulphat of l'oda
lofes by efflorefcence, that the dofe of the fait preferibed
may be alwavs of the fame ftrength. It fhould be given
with a dedudli'on of about one third of its weight when
in efflorefcence, compared with the fame weight in tine
tranfparent cryllals.
The lulphat of foda may be decompofed by charcoal,
phofphorus, &c. in the fame manner as fulphat of potafh:
but: it mull be underflood that this decompofition takes
place, not becaufe thefe Jubilances take away the fulphu¬
ric acid, but becaufe they feize upon the oxygen of the
bafe ; now, as oxygen is a diftant principle, while the
foda and the acid are the intimate principles : thu,s the
combuftibles a<5l only upon one of the diftant principles,
and a l'ulphure is obtained. If then we decompofe this
lulphure by the aid of carbonic acid, a fait is produced,
which, being calcined, gives pure foda. This is the
mode which has been propofed for diffolving fulphat of
foda ; but charcoal alone is not fufficient ; a calcareous
carbonat mull be added ; in this cafe the lime abforbs
the fulphur : 1000 parts of fulphat of foda, 500 of char¬
coal, and 1000 of calcareous carbonat, will be fufficient;
Sulphure of lime and carbonat of foda are produced,
which may be feparated by ley-wafhirig. Scbeele ob-
ferved, that, by mixing quicklime in a folution of foda,
and leaving the mixture expofed to the air, carbonat of
foda was formed, which cryftalljzed creeping up the fide*
of the veflel. The lame effedl takes place with muriat
of foda.
Sulphat of foda quickly diffolves in water, and makes
it colder; this arifes from the fulphat abforbing a quan¬
tity of caloric before it will liquefy. At 10° of heat,
water diffolves but one-fifth of its weight ; but boiling-
water will diffolve almoft its own weight of this fait.
Mixed with twice its weight of ice, it produces 20 of
cold, the temperature being at the freezing point.
The fulphat of foda has no more action on liliceous
and aluminous earths, than fulphat of potafh, and does
not enter into the formation of glafs. Barytes is the only
earth which decompofes this fait; but the falino-terref-
trial matters have no adtion whatever upon it. Pure and
cauftic potafh, mixed with a folution of fulphat of foda,
decompofes it, becaufe of the flronger affinity of that
alkali to the fulphuric acid. To fhew this fail, cauitic
potafh mult be poured into a hot and faturated folution
of fulphat of foda. This folution, which would have af¬
forded cryllals of this latter fait by cooling, affords oniy
fulphat of potafh by evaporation, and the mother-water
contains the cauftic foda. All the properties in which
fulphat of foda, differs front fulphat of potafh, fhew that
the two fixed alkalis, which perfedtly refemble each other
when confidered in a Irate of purity, are certainly dif¬
ferent, fince they form very different falts with the fame
acids. The proportion of the component principles is
likewife very different in the two falts we have compared
together, a centenary of fulphat of foda containing, as
Bergman finds, fifteen parts of foda, twenty-feven parts
of lulphuric acid, and fifty-eight of water. This fait is
not employed in the arts, but is much ufed-in medicine ;
it is given as a cathartic medicine, from half a drachm
to an ounce and a half, according to circumftaiices. Its
effedls are more confiderable and fpeedy than thole of
fulphat of potafh, becaufe it is more foluble in the fluids’
of the animal economy, and becaufe its tafte is more
penetrating.
Sulphat of Strontian. — This fulphat has been
but lately known ; the flrontian was found in the (fate
of an earthy carbonat in the. places mentioned under
Jlrontiav, along with a vein of lead-ore. From the ex¬
periments of Vauqueiin, native fulphat of flrontian is
compoled of ten parts of carbonat of lime, five of water,
and eighty-five of fulphat of flrontian, in one hundred.
3 N And
And the fulphat itfelf of fifty-four parts in one hundred
of ftrontian earth, and foifty-nx of 1'ulphuric acid. This
fulphat is inlipid, infoluble, very white when pure, cryf-
tallized, and heavy.
Charcoal decompofes fulphat of ftrontian, but the car-
bonat of lime mult firft be feparated by an acid; nitric
acid is commonly tiled; waflt the infoluble part in this
acid, and treat it with charcoal as directed for fulphat of
barytes. Thus a fulphure of ftrontian is obtained, which
may he decompofed by the nitric acid; and then nitiat
of ftrontian is produced. To have pure ftrontian, heat this
nitrat in a retort, or rather in a crucible ; the nitric acid
is decompofed and thrown off, and the ftrontian remains
pure. This fait, when formed by art, exilts in the form of
a white powder. It has no tafte, and very little folubility
in water. Of one grain boiled for fome minutes in four
ounces of diftilled water, only half a grain was dilfolved.
The folution became turbid, by the addition of the car-
bpnat of pot&Qi, and muriat of barytes. Sulphuric acid,
when aided by heat, readily diffolves it. An eftufion of
water, however, caufes the acid to part with the fulphat
of ftrontian.
Sulphat of Lime. — This fait exifts in large quanti¬
ties in nature: it is termed felenite , plafter, and gypfum ;
but ought to be denominated, as Fourcroy remarks, cal¬
careous fulphat . .There are nine varieties of fulphat of
lime d:. Laminated by that author, as follow: i. Sulphat
of lime, or felenite in rhomboidal laminae. 2. Sulphat of
lime, or cuneiform felenite, or of the figure of arrow¬
heads. It confilts of two fcalene triangles, joined in, the
middle, each being c Graph fed of triangular laminae, ac¬
cording to the observation of De la Hire. It is called
lapis fpecularis , ajj'es mirror , or talc of Mdntmcirtre . Thele
two firft varieties are fragments of large cryitals, and are
formed by the hand of man. They are mentioned here
only as being fpecimens for the cabinet. 3. Sulphat of
lime, or felenite in decahedral rhomboids. The quarries
of Palfy afford this fort. 4. Sulphat of lime, or lelenite
in decahedral prilins. It is formed of hexahedral prifms,
terminated by dihedral pyramids, or by a concave angle ;
it is found in Switzerland, & c. and refembles much the
preceding variety. 5. Sulphat of lime, or felenite in
cock's combs from Montmartre. It conlifts of a collec¬
tion of small lenticular cryitals, placed obliquely befide
eacii other, and is formed by the union of the cryitals
delcribed No. 2. 6. Sulphat of lime, or fiiky or ftriated
felenite; fiiky gypfum of China. It is found in Franche
Comte, Angoumois, See. It is formed by the union of
flender prifms, which are molt commonly brilliant, and
of the appearance of latin. It is very difficult to obferve
the rhomboidal lamina:, which are found in all the other
.varieties. 7. Sulphat of lime, or common gyplum, or
piaftcr-ltone. This fubftance is white, more or lefs in¬
clining to grey, interfperfed with final! brilliant cryitals,
eafily cut with a knife. It is found difpofed in ftrata,
and forms molt of the mountains in the vicinity of Paris.
We Ihall hereafter find, that it is not pure felenite, but
owes its moft valuable property, as plafter, to the admix¬
ture of another kind of earth. 8. Sulphat of lime, or
gypfeous alabafter. This is a kind of plalter-ltone, harder
and more ancient than the foregoing, from which it dif¬
fers only in being femi-tranfparent, of a yellowilh grey,
and in its laminated form or Itrudture apparently con-
filling of final 1 plates. It is found in great plenty at
Lagny, near Paris. This is one of the whiteft kinds ;
but it has fometimes yellowy grey, violet, or black, ipots
or veins. 9. Sulphat of lime, or felenite, common gyp¬
fum, or gypfeous alabafter, varioully coloured, veined,
fpotted, clouded, or pundiuated. This mixture of co-
.lour fnews, that the lelenite is contaminated by fome
foreign fubftance. The colours are almOft always occa-
fioned by iron. Calcareous fulphat is likewile found
dilfolved in waters, as in the well-waters of Paris; it is
never pure*, but is always combined with fome other
earthy fait, with bafe of lime or magnefia. This fait has
I S T R Y.
no apparent degree of tafte. Icdecrepitates if a fudden
heat be applied to it; it is then of an opaque white, in
which Hate it is called fine plafier, or plafter of Paris ;
by this calcination it loles about twenty in one hundred.
It is not decorr.pofable by the contact of the air ; it lofes,
however, lome of its tranfparency, becomes tarnilhed
with various colours, and fplits or feales off". Moifture
waftes it away. It requires feventy or feVenty-two parts
of water to dilYolve one of fulphat of lime. After the
dilToiution, the water is heavier, of an infipid tafte, and
heavy on the ftomach. The well-water of Paris holds
it in folution; for, when left to fettle, fulphat of lime
is depofited in very fmall cryitals, or in a grey pow¬
der. Vegetables become hard by being boiled in this
kind of water. The experiment is eafily tried by boiling
an equal quantity of fome vegetable, French beans for
inftance, for an equal time, in equal quantities of water
loaded with this fait, and of pure water.
Charcoal decompofes fulphat of lime ; and, if the plaf¬
ter is not very dry, carbonated hydrogen gas is produced
alio. Take an earthen retort; put therein one part of
charcoal to feven of plafter ; fix to the retort a bent tube,
which is' to go under a jar in the pneumatic ciftern. The
fulphat of lime falls to the Hate of a fulphure, which is
found in the retort ; and under the jar is obtained car¬
bonic acid gas, and carbonated hydrogen gas. The ful¬
phure of lime contains lei's fulphurated hydrogen than
that of potafli ; and it is laid, that by ufing fulphure of
lime, initead of alkali, at the Irifh bleach-fields, on the
fuggeftion of Dr. Higgins, there will be effe&ed a diredt
faving to the amount of 102,653b 5s. per annum.
To prepare hydro-fulphure of lime, temper fome lime
with diftilled water, and impregnate it with water charged
with fulphurated hydrogen : leparate the liquor, and fu-
perfaturate it with fulphurated hydrogen gas. Barytes,
ftrontian, and the fixed alkalis, have more affinity with
the fulphuric acid than lime has: by pouring a folution
of thele fubftances into water charged with fulphat of
lime, a precipitate is formed. If impure fulphat of lime
be left in digellion with muriatic acid, the fulphat is
precipitated in cryitals, and the lime is dilfolved in the
liquor. In calcining plafter for buildings with wood,
the flame pafl'es, through it ; at the fame time a fimali
portion of fulphure of lime is produced; and, if water
be poured on this frelh-burnt plafter, a ftrong fmell of
fulphur arifes. But burnt plafter is not pure ; fome quick¬
lime is contained in it, which, abforbing the water poured
on it, caufes heat; this heat arifes alfo from the caloric
of the folidified water which is difengaged during cryl-
tallization. ■ > -
If an acid be poured upon pure plafter, there is no ef-
fervefcence; but with plalter-ltone there is eftervefcence,
becaufe the carbonic acid of the carbonat of lime is there¬
by diflipated. Burnt plafter kept a long time, effervefees
with an acid, becaufe the lime which it contains has had
time to recover the carbonic acid, which it had loft by
diftillatlon ; fo that, to keep it pure, it Ihould be kept as
much as pofiibie from contadl with the air. If calcined
plafter be moiltened, it recovers irs water of cryftalliza-
tion, which it folidifies. It hardens alfo, 1. Becaufe the
fulphat of lime cryltallizes ; 2. Becaufe the lime, in ab¬
forbing the carbonic acid, purifies itfeif; and the union
of thele two kinds caufes folidity.
It is the carbonat of lime which is in the plafter, that
occafions dry plafter to decay fo quickly, when the wails
are expofed to moifture and animal fubftances ; for the
lime then combines with the nitric acid which is formed.
This folubility conftitutes the chief difference between
plafter and mortar; the land in this laft, which gives fo-
lidity, not being attacked by the water. Plafter is not,
on this account, ufed in humid or moift places, nor in
any works near or under water.
Sulphat of Ammoniac. — Ammoniacal fulphat, for¬
merly called vitriolic ammoniacal fait, or ammoniacal vi¬
triol, is produced by a laturated combination of fulphu¬
ric
C H E M I
lie acid and ammoniac. It was termed fecret anmoniacal
fait of Glauber, becaufe this chemiil was the firft who dit-
covered it.
It is faid to have been found in a white efflorefcence
in the environs of volcanos, and in cryftals about the
mouth of Veiuvius, and that it has been extrafted from
fome of t he waters of Tufcany; it has been faid alto to .
have been feen on the furl ace of the earth, like nitre,
about Turin; but all this appears doubtful. Bergman
found none in the waters which lie examined ; however,
as there is much fulphur and ammoniac in nature, this
combination may be formed ; but, being very foluble in
water, and even attracting moifture, it may by that means
difappear.
To prepare this fait, put carbohat of ammoniac into
a ballon ; let it diffolve in a fufficient quantity of water;
into the folution pour fulphuric acid, by little and little,
till the mixture attains the point of faturation ; a bri.lk
eiferveicence is produced each time. When the mixture
is faturated, {train the liquor; let it evaporate in a gen¬
tle heat to a thin pellicle ; or this fait may be made to
cryftallize fpontaneoufly ; but it mult be at a low tem¬
perature,- and kept quite {till, covering the veffel with
. gauze, or a paper pricked with little holes.
This fait, when very pure, appears under the form of
needles, which, when carefully examined, are flattened
priiins with lix fid.es, two of which are .very large, termi¬
nated by pyramids with fix faces, more or lefs irregular ;
but this form exhibits varieties which are different from
thofe we have deferibed ; it lbmetim.es occurs in the form
of quadrangular prifms, and often in fquare and very
thin plates. The form i'eems to depend, as in every in-
ftance of cryftailization, on the manner in which tlie la-
line particles are depofited, which is either lets regularly
on each other, or according to the law of their decreale.
The tafte of this fait is bitter and urinous ; it is very
light, and very friable. As it contains much water of
cryftailization, it melts at firft with a very flight fire, but
it becomes gradually dry in proportion as its water of
cryftailization. is dillipated. With a greater beat it har¬
dens, and the ammoniac is partly difengaged ; and, if
the heat be kept up, it is fubiimed in vapours in the
dome of the retort as acid fulphat of ammoniac ; this
arifes from the operation of the double affinity, particu¬
larly that of the caloric for the ammoniac. This decom-
pofition fliews that fulphat of ammoniac can become an
acid fulphat, as well as fulphat of potafh.
The acidulated fulphat of ammoniac is not deconi -
pofable by water; it cryftallizes well, and reddens tinc¬
ture of turnfole. But the rednefs of the tincture mu ft
not be depended on as a certain fign that the ammonia-
cal fait is in the acidulated ftate, for the neutral ammo-
niacal falts get red with heat. As tin&ure of turnfole
is only a red tindiure blued with foda, the ammoniac at¬
tracts the foda, and the turnfole appears in its primitive
ftate. The perfeCt neutrality of tbefe falts may be known
by trying them with a folution of carbonat of magnefia :
if an acid is prefent, an effervefcence takes place.
Sulphat of ammoniac abforbs the moifture of the air
in winter, but fcarcely at all in fummer. It cannot be
decompofed by combuftion, like the other lulphats, for
only the exteffive portion of the oxygen in the fulphuric
acid is diftipated, the acid remaining in the ftate of ful-
phureous acid ; now this fulphuric acid cannot retain
all the ammoniac ; a great part flies off in vapour. In
this experiment the charcoal takes away the excels of
oxygen; fulphureous acid and a fulpMt remain; but, as
the fulphit volatilizes very eafiiy. it fublimes ; and by
this means- charcoal efcapes in the decompofition, and
ammoniac and carbonic acid pais over. Sometimes in
this operation there is formed a prufiic acid, proceeding
from the carbon and the ammoniac.
It is very foluble in water ; two parts of cold, or one
of hot, water, being fufficient to hold it in folution. It
cryftallizes by cooling ; but the cryftals are by no means
S T R Y. 231
regular or fine. By diflblution in water it produces cold,
and this cold is much more fenfible than what is produc¬
ed from other falts, becaufe it diflolves quicker. It like-
wife unites with ice, which it melts, producing an ex-
ceflive degree of cold.
Nitric and muriatic acid do not decompofe this fait en¬
tirely; barytes, however, decompofes it, forming an in-
foluble fulphat of barytes. Potafh and foda form foluble.
falts with this, the ammoniac being difengaged in the
gafeous ftate. Strontian works the fame effedt as barytes.
Quicklime decompofes it alio ; the mixture heats, and
the ammoniac is difengaged : if the, operation be perform¬
ed in a retort, the ammoniac may be extradited. This
fait is decompofed by phofphat of lime in the following
manner : Bones calcined to whitenefs; pulverifed, and
well walhed in acetous acid, to diflblve the lime, or car¬
bonat of lime, which may exift in the bones, are put into
a folution of fulphat of ammoniac. After filtering the
liquor, the prefence of phofphork acid may be Ihown by
adding fome lime-water, which produces a copious pre¬
cipitate of the phofphat of lime. It holds alfo a fmall
portion of the fulphat of lime in folution, as may be
leen, by pouring into it a folution of oxalat of potafh. But
the greater part of the fulphat of lime remains on the
filter with the undecoinpofed bone. This refidue, when
dried, is found to weigh o 52 parts more than the phof¬
phat of lime originally employed.
The effefts of heat oil fulphat of ammoniac have been
very accurately obferved by Mr. Hatchet of London. In
dillillmg this fait -by itfelf, he remarked, that a confider-
able quantity of alkaline gas was difengaged. A white
cloud of minute giiftering cryftals was. formed, which
quickly difappeared, and was followed by a great quan¬
tity of fulphureous acid gas and water. In this experi¬
ment, the fait was not only decompofed, but alfo a part
of the ammoniac refolved into its conftituent- principles.
A portion of the undecompofed fait was fubiimed into
the neck of the retort. The fulphureous acid gas, unit¬
ing with the alkaline gas in the receiver, formed the ful¬
phit of ammoniac, which appeared in the form of the
minute giiftering cryftals. The gas which remained after
this combination feemed to poffefs all the properties of
azotic gas. .When fulphat of ammoniac was diltilled
with yellow oxyd of iron, pure ammoniac came firft over,
and afterwards fome fulphureous acid. The iron was
converted to the ftate of a red oxyd, and mixed with
fome fulphat of iron. With oxyd of zink, the refidue
was the fulphat of that metal. Minium triturated with
fulphat of ammoniac, immediately decompofed it iikelime
or .alkalis, and, when diltilled together, the retort contain¬
ed fulphat of lead. When native green oxyd of copper
was diltilled with fulphat of ammoniac, the refidue con-
fifted partly of red oxyd, and fome fulphat of the lame
metal. The ammoniac in this experiment came over in a
concrete ftate, by reafon of the carbonic acid contained
in the green copper. Pbilof. Tranf. for 1796. Sulphat
of ammoniac is but of little ufe, though Glauber recom¬
mends it ftrongly for metallurgic operations.
Sulphat of Magnesia. — This is known in phar¬
macy under the name of Epfom-falt, from the name of a
Ipring near that town, where it was firft obtained. It
exifts in lea-water, and in the mother-water whence fea-
falt has been extradited ; alio in the waters, of Egra, Sed-
litz, and Seydfchutz ; and in the well-water of Paris ;
likewife in the martial pyrites, in the compofition of
alum, &c.
Sulphat of magnefia is purified for fale by diffolving
it in water, and leaving it to cryftallize." It may be pre¬
pared alfo by fatur-ating pure magnefia with lulphuric
acid. The cryftailization is in Ifnall needles, but very
confufed. But, by diffolving it in coid water, and ex-
poling it in the air to a lpontaneous evaporation, it is
obtained in fine quadrangular priiins, terminated by
quadrangular pyramids, all the furfaces being fimooih
and without furrows 5 its cryftals in general, are Ihorter
and
232 C H E M
and larger than thofe of fulphat of (oda; and it likewife
differs from that perfect neutral lalt in all its other pro7
perties.
This frit has a very bitter tafle, and on that account
has been called fal catbarticus amarus. All the bitter
fait waters are commonly folutions more or lefs ftrong of
fulphat of magneiia. It is of a greyifh-white colour,
not very bright. Expofed to heat, it lol'es almoH.all its
water of cryftaliization, which reduces it to little more
than half its weight: it admits of the aqueous fufion.
With an extreme heat it undergoes the igneous fufion,
but is not decompofed ; if, after being melted, it be pour¬
ed into a veffel, it recovers moifture from the air, and
burfts the veffel which contains it. It is llightly efflorel-
cent in a very dry air. It is fo foluble in water, that only
twice its weight of cold, and half its weight of hot, wa¬
ter, are required to hold it in lolution.
To decompofe this fulphat with charcoal, mix it with
one-eighth of its weight of charcoal-dull ; put this mix¬
ture into a Hone retort, to which a bent tube is adapted
going under a jar in the gas apparatus before defcribed.
By the aid of caloric, or heat, the charcoal i'eizes upon
the oxygen of the fulphat, and fulphure of magneiia is
produced. The heat mull be applied gently, that the
fulphure itfelf may not be decompofed, for the fulphur
has but little attraction for the magnefia: carbonated
hydrogen gas paffes under the jar, which arifes from the
water of the decompofed Cubfiances. By pouring ful-
phuric acid over this folution of the fulphure. of mag¬
nefia, fulphat of magneiia is re-'produced, and pure ful¬
phur is obtained by filtration. Then the magnefia may be
extracted from the lolution of the newly-formed fulphat,
by adding caullic alkali. T he liquor holds the fulphur
much divided, and palfes through in draining, but be¬
comes flaky in boiling.
By adding to luiphat of magnefia a little fulphuric
acid, a fulphat of magnefia is produced with an excels
of acid ; and, by pouring on ammoniac, no precipitate
is formed, becaufe the ammoniac does not decompofe
this acidified fulphat of magnefia, but forms a tripie fait.
Barytes decompoles this fait, by taking away the fulphu¬
ric acid. If barytes diffolved in pure water be made ufe
of, the fulphat of barytes and the magnefia are precipi¬
tated together} but, if an acid folution beufed, as mu-
riat of barytes for example, the luiphat of barytes will
be precipitated, and the magnefia remain in the liquor
in the date of muriat of magnefia.
Sulphat of magneiia is in the lame manner decompofed
by potalh and foda. Caudic potafli precipitates the mag¬
nefia in very pure white flakes, and luiphat of potalh is
obtained. Lime precipitates the magneiia from the ful¬
phat of magnefia : a fulphat of lime is produced.
Ammoniac decompoles, cold, part of the luiphat of
magneiia ; but the precipitate is flight, and all the mag¬
nefia is not feparated; for if, after filtration, the liquor
be tried with potalh, another precipitation is produced.
If the liquor is left to evaporate (lowly, a triple fait is
formed, the ammoniaco-magnefian fait, or fulphat. This
fait is bitter, with an urinous talte ; is leis loluble than
fulphat of ammoniac, but more fo than fulphat of mag¬
nefia; it crydallizes in dodecahedrons, fometimes four-
lided. It is decompofed by heat. The prefence of the
ammoniac in this fait may be known by triturating or
pounding it with lime. The magneiia may be dil'cerned
by precipitating it with a caullic alkali ; by adding after¬
wards lime and a little water, the odour of ammoniac is
difengaged. When this triple lalt is urged with a fircng
heat, the ammoniacal fulphat evaporates., and . fulphat of
magnefia remains at the bottom of the retort. The am-
moniaco-magnefian lalt may be directly formed, by mix¬
ing together the lolutions of fulphat of magnefia and
fulphat of ammoniac. The liquor immediately grows
turbid, and loon alter cryltallizes.
S.ulphat of Gi.ucine. — Glucine combines very well
with fulphuric acid, whether free or in the Hate of car-
bonat ; in the latter cafe, a brilk effervefcence is produc-
I S T R Y.
ed. The fait refulting from this combination is very fij-
luble in water, fo that in melting it becomes as thick as
a fyrup before it cryltallizes. Its talle is very laccharine,
and llightly aftringent. Expofed to heat it (wells up like
alum ; and in a red heat wiil be entirely decompofed ;
the fulphuric acid flies off in vapours, and the earth re¬
mains pure.
Charcoal decompofes it with the aid of heat, and a
fulphure is produced. No acid will decompofe this fair;
hence it appears that (ulphuric acid has a greater affinity
for this earth than any other. Alkalis and earths, except
alumine, decompofe it, by feizing on the (ulphuric acid,
for which they have a flronger attraction.
Sul?h,t of Alumine. — There are feveral kinds of ful¬
phat of alumine: the molt common in the acid fulphat of
alumine, or the alum of commerce. It is found about vol¬
canos, on lavas, and on rocks in feveral places. To ob¬
tain luiphat of alumine, the alum-ore is expoTed to the
wind and rain, or it may be burnt : the fulphur contain¬
ed therein forms, by its union with the oxygen which it
abforbs, fulphuric acid, and unites with the alumine :
combine the whole in water, and heat it, leave it to
grow cold, and you have pure acid fulphat of alumine.
A little alkali is generally mixed with it, whether afhes,
fulphat of potafli, or even (tale urine ; all thefe falts are
neceflary to obtain it in the cryllallized (late, and to take
away its vifcofity. Hence it is, that, according to Vau-
quelin, ( Annales de Chimie, tom. xxii.) (peaking of the
different ffates of the combination of alumine with ful¬
phuric acid, which are at the fame time united with dif¬
ferent bales, we are to diftinguifti feven different Hates
of this combination, i. Sulphat of alumine, or the arti¬
ficial union of fulphuric acid and alumine. This fait is
afiringent, it cryltallizes in (oft plates or leaves, loluble
in water ; and was not known till lately, a. Acid fulphat
of alumine, or the preceding lalt with anexcefs of theacid,
and differs from it only in a reddening blue vegetable co¬
lours. It is eafily formed, by diffolving the preceding
fulphat in fulphuric acid ; but it is with great difficulty
converted into neutral fulphat of alumine, namely, by
boiling it a long time with its earth. This fait has not
been hirherto delcribed, any more than thefirff. 3. Sul¬
phat of alumine and faturated potafli : this is the alum
of the chemiffs faturated with its earth. Its properties
are, pulverulence, infipidity, infolubility, that it will
not cryftallize, but is eafily converted into true alum by
the fulphuric acid. 4. Acid luiphat of alumine and pot¬
afli. It is eafy to prepare this chemically, and it greatly
refembles common alum ; but Vauquelin only found that
of Tolfa to be of this kind. 5. Acid fulphat of alumine
and ammoniac. This is eafily made in a laboratory ; but
in commerce it is never met with pure. 6. Acid fulphat
of alumine, potafli, and ammoniac. This is the kind
of alum moff commonly u fed in manufa£i ures : we dial 1
therefore call it alum, for diffinclion-lake. 7. Acidulat¬
ed fulphat of alumine and potafli. Vauquelin propofes
this name, becaufe, by adding to the folution a little
more potafli than is required to obtain eight-fided crvffals,
it affumes the cubical form.
Of th t alum of commerce, (or acid fulphat of alumine,
potalh, and ammoniac, as mentioned at No. 6.) there
are feveral fpecies : 1. Rock-alum, called by La Grange,
alun de glace, alum of ice, is found in confiderable ni a fi¬
fes ; tranfparent. Bergman thinks that this name is de¬
rived from the city of Rocca, in Syria, now called Edefla,
where the molt ancient manufadture of this fait was efia-
bliflied, and not becaufe its form refembles a rock, or
Hone, or becaufe it is obtained from rocks or Hones, as
feveral authors have affirmed. This fpecies of alum is
very impure. 2. Roman alum, which is prepared in the
territory of Civita Veccliia, and obtained from a place,
named in Italian, Aluminiere della Haifa. This alum is
in pieces of the fize of eggs ; it is covered with a reddifli
efflorefcence, and is fuppofed to be pure when that efflo-
relcence is feparated. 3. Naples alum, extradted from a
peculiar earth at the Solfaterra ; it is in larger mafl'es than
CHEMISTRY.
the Roman' alunt, and one of its furfaces is covered with
pyramidal cryftals. 4 Alum from Smyrna. The moll
ancient manufactures of alum appear to have been efta-
blifhed near Smyrna and Conftantinople. This alum is
only found in cabinets of natural hiftory. 5. French
alum. It is prepared in many manufactories in France;
efpecially in thole of Chaptal, and at Javille near Paris:
they mix the acid water which proceeds from the rectifi¬
cation of fulphuric acid, with the clay of Gentilly, in
wooden troughs, and expofe it to the air for lix months
then walh the mats with ley. 6. Alum extracted from
efflorefcent Ichilti and volcanic products. It is alfo ex¬
tracted from earths and Hones in many parts of Germany,
where there have been manufactories of it fince the year
1544 ; and alio in England, Spain, Sweden, and molt
parts of Europe.
The addition of a certain portion of alkali is now
fhown to be necelfary to the formation of alum. The
neceffity of this addition had been known for a long time
in the manufacturing of this iubftance ; but it was con¬
ceived, that the only ufe of the alkali was to faturate the
excefs of acid. Bergman, however, had remarked, that
the addition of foda or lime did not promote the cryftal-
lization of alum when ufed as fubllitutes for potalh and
ammoniac. He did not, however, feem to know that
the potalh entered into the formation of the alum. This
curious faCt was fully afcertained by the experiments of
Vauquelin. He found, that the addition of the fulphat
of potalh was equally efficacious in promoting the cryltal-
lization of alum with the potalh iti'elf, and that the fame
effeCt was produced by the fulphat of ammoniac. Berg¬
man had alfo obferved, that not only the common alum,
but alio the Roman, when decompofed by ammoniac,
afforded a fmall quantity of fulphat of potalh. Alum
dill'olves in live times its own weight of cold water ; but
boiling water diffolves more than half its weight, eight
ounces of water in this Hate diffolving five ounces of the
fait. It cryllallizes very well by cooling. Its cryftals are
triangular pyramids, with truncated angles. When they
are depofited on threads in the middle of the folution,
very regular oCtahedrons are formed, whofe pyramids
are obliquely truncated at the middle, between the ver¬
tex and the bafe. This fait melts with a mild heat, emit¬
ting abundance of aqueous vapours, at the fame time
that it fwells up, and becomes converted into a very large
light mafs, of an opaque white, with a great number of
cavities. This phenomenon is produced, as in borax,
by the difengagement of water, whofe vapour blows up
and extends the laline mafs. The alum in this ftate is
called calcined, alum , and weighs' little more than half
its former weight. It is fomewhat altered ; reddens the
fyrup of violets ; has a ftronger tafte ; lofes its water of
cryftallization, and a very linall part of its acid ; for, if
the experiment be made in clofe veffels, the water ob¬
tained is acid. Yet calcined alum has always an excefs
of acid; which happens becaufe the molecules of the
alum, having an extreme affinity for each other, let the
acid run, which there remains interpofed.
Sulphat of alumine {lowly efflorefees in the air. Several
combuftible bodies decompofe it: we will take charcoal for
an example : Mix eight parts of charcoal in powder with
one of alum ; put the whole into a retort, and adapt it
to the pneumatic apparatus. By the help of heat, car-
-bonic acid gas is brought under the jar ; and what re¬
mains in the retort is a fulphit of alumine.
Alum is decompofed alio by animal and vegetable fiib-
ftances : this decompofition produces a fubltance. which
takes fire on expofure to the air, and is called pyrophorus ,
or the pkofphorus of Homberg . Take three parts of alum
to one of honey, meal, or lugar ; either of thefe will have
the lame effeft. Dry the mixture in an into ladle, ftir-
ring it with a fpatula. The mixture firft liquefies, then
puffs up, and at length fubfides into lumps or clods : then
pulverile it grofsly, and finilh the drying of it, which
leaves a black carbonaceous powder. It is then put into
Voir. IV. No. 192.
233
a fmall long-necked matrafs, which muft be only three-
parts full ; place this matrafs in a crucible with (and, and
cover the bulb. Heat is applied till a bluifli flame ap¬
pears to iffue out of the neck of the phial. After this
lias continued feveral minutes, the crucible is taken out
of the fire ; and when the whole is cool, the pyrophorus
is poured quickly into a dry bottle, which is immediately
well clofed. This is truly a fulphure of alumine, mixed
with a fmall quantity of carbon. If a little of this ful¬
phure be poured upon paper in the open air, it takes
fire. If the pyrophorus is flow in burning, the combuftion
may be haftened by any humid vapour, fuch as that of
the breath. The inflammation of pyrophorus only takes
place in a moift air ; it will not burn in a dry air; the
humidity is abforbed by the fubltance, and the difengag-
ed caloric of this humidity raifes the temperature of the
fubltance ; then it burns itfelf; the carbon and fulphur,
in this combination, regenerate fulphuric acid and ful¬
phat of alumine, and a little carbonic acid is difengaged.
It is fo certain that pyrophorus is a compofition of a ful¬
phure and of carbon, that, when dilfolved in water,
there is a precipitation of carbon, and the liquor which
remains is a hydro-fulphure.
All the acids decompofe this fulphure; nitric acid pre¬
cipitates a reddilh fulphur, becaufe, being oxygenated
by the acid, it is in the ltate of oxyd of fulphur, and
nitrat of alumineds formed. Azotic gas and carbonic
acid are obtained under the jar, when the experiment is
made in clofe veffels. When the nitrous gas is all decom¬
pofed, it gives out its oxygen to the pyrophorus, and
burns it, the fulphur is acidified, and a little fulphat of
alumine is again found. Concentrated fulphuric acid,
and fulphurous acid, flame alfo with pyrophorus ; the
fame effeft takes place with oxygenated muriatic acid gas.
It appears, from the experiments of Scheele, that
alum affords pyrophorus only in proportion to the quan¬
tity of fixed alkali which it contains, or in proportion to
the quantity of alkali obtained from the combuftion of
the carbonaceous fubltance employed. Aluminous earth
does not appear to be effential to the formation of py¬
rophorus, for it may alfo be formed by burning a mixture
of equal parts of Glauber falts and meal, four parts of
fulphat of potalh with five, of meal, equal parts of pot-
afli and meal with one-fourth of fulphur ; or, according
to Bergman, one part of mineral alkali with a fourth of
fulphur, and one-third of charcoal powder; or, accord¬
ing to Scheele, fulphat ,of potalh calcined with three parts
of charcoal powder. Pyrophorus, according to the ex¬
periments of Lavoilier; diminilhes the volume of atmof-
pheric air from 100 to 72^. The diminution of the air
by the combuftion of this fubltance, had before this been
obferved by Hales, and confirmed by Prieftley. Oxygen
gas was reduced to one-feventh of its volume by com¬
buftion with pyrophorus, and when the remainder was
walhed with lime water, and inflamed anew, only a very
fmall portion of the original volume remained undecom-
pofed.
Alum is decompofed by barytes, lime, ftrontian, mag-
nefia, glucine, and all the alkalis, which, poured into a
folution of this fait, precipitate the alumine. Alum is
of very extenfive ufe in medicine and the arts. See vol. i.
p. 381, of this work, under the article Alum.
Sulphat of Zircone, or Jargon. — That the com¬
binations of zircone with acids may aft with facility, it
is necelfary that it Ihould be in a ftate of extreme divifion
and very moift, fuch as when juft precipitated from thefe
folvents ; if it has been dried by fire, or even by the heat
of a ftove, it unites but difficultly in theie combinations.
This earth adheres to the acids, but the aftion of a gen¬
tle heat is fufficient to break the combination ; this is de-
monltrated alfo by alkalis, and all other earths, which
leparate acids from it.
Sulphuric acid and zircone unite eafily; and the fait
refulting from the combination is white, inloluble in
water, 4nd taftelefs. Heat decompofes it, and leaves the
3 Q zircone
234 C H E M I
zircone purs. In a high temperature, charcoal converts
this fulphat into a fulphure. This fulphure is eafily fo-
luble in water; and its folution furnilhes, by evaporation,
cryftals of hydro-fulphure of zircone. This fait under¬
goes no material change with other acids. Earths and
alkalis decompofe it.
Of SULPHITS.
This is the name given to combinations of fulphurous
acids with earths and alkalis. We are indebted for the
knowledge of thefe falts to Vauquelin and Fourcroy.
See Annales de Chimie, tom. xxiv.
The artifice of making fulphits in general, is by mix¬
ing alkaline or earthy folutions with water loaded with
fulphurous acid. Or by palling fulphurous acid on the
bales. Or, which is the belt method, by putting char¬
coal in powder, and fulphuric acid, into a retort ; gafe'ous
fulphurous acid is formed, and carbonic acid. This is
effefted by the following apparatus : In the Chemiftry
Plate V. fig. i, A, is glafs retort, luted, laid acrofs iron
bars in a furnace ; to its mouth is adapted a bent tube,
which is plunged into a two-necked bottle B, containing
water to abforb the fulphuric acid which might pafs over
without being decompofed ; from the other neck of this
bottle proceeds a tube, which terminates in the three¬
necked bottle C, containing a folution of carbonat of
potalh ; in this manner there may be placed as many bot¬
tles as there are fulphits to prepare ; the laffc is termi¬
nated by a bulbed tube of fafety, whole extremity runs
under the inverted jar D, in the pneumatic apparatus.
In the middle opening of each jar, there mult be the
tubes of fafety EEE, one of whofe extremities Ihould
be plunged a little way into the water, with the upper
end open to the atmofphere, in order that, if the heat
Ihould fall off during the operation, or after it is finilh-
t:d, it may give a paffage to the outward air, in propor¬
tion as the gas diminilhes in volume by cooling, and there¬
by hinder the folution of the fulphit from getting into
the firll bottle, and mixing with the water it contains,
by the prelfure of the atmofphere. To try whether an
apparatus fo complicated be perfect in all its parts, blow
with the mouth into the firit tube of fafety E; the air
Ihould regularly proceed into the jar D, palling through
the oppolition it meets from the fluid columns that dil-
pute its palfage, which oppofition will caule it to efcape,
if all the joinings are not very clofe and tight. It is the
tubulated bottles, that are very fubjeft to have cracks in
the joinings of the necks. When all is in perfeft order,
heat the retort gently : the fulphurous acid is foon dilen-
faged in the galeous Hate, and faturates the potalh, foda,
& c. and under the jar D, carbonic acid is collected ; ari-
fmg, i, from the decompofition which takes place in the
retort ; a, from the carbonic acid which is difengaged
in the decompofition of the liquid carbonats contained in
the bottles, which carbonats are decompofed, in propor¬
tion as the fulphurous acid drives off the carbonic acid
to feize upon the bale, and form fulphits.
The above is the molt advantageous method of pre¬
paring fulphits ; as they may thus be obtained cryllal-
lized without evaporation. When they are made with
liquid fulphurous acid, evaporation is necelfary ; which,
by giving accefs to the oxygen, fulphuric acid and ful-
phats may be produced.
Sulphits have no fmell. When they are not neuter,
they entirely dilcolour the blue vegetable tints ; hence
it is that the vapour of fulphur, or fulphurous acid, is
ufed for bleaching filk, linen, &c. They have a Itrong
tafte of fulphurous acid ; they are decompofed by caloric
or heat. Oxygen gas changes them into lulphats. Sul¬
phits may ferve for eudiometers, efpecially that of ammo¬
niac, which of all fulphits palfes the moft eafily into the
irate of a fulphat, by mere contaft with the oxygen of
the atmofphere. Some are foluble in water ; other’s not,
except with an excefs of acid. They are decompofed
by acids. They are all, except that of ammoniac, con-
2
S T R Y.
verted into fulpbures by charcoal. Alkalis and earths
aft upon thefe fairs in proportion to their affinities for the
fulphurous acid : thus barytes decompofes all the other
fulphits ; then the order of affinity or attraftion is, ftron •
tian, lime, potalh, foda, magnefia, ammoniac, glucine,
alumine, and zircone.
Sulphit of Barytes. — To prepare this fait, mix a
folution of iulphit of foda or ammoniac, with a folution
of muriat of barytes : the fulphit of barytes then appears
in the form of very little needles precipitated at the bot¬
tom of the liquor.
This fait has no fenfible tafte ; it is white and opaque.
Caloric decompofes it, by driving off the excefs of ful¬
phur, and it becomes a fulphat ; the fulphur cryltallizes
in the neck of the matrafs. Charcoal decompofes it, and
changes it into a fulphat, by feparating the oxygen. It
is not foluble in water, at lealt not fenfibly ; fulphurous
acid renders it fomewhat foluble. The fulphuric, mu¬
riatic, and nitric, acids, decompofe it, with violent crack¬
ling and great boiling up. Oxygenated muriatic acid
converts it entirely into a fulphat. No terreftrial or al¬
kaline lubftance decompofes fulphit of barytes. It con-
fifts of barytes fifty-nine, fulphureous acid thirty-nine,
and water two.
Suxphit of Strontian.— This is not yet fuffici-
ently known for us to detail its properties ; they are do’ubt-
lefs much the fame as the fulphit of barytes.
Sulphit of Lime. — The belt way to make fulphit
of lime, is to pafs fulphurous acid gas through the midft
of carbonat of lime diluted with water. When the liquor
is well faturated, it cryltallizes on the fides of the jar in
tranfparent needles. It has at firll little or no tafte, but
afterwards refembles fulphurous acid. Caloric makes
this frit pafs into the ftate of a fulphat. It loles fomewhat
of its tranlparency in cryftallizing; but goes very llowly
into the fulphat ftate. The form of fulphit of lime is
that of a prifm with fix planes, terminated by a very
long pyramid.
This fait requires 800 parts of water to difl'olve it, but
an excefs of acid renders it more eafy of folution ; and
thus may it be obtained in cryftals by expofing its folu¬
tion in fulphurous acid to the air.
Barytes is the only earth which decompofes fulphit of
lime : the acid is diftipated, leaving the fait in a ftate
of purity. This may be tried, by mixing a folution of
this earth with a folution of neutral fulphit of lime,
which forms a flight precipitate. The mineral acids de¬
compofe it; fulphuric acid difengages the fulphurous
acid with effervefcence : indeed it may be extrafted thus
in a ftate of the greateft purity. The nitric acid and
oxygenated muriatic acid convert it partly into fulphat
of lime. It confifts of lime forty-feven, fulphureous acid
forty-eight, and water five.
Sulphit of Potash. — To prepare this fait, take
very pure carbonat of potafh crvftallized ; difl'olve it in
three times its weight of diftilled water; then pafs ful¬
phurous acid gas into the mixture until the effervefcence
ceafes entirely. During this combination, a fmall quan¬
tity of caloric is difengaged, and the folution cryltallizes
by cooling. This l'alt is ufually white and tranfparent j
fometimes it is flightly yellow and femi-tranfparent, if
its folution has been very concentrated, and the cryftal-
lization confufed. Its tafte is penetrating and fulphure¬
ous ; its figure that of a rhomboidal plate ; its cryftalli-
zation often prefen ts fmall needles diverging from a com¬
mon centre. When expoled to a fudden heat, it decre¬
pitates, and lofes its water of cryftallizafion ; afterwards,
by ignition, it emits fome vapours of fulphureous acid.
At length a portion of fulphur is feparated, and the re-
lidue is fulphat of potalh, with a flight excefs of alkali.
By expoliire to air, it flightly effiorefees, becomes
opake ana hard, its penetrating fulphureous tafte difap-
pears, and it acquires another which is acrid and bitter.
In this ftate it no longer eftervefees with acids.
Take twelve parts of this fait dried, which put into a
retort
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llUIHlHlIlllllllllllllllli:
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C H E M
retort with one part of charcoal in fine powder. Urge it
with a violent heat j and the refults will be, i. A fmall
quantity of water, 2. Some carbonic acid. 3. A cer¬
tain quantity of fulphuruted hydrogen gas. 4. There
remains in the retort a red mafs, very foluble in water,
giving out a fetid fmell of fulpliurated hydrogen, from
which the acids difengage this matter in the ftate of gas,
and precipitate home lulphur: hence is produced a true
fulpliure of potalh.
Put fome very dry fulphit • of potalh into a porcelain
tube; put the tube into a furnace ; adapt to the upper
end the apparatus for difengaging hydrogen gas, and to
the lower end a tube which is to go into an empty bottle.
Heal the tube gently ; as the hydrogen gas pafles, water
is formed; and l'ulphure of potalh remains in the tube.
Sulphit of potalh is lbluble in a quantity of water
nearly equal to its own nrafs ; and this folubiiity is in-
creafed -by heat. This fait is decompofed by lime and
barytes, as may be Ihown by pouring lime-water, or wa¬
ter of barytes into a folution of fulpliit of potalh. A
white precipitate is afforded, which is the fulphit of
lime; and the potalh remains difengaged in the w'ater.
The fulphureous acid does not, therefore, follow the
fame laws of affinity as the fulphuric acid, fince this laft
adheres more ffrongly to potalh than to lime.
Alkalis do not change the nature of the fulphit of
potalh. Among the acids, fome decompofe it, by fepa-
rating the fulphureous acid ; others change its nature
without driving off- its acid, by affording a portion of
oxygen, and converting it into fulphuric acid. The
firit of thele effects is produced by the fulphuric, muri¬
atic, phofphoric, and fluoric, acids ; the fecond is ef¬
fected by the nitric and the oxygenated muriatic acids.
The acids of borax and of carbon do not occafion any
change in the cold.
Several metallic oxyds aft upon this fait. Some are
entirely reduced to the metallic Hate, luch as the oxyds
of gold, filver, and mercury ; others are brought nearer
to that ftate, fuch as thofe of lead, iron, and manganefe,
at the maximum of oxygenation. There are others which
change the nature of the fulphit of potafh in an oppo-
fite direction to that which takes place in the foregoing
cafes, that is to fay, which conveit it into fulphat, by
depriving it of a certain quantity of lulphur, with which
they form fulpliurated oxyds, fuch as the oxyds of arfe-
nic and of iron flightly oxydated. But, in order that this
operation may fucceed, it is neceffary to boil thele fub-
ftances a long time in water, and afterwards to add to the
lolution an acid which occafions a coloured precipitate,
at the fame time that fulpliurated hydrogen gas is emit¬
ted. All the metallic folutions, except the carbonats,
are decompofed by the iulphit of potalh ; and, as molt of
the metallic fuiphits are infolubie, different coloured
precipitates are formed, according to the nature of the
metal, and its ftate of oxydation,
Sulphit of Soda. — This is prepared by putting
into a Woulfe’s bottle one part of cryftallized carbonat of
foda, and two parts of diltilled water, palling fulphurous
acid gas, till the effervefcence ceafes. When the fatura-
tion is nearly completed, a portion of cryftallized ful¬
phit of foda is found at the bottom of the liquor. This
lalt is white, and perfectly tranfparent ; its figure a four-
fided prifm, two of the fides being very broad, and tw'o
narrow, terminating in dihedral pyramids. Its taile is
cool, and afterwards fulphureous. Its habitudes in the
fire are abfolutely the fame as thofe of the fulphit of
potalh ; except only that it commences its operations by
the aqueous tufion. By expofure to the air it efflorefees,
and is afterwards converted into fulphat, but lefs lpeedily
than the fulphit of potalh. Mixed with a twellth part
of its own weight of charcoal in powder, and heated in
a retort, it furnilhes firit a little water ; then fome car¬
bonic acid mixed with a portion of fulphurated hydrogen
gas ; laftiy fulpliure of foda remains in the retort.
Mineral acids have the lame effect with fulphit of foda
I S T R Y. 235
as with that of potalh. Barytes, lime, and potalh, de¬
compofe fulphit of foda: the precipitation is fulphit of
barytes, of lime, or of potalh, according as one or other
of thefe earths has been ufed. It contains, in 100 parts,
i8-S of foda, 32-2 of acid, and 50 of water.
Sulphit of Magnesia. — For the formation of this
fait, put into a Woulfe’s bottle one part of carbonat of
magnefia,. and two parts of diftilled water, introducing
fulphurous acid gas as before. If no more of the lulphu-
rous acid be ufed than is juft neceffary to faturate the
magnelia, there will be no perceptible change in the vo¬
lume cf the mixture ; and, were we not allured, by the
difengagement of carbonic acid, which takes place du¬
ring the operation, and by the fixation of the fulphurous
acid gas, that a combination has taken place, w'e might
be tempted to believe that there was no adtion between
this acid and the carbonat of magnelia. The greater
part of the fulphit of magnefia which is produced, re¬
mains at the bottom cf the liquor ; but, by bringing a
frelh quantity of fulphurous acid upon the mafs of the
fulphit of magnefia, when the effervefcence has ceafed,
it is diffolved entirely in the liquor, and part of the lalt
is feparated in tranfparent cryftals as it grows cold. This
lolution of fulphit of magnefia, expoied to the air in a
jar, loles by degrees its excefs of fulphurous acid, and
depolits tranfparent cryitals.
This fait is white and tranfparent; Its figure a four-fi-
ded prifm diminilhing at the top ; its tafte is fweetilh and
earthy at firit, afterwards fulphureous. Expofed to heat,
it foftens, fwells up, and becomes dudtile like a gum ;
by continuing to beat, after it has loft: its water of cry-
Itallization, the fulphurous acid is feparated, and the
magnefia remains pure. It becomes opaque in the air,
and is converted into a fulphat by degrees, but it takes a
long time. Powdered charcoal heated in a retort, with
twelve parts of fulphit of magnefia, takes aw'ay the oxy¬
gen, and converts it into fulphure of magnefia. It is
but little foluble in water. Mineral acids have the fame
effect upon this as upon the other fuiphits. The ter-
reftrial and alkaline iubltances already taken notice of,
all decompole fulphit of magnefia. The earthy fub-
ftances form in folution a depofit, compofed of newly-
formed fuiphits and of magnefia, Potalh and foda work
the lame effedls ; but the magnefia is precipitated pure
in that cale, becaufe tliefe alkaline fuiphits are foluble.
This fulphit coniilts of magnefia lixteen, fulphureous
acid thirty-nine, and w'ater forty-five.
Sulphit of Ammoniac. — To obtain fulphit of
ammoniac cryftallized, pafs fulphurous acid gas, in the
manner before diredted, into concentrated liquid ammo¬
niac. When the water is completely faturated with the
ammoniac, there will be a depofition of tranfparent and
very regular cryftals, formed by that portion of the ful¬
phit of ammoniac, which the water held in folution
on account of its heat. This lalt has the form ot fix-
fided priims terminated by pyramids with fix faces. Its
tafte is cool and pungent, but becomes at length lome-
wliat like fulphurous acid. It volatilizes with heat, but
is not decompofed. It attracts the moifture of the air,
and foon changes to a fulphat. Charcoal does not con¬
vert it into a fulphure, becaule it volatilizes too fait. It
is very foluble in water, and cryltallizes in cooling.
All the mineral acids, except the boracic and carbonic,
decompofe this fait : this decompofition takes place with
heat and effervefcence, and the fulphurous acid may be
colledted in the ftate of gas over mercury.
Barytes alfo decompoles this fulphit: if barytes in
powder be pounded with this fait cryftallized, dried, or
even diffolved in water, the ammoniac will be difen¬
gaged. Lime adts in the lame manner. Powdered niag-
neila, heated with fulphit of ammoniac, decompoles it
entirely: magnefia will alio decompole this fait diffolved
in water, if the mixture be expoied to a boiling heat :
in a mean temperature, the magnefia does not entirely
decompofe the fulphit of ammoniac, but a triple lalt is
produced
CHEMISTRY.
236
produced compofed of magnefia and ammoniac. Potafli
and foda alio decompofe fulphit of ammoniac. Accord¬
ing to Vauquelin, this iulphit confilis of ammoniac
29'o7, fulplmreous acid 60 06, and water 10-87.
Sulfhit of Alumi.me. — This fait may be prepared
in the manner already defcribed. It does not cryftallize ;
it is duCtile and foft. Heat feparates its fulphureous
acid without alteration. It is infoluble in water; but it
becomes abundantly fo by excels of acid. The mineral
acids, earths, and aikalis, decompofe it. It coniifts of
alumine forty-four, fulphureous acid thirty-two, water
twenty-four.
Thefulphits of gl it cine and of fircone are not known.
Of NITRATS.
The generic characters of nitrats are, r. A cool and
Iiungent take. 2. They furnilh oxygen gas by heat, and
eave an alkaline or earthy reftduum. 3. They catch
flame with many combultible bodies when their tempe¬
rature is fufticiently railed. 4. They give out white va¬
pours with concentrated fulphuric acid. They are as
follow :
Nitrat of Barytes. — This fall is prepared by de-
compofing the fulphure of barytes with nitric acid, or by
faturating that acid with neutral or artificial carbonat
of barytes. It cryftallizes in the oCtagonal lliape, accord¬
ing to La Grange 5 Fourcroy fays, in large hexagonal
cryllals ; but d’Arcet fays, fmall irregular ones ; fo that
it is probable the form varies greatly, and indeed it is
not obtained at all in the cryltalline form, fays Fourcroy,
without conflderable diflic ulty.
Expofed to the aCtion of caloric in a retort, it is de¬
compofed, and furnifhes oxygen gas mixed with azotic
gas. From this experiment Vauquelin obtained pure
barytes. It requires ten or twelve parts of cold water
.to hold it in lolution ; warm water diffolves it much
eafier, fo that the greater part cryftallizes in cooling.
Several acids decompofe this fait : the fulphuric, oxalic,
and tartareous, are of the number. Neither earths nor
alkalis decompofe it. It is decompofed, however, by a
multitude of falts, as fulphats, carbonats, &c. This fait
iefves to fliew the prefence of the fulphuric acid : it may
be made ufe of to ieparate this acid, which is fometimes
found in nitric acid, and renders it improper for nice
experiments. Vauquelin remarks, that the take of this
fait, like molt of the combinations of barytes, is piquant
and metallic. The decompofition by heat affords barytes
in a purer ftate than by any of the ordinary procelfes.
In this ftate it is of a greyilh colour, and has a cauftic
tafte, much llronger than that of lime. Its folution, ex¬
po fed to the air, exhibits a pellicle like lime-water. It is
rendered turbid by air expelled from the lungs, and forms
a very copious precipitate with fulphuric acid.
Nitrat of Potash, or Common Nitre. — This fait
is found native in a great variety of fituations. In India
and Spain it appears at certain leafons of the year on the
furface of particular foils. It has been found on the in-
flde of calcareous caverns in France and Germany ; fome¬
times at the top of walls ftieltered from the rain, in the
vaults of cellars, under the arches of bridges, &c. then
it it called faltpetre, or nitre de boujfage, becaufe it is col¬
lected with a broom.
To extract faltpetre from old plafter, or other earths
which contain it, put the rubbifli into a calk placed upon
rafters; pour in water till the matter is covered about
four inches. Let it foak for five or fix hours, and then
let it drain through holes made in the bottom of the
calk into a fpout, which lets it into a common repofitory
funk in the ground. When the faturation is complete,
and the earthy parts fettied, pour the clear liquid into a
copper vefl’el for evaporation. When the veflfel is in a
ftate of ebullition, as the iiquor evaporates there is a pre¬
cipitation of calcareous earth, and then of muriat of foda.
To know when the operation is far enough advanced,
put a drop of the liquor upon cold iron ; if it congeals
into a white folid globule, flop the fire, and let the liquor
Hand four-and-twenty hours: then decant if, and let it
cryftallize. The mother-waters contain muriat of lime,
of magnefia, and of foda, about one-fixth of its weight
of fait petre, fome nitrat of lime and of magnefia.
This nitrat of potafli is very impure ; and there are
feveral procefles in different refineries for purifying it.
Diffolve the whole of this rough faltpetre in warm water;
put in eighteen or twenty parts of potafli to one hundred,
in order to decompofe the? nitrat of lime ; then coagu¬
late, boil, and feum : this is called faltpetre of the fecond
boiling. Diffolve this in o-8 of its weight of water;
make it throw up a few bubbles, then (kirn it, and let it
cryftallize: this time all the marine fait is held in fo¬
lution by the mother- water, and the faltpetre is pure :
this is called faltpetre or nitre of the third boiling. The
fecond procefs differs from the firft only in there being
added to the rough faltpetre juft water enough to diffolve
the nitrat of potafli warm. The third procefs is founded
upon the principle, that marine fait and the deliquefeent
falts are more foluble in the cold way than nitrat of
potafli.
Chemifts and apothecaries purify nitre of the third boil¬
ing by new folutions and cryftallizations, by which means
they are certain of having very pure nitrat of potafli, un¬
contaminated by any foreign matter, efpecially the mu-
riats with bafes of foda, lime, and magnefia, which are
fcarcely ever taken away entirely in the manufactories.
Nitrat of potafli is in tafte cooling yet fliarp ; its cry f-
tals are commonly fix-lided pi ifms, terminated by fix ir¬
regular faces. It is decompofed by heat ; the firft por¬
tion which is difengaged is oxygen gas, afterwards it is
mingled with azotic gas. The attraction of the potafli
for the nitrous acid prevents the nitric acid from being
completely decompofed at the beginning of the opera¬
tion ; and hence the reafon why pure, or almoft pure,
oxygen gas paffes over. By flopping the decompofition
of the nitrat of potafli at the moment the azotic gas be¬
gins to appear, the fait in this ftate is termed nitrit of pot-
ajh : the refiduum makes a brifk eftervefcence with nitric
acid, and throws up reddifh vapours, which proves that
the nitric acid has changed its ftate.
If nitrat of potafli be put into a crucible, and expofed
to the aCtion of thefire, it is quickly melted, and its fufion
is of the igneous kind; for it may be kept fluid for a
conflderable time, and even made red-hot, without af¬
firming the pulverulent form : when fufiered to cool, af¬
ter being melted, it fixes in an opaque mal's, called cryf-
tal mineral, or fal prunella, which is as heavy, as fufible,
and as foluble in water, as the nitrat of potafli itfelf. The
cryftal mineral of the fhops differs from pure melted ni¬
tre, for it contains a fmall quantity of fulphat of potafli,
produced by the comb.uftion of the fulpliur, which, ac¬
cording to the Paris Pharmacopeia, is in the proportion
of a drachm in the pound.
Very pure nitrat of potafli is not altered by expofure
to the air; fometimes it lofes its tranfparency. It de-
compofes, by the help of heat, with feveral combultible
bodies, as fuiphur, charcoal, metals, & c. Let three parts
of nitrat of potafli and one of fuiphur be heated iiYa re¬
tort ; as foon as the mixture begins to be red-hot, a very
ftrong flame is produced ; a quantity of gafs is difen¬
gaged, containing a fmall quantity of nitrous gas and
azotic gas ; the refidue is fulphat of potafli. Sulphur
has, therefore, at a high temperature, more affinity or
attraction for the oxygen than the azot has. If equal
parts of lulphur and nitre be ufed, inltead of having ful-
-pliuric acid, as when fulphuric acid is prepared for the
arts, fulphat of potalti only is obtained, formed by the
combination of that acid withjpotafli, the bale of nitre.
The fait obtained in this way is called fal polychref of
Glafer, from him who firft made it known. It is on ac¬
count of the aCtion of nitrat of potafli upon fuiphur, that
it is ufed in making fulphuric acid in the large way.
Charcoal decompoles nitrat of potafli with conflderable
rapidity.
CHEMISTRY.
rapidity, if their temperature be raifed : the decompofi-
tion takes place with fo much velocity as to occafion a
confiderable and almoft inffantaneous decrepitation or
detonation. The operation in open veifels is as follows :
Put a certain quantity of nitre into a crucible, which
place in a furnace among burning coals ; when the nitre
is melted, and the veflel begins to be red, put in a fpoon-
ful of charcoal in powder, which will be followed by a
loud detonation ; then put in another fpoonful, and lo
proceed till the charcoal produces no detonation. A la-
line, matter remains in the crucible; this is to be cal¬
cined, and afterwards diffolve the fait in the water ; drain,
and evaporate to drynefs : this was formerly called nitre
fixed by charcoal : if the liquor, fomewhat concentrated,
was preferved, it was then called fixed liquor of nitre, and
alkahefi of Van Helmont. Modern chemilts difcern in this
operation, only a little potalh, more carbonic acid formed
by the decompofition of the nitric acid, whole oxygen
is driven upon the charcoal.
The following is the mode of decompofing nitrat of
potalh with charcoal, in clofe veflels : Two or three large
receivers, adapted together, are applied to a retort of
earth or iron, in the upper part of which lafi is an aper¬
ture, which may be doled with a cover or Hopper. The
velfel is heated, and, when its bottom is red, the equal
mixture of nitrat of potalh and charcoal is thrown in by
fmall quantities at a time, through the aperture, which is
immediately clofed. During the detonation, the receivers
are filled with vapours, part of which condenles into an
infipid liquor, not at all acid, but frequently alkaline ;
the relidue confift of potalh charged with carbonic acid,
and is called clyfius of nitre. If a mixture of nitre and
lighted charcoal be put in a tube, and plunged into wa¬
ter, the combultion continues ; and thus the gafes refult-
ing from this combultion may be gathered with the pneu¬
matic apparatus.
To make what is called fulminating powder, put into
a marble mortar, which has been heated with boiling
water, and well dried, three parts of very dry nitrat of
potalh, two parts of very dry potalh, and one of fulphur,
in .fine powder : mix thele materials well together by
pounding with a glafs peltle heated and dried in the fame
manner: put this mixture in a bottle very dole Hopped.
The property of this powder is to produce, on being ex¬
pofed to the fire, a very Hrong and loud explofion. Put a
little of the powder in an iron-ladle over a very gentle fire ;
the powder melts; when it has attained a certain degree
of heat, it flies off in vapours fuddenly, and an explofion
is prodpced as loud as the report of a cannon. This
feems to adt by double affinity. This phenomenon, which
is fo much the more affonilhing, becaufe its effedt is pro¬
duced without enclofing the powder in any inffrument,
as is done with gun-powder, may be explained, by ob-
ferving, i. That it does not fucceed but by gradually
heating the mixture, fo ps to melt it. 2. That, if fulmi¬
nating powder be thrown on ignited charcoal, it only
fufes, like nitre, but with very little noife. 3. That a
mixture of fulphure of potalh with nitre, in the propor¬
tion of one part of the former and two of the latter,
fulminates with more rapidity, and produces as loud a
report as the compofition of fulphur, nitre, and alkali:
hence it appears, that, when fulminating powrder is heat¬
ed, fulphure of potalh is formed before the detonation
takes place ; and this fadt is lufiicient to explain the whole
appearance. When cryffallized nitre, and fulphure of
potalh are expofed to the action of heat, fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas is difengaged from the latter, while the lalt
gives out vital air. Now thefe two, which together are
capable of producing, a Hrong detonation, as we have ob-
ferved in fpeaking of hydrogen gas, are let on fire by a
portion of the fulphur. But as the thick fluid they are
obliged to pafs through prefents a confiderabie obltacle,
and as the whole takes fire at the fame inffant,. they ffrike
the air with fuch rapidity that it refiffs in the fame man¬
ner as the chamber of a mulket refiffs the expapfion of
Vol. IV. No. 19a.
23 7
gun-powder. A proof of this is obfervable in the effedt
the fulminating powder has on the ladle in wdiich it ex¬
plodes. The bottom of this velfel is bulged outwards,
and the fides bent inwards, in the fame manner as if it
had been adted on by a force diredted perpendicularly
downwards, and laterally inwards, though it may be
eafily conceived that the effedt of the expldfion fliould be
diredted equally on all tides, or circularly.
If iron, copper, or zink, be heated with nitrat of pot¬
alh, thefe metals are oxyded, "and the potalh remains
pure. This fait is very foluble, three or four parts of
cold water diffolving one part of nitre, and boiling water
diffolving twice its weight. It therefore cryffallizes by
cooling; and on this property is founded the art of ex¬
tracting nitrat of potalh from old plalter or rubbilh. In
palling from the folid to the liquid Hate it lowers the
thermometer.
A mixture of nitrat of potalh with o-i 5 of charcoal
and o' 1 o of fulphur, compofes gun-powder, whofe ter¬
rible effedts arife from its great combuftibility. This
mixture is triturated for ten or twelve hours, in wooden
mortars, with peffles of the fame fubltance, a very fmall
quantity of water being added from time to time. When
almoff the whole of the fluid is evaporated, fo that the
powder will not foil an earthen plate, it is carried to be
granulated. This is effe'dted, by caufing it to pafs through
a number of fieves of Ikin, which are moved backwards
and forwards in a right line. The holes in thefe fieves
are of various fizes, down to that of cannon powder.
The duH, or meal powder, is feparated from the grains
by lifting. The grains are then carried to the drying-
houfe, which is a Hied expofed to the fouth, with glafs
windows, fo as to receive the rays of the fun. Cannon
powder receives no other preparation than we have here
mentioned. Muflcet powder is glazed, that it may not
foil the hands. To perform this operation, a calk,
mounted on an axis, and turned by a water wheel, is
half filled with powder. The motion of the calk excites
continual fridtion, by which the grains of the powder
are worn fmooth.
Baume has made a very numerous fet of experiments
on the method of preparing gun-powder, on the refpec-
tive forces of this compound made with different propor¬
tions of the ingredients, and on the analyfis of this fub-
Hance. Out of the many valuable circumffances of in¬
formation derived from thefe experiments, we fhall only
fcledt fuch as have an immediate reference to chemical
theory. 1. Good powder cannot be made without ful¬
phur, as has been propofed by feveral perfons ; this fub-
ffance being found greatly to increafe its force. 2. Eve¬
ry kind of charcoal, whetherlight or heavy, except ani¬
mal coal, is equally fit for making gun-powder. 3.
Charcoal. is one of the moffufeful ingredients, a mixture
of fulphur and nitre not producing an effedt to be com¬
pared with that of gun-powder. 4. The goodnels of
gun-powder depends entirely on the accurate mixture
and trituration, continued till the powder riles in the
form of duff about the mortar. 5. Powder has a much
greater effedt when Amply dried, than when grained.
The moiffure neceffary to grain the pow'der, caufes the
nitre to feparate, by cryffallization from the other fub-
ltances ; fo that it may be obferved, by a magnifier, in
the internal part of grains of powder, cut in two. 6.
Glazed, or mulket powder, is lets Hrong than unglazed'
powder, becaufe the particles of the former are cloler to¬
gether, and conlequently lefs inflammable. As to the
analyfis of gun-powder, Baume performs it in a veiy
fimple manner: his procefs confiffs in waffling the gun¬
powder, well pulverized, with aiitilled water, and eva¬
porating the water, which of courfe affords the nitre in
cryffals ; the refidue contains the fulphur and charcoal.
Sublimation does not completely leparate the former,
becaufe it appears to be partly more fixed by the char¬
coal. Baume, to feparate them, burned the fulphur by
a heat not fuflicient to burn the charcoal. The latter,
3 P however.
238 C H E M I
however, always retains a fmall quantity of fulphur,
fince, according to the obfervation of that chemift, it
emits a fulphureous l'mell till it is entirely reduced to
allies. He elfimates the fulphur, retained by the char¬
coal, at one twenty-fourth of its weight. Gun-powder
may likewife be deprived of its fulphur, by expofing it
entire, and without previous walking, to the aftion of a
gentle heat, as Mr. Robins, in his Treatife on Gunnery,
has well obferved. The perfons who fteal game have
been long in the habit of defulphurating gun-powder,
by expofing it in a tin dilh to the heat of a bed of allies.
They are perfuaded, that the powder in this ftate, im¬
pels the fhot to a much greater diftance, and does not
foil the piece fo much.
Chemifts and natural philofophers have maintained
various opinions refpefting the violent effects of gun¬
powder; feme have attributed them to water, reduced
into vapour, and others to the fudden dilatation of air.
Baume fuppofed them to a rife from a nitrous fulphur,
formed in the inltant of combuftion. Fourcroy thinks
this phenomenon may be very readily explained, by the
application of the modern improvements in chemillry.
He obferves, that all the phenomena, which attend the
inflammation of gun-powder, depend entirely on its
great combullibility. Sulphur and carbon, minutely di¬
vided, are bodies highly inflammable. The intimate
mixture, which has fo great an influence on the force of
gun-powder, as Baume’s valuable experiments have
fihown, is the only caufe of its effefts. The nitre is ■
equally Jifperfed among all the particles of very com-
bullible matter: as its quantity is much the greateft, each
particle of fulphur and charcoal is furrounded, and, as
it were, covered with nitre. A much greater quantity
of vital air, than is neceftary for the complete ccmbuf-
tion, will be produced; it being well afeertained, that
nitre affords that fluid in great quantities, by the appli¬
cation of heat. The fame thing happens in this com-
huflion, as. is obferved, when a combuftihle body is
plunged- in a veffel filled with vital air; that is to fay, it
is burned with great vivacity, and in much lets time
than in the common atmofpheric air. It follows, there¬
fore, that the fulphur and the charcoal muft be burned
in an infiant, becaufe they are really plunged in an at-
mofphere of vital air. Hence, fays Fourcroy, the rapid
inflammation of powder, its taking place in clofe veffels,
and the terrible force with which it explodes and drives,
every obftacle before it, may be eafily conceived. But
this explanation, as given. hy. Fourcroy, of the explofive,
effefts of gun-powder is rendered extremely doubtful by
the late ingenious and difficult experiments which count
Rumford has made upon this fubjeft, of which a very
minute account is to be found in the volume of the Pby- .
lofophical Tranf actions for 1797. By contriving to tire
gun-powder in an apparatus, in which the elaftic fluid
generated was made to aft with a determined force
dgainft a weight capable of being increafed or diminifhed
at pleafure, the count was enabled to calculate the force
which this fluid exerts with a very tolerable degree of
accuracy. In fome experiments this force amounted to
no lefs than 412529 lbs. a force 55004 times greater than
the mean preffure of the atmofphere. When the weight
was increafed fo as to confine the elaftic fluid for a few
minutes after the inflammation of the powder, it was
found to poflefs only a very fmall degree of expanfive
force ; for, on railing the weight, the fluid ruflied out
with a noife hardly fo loud or iliarp as the common re¬
port of an air-gun. It became obvious from this and fi-
milar experiments, that the quantity and force of the
permanently elaftic fluid generated were by no means
adequate to explain the phenomena. Count Rumford
was therefore led to fearch for the caufe of thefe pheno¬
mena in the temporary aftion of a fluid not perma¬
nently elaftic; and this fluid lie conceived to be water,
whichhadBeen converted into vapour by the caloric evol¬
ved during the combuftion of the inflammable materials
a
S T R Y.
of which gun-powder is compofed. Two conditions only
feemed to be required to render this fuppofttion proba¬
ble ; ill, The exiltence of a lufticient quantity of water
in gun-powder; and, fecondly, The evolution of a
quantity of caloric not only fufiicient to Convert this wa¬
ter into fleam, butalfo.to raife its temperature in that
ftate to a very confiderable degree.
The firft condition is found in the quantity of water
aftually contained in gunpowder, which from experiment
appears to amount to fifteen grains of this fluid in every
cubic inch of thepowder. Tiiefecond condition is to be
fought for in the aftual degree of heat, which is excited
during the inflammation of gunpowder, and the eftefts
which this degree is known to have of increaling the ex¬
panfive force of aqueous vapour. With regard to the
degree of heat, it may be remarked, that brafs lias been
known to melt in the heat generated during thecombuf-
tion of gunpowder, when -this metal was previoufly re¬
duced to very fmall particles, and mixed with if. Now,
this metal, according to Wedgwood, melts only in a de¬
gree of heat equal to 3807. It is alfo a well known faft,
that the elafticity of aqueous vapour is incomparably
more increafed by any given increase of temperature than,
that of any other (pecies of elaftic fluid. But as the
elasticity or expanfive force of this fluid at the tempera¬
ture of 2i2°, is equal to the ordinary preffure of the at-
nvofphere ; and as this ekjfticity is doubled by every in-
creale of temperature equal to 300 of Fahrenheit, it be¬
comes eafy to calculate what the prodigious force of
this vapour mult be when railed to the temperature
of 3807°.
When gun-powder takes fire, azotic gas is difengaged,
which expands aftoniftiingly in recovering its liberty ;
and how far the dilatation may go, cannot be known,
on account of the great heat which accompanies the
combuftion. There is alio a decompofition of water,
and hydrogen gas is difengaged with elafticity: by the
decompofition of water we have carbonic acid gas and
fulphurated hydrogen gas, which occafions the fmell pe¬
culiar to burnt gun-powder.
We fliall in this place mention that mixture of nitre
and fulphur, which is called ponjodur of fufibn. It confifts
of three parts of nitre, one of fulphur, and one of law-
duft. A fmall quantity of this powder is put into a nut-
fliell, with a fmall piece of copper money rolled up ;
the piece is covered with the fame powder, which being
fet on fire, barns rapidly, and melts the coin, without
burning the flieil, which is only blacked. It is ne-
celfary, however, to plunge the whole in water as foon as
the powder has ceaied to burn.
Njtrat of potafli is decompofed by fulphuric acid ; the
belt method of procuring nitric acid, is as follows: Put
into a glafs tubulated retort, ico parts of very pure ni-
trat of potafli, ami feventy-five parts of concentrated fui-
phuric acid ; place the retort on a land-bath, as Ihewn in
the Cliemiitry Plate ¥. at A, fig; 2.. and fix thereto a bal¬
loon, or receiver; with two necks, B; fix to the lower
extremity of this balloon a tube, one end of which, form¬
ing a right angle with the other, is to be plunged into
the centre of a bottle with three necks, C ; each of the
fide openings of this bottle receives a lyphon, which goes
into another bottle, placed on each fide of the firft, as at
F> D ; thefe two collateral bottles are joined by lyphons
to two (imilar ones, EE, whole lateral apertures, a a, are
left unftopped. The firll bottle is commonly left empty ;
the collateral bottles contain a certain quantity of water,
in which is plunged the iowermoft and longelt extremity
of the tube, which goes from the one to the other ; the
upper par.t of the bottles is left empty , and, when the
acid vapour paffes above the water of the firft bottles, it
is carried by the tubes into the fucceeding ones. The
apparatus mult be well luted : the retort is to be heated
by degrees ; and, at the end of the operation, let the heat
be very ftrong, to prevent ablorption.
There is a principal advantage derived from this in¬
genious
CHEMISTRY.
genious contrivance, which muft not be paffed over in
jilcnce. At the end of the operation, when the veflels
are fuftered to cool, a vacuum is formed within ; and the
■external air, prelling on the fur face of the water in the
laft open bottles, forces it to return by the tubes into the
firft collateral bottles, and from them into the bottle
neared the receiver. If the firft bottle were not empty,
and of a fufficient magnitude to contain all the water of
the following bottles, the acid liquors would pafs into
the receiver ; and, as the ftrongeft nitrous acid is con¬
tained in that veffel, it would be diluted by the addition
of the fluid contained in all the bottles. This inconve¬
nience would be llill more prejudicial in other didilla-
tions we fhall have occafion to fpeak of, where it would,
not only diminiih the force, but likewife alter the purity
of the produdh During the operation, the heat mud be
gradually raifed till nothing more comes over. The dif-
engagement, and pafiage of gas through the water in the
bottles ferve to diieCt the operator in managing the pro-
cefs. If it be too rapid, the heat mud be diminifhed,
led the whole mafs in the retort fhould fwell up and pais
into the receiver. If, on the contrary, it be too flow, the
dre mud be raifed, to prevent abforption. This' valuable
apparatus has therefore the additional advantage of di¬
recting the operator to conduit his procefs to the belt ad¬
vantage.
Nitrat of potafli diddled with fulphuric acid, furnifhes
about 0-43 of its own weight of nitric acid, of a faint
orange-colour. It will eafily be accounted for why the
nitrat of potafli (hould give an orange-coloured acid, al¬
though completely faturated with oxygen, if it be con-
fidered, that the oxygen is eafily ieparated from the ni¬
tric acid by the contaCt of light, or of a moderate heat ;
and, by recollecting alfo, that .nitric acid has a ltrong
affinity for nitrous gas. It is, in faff, by the influence of
a double affinity, that a portion of the nitric acid is de-
compoled : the one, between the caloric, the light, and
the oxygen ; the other, between the niiric acid and the
nitrous oxyd. This theory is confirmed by the oxygen
gas which is difengaged towards the end of the diltilla-
tion of nitric acid, and which may be Collected with the
pneumatic apparatus ; and by the nitrous gas, which is
feparatedfroni the coloured acid when mixed with water.
The refidue from this decompoiition is very acid l'ulpliat
of potafli ; it is commonly in a white mafs, opaque, and
femirvitreous.
The acid obtained by this procefs, never pofteffes that
degree of purity neceffary for nice experiments. It is
proper, therefore, to rectify it by a frelh dillillation with
nitre, or nitrat of fllver, or nitrat of barytes, or even the
femi-vitreous oxyd of lead if the latter be ufed, care
muft be taken to feparate the firft produCt. A very pure
acid may be obtained in either of tiiefe ways.
Another procefs is ufed in the arts, for ex trailing the
nitric acid from faltpetre : With two partsof nitre mix
fix parts of clay, which has been prevaoully calcined to
deprive it of the greateft part of its moilture, and to con¬
vert the martial pyrites, from which it is fcarcely ever
free, into fulphuiic acid,. which remains interpofed be-,
tween the parts of the earth. This mixture is introduced
into earthen retorts of a peculiar form, termed mines,
which are placed in a row, on long furnaces, called gal¬
leries ; their necks are inferted in bottles of the lame
form, and material, which lerve as receivers, and which
are to be luted with clay. When the retorts are covered,
and the receivers properly adjufted, light the fire; in-
creafe the heat by degrees ; as loon as red vapours begin
to appear, unlute the receivers, and take out the iiquor
they contain, which the workmen call phlegm .- refix the
receivers, and continue the dillillation rill no more va¬
pours come over.
The decompoiition of nitrat of potafli does not take
place here, as with fulphuric acid, on account of the
greater affinity of the clay for the potafli, but by a dou¬
239
ble attraction : one between nitric acid and caloric; the
other between 'the alumine and the potafli, with which
it forms a kind of femi-vitreous frit. Yet there is a con-
fiderable decompoiition of nitric acid in this operation,
as is proved by the red vapours which get through the
lutings. It has been obferved, that the prelence of py¬
rites favours greatly the decompoiition of nitrat 6f pot-
afh ; for, the more of it is contained in the clay, the more
acid is obtained from them, and at a much lower degree
of heat. The refidue from this operation is called cement
by the diftillers of aqua-fortis, and is ufeful in mafonry.
Muriatic acid alio deconipofes nitrat of potafli, but by
a different operation from that with fulphuric acid : it is
not by feparating immediately the potafli that this de-
compofition is effected ; it is, on the contrary, by attack¬
ing the nitric acid, which it leizes upon, and part of the
oxygen, whence arifes oxygenated muriatic acid, and
nitrous acid in vapours : thus, as the muriatic acid takes
up part of the oxygen of the nitric acid, it pafles into
the ftate of nitrous acid ; and, as this has lefs affinity
with the potafli than the muriatic acid, it is driven away,
and munat of potalh is formed. It muft be oblervcd,
that thefe effeCts take place only by the aid of heat; and
that a good deal of muriatic acid muft be uled, becaufe
one part of it unites with the oxygen, while another part
unites with the potafli : fo that here we obferve a double
affinity.
Nitrat of potafli is of great life in the arts. Burned
with different proportions of tartar, it forms the lub¬
ftances called fluxes, which are employed in the art of af-
faying, to fule and reduce metallic lubftances. It is fre¬
quently uled in medicine as a febrifuge diuretic antifep-
tic fait; it is adminiftered in any convenient liquid, from
ten or twelve grains, to the quantity of half a drachm,
or more ; and it d_aily produces the mod happy effects.
Of the CONSTRUCTION of NITRE BEDS.
Of late years, nitre has occupied much of the attention
of the French chemifts. Conilderable light lias been
thrown on the theory of its formation, and feveral im¬
provements fuggefled in the various procelfes of its ma¬
nufacture. The rti'ult of their inquiries and labours on
this iRtereftin® fubjeCt, are worthy of our utmoft regard.
A hundred parts in weight of nitrat of potafli, confift,. ac¬
cording to Mr. Kirwan, of 41-2 of nitric acid, 46-15 of
potalh, and 12-83 of the water of compofition. The
acid, ns lias been fully proved, refults from the com¬
bination of leven parts of oxygen, with three of azot.
The alkali is fuppofed to be derived immediately and
entirely from the vegetable matter employed in the pro¬
cefs of nitrification; though there is fome realon to fuf-
peCt, it may in part be formed by the developement and
lublequent union of its elementary principles. We can
be at no lofs to account for the origin of tiie water.
The principal circumftances to which it is neceliary
to attend in the conltruction of. artificial nitre beds, are,,
firft, the choice of materials. Thefe, as Fourcroy remarks,
are fuch vegetable and animal bodies as are moll fufetp-
tible of decompoiition, with a proper admixture of cal¬
careous earth. Though, in the vegetable kingdom, there
be a confideiable latitude of choice, yet experience has
Iliown, that all vegetables are not equally fuited for the
production of nitre. In general, thole vegetables are
to be preferred which are molt eafily d'econipoied, and
which ieem to contain moft of the elementary principles
of that fubftance. Of this kind are fome of the poifonous
plants, and plants of a itrong and foetid odour, fuch as
hemlock, tobacco, lungwort, henbane, cabbage, hoar-
bound, nettles, &c. Hie extraft of thefe plants is found,
by keeping, to be covered with cryltals of nitre. The
cruciform and leguminous plants arifwer extremely well
for the production of nitre. The dry and fibrous parts
are 'of leall ufe. - Among animal lubftances, the loft are
to be preferred to the hard, becaufe they are more readily
decompofed.
240 C H E M ]
decompofed- Herbiveyous are in general preferred to
carniverous animals. Worms, infeCts, and reptiles, are
laid to be capable of being refolved almoft entirely into
nitre. Blood feems to be the animal fluid which affords
the greateft quantity of this fubftance. The dung of hens
and pigeons has always been conlidered as extremely pro-
dudtive. That of oxen is faid to yield lefs than that of
flieep. Urine ought to be employed only towards the
latter ftage of the procefs of nitrification, as it favours
the produdlion of muriat of i'oda. The purpofe which
thele animal and vegetable fubftances ferve in nitrifica¬
tion is now known. They all give out, during their de-
compofition, a greater or lefs quantity of azot, which,
uniting with the oxygen of the atmolphere, forms the
nitric acid. But the prefence of lime, or of fome alkaline
bafis, is neceflary to fix this acid. When vegetable or
animal bodies are mixed with filiceous or aluminous
earths, little or no nitric is produced ; the acid which is
faid to be formed being either exhaled into the air, or
carried off by the water. The addition of an alkaline
fubftance is proper only towards the end of the procefs ;
if added fooner, it retards the decompofition of the or¬
ganic fubftance.
The lighted and moft porous calcareous fubftances are
found to anfwer beft. Their property of affording nitre
is increafed by their containing a quantity of iron : it is
increafed alfo by dividing them minutely, foas to increafe
as much as poflible the extent of their l'urface. It feems
to be for the fame reafon that calcareous fubftances which
contain an admixture of filiceous or aluminous earth,
or even of chaff, are more productive than the calcareous
earths which are pure. It is not eafy to determine nor
to preferve the juft proportion between the earthy bafe
and the putrifying principles ; it muft be fucb, however,
that all the acid formed may be readily combined. Too
great a proportion of earth is hurtful, not only by its
occupying an ufelefs fpace, but alfo by retarding putre¬
faction. In general (Chaptal fays), the proportion of
calcareous earth may vary from one-fifth to one-tenth of
the volume of the vegetables employed. Befides ferving
as a bafe to fix the acid, do not calcareous fubftances
difpofe the oxygen and the azot to unite, in confequence
of the affinUe difpofe?
The oxygen gas combines with azot only in the mo¬
ment of its dilengagement from animal or vegetable
matters, and before it has affumed the gafeous form. In
this date it has been hot unaptly termed Nafce/it azotic
gas. A high degree of temperature becomes, therefore,
improper, becaufe it would caufe the azot to aflume the
gafeous form, and would confequently prevent the for¬
mation of the acid. A very low temperature is equally
injurious, becaufe, by retarding or putting an entire flop
to the decompofition, it prevents the dilengagement of
azotic gas. Experience has fhewn, that the temperature
fitted: for the production of nitre lies between 750 and
900 of Fahrenheit. This temperature muft refult from
the decompofition of the animal and vegetable fubftances,
and not be merely the effeCl of art. It is to be preferved
by excluding carefully currents of cold air, which would
tend to carry off the heat.
An intenfe or ltrong light feems to be very injurious
to the production of nitre. Befides the effeCt which it
will undoubtedly have of volatilizing the azot, it may
fairly be queftioned, whether it will not alfo decompole
the nitric acid. Saltpetre-makers, aware of the pernicious
tendency of too ltrong light, have generally chofen a
northern expofure for their nitre beds. This expofure
has the additional advantage of preferving a more equal
temperature. Towards the latter ftage of the decompo¬
fition, it has been found ufeful to expofe the putrifying
matters to the light. At this period it feems to give new
energy to the procefs, and to promote greatly the pro-
duCticn of nitre.
In order to produce the combination of the oxygen
gas with the azot, it is neceflary that thefe two fubftances
S T R Y.
fheuld remain for fome time in contaCt with each other,,
All currents of air muft, therefore, be unfavourable to
the production of nitre; and hence it is that we find
faltpetre-makers recommend, that the air fhould be in a
Hate of abfolute reft or ftagnation. I11 order to increafe
the furface expofed to the air, it is a common practice
with fome faltpetre-makers to fix flakes of wood in various
directions in the nitre beds. After the niafs has become
dry and a little firm, thefe flakes are withdrawn, that the
air may penetrate every part of the mafs, and come into
contaCt with as large a furface as poflible. The propriety
of occafionally renewing this air muft be obvious to every
one who reflects, that this is the fource from which the
oxygenous part of the nitre is derived. It becomes ne-
ceflary alfo, particularly in the latter periods of the pro¬
cefs, to ftir the mafs, and expofe every part of it to the
aCtion of the air. Great caution is required not to do
this either too early or too often, as it is apt to retard
putrefaction.
Either too great or too finall a degree of moifture is
equally unfavourable to the formation of nitre. In a hot
and dry atmofphere, the parts of vegetables and animals
would be diflipated without undergoing the procefs of
putrefaction. Too much moifture, on the contrary, might
not only retard the putrefaction, but might alfo carry
off the acid after it had been formed. Great caution,
therefore, is neceflary in watering the nitre beds. The
liquids moft proper for this purpofe are, the blood of ani¬
mals, either by itfelf, or diluted in water, the water from
dunghills, fewers, &c. Thefe, befides affording the ne-
ceffary degree of moifture, contain much vegetable and
animal matter', in a flate highly favourable to the produc¬
tion of nitre.
Such are the general principles on which nitre beds
are conftruCted ; but the particular Heps of the procefs
vary in different countries. Thefe will be belt underftood
by examples.
In Prufiia, five meafures of black vegetable earth, or
the earth of fubterranean caverns, are mixed with one
meafure of unlixiviated allies and fome ftraw. Thefe fub¬
ftances beat up with the water of dunghills or fewers, are
formed into walls or beds of twenty feet long, fix or fe-
ven feet high, and three feet broad at the bale, declining
to two at the top. Thefe beds are contained in (hallow
wooden cafes or moulds, and are covered with a thatch
of ftraw to proteCl them from the rain. They are moif-
tened from time to time, and are fit for being lixiviated
at the end of a year.
In Malta, they employ the moft porous calcareous
earth mixed with ftraw, which has been lixiviated, Ob¬
long triangular piles are formed of alternated layers, each
half a foot in thicknefs, of this earth and dung. Thefe
layers are terminated by a very thin layer of dung, ap¬
plied loofely with the hand. The bed is occafionally
fprinkled with mother water of faltpetre, urine, and wa¬
ter from dunghills. As foon as the furface becomes dry,
it is turned down, and the bed moiftened. This becomes
fit for lixiviation at the end of three years. During the
firft year, the beds are every month lprinkled over with
the powder of flacked lime.
In Sweden, their beds are railed on bricks laid on the
earth. On this' bafis is placed a layer of mortar, com-
pofed of meadow turf, allies, lime, and the neceflary
quantity of mother water, or of urine. ' Over this is
placed a layer of ftraw ; and thefe layers of ftraw and
mortar are continued alternately to the fiummit. The
beds are defended from the rain, and moiftened occa¬
fionally with urine, ftagnant water, & c. Thefe beds yield
nitre at the end of a year, and laft for ten years. The
faltpetre is fwept off every eight days ; and, after each
fwe.eping, the beds are moiftened with weak mother wa¬
ter. The matter remaining at the end of ten years forms
an excellent manure in the culture of hemp and flax.
In the canton of Apenzel, in Swiflerland, they take
advantage of the fituation of their (tables, on the rapid
declivities
CHEMISTRY.
declivities of their mountains, to form very productive
nitre beds. The upper tide of thefe fquare flables refts
on the mountain, while the lower is fupported by Hones
or pillars of wood, railed two or three feet above the
earth, according to the greater or lefs declivity. This
leaves an interval open to the air between the floor of
the itable and the mountain. In this place a ditch is
dug of about three feet in depth. This ditch is filled
with very porous earth, which imbibes the urine of the
cattle. It is lixiviated every two or three years. The
earthy refidue is dried in the open air, and returned back
•into the ditch. In tbismanner they obtainabout a thoufand
pounds of faltpetre from an ordinary itable at each lix-
lyiation.
The earthy part of nitre beds requires to be renewed
mere or lefs frequently according to the quantity of cal¬
careous earth which it contains. Mo particular time can
be ipecified for the term of putrefaction, the periods of
moiftening the beds, or the time proper for turning them.
The appearance of the beds, and the general principles
already laid down, can only direCt thefe particular fteps,
which mult vary extremely according to circumftances.
The general marks by which a bed may be' known to
contain io much nitre as to make it worth working, are
the efflorefcence and cracks on the furface in which no
plants grow. If fome of the particles of the bed be tail¬
ed, they will give a fait tafte, which will vary, however,1
according to the earthy or alkaline balls, and may there¬
fore be mild, acrid, or bitter. The bed rqufl be after¬
wards examined to the depth of feveral inches, and in
different places, in order to alcertain whether the whole
be nitrified. Another, but more troublefome method,
is, to lixiviate a fmall quantity of the bed, a cubic foot,
or yard, for'inftance, and from its produce to calculate
the value of the whole.
The following is the procefs now generally followed
in the great manufactories in France, for the purification
of nitre. The nitre is firfl pounded, and put into tubs
in quantities of 500 or 600 pounds, Twenty per cent, of
water is poured into each tub. The mixture is well ftir-
red, and left to digefl for fix or feven hours, during
which time the water acquires the denfity of between
twenty-five and thirty-five degrees. This water is now
poured off, and ten per cent, of frtfh water added, which
is fuffered to remain only for one hour. Five per cent,
of water is now to be poured on, and immediately drawn
off as foon as it has been ftirred. The nitre, when pro¬
perly drained, is thrown into a boiler, containing fifty
per cent, of boiling water. The folution will mark be¬
tween fixty-fix and fixty-eight degrees of the hydrome¬
ter. The folution is next poured into a veffel to cryflal-
lize, where, in the courfe of from four to fix hours it
depofits about two-thirds of the original quantity of ni¬
tre. As it is of confequence in the fubfequent drying
that the cryflals fhould be in fmall needles, it becomes
neceflary toftir the folution during the whole time of the
depofition. The cryflals formed are removed with a
fkimmer, and thrown into baflcets to drain, and the wa¬
ter which paffes through is carefully colleCled. The lalt-
petre is afterwards put into wooden veflels with double
bottoms, formed in the fliape of mill-hoppers. The up¬
per bottom, which is railed about two inches above the
, other, is perforated with a number of fmall holes, through
which the water palfes to the lower bottom, from which
it is difeharged by a fmgle opefling. The faltpetre is
wafhed in thefe veflels with five percent, of water; and
this water is afterwards employed in the folution of the
fait. This faltpetre, well drained and expofed for fome
hours to the air upon drying tables, is fit to be ufed for
the manufacture of gun-powder. This fait may be. dried
more quickly by a Hove, or by putting it in a flat metal¬
lic veffel. For this purpofe, it may be put into the vef¬
fel to the depth of five or fix inches, and heated to about
1 3 50 of Fahrenheit. By ftirring it in this fituation for
two or three hours, it lofes its regular form, and puts
Vom lV. No. 193.
241
on the appearance of a fine dry fand. This degree of
drynefs, however, is not neceflary when the gun-powder
is made by pounding. Thefe difeoveries, which refulted
from the neceflities the French were lately under, ofiup-
plying their powder-mills with falt-petre of their own
making, cannot fail to prove of great value to this coun¬
try, when ever it might happen to be cutoff, as they were,
from foreign fupplies of nitre.
Nitrat of Soda. — This fait is feldom found pure in
nature; it is therefore produced by art. Bowles aflerts
that he found it in Spain. It is called cubic, quadran¬
gular, or rhomboidal, nitre: Fourcroy fays, that rhotn-
boidai is the propereft name, becaufe that is generally the
fliape of the cryflals.
This nitrat is prepared with cafbonat 'of foda : -it is to
be faturated with nitric acid ; ftrain the liquor, then eva¬
porate with a gentle heat, till pellicles are formed on the
furface: when left to fettle and cool, rhomboidal cryf-
tals or prifms are formed. Its tafle is cooling, arid. ra¬
ther more bitter than that of nitrat of potafh. Fire de-
cl[m poles it; but it decrepitates, and does not melt fo
eafily as the nitrat of potafli ; but, like that fait, it gives
out vital air, mixed with azotic gas, "at the fame time
that it becomes alkalized. It is fiightly deliquefeent
when expofed to the air. Nitrat of foda detonates on coals,
and caufes the complete combuftjon of inflammable bo¬
dies ; if it is heated, the detonation is fomewhat lefs ra¬
pid than that of nitrat of potafli, and the colour of the
flame is a deep yellow ; that of nitrat of potafh is a very
bright vivid -red ; and this may ferve to fliew whether
there be nitrat of foda in faltpetre or not. Gunpowder
made with nitrat of foda will not have the fame flrength,
nor give fuch a loud report, as that made with nitrat of
potalh. After comb nllion, there remains potafli or loda
combined with carbonic acid, which proves that all the
carbonic acid which is formed does not exhale. This,
fait is eafily loluble in water; it requires about three
parts of water of the mean temperature of the atmofphere
to diflblve it : boiling water diffolves more than its weight.
The fulphuric acid decompofes nitrat of foda; white
vapours are thrown off, and fulphat of foda is formed.
Muriatic acid decompofes nitrat of foda, but not by
feizing on the foda: it attacks the nitric acid, makes
nitrous acid, and a muviat of foda is formed. Much.of
the muriatic acid is required ; for, while one part of it
decompofes the nitric acid, the reft combines with the
1'oda. With nitrat of foda and muriatic acid, a kind of
nitro-muriatic acid is formed.
A very good glafs is made with nitrat of foda and fine
fand. The foda unites with the filex, the nitric acid is
decompofed by the caloric, and in the crucible remains
a very beautiful and pure glafs, finely than can be made
with nitrat of potafli. Nitrat of loda is decompofed by ba-
ryttes and potafli, forming nitrat of barytes or nitrat of
potafh, as the cafe may be.
Nitrat of foda may be applied to the fame ufes as nitrat
of potafli ; but as it does not produce all the effefts of this
lall fait (doubtlefs on account of its greater affinity with
water), and likewife becaufe it is merely a prod u6t of art,
little ufe has yet been made of it, neither have all the
experiments been made, which are neceflary to ailord a
complete knowledge of its properties.
Nitrat of Strontian. — This is obtained by de-
compofing fulphure of llrontian with nitric acid. It
cryftallizes in oftahedrals. Subjefted to heat in a cru¬
cible, it is entirely decompofed, and the earth remains
pure at the bottom of the veffel. By putting a little ni¬
trat of llrontian in the wick of a taper, it gives a purplifh
cad to the flame. By burning alcohol, which will hold
this nitrat in folution, the fame kind of flame is pro¬
duced ; which particularly diftinguifhes this earth from
barytes,
A mixture of nitrat of llrontian, of fulphur, and of
charcoal, in the fame proportion as thefe latter fubllances
are ufed for making gunpowder, though very dry, burns
3 flowly.
^42 C H E M :
flowly, giving out pujplifh fparks, and a beautiful green
flame. It is foluble in one part and a half. of water. Of
girths, barytes, potafli, and foda, decompofe it. This
ialt has a ftrong pungent tafte. In a dry air, it lofes its
water of cryftallization ; in a moiit, it attracts humidity.
Like all other nitrats, it deflagrates on hot coals. When
the heat rifes to rednefs, it begins to boil, and the acid
is diffipated.
Njtrat of Lime. — This is plentifully found in an¬
cient buildings, which have been long inhabited by men
or animals. It is prepared by faturating nitric acid, with
lime. Strain, and evaporate the liquor till it has nearly
the confidence of a fyrup. Then leave it in a cool place;
and it fettles in very long prifmatic cryftals, or rather in
bundles of needles diverging from a common centie. In
tafte it is acrid and bitter.
Nitrat of lime, dried, melts over coals; in a ftate of
perfeCf drynefs, it is very proper for drying gafes. It
eafily melts by heat, merely with the aid of its own water
of cryftallization; but the eifeft is hardly fenfible : it is
decompofed almoft immediately, and nitric acid is diien-
gaged. If carried into the dark after having been thus
liquefied by heat, it becomes luminous, and in this ftate
conftitutes the pbofpborus of Baldwin.
Nitrat of lime, otherwife called calcareous nitrat, quick¬
ly attracts the moilhire of the air, and for that reafon it
is neceflary to keep the cryftals of this fait in well-clofed
vefl'els, which muit not be opened too frequently. It is
very ioluble in water, two parts of cold, or lefs than one
part of boiling water, being fufticient to hold it in folution.
It is more eafily decompofed by charcoal than the nitric
acid is ; for heat dilengages the nitric acid from the nitrat
of lime in the form of an acid, whereas in other experi¬
ments, it is decompofed into its elements.
Sulphuric acid decompofes nitrat of lime, the nitric
acid palling off in white vapours : a folid mafs remains,
and much caloric is difengaged. Sulphuric acid poured
on a folution of calcareous nitrat, immediately produces
a precipitate of fulphat of lime, and the nitric acid re¬
mains difengaged in the liquid. The aftion of other
qcids on this fait is not known. Argil, barytes, potafti,
loda, and ftrontian, decompofe it. The calcareous nitrat
decompofes the neutral fulphuric alkaline (alts.
This fait might be employed in medicine as a very ac¬
tive folvent, and fome chemical phyflcians affirm, that its
application has-been attended with fuccefs. As the oxalic
acid takes the lime from every other acid, and forms with
it an infoluble compound, it is ufed as a teft of the pre¬
fence of lime, either free or in the ftate of combination.
Nitrat of Ammoniac. — This is found fometimes in
the mother- waters of nitre; but in general it is the pro¬
duction of art. It is prepared by the direit combination
of nitric acid with ammoniac. To avoid wafte, it is bet¬
ter to ufe the carbonat than the pure ammoniac, becaufe
there is an efl’ervefcence and a ftrong heat, which the car¬
bonat tempers. Its cryftals are prifms of fix fides, ter¬
minated with hexangnlar pyramids. Its tafte is bitter,
penetrating, and urinous : it is very flexible under the
peftle like. all the ammoniacal falts. When expofed to the
aCtion of fire, it lofes its water of cryftallization, and
gives out aqueous vapours. Thrown on a red-hot iron,
it catches flame, which is not the cafe with the other ni¬
trats ; it makes a confiderable hilling, and the flame is
yellow and very vivid. Making the experiment with a
pneumatic apparatus, there firft pafles over a little water;
then fome oxygen gas is produced ; and, la lily, there is
a pretty loud detonation. It will not be prudent to try
the experiment with any large quantity of .matter.
This fait is deliquefcent, or liable to melt of itfelf, ef-
pecially in winter. It is very foluble in water; unites
with, and melts ice, producing a confiderable degree of
cold. Half its weight of hot water is required to diffolve
it, and twice its weight of cold ; it cryltaliizes irregular¬
ly by cooling, but the moll perfeCt cryftals are obtained
by Ipontaneous .evaporation. If this fait be mixed with
*
S T R Y,
fulphur or charcoal, and heated in an apparatus proper
for obtaining gafes, the oxygen adts on thefe fubftances in
fuch a manner that the nitrat of ammoniac is not decom¬
pofed : carbonic acid and ammoniac are obtained; azot
is difengaged.
Sulphuric acid decompofes nitrat of ammoniac ; fulphat
of ammoniac is obtained, and nitric acid is fetfree. Mu¬
riatic acid makes it undergo a change, but with different
refults : the muriatic acid adts firft on the nitric acid, from
which it takes a part of its oxygen, and converts it into
nitrous acid ; oxygenated muriatic acid is therefore form¬
ed, which volatilifes by the help of the caloric, and the
muriat of ammoniac, which is in folution in the water.
With two parts of nitrat of ammoniac, and one of mu¬
riatic acid, a liquor is made which will diffolve gold. In
this cafe, the decompolition of the nitrat of ammoniac
takes place in a different manner : the oxygen of the ni¬
tric acid immediately attacks the gold ; the oxyd of gold
thereby formed diffolves by degrees in a portion of the
muriatic acid. By precipitating this folution of gold
with a fixed alkali, aurum fulminant, ororat ot ammoniac,
is produced ; for the alkali not only decompofes the mu¬
riat of gold, but alfo the muriat of ammoniac; fo that,
as the oxyd of gold is feparated, it unites with the am¬
moniac, and forms that peculiar combination of which
we have juft fpoken.
Barytes, lime, magnefia, foda, and ftrontian, decom-
pofe nitrat of ammoniac by uniting with its acid ; hence
refult different nitrats and pure ammoniac, as appears by
its lively and pungent flnell. This decompolition is made
in the cold, and is effected by triturating that fait with
thofe fubftances dry, as lime," potafli, See. With mag-
nefia, a triple fait is produced, ammoniaco-magnefian
nitrat. This fait niuft not be prepared in veffels ot me¬
tal, efpeciaily of iron and copper, as it tafily d:lfo ves
them. The nitrat of ammoniac has net hitherto been
applied to any ufe.
Nitrat of Magnesia. — This is fomeiimes found
native, but always in fmali quantities. It is formed by
carbonat of magnefia made cauftic by an alkali, and then
mixed to faturation with nitric acid. It has a bitter tafte,
fomewhat like nitrat of lime. It is very foluble in wa¬
ter, requiring but one half of its weight at molt to dif¬
folve it: it cryltaliizes in cooling, or by evaporating the
acid with the heat of the fun ; its cryftals are quadran¬
gular oblique prifms without pyramids ; but molt com¬
monly they are in needles, yet fo connected together as
to prefent no determinate form. Expofed to heat in clof-
ed vefl'els, it produces at firft fome bubbles of oxygen gas
and nitrous-acid vapours; but the nitric acid foon palfes
over without decompofition, and the magnefia remains
difengaged in the retort. A linall heat is fufticient for
the decompofition of nitrat of magnefia, which theas
that its elements have no great affinity for each other ;
it fhews alfo that magnefia lias not a tendency to unite
with the nitrous acid, like lime, barytes, Sec. This fait
is deliquefcent in the air.
Sulphuric acid decompofes nitrat of magnefia, by tak¬
ing away its bafe. Muriatic acid decompofes it alio, but
not by taking away the bafe: it attacks the nitric acid,
and forms oxygenated muriatic acid : the nitric, acid is
difengaged in white vapours. The muriatic acid feizes
upon the magnefia as fait as it is difengaged from its acid,
and forms with it a muriat of magnefia. It is alfo de¬
compofed by barytes, potafti, foda, lime, and ftrontian ;
ammoniac does not precipitate it completely ; for, as foon
as the>-e is enough o’ the ammoniac to form a triple fait
with the nitrat of magnefia, the precipitation ceafes, be¬
caufe the ammoniac cannot entirely decompofe the nitrat
of magnefia; and, by adding more ammoniac, it would
produce no etfeCt. What farther proves that the ammo¬
niac cannot decompofe all the nitrat of magnefia, is that,
after the precipitation has ceafed with the action of am¬
moniac, more' magnefia may be precipitated by another
alkali. The other alkalis precipitate magnefia in very
CHEMISTRY.
light flaky bladders : this is pure magnefla, free from all
acid ; but care mult be taken that it does not attract car¬
bonic acid in the drying; it mult be dried in balneum
mariae, in a clofe veffel. The alkaline fulphits alfo de-
compoie nitrat of magnefla : alkaline nitrats and fulphit
of magnefla are the pro hi£t, which are precipitated in
the form of (mall infoluble cryftals. This fait confifts,
according to Bergman, of twenty-feven magnefla, forty-
three nitric, and thirty water; but this is not to be de¬
pended on ; for it is impoflible to lefarate the water of
cryllaliization, without diflipating a portion of the nitric
acid. Magnefian nitrat is not ufed in the arts, nor in
medicine. Its ftrong talte, its deliquefcence, and all
its other properties, (how, that it would afl Itrongly on
the animal ceconomy ; yet it deferves to be tried as a fol-
vent and aperient medicine.
Nitrat of Alumine. — This fait has not yet been
found in nature, but is always pioduced by art. Its -pro¬
perties are very little known, farther than the nitric acid
diilblves the earth of alum : very pure and moift alumine
mult be employed, or the combination will be very diffi¬
cult : it cryftallizes in thin laminae or leaves, very duc¬
tile and deliquefcent. This fait is always flightly acid,
whatever quantity or proportion of alumine be uled. A
flight heat decompofes it. feparating the nitric acid with¬
out decompofition. It is not fu-fible over charcoal like the
other nitrats : it puffs up like alum, but does not bum the
coal, nor make it flame like nitrat of potafli ; it melts, boils
up, lol'es its acid, and remains like calcined alum.
Nitrat of alumine is decompofed by lulphuric acid;
it gives out white vapours. All the earthy and alkaline
lubftances decompole it. The aluminous precipitate,
obtained from nitrat of alumine by caultic potafli, is re-
difl'olved in an excefs of alkali, and points out a very
good mode of feparating alumine from magnefla; for
magnefla is not always foluble in an excefs of alkali.
This earth may be precipitated afrelh, by iaturating the
excefs of alkali with an acid. Ammoniac has not this
property. Lime re-diflblves the alumine like the caultic
alkalis. If too much lime be put into nitrat of alumine,
nitrat of lime is firft produced ; then follows a combined
precipitation of lime and alumine. Nitrat of alumine
precipitates all the lolutions of the vegetable colours, as
turnfol, lyrup of violets, Brazil wood, &c. In this man¬
ner common alum afts alfo; by precipitating the colours
upon the fluffs to be dyed.
Nitrat of Zircon. — The nitric acid combines
with zircon, when it is in the humid ftate. It is impof-
flble, however, to fat urate the nitric acid with this earth,
fo as to deftroy its acid properties, for the nitrat of zir¬
con always changes the blue infufions of vegetables in
the fame manner with acids. The folution of nitrat of
zircon, when evaporated by a gentle heat, affords a yel-
lowilh tranfparent, extremely tenaceous and vilcous mat¬
ter, which can be dried only with great difficulty. This
fait has a flvptic and aftringent taffe, and leaves a thick
matter on the tongue, which is produced from a decom-
poflticn occafioned by the I’aliva. Nitrat of zircon dif-
folves only in a very flnall quantity in water. To obtain
it in a ftate of cryllaliization, it is neceffary to evaporate
it in a very gentle heat, or by Ample expol'ure to the air.
Zirconia has the weakelt affinity of all known earthy fub-
ftanceslor acids.
The nitrat of zircon is decompofed by lulphuric acid,
which forms with it a white precipitate, foluble in an ex¬
cefs of' that acid; nelly, By carbonat of ammoniac, which
produces in it a depofit foluble in an excels of that lalt ;
jdly, By an infufion of galls in alcohoi, a white preci¬
pitate is produced, foluble in an excefs of the infufion ;
but if the zircon contains iron, the precipitate is of a
blue colour, approaching to grey, a portion of which
remains in folution, and gives to the liquor a pure blue
colour. This liquor, when mixed with carbonat of am¬
moniac, affords a matter purple with refrafled, and vio¬
let with reflefted, rays. Cryitallized gallic acid precipi¬
243
tates alfo the nitrat cf zircon, of a bluilh grey colour ;
but this colour is not fo beautiful. The nitrat ol zircon
is decompofable by all the preceding bales.
Of NITRITS.
Nitrits have fome properties in common with nitrats;
fuch as, a cooling taffe, and being fulible on coals. Ni¬
trits cannot be formed by fynthefis. Nitric acid decom¬
pofes them, which (hews clearly that nitrous acid exifts
in nitrits in a manner very different from nitric acid It
fliould rather feem that nitrits are a triple combination,
formed by the union of the nitric acid with two bafes,
one of which is always the oxyd of dzot. Thefe combi¬
nations are not ealily made but by decompofing the nitrats
in the dry way ; for, by immediately combining the ni¬
trous acid with different alkaline, earthy, or metallic,
bafes, nothing but nitrats are in general produced, be-
caufe thefe different bafes commonly feparate the oxyd
of azot almolt entirely from its combination with the ni¬
tric acid ; whereas, by making the nitrats red-hot, the
caloric and the light tend to feparate a certain quantity
of the oxygen, at the fame time that the. azot, deprived
of this acidifying principle, feeks bafes to form a triple
combination, by uniting with the bafe of the nitre, and
alio with that portion of nitric acid which was not ds-
compofed at all.
Nitrit of Potash. — This is obtained from nitrat of
potafli, decompoled by fire; it is very foluble in water.
Let it be pounded, and pour very weak nitric acid over
it, and a nitrous vapour will be thrown up; this vapour
is very red and ftrong ; it has heat and effervefcence-, be-
caule the nitrous acid is difengaged in the gafe.ous ftate.
The other vapour is not fo ftrong, becaule the nitric acid,
being diluted with water, this water tempers’ the vapour
as it flies off ; which does not happen when concentrated
lulphuric acid is ufed.
Nitrit of potalh. diluted in water, gives fyrup of vio¬
lets a green colour. Hence it muff contain an excefs of
alkali; and, as the nitrat is perfectly neutral, it is plain
that the excefs of oxygen contained in the nitrat ferves
to faturate the bale and alkali. When nitrits are de¬
compoled by a weak acid, as the acid of vinegar, or even
muriatic acid, it is doubtful whether the -vapour that
riles be nitrous acid, or only nitrous gas. Fill a balloon
witli a large aperture with nitrous vapours ; lufpend, by
means of threads, a Mail glafs veffel containing caultic
alkali either liquid or l'olia : a nitrat, and fome nitrous
gas, will be the product. The other nitrits are but
little known.
Of MURIATS.
Muriats have generic properties which diftinguilh them
from other falts .- 1. They are all foluble in water. 2.
They are all cryftallizable ; yet thofe of alumine and
magnefla with difficulty. 3. Several are deliquefcent.
4. They all melt over fire, volatilize, fpread in white
fumes, but are not all decompofed by heat like the ni¬
trats. The volatility of the acid is communicated to
its bafes, and this ftiews that the 'bafe has a ftrqng affi¬
nity for that acid. 5. They all precipitate a folution cf
fulphat of filver, under the form of very heavy white
flakes. 6. They elfeivefce with fulphuric acid, and
throw up a white vapour into the. air.
Muriat of Barytes. — Bergman afferts that this
fait is found in fome of the mineral waters of Sweden.
It is commonly made by decompofing liilphure of ba¬
rytes with muriatic acid; but, as the fulphat of barytes
often contains oxyd of iron, the muriatic acid unites
with it at the fame time as with the barytes; whence this
fait has a yellow colour. It is ealily feparated from this
foreign matter, by expo ling it to the fire for a few leconds
in a crucible ; as foon as it gets hot, the muriat of iron
is decompofed, its acid .volatilizes, and there remains
only the oxyd of iron with the muriat of barytes, which
by folution in water is ealily Obtained pure. Or it may
be purified by walhing in alcohol 5 the muriat of iron in
that
244 CHE M :
that cafe is diffolved, and the muriat of barytes is left
pure. This fait has a bitter metallic tafte. Its cryftals
are fquare and long, the edges channelled with dihedral
fummits. Its fpecitic gravity is very confiderable. It is
neither decompofed by heat, nor altered by air. It takes
five or fix parts of cold water to dilfolve it; the combi¬
nation is eafier with the aid of heat ; and it cryftallizes
in cooling. Several acids decompofe it, as the fulphuric,
nitric, oxalic, and tartareous.
As fulphuric acid forms with barytes a fait perfeftly
infoluble in water, it may be ufed for detefting the 1'mal-
left quantity of fulphuric acid in mineral waters, or
other combinations. Water containing oniy o’oooq. of
its weight of fulphat of foda recently cryftallized, will
give a vilible and immediate precipitation, by only put¬
ting in one fir.gle drop of muriat of barytes ; 00009 of
this fait diffolved > in the fame quantity of water, in a
few minutes produce a very vifible cloud; laftly, 0-00003
of fulphat of foda, in the fame quantity of water, occa-
fion a flight cloud not vifible for leveral hours.
^ Very pure lulphureous acid will not decompofe the mu¬
riat of-barytes. Nitric acid decompofes it; this may be
eafily proved, by putting into a concentrated folutioiiYof
this fait fome drops of nitric acid : they form a cryftalti-
zed precipitation, which requires twelve parts of water
to dilfolve it. Hence it follows, that, if we would know
whether nitric acid contains fulphuric acid, or any ful-
phats, by means of the muriat of barytes, care mull be
taken to temper the liquors with water ; for otherwife
we may be led into an error, by attributing to the ftil-
phuric acid what arifes only from the combination the
nitric acid has tvith that terreftrial fubftance.
Muriat of barytes is not to be decompofed by earths or
alkalis, becaufe barytes has in general more affinity with
acids than any of thefe fubftances. Sulphats and lulphits
have the property of decompoling it, by the operation of
double attraction. Nitrats have alfo the faculty of lepa-
rating the barytes from this fait ; then there is a recipro¬
cal exchange of acid and bafe. The carbonats alfo form
carbonat of barytes, and different muriats, according to
the carbonat employed. The muriat of barytes is a very
fenfible re-agent for analyzing the fulphuric acid ; alfo to
try whether alkalis and many other fubftances are pure.
CrafFord, Chaulfier, and others, have lately uled it in
medicine, as ftiewn in the Memoirs of the Medical Soci¬
ety of Paris, for the fixth year of the republic.
Muriat of Potash. — This is very rarely found na¬
tive : it' is laid, however, to be produced in the bogs of
Picardy, and in fome of the mineral waters of Norman¬
dy. It is met with in many vegetables, and all allies
contain it more oriels, which proves that it is fp read
over the furface of the foil, whence it is drawn up by
the fibres or velfels of plants, together with the juices
that nourilh them ; for Vauquelin thinks it probable that
it is formed during the aft of vegetation. To obtain
this fait very pure, take cauftic potalh, and faturate it
with muriatic acid; let it evaporate andcryftallize. This
muriat was formerly called febrifuge fait of S Hints ; it has
been called alfo regenerated marine fait , but improperly ;
as it differs from that fait in the nature of its bafe. Its
tafte is Ia.lt, penetrating, bitter, and dilagreeable. In
the fire, it decrepitates ; that is to fay, its cryftals fud-
denly break, and fly in pieces, by the rarefaction of the
water, which enters into their compofition. If the heat
be then continued, and fufficiently ltrong, it melts, and
is volatilized without decompolftion. It is not much al¬
tered by expoiure to air; it, however, (lightly deliquef-
ces. 'About three parts of cold water are required to hold
one part in folution; hot water diftbives a greater quan¬
tity; and therefore recourle mult be had to (low evapo¬
ration to obtain cryftals : its cryftals are regular cubes, or
reftangled paralldopipeds. .
Sulphuric acid feparates the elements by uniting with
the bale ; muriatic acid is diiengaged in the form of a
white fmoke. Nitric acid afts .alio upon muriat of pot-
: S T R Y,
afh by feizing on the pbtafh ; but the muriatic acid, as it
is difengaged, re-afts upon the nitric acid, from which
it takes a portion of its oxygen, and thus becomes oxy¬
genated muriatic acid, while the nitric acid becomes ni¬
trous acid.
Acids fixed by fire, fuch as thofe of phofphorus, bo¬
rax, arfenic, tungften, &c. decompofe it. at a high tem¬
perature, but not in the cold. Of ail the earths and al¬
kalis, barytes is the only one which can decompofe it.
Clay appears to decompofe it in part; but this operation
affords but a fmall quantity. Nitratof lime decompofes
it; in this cafe nitrat of potalh and muriat of lime are
produced; hence it follows that this fait, contained in
the potalh of commerce, is not ufelels in the fabrication
of f.rlt-petre.
This (alt was formerly employed as a febrifuge, but
it does not poffes this property otherwife than in common
with all bitter falts ; the fulphats of potalh and foda are
at prelent preferred to it. The muriat of potalh is not
ufed in the arts ; its dilagreeable bitternefs prevents its
being ufed for culinary purpofes, like the muriat of fo¬
da ; its chemical properties agree with thofe of the latter
(alt, excepting with refpeft to its bitter tafte, lefs degree
of folubility, unchangeablenels in the air, and lefs regu¬
lar cryftallization.
Muriat of Soda, or Common Salt. — This fait, dif-
tinguilhed likewile by the name of marine fait, is more
abundant in nature than any other; it is found in prodigi¬
ous malfes in the internal parts of the earth, in England,
Spain, Calabria, Hungary, Molcovy, and more Speci¬
ally in Wieliczka in Poland, near Mount Crapax, where
the mines are very large, and afford immenfe quantities.
This (alt, when contained in the earth, is leldom cry¬
ftallized in any regular figure ; it has various degrees of
wliitenefs, and is often found coloured, in which lfate
it is called fal-gem, becaufe it often has the tranfparency
of gems. There are two varieties of fal gem, the lamel¬
lar and fibrous. The latter is found only in amorphous
mafles. It is the lamellar which, forms the large ft rat a
offal gem. Thefe ftrata vary greatly in their thicknefs.
They are generally leparated from each other by a layer
of clay. The colour of the fal gem depends on fome ad¬
ventitious fubftance. The reel colour has been (uppofed
to be derived from iron, the violet from a fmall portion
of the muriat of manganefe, and the green from copper.
Befides, an admixture of clay, fal gem often contains
muriat of magnelia, and the muriat and fulphat of lime.
Sea-waters abound with this fait, as do likewile the
waters of certain lakes and fprings. The quantity of fait
contained in fea water varies greatly in different climates.
At a medium, however, it is laid toibe about one thir¬
tieth of the weight of Uie water. Softie- of the fait fprings
contain more, and others lefs fait than fea water. In
fome places the water of thele fprings has been laid to
contain one third, and often one fourth of its own weight
of lalt. From thefe fources it is obtained by one or
other of the following general proceffes. The firft con-
fifts in fpontaneous evaporation by the heat of the fun,
as is praftiled in the fouthern provinces of France.
Trenches are made near the fea-lide, lined with clay well
rammed. Thefe are divided by low walls, into feveral
compartments communicating with each other ; and the
flood-tide fills them with water, where it is retained by a
kind of (mice gates. Care is taken that the quantity of
water (hull be of an inconfiderable depth, that it maybe
eafily evaporated by the fun. When ^ faline pellicle is
formed, the workmen break it, and it falls to the bot¬
tom, which they continue to do as long as any water re¬
mains. The fait is then raked together, and laid in
heaps to dry. 1 his is mixed with every other which the
the lea-waters contain, fuch as fulphat of loda and mag-
nefia, the muriats of magnelia and lime ; it is likewile
contaminated by a portion of the clay, which forms the
floor of the lalt-pans; and laftly, it contains iron, and
mercury much divided; the latter of which is eahly
lhewii
C H E M I
fh'ewn, by leaving a mafs of gold for fome time in the
Jfalt, which becomes mahifeftly whitened. This fait,
formed by fpontaneous evaporation, is ufually called
bay fait. The fait which is obtained by flow evapora¬
tion, is alfo purer than that which is formed by quick
boiling. The Dutch fait, in fo great repute for the fak¬
ing of fifh, is prepared with a very gentle fire. They
add a quantity of four whey to their brine before evapo¬
ration. The adlion of this fubftance does not feem to
be well underftood, though it is faid to conduce to the
purity of the fait, and to favour the production of large
cryftals. The fait obtained by quick evaporation always
contains more or lefs of the muriat of lime and fulphat
of foda. In the falterns of France, common fait is ob¬
tained by artificial evaporation, effedted by means of
heat. In Arranchin they take the quickfands on which
the fea-water has depofited its faline cryftals 5 thefe are
waftied with the fmallelt quantity of water fufficient to
difl'olve the fait, and the water is then evaporated to
drynefs in leaden boilers. «
There are many fait fprings, the waters of which are
charged with different quantities of muriat of foda. At
Montmorot, in France, a neutral fait is prepared, which
is known by the name of Epfom fait of Lorrain, but it
is nothing more than fulphat of foda, or Glauber's fait,
whole cryftallization has been difturbed : it may be dif-
tinguifhed from the fulphat of magnefia, by its effloref-
cing in the air; whereas the Epfom fait is deliquefcent.
Here the fpontaneous evaporation is united to evapora¬
tion by heat : the water of the fpring is pumped up into
a large refervoir, at the top of a building, or Ihed, be¬
neath which are fufpended boards covered with little
bundles of thorns or brufh-wood ; on thefe the water falls'
through fmall cocks, and becomes divided into minute
drops. The large furface of water thus expofed to the
air, which circulates quickly through thefe Iheds, caufes
an evaporation of nearly two thirds. Selenite is depo¬
fited on the brufh-wood; and when the liquid, upon trial
with a kind of hydrometer, is found charged with fait
to a certain degree, it is conveyed into large iron boilers,
fupported by bars of the fame metal ; thefe boilers are
very large and (hallow, and contain a large quantity of
fait water. A brilk heat is applied ; and, as loon as the
water boils ftrongly, it becomes troubled, and an oche-
rous earth is feparated, in the form of fcurn ; another
fait, of difficult folubility, is next feparated, which is
found to be fulphat of lime, the workmen call it fch/ot,
the fchlat, mixed with a fmall quantity of muriat of fo¬
da, fulphat of loda, and earthy muriats. The fcum is
received in little troughs of cloth, placed round the fides
of the boiler, into which it is thrown by the circulation of
the boiling liquor. Thefe troughs are taken out and
cleared, from time to time, and repeatedly put in again,
till a large quantity of fmall cubical cryftals, called by
the workmen pieds de mouches, appear on the furface of
the liquor. At this period, the troughs are taken away
entirely; the fire is diminifhed, and the muriat of foda
is taken out with ladles, in proportion as it cryftallizes
in fufficient quantity ; the evaporation is continued till
no more cubical cryftals are afforded. The cryftals are
larger, the flower the evaporation; and the remaining
fluid, called mother-water, contains earthy muriats.
Wallerius mentions a fourth procefs to obtain fait
from fea-water. This water is expofed in trenches on
the fea ffiore, Where it forms fo thin a ftratum, that the
cold of the atmofphere foon freezes it ; but, as the ice
Oonfifts of mere water, the unfrozen part, after the ice
is taken out, is of courfe more concentrated, and may
be duly evaporated with a lefs degree of heat. It is con¬
veyed into leaden boilers, and evaporated by fire. Sclieele
had obferved, that by expofing a mixture of two' parts
of the folution of fulphat of magnefia, and one of the
muriat of foda, to the temperature of freezing, fulphat
©f foda was formed. More lately, Gren remarked, that
a fimilar effedt is produced in fea water expofed to a low
•Vox. IV, No, x 9 3,
S T R Y. 245
temperature, fulphat of foda being formed in it by the
double decompofition of its muriat of foda and fulphat
of magnefia. It is remarkable, however, that an increafe
of temperature will not reproduce the muriat of foda,
nor reftore the falts to their former ftate. From thefe
fadls, all muft perceive the diladvantage which will
arife from concentrating fea-water by freezing, and the
propriety of Gren’s important plan of feparating the de¬
liquefcent falts before evaporation, in the art of lalt mak¬
ing, by chemical affinity. With this view he diredfs
the addition of fulphat of foda to waters containing only
the muriats of lime and foda, and of lime tothofe which
contain the muriat of magnefia and fulphat of foda. In the
latter inftance, muriat of lime is firft formed, which after¬
wards decompofes the fulphat of foda by double affi¬
nity. Where muriat and fulphat of magnefia are pre-
fent without the fulphat of foda, or where the waters
contain only the muriats of lime and magnefia, lime and
fulphat of foda fliould be added at the lame time. But
if the water contains the fulphat and muriat of magnefia,
together with the fulphat of foda, lime alone will be ne¬
ceffary, unlefs the quantity of fulphat of foda be infuffi-
cient, in which cafe fome of it muft alfo be added.
Many advantages are thus gained. The bitter tafte of
common fait, occafionecl by the prefence of the fulphats
of foda, and magnefia, is prevented; no mother water is
formed, and pure muriat of foda alone is obtained on
evaporating the fluid. Much expenditure of time and
fuel is faved in the procefles of evaporation, and trying
the falts, and a pure, not deliquefcent, fait is obtained,
capable of refilling the impreffion of the air, and of being
tranfported without lofs. The principal objedfion to
thefe procefles may arife from the neceflity of purchafing
the fulphat of foda; but the fea-water will itfelf in gene¬
ral produce it when brought to a temperature below
zero ; and for this purpofe it will only be neceffary to
colledt a quantity in the bafons, to be expofed to the
cold during the winter. We might from this water alfo
obtain the fulphats of foda and magnefia by adding the
fulphat of iron. It will even be found advantageous
to purify waters by thefe means, which do not contain
fulphat of magnefia, as the moft unprodudtive waters
w'ill not require more than from fifty to .feventy-five
pounds of fulphat of foda to produce thirty quintals of
muriat of foda. In following this method it will only
be neceffary to afcertain the component parts of the fluid
employed previous to afcertaining what fubftances fhould
be added. Diredt experiment will eafily point out the
quantities which may enfure the moft perfect fuccefs.
When mines of fal gem are found in the bofom of the
earth, they are eafily wrought, and at a fmall expence. It is -
fufficient to fink wells, and make galleries, and to loofen
the fait with pickaxes, bars, levers, &c. Sal gem, befides
partaking of different colours, as white, yellow, green,
blue, red. &c. is either hard, foft;‘ pleafant to the tafte,
or bitter. Its varieties of colour proceed from the oxyd
of iron being more or lefs charged with oxygen; its hard-
nefs depends on thequicknefs with which it was formed;
and its difference of tafte arifes from fome other faline
fubftances, particularly muriat of lime, commonly mix¬
ed with it.
We have now given, from Fourcroy, Chaptal, &c. the
various methods in ufe for extradfing muriat of foda from
the waters in which it is held in folution, the objedl of
all which is to feparate the water from it. But to redfify
it, or to obtain it in the pure ftate which is requifite. for
chemical experiments, difl'olve it in four parts of cold
water ; ftrain it ; the matters which do not unite with
the water, as the clay, fait, chalk, oxyd of iron, &c. re¬
main behind, but the muriat of lime is diffolved alfo :
it is decompofed by putting into the folution a few drops
of carbonat of foda ; its bale combines with the muriatic
acid, and the carbonic acid with the lime, and forms
carbonat of lime, which, being infoluble, falls to the
bottom. Care muft be taken not to add.more of the car-
3 R bonat
CHEMISTRY.
246
bonat of foda than is neceflary, as in that cafe there will
be as much inconvenience another way : when there is a
fufficiency, the drops no longer caule any matron in the
liquor: then let the folution evaporate, collefit the fait as
it feparates, and it will be very pure. To have it in re-,
gular cryftals, the fpontaneous evaporation mult be em¬
ployed ; then the faline molecules or elementary particles
ea'fily re-unite, and form cubic cryftals. Lord Dundo-
nald propofes, in the purification of muriat of foda, to
take advantage of the fait, that water, faturated with one
fait, will yet diliblve a portion of another fait. The pro-
cefs which he recommends is as follows : Take a conical
vefiel, having a hole in the fmallend, which is to be un¬
dermoll, and place it, filled with common fait, in a mo-
do ate heat; laturate a portion of water with this fait,
and pour the folution, boiling hot, on the fait in the co¬
nical vefiel. The boiling water will not diflblve any of
the common fait, but will diflblve the bitter earthy fait
which it contains. When the folution ceafes to drop
out of the hole at the bottom of the vefiel, the fame pro-
cels is to be repeated by means of frefli portions of the
fame parcel of fait, already partly purified, till it be
brought to the degree of purity required. Lord Dundo-
nald reckons that three fuch waffiings make the common
fait of this country purer than any foreign fait; that
each wafhing makes it 44 times purer than before ; fo
that (difregarding fractions) after the fecond wafhing it
"will be twenty times, after the third ninety- one times,
after the fourth 410 times, and, after the fifth, 1 845 times,
purer than at firft.
The tafte of this fait is well known, as it is daily ufed.
When expofed to a brifk heat, it burfts,and flies in pieces.
This phenomenon is called decrepitation, and is produced,
ns we have already obfervedi by the rarefaction of tiie
water of cryftallizatipn. When all the water is evapo¬
rated in this manner, the decrepitation ceafes, and the
fait is reduced to a pul verulent form : if the heat be con¬
tinued, it melts after ignition, and being poured on a
fmooth ftone, becomes a kind of mineral cryftal ;
but it is not at all altered, for its original form may be
again reflored by folution in water. Fire does not, there¬
fore, decompofe it; a very itrong heat volatilizes it with¬
out alteration.
Muriat of foda, when pure, is not fenfibly changed
by expofure to the air ; it rather becomes dry than moift,
and attra£!s humidity only in fuch cafes as it contains
rpuriats with earthy bafes. It is very folubie in -water;
no more titan three parts of this fluid being required to
diifolve one of the fait. Three ounces and a half of wa¬
ter difiolve one ounce of fait very completely; and it is
not more folubie in bailing than in cold water. Heat
caufes the folution to be made form what more quickly.
The cryftals of this fait are obtained by a very flow eva¬
poration.
As muriat of foda combines very quickly with water,
it produces a great degree of cold, that is to fay, much
caloric is absorbed in .a fliort time. We are not to fup-
pofe, however, that it requires more heat than any other
fait for its folution ; there are fome faCts which ieem to
prove, that it rather requires lels than many others. It
feems to have more affinity with water than mofc other
lalts ; for, except thofe that are deliquefeent, it precipi¬
tates moll of them from their folutions; and during thefe
precipitations a certain quantity of caloric is always
difengaged.
Sulphuric acid decompofes muriat of foda; muriatic
acid is thereby difengaged, which is difpoied to combine
with all the fubftances -preferited-to it, except filex. The
refidue of this 'operation is th e/a/ admirabile of Glauber,
which may be ufed in medicine or in the -manufacture
of foda.
To extraft muriatic acid, an apparatus is ufed, as re-
preieiited on theChemiftry Plate V. fig. 3. Take eight
parts of purified foda in powdey ; put this into a re¬
tort A, or into a matrafs ; add five parts of fulphuric
acid at 66° by means of a doubly-CUrvated tube E ; fome’
water may be put in, to prevent the effervefcence from
being too ftrong. Adapt a matrafs, C, to the neck of
the retort, to receive thofe portions of fulphuric and mu¬
riatic acids which pafs over, particularly towards the end
of the operation, by means of the heat. D, E, F, are
collateral bottles, containing water equal in weight to
the fait; thefe bottles are united by tubes, widen have
tubes of fafety G G. The joinings mult be carefully lut¬
ed. When things are thus prepared, make fome fire un¬
der the retort, and increafe the heat by degrees till no¬
thing comes over. If, inltead of a retort, a matrafs he
ufed, the firft receiver muft be a two-necked bottle, as
reprefented in the Plate ; a little water ihould be put in
this bottle alfo, and a tube of fafety inferted, in order
to retain the fulphuric acid, and the oxyd of iron, which
rife towards the end of the experiment. When the gas
combines with the water, there is heat ; and, when the
temperature is lowered., the water becomes fufeeptibie
of abiorbing more. To make this experiment anfwer,
the bottles ihould be furrounded with ice; but care mult
be taken they do not burft at the time when, by the rail¬
ing of the temperature, the water can no longer retain
the acid ; for it muft not be forgotten, that warm water
reftrains the muriatic acid much lei's than cold.
Nitric, acid decompofes muriat of foda in the cold; but
the muriatic acid hereby obtained is not pure ; it is proper¬
ly nitrous acid mingled with oxygenated muriatic acid : Put
muriat of foda reduced to powder into a retort ; add ni¬
tric acid in the fame proportion as for the decoinpofition.
of this fait with fulphuric acid: adapt to the retort a tu¬
bulated balloon, whence runs a tube of fafety, which
goes into a Woulfe’s bottle, containing water equal in
weight to the fait in the retort. Heat the apparatus by
degrees. The nitric acid begins by uniting with the
foda,- forming nit vat of foda; and very-concentrated mu¬
riatic acid is difengaged. This acid attacks the nitric acid
not yet combined, takes a portion of its oxygen, and
forms oxygenated muriatic acid. In the mean time ni¬
trous acid is formed, proceeding from that part of the
nitric acid which could not combine with the ioda, even
before it could have formed that combination ; and the
oxygenated muriatic acid, combined with the nitrous
acid, -converts this into nitric acid : by giving it its oxy¬
gen, it is.reduced to the ftate of fimple muriatic acid.
The other acids have noeft'eCt, when cold, upon muriat
of foda.; but feme will decompoie it by the aid of calo¬
ric, or heat; fuch are the phofphoric and boracic acids.
The reafon of this difference is, that muriatic acid is
inclined to combine with -caloric, when accumulated and
concerned in this manner in the muriat of fodw, which
confequently weakens the, affinity between the principles;
now the jphol'phoric and boracic acids not having the
fame attraction for caloric, and tlreir tendency to com¬
bine with the foda not being fpread or divided, it happens
at a certain time that the affinity of the caloric for the
muriatic. acid, and of the fixed acids for the bafe of the
marine fait, muft prevail ; and then the decoinpofition
takes place. In one cafe, phofphat of foda is the relult;
in the other, borat of foda.
Of all earthy fubftances, barytes only decompofes this
fait in the cold : it feizes on the muriatic acid, and ieaves
the foda in the cauitic -ftate. Though 1'oda has common¬
ly more affinity with muriatic acid than alumine has,
yet, by raffing the temperature, a certain quantity of
muriatic acid may be difengaged by alumine; and this
is the procefs ufed in manufactories of aqua fortis to make
what is called fpirit of fait. It is probable that this de-
compofiiiion -is chiefly owing to -the pyrites, .which are al-
moft always contained in the filiceous clays .uied in this
operation.
Lime decompofes this fait alfo. Boil muriat of foda
and lime together; the foda riles to the furiace, becomes
•carbonat oi loda by abiorbing the carbonic acid. contain¬
ed in the atmofphere. It mult be fuppoled, tiiat there is
a com-
C H E M I
a combination of muriat of lime with the excefs of lime
djfengaged by the foda feparated by the carbonic acid.
Potalh is the oniy alkali which decompofes muri it of
foda ; muriat of potafh is formed, and the foda remains
free. Many methods have been tried for extracting foda
from marine fait; but they all come to the lame end, that
of converting the muriat of foda into fulphat of foda,
of decoinpofing this by charcoal, and of abforbing the
fulp'hur by means of calcareous ?arth or iron. For de-
compofing muriat of foda by a metallic oxyd, Mix four
parts of muriat of foda with one of femi-vitreous oxyd
of lead or litharge; beat it up in a little water ; the li¬
tharge lofes its colour by degrees ; a white matter is pro¬
duced, and the foda may be extracted by wafhings. This
is Turner's procefs. The decompofition may be accom-
plilhed alfo, by difl'olving twenty-five parts of marine
fait in thirty parts of water; pulverile ioo parts of li¬
tharge, and mix it in a gentle heat, about 70°, but
without letting it boil ; for ebullition retards the decom¬
pofition. A very white muriat of lead is the .product ;
the iead is eafily feparated from the muri it, by mixing it
with charcoal and expofmg it to a Ilrong heat.
Muriat of foda is of extenfiye ufe in'the arts, and in
culinary affairs. In chemiftry, it is employed in the for¬
mation of the fimple and oxygenated muriatic acids ; with
tanners, for preparing the Hungarian hides, in the gla¬
zing of pottery, by producing a flight fufion of the ex¬
terior furface of the ware ; in glafs-making, to render
the glafs whiter and clearer; in docimaftic allays, either
as a flux to facilitate the precipitation of metals from the
fcoriae, or to prevent their alteration by the contafl of
the atmofphere ; in halting and preferving vegetable and
animal fubllances, and it is univerfally tiled as a feafoning
for food ; it facilitates digeition, by producing a com¬
mencement of the putrid alteration in the alimentary fub-
ftances. For though it is well afcertained, by the expe¬
riments of Pringle, M’Bride, &c. that it retards putre-
faCfion, and, like moft faline matters, is a powerful an-
tifeptic when added in confiderable quantities to animal
matters ; yet it a6ls in a very different manner when
mixed with thofe fubftances in,a fmall dole, fince it caufes
them to putrefy more quickly This fact is proved- by
the experiments of the author of Efiiiys intended to ferve
as an Iiillory of Putrefaction, and likewif’e by thofe of
Mr. Gardane. This fait is not of leis utility in medicine;
it is put into the mouth, and employed externally as a
powerful llimulant in apoplectic or paralytic diforders ;
and is in many cafes a good difeuffive. It is particularly
recommended by Dr. Rufl’el for lymphatic tumours, ant¬
ing from a fcr.op.hulo, us difpofition of t lie animal fyllem.
It proves purgative when adminillered ;in a dole of l'eve-
ral drachms. As it is the impure lull that is commonly
ufed, its effects are in part to be attributed to the cal¬
careous and magnefia muriats which it contains
Muriat of Strontian. — I'he lame procefs is ufed
in preparing this fait, as is direCted for nit rat of ftrontian.
The fulphuric and nitric acid's decompoleit; alfo ba¬
rytes, potalh, and foda. By burning alcohol, which
holds muriat of ftrontian in folution', the flame is of a
purplifli-red colour, which diftinguifties this fait from
that of barytes and all others. The cryftals of muriat
of ftrontian are ftender delicate prifms, fometinies two
inches long, having aloftlilky appearance. Thefe prifms
are all hexagonal, lome having all their tides equal, others
having two broad fides, with two intervening narrow
ones, while another fort is feen with three broad, alter¬
nating with three narrow, fides. At one time they end
abruptly, at another, an obtufe trihedral pyramid termi¬
nates them, and now and then they are feen pointed like
a needle. If a few drops of a folution of this fait be
put on a plated glafs, it will faon difeoyer itielf, by
fhooting into long [lender needles, which are often dif-
pofed in a radiated form. Thefe cryftals, when flrongly
dried, fuller little change from ex.pofure to air. They
rieliquefee, however, in a moilt atmolphere. At the tem-
S T R Y. 247
perature of 6o°, an ounce of di Hilled water is capable of
difl'olving one ounce four' drachms and one fciuple of
this fait. The folubility of muriat of ftrontian is greatly
increafed by heat- If ilrong muriatic acid be added to a
faturated folution of this lalt, an iminedi ite precipitation
is produced.. The tall e of this lalt is Ih up and penetrat¬
ing. It lofes. forty-two percent, by ex loiure to a 'ilrong
fii’e, and is converted into a white powder, which melts
when the crucible is heated to redivels. Its acid is not
diflipafed by fufion in a Ilrong fire, though this effedl
may be produced by expofmg it to the ltronger heat of a
blow-pipe.
Muriat of Lime. — This is a combination of muriatic
acid with lime. It is found almoll every where; in the
matters containing l’altpetre, in calcareous earths, fea-
water, the mother-waters of falt-pits, the wells of Paris,
See. It is made by dec mpoliag carbonat of lime with
muriatic acid ; when the laturation is complete, llrain
and evaporate. Its fade is acrid and bitter. It lofes a
portion of its acid in a violent heat, but not the whole ;
the refidue is muriat of lime with an excefs of bale; this
is called Baldwin's pbofphorus, as it is luminous in the
dark, efpecialiy if rubbed with an iron blade. It is fuf-
ceptible of -the aqueous and igneous fufions. If, during
the igneous fufion, bars of iron be plunged therein, a
cruft is formed over them, and they will then exhibit a
bright-phofphoric light in the dark. Expofed to the air,
it attrafls humidity, and liquefies ; this is what was for¬
merly called oil of lime. Its greedinefs in abforbing the
humidity of the air, made Lavoifier ufe it for drying of
gafes, particularly in re-producing water from hydrogen
gas and oxygen gas. Muriat of lime, therefore, might
take place of cauftic potafh. It is indeed an accurate
hygrometer, on account of its abforbing the humidity
of the atmofphere : for, by expofmg a known weight of
dried muriat of lime in a determinate quantity of air,
we can obtain the .real and exaft weight of the water
contained in that air.
From what has been faid, it appears that this fait has a
great affinity with water; yet it crydlallizes- very flowly ;
though after a proper evaporation; the folution funai flies
fix-fided prifms, crowned with pyramids of the fame fhape.
When the folution has been too much concentrated,
it cools without cryltallizing ; then, if it befndienly agi¬
tated, it affumes a foiid form, as hard as llone, and much
heat is at the fame time, difen-gaged. The fulphuric and
nitric acids decompofe it, by feizing on its bafe. The
fulphuric acid drives off the muriatic acid in form of a
white fmoke; and fulphat of lime is produced. But, as
nitric acid is not fo ilrong, the precipitation is not io
plentiful; and, as the nitrat of lime which is formed is
foluble alfo, the whole remains fufpended in the liquor,
efpecialiy if it be diluted with water. The oxalic and
tartnrous acids decompofe it alfo. Barytes, ftrontian, and
fixed alkalis, decompofe muriat of lime, becaule they
have more affinity with the muriatic acid than lime has.
Ammoniac makes no change in it when pure. II it be
found mixed with carbonic acid, then there is a double
affinity, and carbonat of lime will be produced. All the
fulphats, except that of lime, -are reciprocally decompof-
ed in contafl with muriat of lime: in each cafe fulphat
of lime is formed, and different muriats, according to the
fulphats employed.
Muriat of lime is ufed in medicine, and is employed
as a folvent. It is very foluble in alcohol, which facili¬
tates its reparation from the other falls with which it
might be mixed. This fait, thus dillblved in aicohol,
burns with a beautiful red flame ; it ihould be agitated
during the inflammation ; the more the liquor thickens,
the redder it grows.
Muriat of Ammoniac. — This fait was called fal am¬
moniac by the ancients, becaule they received it from
Anmonia, in Ly.bia, where the temple of Jupiter Ammon
was fttuated. ft is found native in the vicinity o; burn¬
ing mountains, as Vefuvius, Etna, and even in the Vi-
varais.
CHEMISTRY,
248
varais, where it Is of different colours, gVey, blackifh,
red, green, &c. but it is impure, and generally mixed
with arfenic and iron. Sometimes it is found in folution
in the waters of the lakes of Tufcany ; it is found alfo
in fome of the mountains of Tartary and Thibet, in the
caverns or grottoes of Puzzoli, &c. But the muriat of
ammoniac met with in commerce, is the produce of art.
It is more particularly in Egypt, that this Inline fubftance
is fabricated from the dung of animals, who feed on fa-
line plants. They collect the ordure of oxen, camels,
and feveral other animals ; dry it by fpreading it upon
walls ; then burn, it for the purpofes of fuel. The loot
which is made by the combultion of thefe matters is put
into large round glafs bottles, a foot and a half in diame¬
ter, terminated by a neck two inches high, which is
filled to within four inches of the neck; each bottle con¬
tains about forty pounds of this foot, and affords nearly
fix pounds of the fait. Thele veflels are placed on a fur¬
nace, fo formed that the neck only is expofed to the air;
-a fire is made with camel’s dung, and continued for three
days and three nights ; and the fait fublimes on the
twelfth or thirteenth day. The bottles are then broken,
and the loaves of fal ammoniac are taken out ; thefe loaves,
which we receive in the form they obtain from the fub-
liming velfels, are convex and unequal, having a protu¬
berance on one fide formed from the neck or the fub-
liming velfel. The carbonic and footy matters remain at
the bottom, becaufe they are not volatile ; yet there is
generally a little empyreumatic oil, half-decompofed,
'which flies up in vapours, and foils the furface of the
loaves of fal ammoniac. This fait is not formed during
the combultion of the above-mentioned excrements, but
feems rather to have pre-exilled in the dung and urine
of the animals. It is probable that the muriat of foda
contained in the plants on which thefe animals are fed,
is decompofed during the procelfes of digellion and afli-
milation, and changed into muriat of ammoniac; for
Chaptal obferves, that, when animals live on frefli vege¬
tables, their dung affords no muriat of ammoniac; but
that in winter, on the contrary, when they are fed on
falted herbs, it affords a great quantity. The muriatic
acid probably unites with the ammoniac that is conftant-
ly formed in the animal economy, and the foda remains
in combination in the animal humours, which always
contain a quantity of it, particularly in combination
with phofphoric acid, which feems alfo to be an animal
produdt.
There are feveral manufadtories in France where they
make fal ammoniac, by diftilling all forts of animal fub-
ftances in a kind of furnaces which perform the office
of large retorts, and by mixing the aqueous product,
charged with carbonat of ammoniac, with the mother-
waters of the brine-pits in the departments of Meurthe,
Jura, Mont blanc, &c. which contain the muriats of
lime and of magnefia. Thefe falts are decompofed by
carbonat of ammoniac by the means of a double attrac¬
tion, in which the muriatic acid unites with the volatile
alkali, and the carbonic acid to the lime and magnefia.
Thefe two lalt combinations, being infoluble, are preci¬
pitated, and the muriat of ammonia remains in the li¬
quor : let the liquor be evaporated to drynefs; then fub-
lime the fait in earthen veffels, which, by opening in the
middle, facilitate the extraction of the matter, and may
ferve feveral times. At Franciade, they combine direCtly
the muriatic acid, drawn from marine fait by fulphuric
acid, with the produft of animal lubftances diitilled in a
gun-barrel Baume has eftabiifhed a manufacture of mu¬
riat of ammoniac in the neighbourhood of Paris, where
this frit is entirely compofed by a different procefs from
that of the Egyptians, who only extracted it. Baumels
fait is much purer than the Egyptian.
Sal ammoniac is now made in large quantities in Eng¬
land. The volatile alkali is obtained in an impure liquid
ftate from foot or bones, or any other lubltance that af¬
fords it; to this the fulphuric acid is added; and the ful-
phat of ammoniac thus produced, is decompofed by
muriat of foda by double affinity; the fulphuric com¬
bining with the mineral alkali, and the muriatic acid
with the volatile alkali. The liquor therefore contains
fulphat of foda and muriat of ammoniac, which are fe-
parated by cryflallization ; and the muriat of ammoniac
is fublimed into cakes for fale. The cheapnefs of the
fulphuric acid, and of common fait, is the caufe why
they are made ufe of inflead of the muriatic acid, witli
which the muriat of ammoniac might have been diredly
formed. Lord Dundonald extracts volatile alkali from
pit-coal ; but whether it can be afforded cheaper for the
general purpofes of commerce than that of the above pro¬
cefs, is not yet afeertained.
In chemical laboratories, this fait is prepared by a di¬
rect combination of muriatic acid with ammoniac to the
point of faturation. Its talle is pungent, acrid, oily, ar.d
ammoniacal. It poffeffes a Angular phyfical property,
namely, a kind of duCtility or eiafticity, fo that it re¬
bounds under the hammer, and may be bended j a cir-
cumftance which renders it difficult to pulverize. Heat
does not decompofe, but reduces it to vapours. Thrown
on coals, it fpeedily volatilizes in white fumes ; and, by
applying an inverted jar, it will be lined with a white
powder, which is muriat of ammoniac. When the ope¬
ration is performed in the large way, a long-necked ma-
trafs is ufed, and the aperture flopped with paper to pre¬
vent lofs. As this fait is very volatile, this method is
ufed to procure it in a ftate of purity. Linnaeus recom¬
mends this fublimation to be performed in circular veflels,
that is, cut all round, or fliaped like wafhball boxes.
This fait is not fenfibly changed by expolure to the air.
The metallic oxyds decompofe it ; the manner of operat¬
ing we fhall {hew when we come to fpeak of Metals.
Water, at the temperature of io° diffoives 0-35 of its
weight ; boiling water dillolves much more, fo that a
great quantity of cryltals are depofited in cooling. Min¬
gled with ice, it produces a considerable degree of cold.
Its cryftals are quadrangular prifms, crowned with four-
fided pyramids. Some acids, efpecially the fulphuric,
decompofe this fait; muriatic acid and fulphat of am¬
moniac are produced. With nitric acid, it forms a kind
of aqua regalis, which diffoives gold : the nitric acid de-
compofes the muriat of ammoniac in the cold, but not
in the heat.
Muriat of ammoniac is decompofed by barytes, ftron-
tian, lime, and even by magnefia, if caloric be employ¬
ed : on this property is founded the art of preparing ain.-
moniac : Take two parts of lime, and one of fal ammo¬
niac, both pulverifed; put them into a good ftone retort,
to which adapt a tube and a tubulated balloon, or a two¬
necked bottle, whence goes a tube which communicates
with a bottle filled witli water ; if one is net fuffioient,
ufe two, three, &c. The quantity of water in the bot¬
tle fhould be nearly equal to the fait made ufe of. The
apparatus, being well luted, is to be heated by degrees;
as the ammoniac is difengaged in the ftate of gas, it is
diffolved by the water, and forms what was formerly
called fluor volatile alkali. The muriatic acid remains in
the retort united to the lime ; this has alfo been called Bald-
swin's phofpkorus, becaufe by friction in the dark it emits
fparks of light. Expofed in a moift place, it melts in
part, becoming a thick liquid fmooth to the touch, which
occaftoned it to be called oil of lime. Powdered lime tri¬
turated with muriat of ammoniac, will alio difengage
ammoniacal gas. The two fixed alkalis decompofe the
ammoniacal muriat, in the fame manner as lime ; and
they in like manner difengage pure ammoniac in the ga-
feous form.
This fait is very ufeful in the arts, in chemiftry, and
in medicine. It is employed in dying, to brighten cer¬
tain colours ; by brafiers, to cleanfe the furface of cop¬
per, previous to its being tinned ; in alfaying, to prove
the
C H E M 1
the prefence of iron In minerals, becaufe it favours fub-
limation ; in medicine, it is ufed in preparations both
external and internal.
Muriat of Magnesia. This fait is found in folu-
tion in many waters, in calcareous foils, and in nitric
fubftances, where it conftantly exifts, together with ni-
trat and muriat of lime, &c. It is fabricated by a direft
and faturated combination of magnefia with muriatic
acid ; filtre the mixture, and let it evaporate. Its tafte
is bitter, acrid, and penetrating. It is decompofed by
heat, which drives oft' the acid, and leaves the magnefia
pure. It attrafts the humidity of the air, and deliquefces
into a. fort of fyrup, or oil, very foft to the touch. It is
very difficult to obtain it in perfeft cryftals by folution
in water; fometimes it is in laminae; but moft com¬
monly it takes a gelatinous form in cooling, though
rarely in any regular fhape. When pure and well cry-
ftallized, it produces cold by its folution in water ; but,
if dried, it has a contrary effeft. Thefe two properties
are common to all falts which abforb much water m cry¬
stallizing ; and the reafon is obvious, from the quantity
of water they folidify.
The fulphuric and nitric acids decompofe this fait,
and feparate the muriatic acids with effervefcence. To
effect thefe decompofitions, a mixture of one part of ei¬
ther of thefe acids, and twTo parts of muriat of magnefia,
are to be expofed to heat in a glafs retort. The acid of the
latter becomes volatilized, while the ftronger acid com¬
bines wuth the magnefia, and forms fulphat and nitrat of
magnefia. With nitric acid, oxygenated muriatic acid
mixed with nitrous gas is obtained. Boracic acid like-
wife aifengages the muriatic acid by heat.
Barytes, ilrontian, and the fixed alkalis, decompofe
muriat of magnefia : if the alkalis are very caultic, the
magnefia is precipitated in a pure ftate. The alkalis in
excefs do not diffolve the magnefia as they do alumine,
which points out an obvious method of feparating thefe
two earths when united in certain folutions. Ammo¬
niac does not operate a complete decompofition, as a
kind of triple fait is formed, ammoniaco-magnefian ?nuriat,
cryftallizable with the remaining portion of magnefian
muriat.
The muriat of magnefia decompofes the fulphats and
nitrats with bafe of fixed alkali and ammoniac, by the
way of double affinity j but in order to be affured that
thefe decompofitions take place, the mixture muff either
be evaporated, or fpirit of wine added, which feizes the
water; otherwife the new faline refults will remain dif-
folved in the fluid.
Muriat of magnefia is very foluble in alcohol, and
burns with a yellowifh flame, which afterwards becomes
red.. This fait is fcarcely at all in ufe ; but we think
it might be advantageoufly employed as an opening me¬
dicine ; it is continually adminiflered in fmall quantities
in Epfom fait, Sedlitz water, and the impure marine
falts, thefe fubftances always containing it.
Muriat of Glucine. — This fait has many proper¬
ties in common with its nitrat above defcribed. It dif¬
fers in the following particulars: iff. It cryftallizes
with greater facility ; yet its cryftals. are lb fmall, that
Vauquelin could not finally determine their fliape. 2. It
does not ait raft the humidity of the air. 3. It is not de¬
compofed by the fulphuric acid. Though not deliquef-
cent, it is plentifully dilfolved by alcohol ; and this fo¬
lution, with water, forms a very pleafant l'accharine li¬
quor. This fait is decompofed by all the preceding
bales ; but it has not yet been applied to any ufe.
Muriat of Alumine. — This fait is not found in
nature; it is always produced by art, namely, by uni¬
ting muriatic acid with alumine; but it is not an eafy
matter to faturate it perfectly. It cannot be cryftallized
in any regular form. It reddens fyrup of violets ; and
its tafte is ftyptic, like alum. It has the property of
fwelling up hides or fkins; and it is fuppofed that the
Hungarian hides are prepared with muriat of alumine,
Vol. IV, No. 153.
S T R Y. 249
becaufe muriat of foda and fulphat of alumine are ufed ;
fo that there is a decompofition in the foaking of thefe
fkins : in that mixture, the muriatic acid of the muriat of
loda falls on the alumine, and the fulphuric acid of the
fulphat of alumine attacks the foda ; fo that a fulphat of
foda is formed, which is foluble, and likewife fome mu¬
riat of ammoniac which infinuates into the leather, and
thus fallens and preferves its admirable colour.
Muriat of alumine is decompofed by heat, and the alu-'
mine is fet at liberty. | The folution of this fait aflumes
a yellow colour by evaporation; it furnifhes a gelatinous
femi-tranfparent mafs of the fame colour as the folution,
and, being of a horny confidence, is very hard to reduce to
powder. It is decompofed by fome of the metallic oxyds ;
therefore, when a mixture of fulphat of alumine, which
contains oxyd of iron, is expofed to the fire, the ore
muft be calcined, that the fulphuric acid may attack the
alumine inftead of the iron ; otherwife the produft would
be fulphat of iron rather than of alumine.
Terreftrial and alkaline fubftances decompofe this mu¬
riat. Poiafh and foda have the property of re-dilfolving
the precipitate of alumine, when tliofe alkalis are in ex¬
cefs, a property which magnefia has not; and ammoniac
does not totally re-diflolve the precipitate. Several acids
decompofe this fait, efpecially the nitric and fulphuric ;
in general, alumine doesTiot adhere ftrongly to acids.
Muriat of Zircon. — The muriatic acid unites rea¬
dily with zircon, when it is divided or combined with
carbonic acid, but it becomes incapable of combination
with it after this earth has been brought to a flight red
heat in the fire : drying this earth therefore with a ftrong
heat, muft be carefully avoided when the intention is to
combine it with acids.
Muriat of zircon has no colour. Its tafte is aftringent ;
it is very foluble, and difl'olves equally well in alcohol,
to the flame of which it does not communicate any par¬
ticular colour. The muriatic acid is expelled by heat.
This fait forms concretions in the mouth in confequence
of being decompofed by the faliva. The folution of this
fait affords, by a careful evaporation, fmall tranlparent
needle like cryftals, of a form difficult to be determined.
This fait lofes its tranfparency in the air, by giving out
a portion of its water of cryltallization. When muriat
of zircon contains fome portion of filex, cubical cryftals
are produced, which have a confluence refembling that
of a jelly. Thefe cubical cryftals, when expofed to the
air, gradually lofe their tranfparency, and fuffer a dimi¬
nution of volume. White and filky needles are at the
fame time formed in the mafs of this fait, which project
beyond the cubes from which they take their rife. The
affinity of the muriatic acid for zircon, is the fame with
the nitric, fo far as earths and alkalis are concerned.
Muriat of zircon is decompofed, 1. By fulphuric acid.
A part of the fulphat of zircon which is formed, is pre¬
cipitated in the form of heavy white flocks, while ano¬
ther portion is retained in folution by the muriatic acid.
But, if this acid be diilipated by heat, the remaining por¬
tion of the fulphat of zircon is gradually depofited ; and,
if the evaporation of the liquor be flopped before that is
reduced to drynefs, it forms a kind of jelly by cooling-.
The fulphat of zircon is therefore foluble in muriatic
acid ; and this folubility is increaled by means of calo¬
ric. 2. The phofphoric, citric, tartarous, oxalic, and
facolaftic, acids, decompofe the muriat of zircon, and
form with its bafe infoluble compounds, which are pre¬
cipitated in the form of white flocks. 3. The gallic acid
precipitates the muriat of zircon in the form of a white
matter, or in that of a greyifh green, if it contain iron.
In the latter cafe the depolit acquires, by drying, a fhi-
ning black colour, like that of China-ink. The liqour
in which the gallats of zircon and iron have been formed,
preferves a greenifh colour; and, though frefli quantities
of gallic acid do notoccafion any more precipitation, the
carbonat of ammoniac feparates a very copious flocky
matter, which has a purplifti colour, limilar to that of
3 S lees
CH EMISTRY.
25©
lees of wine. Thefe experiments prove, that the gallic
acid has a greater affinity with zircon than the muriatic
acid poffeffes, and that the gallats of zircon and iron are
foluble in muriatic acid, finceapartof them remains in
folution in the liquor which was feparated by carbonat of
ammoniac.
Carbonat of potaffi, faturated with carbonic acid, pre¬
cipitates zircon from its folution in muriatic acid j and,
though this folution be made with effervefcence, the pre¬
cipitate, when waffied and dried in the air, retains a
large portion of carbonic acid ; for this earth afterwards
produces a lively efterve’i'cence, when dill'olved in acids.
A folution of fulphurated hydrogen gas in water, mixed
with, a folution of muriat of zircon containing iron, dif-
turbs the tranfparency of the folution, and gives to it a
reddiffi colour ; but it does not occafion a true precipi¬
tate. The hydro-l'ulphure of ammoniac inftantly preci¬
pitates this lalt of a beautiful green colour, which be¬
come black when dry. This precipitate, when placed
on burning coals, gives out the fmell of fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas, and becomes of a blueifh (lightly purplilh
colour by pulverization ; before it has been heated it af¬
fords a powder of a pearl grey colour. This colour is
owing to the oxyd of iron combined with the zircon.
The carbonat of ammoniac produces at firfb a depofi-
tion in muriat of zircon, but freffi quantities of the am-
moniacal fait re-diifolve the greater part of the precipi¬
tate. In this cafe, a triple lalt is formed, which may be
decompofed by heat. The prufliat of mercury produces
in the folution of muriat of zircon, a very copious pre¬
cipitate, foluble in muriatic acid. This depolition can¬
not be owing to the combination of the mercury with
the muriatic acid, for none of the falts into which it en¬
ters forms a precipitate with the prufliat of mercury.
Were we even to fuppofe this cafe to be an exception,
ftill the depolition would not be l'oluble in Ample muri¬
atic acid.
A plate of zink, introduced into a folution of muriat
of zircon, occafions a flight effervefcence, owing to the
difengagement of hydrogen gas. The liquor becomes
milky, and at the end of feme days aflumes the form of
a white femi-tranfparent jelly. Pure alumine decom-
pofes the muriat of zircon, by the affiftance of a flight
heat. The alumine is difl'olved, the liquor becomes
milky, and aflumes a gelatinous form by cooiing. When
the muriat of zircon contains iron, it remains in folution
along with the alumine, l'o that the zircon which is pre¬
cipitated does not contain any fenfible quantity of that
metal; it therefore furnilhes an eafy and Ample method
of feparating thisearth from the iron with which it is mixed
in hyacinths, and which adheres to it very ftrongly.
Muriat of Silex — This fait is very little known ;
Fourcroy was the fir It who obl'erved it. To prepare it,
the li lex is to be melted with the alkali, and muriatic
acid poured on the mixture; the fiiex difl'olves in the
acid, and always retains an excels of acidity ; the fiiex
may be precipitated by heat, and muriat of potalh and
of fiiex is produced. This fait reddens the blue vegeta¬
ble colours ; and is decompofed by heat. Its other pro¬
perties have not yet been al'certained.
Super-oxygenated Muriat of Potash. — This
fait, lately difcovered by M. Berthollet, is prepared by
palling oxygenated muriatic acid gas into a lolution of
can flic potalh, or combined with carbonic acid. The
apparatus may be the fame as that already depifted and
defended for oxygenated muriatic acid, except that in
the Woulf 's bottled, inftead of water, a folution of pot¬
alh mult be put. The belt proportion between the water
and the potalb, is fix parts of the former, and one of the
latter. When carbonat of potafli is employed, there
arifes in a certain time an effervefcence from the difen¬
gagement of the carbonic acid; with caullic potafli there
is no effervefcence, but a little heat is produced : the dif¬
ference is ealily underftood. As the luper-oxygenated
muriat of potafli is not by far lb foluble as potaffi, as
z
foon as a certain quantity is produced, it cryftallize? in
the middle of the liquor in the form of ffiining fpangles,
the quantity increafmg as the laturation goes on. Ber¬
thollet, when he examined the refult of the experiment,
found that the oxygenated muriatic acid did not com¬
bine with the potafli as it came over; on the contrary,
it divided into two parts, one of which gave out its
oxygen to the other, l’o that there were formed fuper-
oxygenated muriatic acid and common muriatic acid,
which both uniting with the potalh, give birth to com¬
mon muriat of potaffi, and luper-oxygenated muriat of
potalh. There are therefore three affinities in this ope¬
ration: that of a frefli quantity of oxygen for the oxyge¬
nated muriatic acid ; of this for the potafli ; and of the
common muriatic acid for the fame alkali.
The folubility of thefe falts being very different in
cold water, their feparation becomes eafy ; it is fufficient
to collect the fait which has cryftallized during the ope¬
ration, todifl’olve it in the requifite quantity of boiling
water, to filter the folution to feparate it from a fmall
quantity of earth which is found in common potafli, and
then to let it cool. The fuper-oxygenated muriat is
depofited in brilliant laminae. To obtain it dry, decant
the luper-natant liquor; let it drain, and then dry it up¬
on blotting-paper. As the luper-oxygenated muriat of
potafli is not very foluble in cold water, but little re¬
mains foluble in the refiduary or mother-waters ; yet it
may be colledfted without lofs, if the liquor be reduced
by boiling, and then left to cool.
This fait generally takes the form of very thin fquare
plates ; fometimes it is in a parallopiped fliape. In tafte
it is cool and pungent, like faltpetre : if fuies on light¬
ed coals, in the manner of faltpetre, but with more velo¬
city, and a brighter flame. Ground on porphyry, or in
a marble mortar with a wooden peftle, it crackles, and
emits fparks. It is eafily decompofed by diftiilation in a
retort ; and, with a gentle heat, gives very pure oxy¬
gen gas : 100 parts of the fait furniffi about 0-3 3 of its
weight of oxygen gas. If prepared with care, and the
diftiilation be made (kilfully, the oxygen gas which is
formed is almolt all ablorbed by the pholphorus ; Ber¬
thollet had but from o-oz to z'oj of reiidue, and even
that proceeded from air in the apparatus, which it is dif¬
ficult to avoid. The flight heat at which the oxygen
quits the muriat of potalh, (hews that this principle does
not adhere to it very ftrongly, or that it retains in its
combination a great quantity of caloric; as appears from
.feveral circumltances wherein the fuper-oxygenated mu¬
riat is decompofed by combultible bodies.
Barytes does not decompofe this fait. If thrown into
concentrated fulphuric acid, it detonates, flies to a dis¬
tance from the velfel, and gives out a deep-red light.
With concentrated nitric acid, it crackles and emits
fparks, but not with explolion, as in the preceding cafe.
Mixed with lulphur, in the proportion of three parts of
the muriat to one of fulphur, and triturated in a metal
mortar, it produces a fuccelfion of ftrong detonations,
like the report of piftols, if the experiment be made with
only about fifteen grains. The lame mixture detonates
more ftrongly under the hammer: it flames in concen¬
trated fulphuric acid, and burns with a very bright light.
A mixture of three parts of this fait, one part and a half
of fuiphur, and one half part of charcoal, produce the
like effe£T, but in a much more violent degree. Several
of the very combultible metals, as iron, antimony, zink,
arfenic, and the metallic fulphures, mixed with t.vo
parts of oxygenated muriat, detonate with flame by a
blow, but do not flame in fuiphuric acid. Several vege¬
table matters, as oils, iugar, Itarc-h, alcohol, ether, faw-
dult, & c. produce tiie lame effects. All thefe mixtures
detonate with the elehtric fliock, producing a very vivid
flame.
Thefe experiments, for which we are indebted to
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, prove, that the oxygen is
much lei’s attached to the muriat of potalh than to the
nitratj
C H E M
nitrat, fince that fait does not produce the fame pheno¬
mena with combuftible bodies treated in the lame man¬
ner. Bertholiet, who firft diicovered the facility with
which this fall gives out its oxygen to combuftible bo¬
dies, has made leveral attempts to form a gun-powder
fl'ronger than that commonly ufed. His expectations
w'ere readied; but he found that the life of it would
become extremely dangerous, from its extraordinary in¬
flammability.
Of PHOSPHATS.
Phofphoric acid unites to earths and alkalis, and forms
falts, which have obtained the name o i phofphats \ while
thofe which refult from the combinations of the. phol-
phoious ajid, are called pliofphits ; which denominations
indicate at once the nature of the fait, of the bale, of the
acid, and of the ftate it is in. The combinations of phof-
phone acid with earths, alkalis, and fome metallic oxyds,
are decompoled by the fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, oxa¬
lic, &c. acids, when made cold, and in water; but it is the
contrary with heat, and the fulphat of potalh, nitrat of
potalli, "&c. are decompofed by that dcid.
Phosphat of Barytes. — This may be made two
ways, either by diredtly uniting, to Saturation, pure ba¬
rytes with phoiplioric acid, or combined with phofphoric
acid; or elfe by double affinity, by bringing in conta6l
a barytic fait difiolved in water, fucli as the muiiat or
nitrat, with phofphoric acid combined with an alkali,
whether foda, potalh, or ammoniac : then the phoiplioric
acid attacks the barytes, and forms a depefit in the li¬
quor, while the other fait remains in loliition.
This lalt melts by fire without changing its nature,
and vitrifies in a red heat of leveral hours. It melts un¬
der the blow-pipe ; and, if the operation be performed
on a bit of charcoal, it ipreads a yellow phofphoric flame ;
the globules it forms become opaque in cooling, unlels
they contain an excels of alkali. It is infoluble in wa¬
ter ; but becomes loluble by an excels of acid. It is not
decompoled by earths and alkalis ; neither do acids en¬
tirely decompole it, with the exception, as is luppol’ed,
of the fulphuric acid ; but, as pholphat of barytes has a
very great affinity for an excels of acid, the nitric and
muriatic acid only take away a part of the barytes, and
an acid pholphat of barytes remains.
Phofphat of barytes is decompoled by thofe falts which
a£l by double affinity, elpecialiy when the acid of thole
falts afts more ftrongly upon the barytes than upon their
bales; thus pholphat of barytes is decompofed by fulphat
of barytes and by all the alkaline carbonats, whether
hot or cold ; but, in the former cale, the carbonat of am¬
moniac is not iufficient. This fait has not hitherto been
applied to any ule; but it might be employed, to advan¬
tage, for feparating the fulphat of lime from the phof¬
phoric acid drawn rrom bones : by boiling thefe things
together, the fulphuric acid unites to the barytes, and
the lime to the phoiplioric acid ; whence arile two perfedt-
ly-infoluble lalts.
Phosphat of Strontian. — This fait is prepared by
combining phoiphoric acid with pure ltrontian, in the
proportion of 58-76 of ltrontian, and 41*24. of phofphoric
acid. Heated with the blow-pipe, it melts into a white
enamel, and fpreads a phoiphoric light. It is foluble in
water, by the aid of the muriatic and nitric acids. It is
decompofed by barytes, and by the fulphuric acid, be¬
coming acidulated phofphat.
Phosphat of Lime. — This fait exifts abundantly in
nature, and in confnierable mailes : it conftitutes the
bale of the Ikeletons of moll animals; and it is found
more oriels in the allies of all vegetables. In Spain, in
the province Eltramadura, it has been lately diicovered
in large and extenfive ftrata : it is of an opaque colour,
flattered with yellowiih fpots aiding from the oxyd
of iron.
The phofphat of lime, ufed :n chemiftry ?md the arts,
is drawn from the bones of animals,' ftrongly calcined in
I S T R Y. 251
furnaces, to feparate the animal fubftances which con-
ne£l the parts This lalt b) exposure to heat, feems to
be only loftened to aflume a kind of iemi-fufion, like
porcelain earth; therefore thefe matters, when ftrongly
calcined, have been called porcelaincd bones. Yet bones,
expofed to a very ftrong heat, throw out a yell w phof¬
phoric light, which indicates a decompcfiti 11 of phof¬
phoric acid, whole pholphorus burns at a cert; in dif-
tance ; but this decompofition is very confined, and foon
flops. Perhaps thele phenomena may arile from a fmall
quantity of pholphat of ammoniac, contained between
the bony plates, or in the membranes which unite them.
Pholphat of lime is infoluble in water, but becomes
foluble with the help of an acid, fucli as vinegar, or the
phofphoric acid itfelf. Alkalis and earths produce no
alteration in it, whence it is evident that its principles
are very ftrongly united ; but the fulphuric, nitric, mu¬
riatic, acetous, and oxalic, acids, decompofeit in part, juft
to the point from- which they had feparated from the phoi¬
phoric acid, about 0-40 of the lime contained in a cer¬
tain mals of the calcareous phofphat. It is by the de¬
compofition of pholphat of lime with nitric acid, that
Scheele lias explained the nature of bones : but the lame
end is now obtained in a more fimple way, as follows :
Calcination of Bones. — A furnace is to be built of brick,
about eight inches high, and forty inches wide; lay bars
of iron acrofs, to form a kind of grate, and upon this
place the bones to be calcined ; leave a hole about eight
inches- fquare in the furnace, to lupply a current of air;
and through this hole introduce fome pieces of wood al¬
ready lighted, which will let lire 10 the bones : then they
burn of themlelves till they are 'Sufficiently calcined.
This operation, which is attended with no expence,
Ihould be made in the open air, becaufe the oily matter,
which comes over by combuftion, is ltill fufficient to be
dangerous in a fmall ^confined place. Thefe bones are
then reduced to fine powder, and lifted.
The next operation is the reparation of the phofphoric
acid by means of fulphuric acid. Take one part of thefe
Calcined bones, temper them in four parts of water, and
pour over the mixture one half part .of concentrated ful¬
phuric acid, fliiring the mixture continually. Let the
whole macerate for four-and-twenty hours, birring it
from time to time, to renew the Turfaces and points of
contaft. At the moment the acid is poured on, there
is a dilengagement of caloric, and a bi i 11c effervefcence,
occafioned by the dilengagement of carbonic acid ; for,
befides the phofphat of lime, the bones contain ajfo a
certain portion of carbonat of lime. The fulphuric acid
now unites with the lime, forming an infoluble lalt ; and
the phofphoric acid, being let at liberty, difiolves in the
water. The acid which is obtained Hill contains a good
deal of lime, and, is to be confidered, according to the
experiments of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, as an acidulat¬
ed phofphat of lime. To feparate all the phofphoric acid
from the bones, the acidulated phofphat may be decom¬
posed by oxalic acid, carbonat of ammoniac, or nitrat of
lead : but the firft is too expenfive ; the lecond, by pie-
cipitating all the lime as chalk, and forming a phofphat
of ammoniac, decompofable indeed by charcoal, gives the
required refult, but it rather confines the operation by
furnifhing carbonat of ammoniac; the third (nitrat of
lead) leems preferable, becaufe it forms nitrat of lime
which is held in lolution, and pholphat of lead which is
precipitated, in the liquor: this precipitate well wulhed,
and heated with very dry charcoal, eafily parts with all
its pholphorus.
From the experiments of the above-cited chem’ifts, it
appears, that 100 parts of neutral phoiphat of lime, or
earth of calcined bones, contain 0-41 of phoiphoric acid,
which, according to the analysis of Luvoifkr, contain
0-16 of pholphorus; thus, by letting thele 0-41 of phof¬
phoric acid at liberty, there is gained by diftiijation with
charcoal, 0*16 of pholphorus, or iittie lets than a fixth
part of the weight of the earth, which in truth contains
that
252 C H E M I
that quantity. But, as there are only o’ 17 of this acid
difengaged, and as 0-24. ftill remains clofely united with
the lime, thefe o' 17 can yield but 0-06 of phofphorus ;
thus more than two-thirds of the phofphorus contained
in the waters are loft ; and, after the diftiliation of their
acid obtained in the ufual way by charcoal, the refidue
contains 0-59 of phofphat of lime not decompofed. Thefe
explanations therefore lead us to prefer the procefs of
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, as follows :
Evaporation of Acid. Liquors, and their Mixture 'with
Povoder of Charcoal. — When the matter has been macerat¬
ed, as mentioned before, draw off the clear liquor ; wafh
the remaining thick fluff in river-water feveral times;
unite thefe waters with the fir ft, and evaporate in pots of
copper, or rather of lead. During the evaporation of
this liquor, there will be feparated a confiderable quan¬
tity of fulphat of lime, held in folution by means of the
phofphoric acid ; this may be taken away by decanting af¬
ter ithasfettled ; butthe phofphoric acid will always retain
a certain quantity of it, which cannot be feparated but
by operations very complex and coftly.
The phofphoric acid commonly appears as a mafs of
a white colour, flightly tinged with yellow, formed of
little fhining lcales like pearls ; this is called concrete phof¬
phoric acid ; but it is not pure, containing ftill a good
deal of lime. With this acid they make phofphorus. To
extradt the phofphorus from the phofphoric acid, mix it
with one fourth of its weight of charcoal in powder, and
dry the mixture in a melting-pot, till the greateft part
of the moifture is gone.
Pelletier’s method is to bring the acid liqudrs to a thick
confidence; then add the powdered charcoal, previoufly
calcined till the matter is friable : continue the drying,
but ftir it frequently to prevent it from being grumous ;
and keep up the fire till the bottom of the veflel be red-
hot. The veffel fhould have a very thick bottom, and
be well luted on the outfide, or the fire may calcine it.
Diftiliation of Phofphorus. — Fill a ftone retort with the
mixture, and for a receiver ufe an inverted retort con¬
taining water. Pelletier ufes a copper receiver made on
the fame principle. The water in the receiver flops the
phofphorus as it pafles over, and prevents it from coming
in contadt with the air; and hereby a large quantity of
phofphorus efcapes combuftion, becaufe it muft pafs
through a column of water of near eight inches, before
it has contaft with the air ; yet there is a fmall portion
volatilized naturally, which is driven four inches above
the neck, where this phofphorus burns in fparks, and
the neck or tubulation is fometimes clogged up with pul¬
verulent phofphorus ; attention muft be paid to this, to
prevent abfofption ; but, if the operation is condudted
with {kill, this inconvenience does not take place. For
the purification, &c. of phofphorus, fee the diredtions
already given in page 200. At the beginning of the
operation, hydrogen gas and carbonic acid are difen-
• gaged, arifing from the decompofition of the water by
the charcoal. When the phofphoric acid begins to be
decompofed, the hydrogen gas dilfolves a little of the
phofphorus, which gives it the property of finning in the
dark by the contact of air. At lalt, if the heat is ftrong
enough, the phofphorus takes the form of an oil, which
falls into the water of the receiver, where it congeals.
This experiment {hews, that at a high temperature, the
carbon has more attradtion for the oxygen than thephof-
phorus has ; that this has morer than the hydrogen, fince
the water is decompofed before the phofphoric. acid ;
laltly, that hydrogen can diflblve a certain quantity of
phofphorus. It appears that the water of the receiver
retains the phofphorated hydrogen ; for, if expoled to
the air in the dark, even after being {trained, it gives
out a very bright phofphoric flame, eipecially if the fur-
faces are renewed by agitation.
The ufes of phofphat of lime are numerous. It ferves
to polilli metals, jewels, and factitious (tones; to make
cupels, or aflay-veffels > to take fpots of greafe out of
S T R Y.
fluffs, linen, or paper; in the manufacture of toys, before
it is calcined ; laftly, it is uled in the large manufac¬
tures of ammoniac, as carried on in the country of Liege.
Phosphat of Posash. — This phofphat is but little
known. It does not cryftallize ; it becomes a fort of
jelly when the folution is evaporated ; in that ftate it at¬
tracts the moifture of the air; it is decompofed by lime,
barytes, and ftrontian, which have all more attraction
for the phofphoric acid. Vauquelin has made fome expe¬
riments which feem to prove that loda takes this acid
from potafh. This fait is not decompofable by charcoal,
like the phofphat of ammoniac ; which muft be the cafe,
fince carbonat of potafti is decompoled by the phofphure,
which deprives the carbon, by a double affinity, of the
oxygen it contains in combination with the potafti. It is
not decompofed by heat, but vitrefies. Molt of the me¬
tallic folutions, as of filver, iron, mercury, and anti¬
mony, are decompofed by it. If the phofphat of potafti
be not well faturated with alkali, it reddens blue vegeta¬
ble colours.
Phosphat of Soda. — This fait is produced by a
combination of phofphoric acid with fcda. It is very
{oluble in water, and cryftallizes eafily, provided there
be a flight excefs of alkali ; and then it changes the fyrup
of violets to a green. Its ufual form is a lengthened
rhomboid, the faces inclining one over the other; fome¬
times it exhibits rhomboidal and prifmatic cryftals, or
little lamellous cryftals ; but its cryftallization is generally
a rhomboidal parellelopiped with blunt angles. If, inftead
of having an excefs of alkali, it has an excefs of acid, it cry-
llallizes very imperfectly, appearing as a mafs compofed
of little flaming leaves like pearls, relembling fedative
fait : this is what Bergman called Haupfs pearly fait. Its
tafte is pleafant, fweet, but little faline. It is very
tranfparent, but by expolure to the air loon grows white
and opaque : the cryftals however preferve their form
and much of their confidence, contrary to many {alts,
which, when they lofe their water of cryftallization, be¬
come farinaceous. Phofphat of foda contains a good
deal of this water of cryftallization, fo that it liquefies
with a gentle heat ; in a ftronger heat, it becomes opaque,
and vitrifies, producing a glafs of the colour of milk.
Under the blow-pipe, it begins to liquefy; then pafles
into the white concrete ftate; and at laft a little vitreous
globule, which appears tranfparent when melted: this
little globule becomes opaque in cooling, and aflumes a
polyhedral {hape. Phofphat of foda in this cafe adts the
fame as phofphat of lead, according to Pelletier. As
this fait melts eafily, it facilitates the fufion of earths,
•either Ample or compound, as well as the metallic
oxyds; hence mineralogifts and chemifts ufe it often
with luccefs, in their experiments with the blow-pipe,
to difcover the nature of the fubftances they are aflaying.
This fait is decompofed by barytes, ftrontian, lime,
and potafti, and by the calcarean, magnefian, barytic,
and aluminous, falts ; but the decompofition of the lat¬
ter is operated by double affinity. Molt of the metallic
falts are decompofed by this; by which metallic phof-
phats are very eafily and expeditioufiy formed, which
indeed are fubjedt to vary in the proportions, becaule,
in thefe decompofitions, the ftrongeft acid always takes
the lead, and determines the relation between the weak¬
en acid and the bale which the other gives to it. This
phofphat is often ufed in medicine for lulphat of foda, of
which it has all the good properties : the dofe is one
ounce in a large glafs of water.
Phosphat of Ammoniac.— This fait is prepared
by mixing carbonat of ammoniac and phofphoric acid to
the point o~f faturation ; then evaporate with a gentle
heat. It is difficult to obtain cryftals of this fait, for, if
heated too much, the ammoniac volatilizes ; it is necef-
fary, as the liquor evaporates, to add a little more am¬
moniac to replace that which flies oft in vapours ; with¬
out this, the lalt would contain an excels of acid,
Plioiphat of ammoniac is always found with phofphat
of
C H £ M I
of foda in animal fubftancfis ; they even appear to form
together a triple fait, according to the proportions of
each, which proves that they exercil'e a reciprocal attrac¬
tion, which occafions them to unite. Expofed to heat,
the ammoniac is difengaged, and the phol'phoric acid re¬
mains in the vitrified Hate. It undergoes no change by
expofure to the air. It is foluble in four parts of water,
at the mean temperature of the atmofphere, and cryftal¬
lizes eafily into regular four-fided prilins, crowned with
pyramids of the fame (hape.
Charcoal decompofes this fait. For this purpofe, put
into a retort a mixture of phofphat of ammoniac and
of charcoal in powder; lute the retort with earth : place
r balloon to receive the phofphorus, and a jar to coi¬
led! the ammoniacal gas which is difengaged ; a bent
tube of fafety mull pal's from the balloon, to be plunged
underneath the jar in the pneumatic mercurial apparatus.
The pholjffioric acid is attacked by the charcoal, which
feizes on the oxygen, and lets the phofphorus free ; the ac¬
tion of the charcoal upon the pholphoric acid is affifted by
lieat. To this operation mull the definitive operation be
reduced, when the refidue, evaporated to the confiltence
of honey, is decompofed, to fabricate the ■phofphorus of
Kunkel-, for the pholphats of foda and lime, contained in
the refidue, are not decompofed by the charcoal ; it is
only the phofphat of ammoniac, which being deprived
of its ammoniac by the adtion of the heat which volati¬
lizes it, leaves the phofphoric acid at liberty; and then,
the charcoal, ailing upon the oxygen, makes it eafy to
diftil the phofphorus. This is the reafon why the pro-
cefles with urine yield fo little phofphorus ; and certainly
it was long unknown that all the pholphorus of the acid
conftituting the pholphats of lime and foda was negleiled
and loft, becaufe they could not be decompofed without
the agency of an acid, itronger in affinity for lime and
foda than the phofphoric acid, and fuch are the nitric
*nd fulphuric acids.
The ftronger acids decompofe this phofphat; as do
barytes, ftrontian, lime, potaffi, and foda: magnefia de¬
compofes it with heat, for in the cold a little magnefia
will always remain. By mixing concentrated folutions
of the phofphats of ammoniac and of foda, a triple com¬
bination is produced, called phofphat of foda and am¬
moniac. This fait cryftallizes and efflorefces in the air.
Its prefence may be known as follows: If the mixture
cf the triple fait is not well made, that Which is properly
formed is evident by the efflorefcence, while the un¬
combined portion of phofphat of foda cryftallizes apart
in a tranfparent rhomboid form. If, on the other hand,
the ammoniacal phofphat is in excefs in this triple com¬
bination, it is eafily perceived alfo, becaufe the ammo¬
niac may be dilengaged by cauftic lime.
This fait is one of the bell folvents that can be ufed
in experiments with the blow-pipe: ithaftens thefulion
of Hones, and the metallic earths and oxyds, the Ipecies
of which is often known by the colour they communi¬
cate to it.
Phosphat of Magnesia.— This fait is but little
foluble in water yet fufficiently fo to furnilh long cry-
ftals like flattened needles, very thin, and cut obliquely
at the ends. We owe to Vauquelin the method of ob¬
taining it quickly, in folid cryftals of two or three in¬
ches long and one line thick. This method confifts in
mixing equal parts of fulphat of magnefia and phofphat
of foda, both diflolved in water. At firlt there appears
to be no adtion between thefe fubftances ; but at the end
of twenty-four hours, there will be found in the liquor
prifmatic cryftals, perfedtly tranfparent, varying in fize
according to the quantity of the falts employed. This
iubftance, expofed to the air, lofes its water of cryftalli-
zation, becomes opaque, and is even reduced to powder
in a ftiort time; this proves that it has no great attrac¬
tion for water. It has no fenfible odour. It melts un¬
der the blow-pipe into a globule, which preferves its
tranfparency after cooling.
VOL, iv. No. J5*.
S T R Y. 253
The fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic, acids, feparate
the elements of the phofphat of magnefia, by uniting
with its bafe, and fetting; the phofphoric acid free. It is
decompofed alfo by barytes, ftrontian, and lime : it is
eafy to prove this, by pouring a folution of thefe earths
into a folution of the fait, which immediately becomes
turbid, becaufe thefe phofphats are much lels foluble
than the magnefian. It is decompofed by the fixed cauftic
alkalis, but not by ammoniac ; on the contrary, magnefia
completely decompoles phofphat of ammoniac, efpeci-
ally in a gentle heat. Phofphat of magnefia unites eafily
with phofphat of ammoniac, forming together a triple
combination, quite infoluble. Fourcroy defcribed its
properties in a calculus taken out of the colon of a horfe,
which died at the veterinary fcliool at Alfort.
Phosphat of Glucine. — An infoluble fait is form¬
ed by the combination of this earth with phofphoric
acid ; pour into a folution of fulphat of glucine a folu¬
tion of phofphat of foda without excefs of alkali ; aplen-
tiful mucilaginous precipitate is formed, with no tafte,
very foluble in an excefs of phofphoric acid, and even in
a foreign acid. This fait is decompofed by the fulphuric
acid; and by the earths and alkalis, except alumine and
zircon. It melts into a vitreous pearl under the blow¬
pipe, and keeps its tranfparency when cold.
Phosphat of Alumine — This fait, like the pre¬
ceding, is but little known : it is prepared by a dire£t
combination of alumine with phofphoric acid. It melts
with the blow-pipe into a tranfparent glafs, and without
being decompoled. It is almolt infoluble in W'ater, but
becomes abundantly fo by an excefs of acid. It is de¬
compofed by the mineral acids ; and by earths and alka¬
lis, except zircon.
Phosphat of Zircon. — Of the nature of this fait
very little is at prefent underftood ; we know only, that
the phofphoric acid decompofes muriat of zircon, and
forms with its bafe an infoluble compofition, which is
precipitated in white flakes.
Phosphat of Silex. — This fait is as little known as
the preceding. Fourcroy fays, that, by uniting pliol-
phonc acid with filex by fufion, this ialt is obtained,
but whole properties have not yet been defcribed. By
this method factitious jewels may be made.
Of PHOSPHITS.
Phofphits have many properties in common with phof¬
phats. The phofphits of foda and potaffi are eafily folu¬
ble in water, and cryftallizable 5 thole of lime, magne¬
fia, and barytes, are but little fo ; but the phofphit of
alumine enjoys this property in a very remarkable man¬
ner. Tliofe phofphits which are infoluble in themfelves
become abfolutely foluble by an excefs of their acid.
All, except perhaps that of barytes, are decompofed by
lime. Yet thefe falts exhibit phenomena by which they
may be eafily diftinguiflied from phofphats, and from alt
other fubftances of this clafs. Thefe are chiefly, fur-
niffiing by diftillation a fmall quantity of phofphorus,
and of giving a bright flame when heated under the
blow-pipe, even upon an incombultible Iubftance
Thefe falts poflefs, in common with other falts, the pro¬
perty of precipitating gold from its folution in the me¬
tallic ftate, and of detonating by permiffion with the
fuper-oxygenated muriat of potaffi. There are feven.
phofphits which are perfectly known, from the experi¬
ments of Fourcroy and Vauquelin: thefe are, the phof¬
phits of potaffi, foda, ammoniac, lime, barytes, magne¬
fia, and alumine.
Phosphit of Potash. — This fait cryftallizes very
readily by cooling, w'hen the water in which it is dii-
folved is fufficiently evaporated. Its form appears to be
a four-fided prilm, terminated flopewife. Its tafte is
flightly penetrating. It is very foluble. Heated with
the blow-pipe, it iwells, and melts, without emitting,
like the other phofphits, phofphoric light. It is collect¬
ed, by melting it, into a tranfparent globule which cry»
3 T ftallizes.
254 C H E M
ftallizes, and becomes opaque by cooling. It is decom-
poled by lime and barytes, which produce copious pre¬
cipitates in a folution of this lalt. The fulphuric, nitric,
and oxalic, acids, &c. feparate the pholphorous acid from
its alkaline bafe, the oxygenated muriatic acid converts
it into a pholphut. It con (ills of potafli, 49-424; phof-
phorous acid, 39-466; water, ii-iio.
Phosphit of Soda. — This is very foluble in water,
requiring in the ordinary temperature of the atmofphere
only two parts of that liquid to dilfolve it. Its folution,
when fubjeftedto a flow evaporation, exhibits at firlt on
the tides of the capfules, fmall plumofe cryltals like thofe
of lal-ammoniac ; afterwards fqu are laminae are formed
on the furface of the liquor, which leemed to be formed
by the union of four triangles. Some portion of this fait
affume the form of the pappus, or down, of fouie vegeta¬
ble feeds ; but, in examining thefe with a good glal's,
they appear to be compofed of a great number of fmall
cubes, which come very clofe together, but do not
unite, for we can ealily lee the fpace which feparates
them. It decrepitates with the biow-pipe, and gives
out a phofphorefcent flame. It then melts into a glafs,
which l'preads on the fupport, and becomes opaque by
cooling. This fait confifts of foda, 23-680; pholphorous
acid, 16-320; water, 6o-ooo.
Phosphit of Ammoniac. — This has a very ftrong pe¬
netrating tafte. It creeps up the fides of the veffels in
which it is evaporated. It cryftallizes in the form of very
long fine ti-anfparent needles, fo that it is difficult to
determine, by the fight alone, the form and the relation
of its angles. It boils up and fwells with the blow-pipe,
giving out, after a fewleconds, a great quantity of phof-
phorated hydrogen gas, which inflames in the air, and
forms very beautiful circles of white fmoke. Tills ex¬
periment proves, that phofplaorus, in a high tempera¬
ture, when afhfted by the prefence of ammoniac, poffef-
fes the property of decompofmg water. The oxygen of
the water, combines with one portion of this inflammable
iubftance, and its hydrogen with another portion, to
form phofphorated hydrogen gas, which inflames as
foon as it comes into contact with the air. It is decoi-n-
pofed by diftillation in a retort. The ammoniac is dif-
engaged partly in a liquid ftate, and partly in the ftate
©f a gas, which retains phol'phorus in folution, but which
does not inflame. It gives out a phofphorefcent light,
when mixed with oxygen gas. What remains in the re¬
tort is vitreous pholphoric acid. It is decompoled by
potafli, l'oda, lime, and barytes; for the folutions of
thefe earths occafion a copious precipitation in that of
pholphit of ammoniac, A Itrong fmell of ammoniac is
perceived during the action of the fixed alkalis. It pre¬
cipitates nitrat of mercury, of a white colour, but the
pholphit of mercury which refults, foon becomes of a
grey colour, particularly the part which is expofed to
the light. It conlifls of ammoniac rifty-one ; acid, twen¬
ty-fix; water, twenty-three.
Phosphit of Lime. — The phofphorous acid forms
with lime a very intimate combination, which is very
infoluble in water, and which has no perceptible tafte.
It is rendered foluble by an excels of acid, and this tri¬
ple union affords fmall hard and brilliant cryltals, by a
careful evaporation. Thele cryftals are too fmall to ena¬
ble us to determine their form. The phofphorous acid,
appears to adhere ftrongly to the pholphits of lime, for it
isimpoffible to, feparate it by frequent walkings with wa¬
ter. This excefs of acid is taken from it by all the earthy
and alkaline fubftances, although thefe have for the phoi-
phorus acid lei's affinity than lime, which feems to prove,
tfiat the acid in this combination is retained by two dif¬
ferent forcis. It melts with the blow-pipe, emitting a
phofphorefcent light, and forming into a globule, the
tranfparency of which remains after cooling. Its fulion
is promoted by an excefs of acid, and the glafs which it
affords is more tranfparent. Lime feems to have, of all
fubftances, the ftrongeft affinity for phofphorous acid.
I S T R Y.
It is decompofed by the mineral, and even by feme of
the vegetable, acids, fuch as the oxalic, citric, tartaric,
&c. It confifts of lime, fifty-one; acid, thirty-four;
water, fifteen.
Phosphit of Barytes. — This is difficultly foluble
in water. Lime water forms with the folution however,
an evident cloud. The folubility of this l'alt, is greatly
increafed by an excefs of acid, fo that it affords by lpon-
t.meous evaporation fine needle-like cryltals, fo fmall in¬
deed, that it is impoflible to afcertain their exnCt form.
The fait in this flare, has the fame habitudes with water,
or the acidulous pholphit of lime. The oxalic acid
forms in its folution a cryftalline depofit, compofed of
fmall and long needles. Thefe cryltals are a combina¬
tion of ox,alic acid and barytes : ammoniac takes the ex¬
cefs of acid from the phofphit of barytes, which is pre¬
cipitated in the form of a white cloudy powder. This
powder is foluble, like the pholphit of lime, in acetous
acid, although this acid is unable to decompofe thefe
fults-. Phofphit of barytes melts with the blow-pipe into
a globule, which is covered with fo ftrong a light, that
it is impolfible to look at for a few feconds without inju¬
ring the eyes. This globule, which is tranfparent du¬
ring fulion, becomes opake by cooling. With the ex¬
ception of lime, the earths and alkalis produce no change
on this fait. The mineral and feveral of the vegetable
acids decompofe it. It is compofed of barytes, 51-230 -r
acid, 41-770; water, 7-000.
Phosphit of Magnesia. — This fait is flightly folu¬
ble in water, without the afliftance of an excels of acid.
It has no fenfible tafte, and effervefces in the air like phof-
phat of magnefia. It fwells fuddenly with the blow-pipe;,
inflames and emits a greenilh phofphoric. light : it melts
into a globule, which acquires a milky colour by cooling.
It is decompofed by the fixed alkalis, lime, and magne-
fia. Ammoniac produces only a partial decompolition,
and forms with it, as with ail other magnefian falts, a
triple l'alt, poffeffmg peculiar properties. The fulpliuric,
nitric, muriatic, fluoric, citric, oxalic, and tartarous,
acids, decompofe it by difengaging its phofphorous acid.
The oxygenated muriatic acid converts it into a phof-
phat, by burning the fmall quantity of phofphorus which
it contains. It confifts of magnefia, twenty; acid, forty-
four ; water, thirty-fix.
Phosphit of Alumine. — This is very foluble in wa¬
ter, without an excefs of acid, in which it differs from
the phofphat, which is infoluble, and which becomes lo
only by an excefs of acid. Evaporated with a gentle
heat, it exhibits no mark of cryftallization, no faiine de-
polit ; on the contrary, it forms a tranfparent duCtile
niafs, which has a ftrong refemblance to a left gum. This
fait has an aftringent taite. Placed on burning charcoal,
it fwells up like alum, and emits a beautiful pholphonc
light. It preferves the volume it acquired in fwelling,
and becomes very light and fpongy. It does not attract
humidity from the air, but remains dry and tranfparent.
Alumine has the weakeft attraction of alkaline and earthy
matters, for pholphorous acid, fo that is ealily decom¬
poled. The greater part of acids decompofe it. Vauque-
lin remarks, that were we to judge by analogy of the
properties of compound fubftances, we fliould be led to
believe, that the phofphits mult be very combultible, as
they contain a portion of unburnt phofphorus, which
has fo ftrong an attraction for oxygen, that it will unite
with it in every temperature. But this is contrary to
obfervation ; for the phofphits remain for months, either
in the liquid or folid ftate, without undergoing the final-,
left alteration'. Sulphits, on the contrary, are in the fame
circumftances foon changed into fulphats. He ingeni-
oully accounts for this difference, in the following manner.
The combuftion of a body takes place more ealily and
fpeedily in conjunction with other bodies, which increale
its affinity. It is in this way that metals dilfolve much
more rapidly in water mixed with an acid, than they do
in pure water. It is on the lame principle, that the nitric
CHEMISTRY.
acid yields its oxygen to gold, when it is mixed with mu¬
riatic acid; though, if alone, it does nor part with any,
becaufe the affinity of the nitric acid for the oxyd ot gold
is not lufficient to produce the decoinpofition of a part of
the acid. Itistherefore the pre-exilling affinity of theoxyd
of gold for the muriatic acid, which is very ltrong, that fa¬
vours the oxydation of that metal. It is all'o in this manner
in confequence of the greater affinity which alkaline and
earthy bales have for the lulphuric and phofphoric acids,
that thele bafes folicit, as it were, the fulphits and phof-
phits to abl'orb a freffi quantity of oxygen, in order to
unite with their acids more clolely or completely. But
as the lulphuric acid has a much ltronger affinity for al¬
kaline fubftances than the phofphoric, the combuftion
of the fulphits mult be more rapid than that of the pliof-
phits. In addition to this, there feems to be a greater
difference between the affinity of the fulphuric and fu'l-
phurous acid for the fame fubftances, than between that
of the phofphoric and phofphorous ; the pholphoms in the
phofphorous acid being in a (late of much more complete
combuftion than the iulphur in the fulphurous acid ; fo
that, being furrounded by a great number of particles of
oxygen, its affinity for this principle is proportionally
diminiflied, and confequently the combuftion. of thephol-
phits is rendered lefs energetic.
Of F.LUATS.
Tliefe have in general two properties: fome have but
little tafte, and are hardly foluble; others have more
tafte, and are more foluble. Some cryftallize; others
not. The ftronger acids decompofe them all ; fo does
lime. Heat alio decompofes the greater part of them.
Fluat of Lime. — This fluat is found native in the
neighbourhood of mines, and in the ores of lead, filver,
cobalt, copper, &c. There are ten varieties partaking
of different colours, as blue, green, white, red, &c.
This diverlity of colours arifes from the prefence and
ftate of the iron, which affumes various hues, according
to the quantity of oxygen it contains. The molt beau¬
tiful fluor fpar, and the rarelt yet known, is the white ;
the green is the moft common, and next to that the ame-
thyftine. It is neither denfe, hard, nor fulceptible of a
line polilh ; it has commonly a lamellated appearance,
and is mingled with quartz. That which is called white,
has always a caft of yellow. It is called fluor fpar', vi¬
treous fpar, fpath fluor, phofphorous fpar, and calcareous
fluat. Tliefe fiuats are in general one and the fame faline
fubftanqe, that is to lay,' the combination of the fluoric
acid with lime. This fpecies of fait is three times the
weight of diftiiled water. Harvey difcovered that its cryf-
tal was a perfeft octahedron, which afterwards diminiflied
into a cube.
The calcareous fluat, broken in pieces, and heated in
a red-hot {hovel, gives out a violet phofphoric light ; but
it is only the coloured fpar which does this, fo that it ap¬
pears the light is due only to the colouring lubftance.
Scheele made fome experiments on this fubjeft ; and he
has demonftrated, that, when this fpar has once been
expofed to a red heat, it cannot be made phofphoric again
by a lecond calcination. Scheele fuppoled alfo that the
phofphoric property was due to the combuftion ; but the
matter is phofphoric in vacuo : fo that the caule of the
phenomenon is not yet known.
Heat melts this fait, but does not decompofe it : it be-
comse a fort of enamel ; when fuddeniy heated, it decrepi¬
tates almoft as ftrongly as muriat of foda. By the help of the
blow-pipe, it may ferve as a lblvent for ores. It is not
altered in the air, nor foluble in water, yet it will dilfolve
and cryftallize of itfeif. Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic,
acids, decompofe the fluat of lime. The refldues are fait
with a bafe of lime, contrary -to what is aft'erted by Mon-
net; and the acid obtained is of a peculiar nature, no¬
thing like the acids employed, as we have already (hewn,
in the examination of the fluoric acid. When this de-
compolidon is made, the acids muft be diluted with wa¬
255
ter, that the falts which are formed may find water for
their folution ; they feize on it quickly. Without this
precaution, the imall quantity of water which the con¬
centrated acid contains is prefently abforbed, which clogs
up the mixture, hinders the point of contaft, and may
even flop the operation. The calcareous fluat is not
however decompofed by any alkaline or earthy matter;
but, if alkalis in the ftate of carbonats be tiled, then the
double affinity is excited, and a double decompoiition
takes place. For this purpofe, one part of this fluat be¬
ing fufed with four parts of carbonat of potaffi, and
poured hot into water, a precipitate of chalk, formed
by the carbonic acid united to the lime of the calcareous
fluat, is obtained; and the fluid holds in lolution fluat
of potafti, which may be obtained, by evaporation, in
the form of a jelly. When the experiment is repeated
with carbonat of foda, chalk and fluat of foda are in like
manner obtained ; aifo a cryftallized fait.
Calcareous fluat is of no ufe excepting in fome mineral
countries, where it is uled as a very good flux. It might
be applied to the fame purpofe in allays.
Fluat of Barytes. — The fluoric acid poured on a
folution of nitrat or muriat of barytes, occafions a pre¬
cipitate; and this precipitate effervefces with the fulphu¬
ric acid, which dilengages the fluoric acid. This expe¬
riment proves, that Monnet was wrong in ftating, what
he has repeated in his very laft work, that the fulphuric
and fluoric acids were fimilar. This fluat is decompofed
only by lime, and the alkalis in a carbonaceous ftate.
Fluat of Strontian. — This la It has as yet been
but little invelligated. If fluoric acid be added to a lo¬
lution of ftrontian in water, or in the nitric or muriatic
acids, the refill t will be fimilar to that of fluat of barytes.
This fait is decompofable by lime and barytes.
Fluat of Potash. — When an alkaline fluat is pre¬
pared with filiceous fluoric acid, the filex will never be
all precipitated ; part of it remains as a triple fait, which
however may be decompofed by continuing the heat
fomewliat longer, and then the fllex comes away like a
jelly. If, on the other hand, w'e work with pure fluoric
acid, the fluat of potafh is then obtained in duftile platp,
but with the acid prepared in veflels of earth it will be
in a jelly : this circumftance led the celebrated Scheele
into an error, for he never could obtain it in cryftals.
Fire difengages the fluoric acid, and leaves the alkali
only in the veflel ; if the experiment be not made in me¬
tal retorts, a triple fait, in a gelatinous form, would be
produced. It is foluble in water. The fulphuric, nitric,
and muriatic, acids, feparate the fluoric acid: heavy white
vapours are immediately perceived, which are filiceous
from the beginning if veflels of glafs are ufed in the ope¬
ration. This fluat is decompofed alfo by lime, barytes,
and ftrontian ; according to Scheele, the calcarean mu¬
riat, and the magnefian fulphat, decompofe this lalt.
Some of the metallic lolutions, as tfiofe of filver, mer¬
cury, and lead, are decompofed by double affinity.
Fluat of Soda. — The true nature of this fait is lefs
known than that of the preceding. Boullanger, who ex¬
amined all the products of the fluoric acid, lays, that it
cryftalliz.es in the cubical form; Scheele fays it does not
cryftallize at all. In general, it afts nearly the fame as
fluat of potafh when heated. It is decompofed by lime,
barytes, ftrontian, and potafh : barytes even diflolved in
water decompofes it, and the fluat of barytes which is
formed, fhews clearly a direft affinity, for no double affi¬
nity can take place here. The carbonats and the muriat
of lime decompofe it alfo. By double affinity, it is de¬
compofed by folutions of filver, mercury, lead, &c. for,
the fluoric acid alone would occafion no precipitation,
did not the foda attraft the acid, while the fluoric acid
a tt rafts the metal.
Fluat of Ammoniac. — This may be prepared from
cryftallized carbonat of ammoniac, or by faturating li¬
quid ammoniac with fluoric acid. It cryltallizes in little
grains, if the fluoric acid be very pure ; for, if it contains
filexj
CHEMISTRY.
256
filex, a triple fait will be formed, incapable of cryftalli¬
zation ; and the fame efreffc takes place if evaporation
be made in velfels of glafs. It fiiould be obferved, that
towards the end of the operation fome ammoniac is dif-
engaged, fo that more mult be added, in order to obtain
the fluat of ammoniac in a regular form : without this
precaution, almoft'the whole of the ammoniac would be
dil’engaged.
This fait is always found with an excefs of acid. The
molt neutral fluat of ammoniac which can be obtained,
corrodes glafs, and perhaps the cryltals which are pro¬
duced are a triple fait, ammoniaco-iiliceous fluat. When
diltilled in dole velfels with fulphuric acid, pure fluoric
acid paffes over, and a thick crult is formed upon the
water of the recipient. The earthy fubltances previoully
examined, as well as the alkalis, decompofe it alfo, by
dilengaging the ammoniac. Diltilled with carboriat of
lime, or chalk, ammoniacal carbonat and fluat of lime
are obtained: this decompolition cannot take place with¬
out heat. Calcareous muriat and nitrat decompofe it
alio : there is then an exchange of the bales. Scheele
fays that this fait dilturbs a folution of fulphat of mag-
uelia. Solutions of lilver, mercury, and lead, are decom-
pofed alfo.
Fluat of Magnesia. — This is formed when mag-
nelia is dilfolved by the fluoric acid ; but it is depofited
immediately with the acid, and forms with the undiffolv-
ed earth a gelatinous mafs. This fait is loluble with ex¬
cefs of acid ; it cannot be obtained in a neutral Hate. It
Is decompoled by all the preceding bafes. When de-
com poled by means of ammoniac, a triple fait is formed,
ammoniaco-magnelian fluat: this takes place with all the
magnefian falts, when decompofed by ammoniac : and
the decompofition of thefe falts flops, the moment that the
necelfary portions for forming the triple fait is combined.
Fluat of Glucxne, is a combination not yet in-
veftigated. /
Fluat of Alumine. — This is produced by the com¬
bination of fluoric acid with alumine, which affords a
W'eak folution, not cryftallizable, but in form of a jelly.
It may be decompofed by all the bafes.-
Fluat of Zircon. — This earth has not yet been
treated experimentally with the fluoric acid, fo that its
properties are not alcertained.
Fluat of Silex. See Fluoric Acid , page zzo.
Of BORATS.
Bor. at of Barytes. — Barytes combines with the
boracic acid, forming an infoluble fait, notdecompofable
by other earths and alkalis ; but it is not quite certain
whether it may not be decompofable by lime. It is de¬
compofed by all the acids in the cold way ; but, with
heat, the effe£t is contrary ; this lalt being fixed by heat,
it is the boracic acid which decompoles the alkaline and
earthy falts. Befides alkalis and acids, many falts de¬
compofe this borat by double affinity; as, when muriat
of lime is put in contaft with borat of barytes ; then
there is an exchange of bafe.
Borat of Strontian. — This feems to be but very
fparingly foluble in cold water. It requires about T30
times its own weight of boiling water to diffolve it. The
folution changes to a green, the colour of paper ftained
with the juice of violet. This fait has as yet been but
little examined.
Borat of Lime. — To prepare this borat, lime-water
is to be poured into a folution of boracic acid to perfect fa-
turation ; then evaporate the faline liquor to drynefs.
This fait has little tafte ; it is fixed by heat, and vitrifies.
It is lefs foluble than lime ; and barytes is the only earth
that decompofes it. By help of heat, it is decompofed
by the acids which precipitate the boracic acid. _ The
muriatic acid ffiould be preferred, becaufe the muriat of
lime which is formed, being foluble, remains in folution
in the liquor 5 an advantage not to be obtained with ful¬
phuric acid, becaufe the fulphat of lime would be pre^
cipitated at the fame time.
A fubftance was found forfeveral years, in the environs
of Lunenberg, in fome beds of fulphat of lime, which
fubftance, from its form and fliape, got the name of cu¬
bical quartz. Weftrumb has proved, from numerous ex¬
periments, that this is a triple fait compofed of magnefia,
lime, and boracic acid, in the following proportions j
boracic acid, o-66 ; lime, 0-105 ; magnefia, 0-135 > and o-i
of foreign bodies, confifting of a little iron, filex, and alu¬
mine. The cauftic alkalis will not decompofe the native
magnefio-calcareous borat ; it was by acids only that
Weftrumb could feparate its elements, and determine its
proportions.
BoUat of Potash. — The boracic acid unites ealily
with potath, producing a fait of a flightly-alkaline tafte.
It cryftallizes irregularly in fix-fided prifms, two large
and two fmall, with quadrangular pyramids. It however
requires an excefs of the potaffi to make it cryftallize,
like that of foda. Though the alkaline tafte be very-
perceptible in the borats of potaffi and foda ; and though
they turn the blue vegetable colours to a green, and re-
flore the colours reddened by acids, it is certain that the
excefs of alkali is not thereby dilengaged.
This fait, vitrified by heat, is more loluble than that of
foda. It is decompofed by barytes and lime; when too
great a quantity of lime is added, the borat of lime may
be difiolved by the excefs of lime ; this property is re¬
markable, that the lime in excefs fliould be able to diffolve
the borat of lime which was formed, for infoluble falts
are generally re-diffolved by an excefs of acid. This fo¬
lution takes place, therefore, from an excefs of bale;
The acids decompofe this fait ; but, as the affinity of pot¬
affi for the boracic acid is ftronger than that of foda for
the fame acid, the decompofition is not made without
difficulty.
Borat of So da, or Bor ax. — This fait isfoundin com¬
merce in three different ftates. 1. Crude borax, tincal, or
chryfocolla, a name.which it has received from the ufe wffiich
is made of it by brafiers, jewellers, and goldfmiths, for
foldering, 2. Chinele borax. 3. Dutch or purified borax.
The crude borax, or tincal, is brought from Perfia to Hol¬
land in green cryftals, fprinkled with greeniffi-white duft.
To purify this, the Hollanders diffolve the borax in boil¬
ing w.ater, mixing therewith either lime or loda, and put¬
ting in whites of eggs, or bull’s blood, to purify it. Marc-
grave found copper and clay in the crude borax ; but
that might proceed from the velfels it was prepared in.
Its tafte is ftyptic and urinous ; it reddens fyrup of violets,
becaule it contains an excefs of foda. Its lorm is fix-
fided irregular prifms, terminated by pyramids. Thrown
upon burning coals, it gives out anoily empyreumatic fmell,
which feems to prove that it contains fome animal fub¬
ftance. It melts ealily with heat, fwelling up, and con-
fiderably increafing in magnitude, and is then diftinguilh-
ed by the name of calcined borax. The borax is not at all
altered in its compofition 5 nothing being driven off by
the heat, but the water of cryftallization, which is fome-
wliat more than a third of its weight. Its original form
may be reftored by folution in water and cryftallization ;
but, when calcined borax is more ftrongly heated, it melts
into tire form of a tranfparent greeniffi glafs, which tar-
niffies in the air, and by that means gets an eiflorefcence
on its furface. The borax, thus vitrified, loles at leafl:
three parts of its magnitude ; and it is often preferred
to the boracic acid for experiments with the blow-pipe,
becaufe it melts more eafily, and more readily combines
with terreftrial fubltances. Air produces no change in
this fait, except an efflorefcence on its furface, occafioned
by its lofing a portion of its water of cryftallization. Bo¬
rax is foluble in water : twelve parts of cold, or fix of
boiling, are required to diffolve one part of this fait. It
ferves as a flux, or folvent, for filex ; and the glofs there¬
by formed undergoes no, change by expofure to the an-.
Care
CHEMISTRY.
Care mull be taken to divide the earth well, when it is
to be melted with borax. When an earthy fubftance, in
very fine powder, is to be united with borax by the blow¬
pipe, the earth (hould be laid at bottom, and the borax
over it, that the wind may not carry it away : the wind
nuilt not be too llrong till the matter begins to mix ; and
put enough of the borax, that the glafs may be tranfpa-
rent ; for if the filex abounds, the glafs will be opaque.
Borax gives a yellowifli colour to flame ; this is one of
its characteriftics. It diflblves filex with eafe; and the
combination may be known to be perfedt when the glo¬
bule fliines bright. The makers of artificial fcones, or
falfe gems, prefer borax, as a flux, to the boracic acid ;
it melts eafier, and makes a very bright fixed glafs, clearer
indeed than fome Hones ; but it has neither their denfity,
hardne'fs, nor weight.
Alumine combines with borax, and a brifk effervef-
cence is produced, which probably arifes from the pre-
ience of a little air or carbonic acid. Barytes and lime
decompofe this fait ; and, if quick-lime be ufed, the de-
compofition is complete. Borax ftiews the prefence of
metallic fubftances by the manner in which glafs is co¬
loured.
The borax of commerce is loaded with excefs of foda;
and Bergman found, that, to bring it to the ftate of a
neutral ih.lt, it abforbed half its weight of boracic acid.
This neutral borax is not foluble as the borax of the
fhops.
Potafti decompofes the borat of foda ; but ammoniac
does not alter it at all ; fpr the folution, by fpontaneous
evaporation, lets the ammoniac efcape, and at laft keeps
nothing but the boracic acid. All the acids, except the
•carbonic, decompofe borax in the cold way, and the bo-
rats in general ; they feparate the acid in form of fpan-
gles. But, with a llrong heat, the boracic acid de¬
compofes all the acids whofe falts are lefs fixed. See the
article Borax, in our third volume, page 210.
Borat of Ammoniac. — To obtain this fait, difiolve
very pure boracic acid in caullic volatile alkali or ammo¬
niac, until the faturation appears complete ; then dilute
with a fmall quantity of water, and about half the liquid
is to be evaporated on a fand-bath ; a pellicle of united
cryftals is formed, whofe furface exhibits the figure of
polyhedral cryftals. Its tafte is penetrating and urinous;
it converts fyrupof violets to a green, and gradually lofes
its cryftalline form, and becomes brown by expofure to
air. It is moderately lbluble in water, and is decompofed
by barytes, lime, potalh, and foda. It differs from the
other borats in this, that the ammoniac volatilifes, while
the acid remains pure.
Borat of Magnesia. — This name is given to the
combination of boracic acid with magnefia ; it diffolves
therein but flowly : the fluid, by evaporation, affords
granulated cryftals. This fait has a. fweet faccharine
tafte. It is fixed by heat; it melts, forming a tranfparent
glafs, which becomes opaque in cooling, but which will
continue clear, if there be an excefs of the boracic acid.
Its degree of folubility is not known. Lime and barytes
decompofe it; as do the alkalis. The acids take up the
magnefia, and leave the boracic acid feparate. To pre¬
pare calcareous borat of magnefia, mix fulphat of mag-
neiia with muriat of lime, and add borat of foda thereto.
Borat of Gi.ucine. — This has never yet been defin¬
ed by any cbemift.
Borat of Alumine. — The combination of bora¬
cic acid with the earth of alum, which we call alumi¬
nous borat, has not yet been obferved. It is only known
■that if a folution of borat of foda be added to a folution
of aluminous fulphat, a light and fleecy precipitate is
formed. Tjie fulphuric acid quits the alumine to unite
with the foda. This earth combines with the boracic
acid, which is at the fame time feparated, and the new
fait is gradually re-diflolved. The liquid precipitated by
fixed alkali,- affords by evaporation a vilcid and ailrin-
gent mafs, in which fulphat of foda and aluminous borat
are confounded together. This fpecies of borat is deconi-
Vol. IV. No. 194.
257
pofable by the fame fubftances as alum: its properties
however have not yet been examined with fuflicient care.
Borat of Zircon. — This yet remains for modern
chemiftry to inveftigate.
Borat of Silex, by fufion. — The nature and proper¬
ties of this fait has not yet been examined.
Of CARBONATS.
The following is the method of obtaining carbonats in
general. In a large doubly-tubulated bottle, put a weak
acid much diluted with water; to one of the apertures
adapt along tube or conical conduit, the narrow end wi th¬
in the bottle, the broad part open upwards : through this
tube diluted chalk is to be introduced : the neck of a
matrafs narrowed at the end may be made fit for this pur-
pofe. ’ This tube or neck muft be fo long that by help
of.the liquid which dilutes the carbonat, the gas may
be comprefied with a force fuperior to the preflure laid
upon it by the other parts of the apparatus. This con¬
duit may be flopped at will, by means of a pillon, which
is made with a folid tube of glafs, at one end of which
fome glafs is roughly melted on with a lamp, and this
extremity is covered with thread, or a bit of rag. To
the other aperture of the bottle is adapted a bent tube,
whofe aperture fhould be four inches wide ; the fecond
branch of this tube is to be plunged into a bottle fimilar
to the full, and which is to contain a folution of potafh.
Other bottles may be added, containing alkaline or earthy
folutions ; but for thofe earths which are not foluble in
water, they need only be diluted. The apparatus thus
difpofed, lute the joinings ; then raife the tube or fyphon,
introduce the diluted chalk by degrees, which falling on
the acid is decompofed, and lofes its carbonic acid, wliich
is force.d through the folutions, and thus becomes fatu-
rated with acid gas. When the liquors are entirely fatu-
rated, flrain, and evaporate them to obtain the cryftal-
lifed carbonats.
Carbonat of Barytes. — -Native carbonat ofbarytes
has been known for fome years: Dr. Withering firft dis¬
covered it, in the mines of Alflon-moor in Cumberland 5
it is found alfo in Scotland, at Strontian, in Argylefhire ;
likewdfe in the vein of filver at Simcoff in the Altaic
mountains, and between the Ob and Irlich in Siberia,
This fubftance is extremely compadl, femi-tranfparent,
and of the colour of horn ; it is of a fibrous texture, di¬
vided into irregular laminae, according to the direction of
its fibres. When broken tranfverfely, it has a fatty look,
and a form both convex and concave, like filiceous fub¬
ftances : outwardly its fibres are of an unequal texture,
and lie in bundles, with intervals between them, which
give it a cellular appearance : but this is not conftant or
neceflary. That which comes from Strontian is in the
form of agglutinated prifms, lying horizontally on the
calcareous fpar : thefe prifms feem to have an hexagon
form with parallel ftriae, and blunt tops. The fpecific
gravity of thefe carbonats of barytes is very great, it is
4_2’3Sa. This fait has neither fmell nor tafte ; it is neu¬
tral, and infoluble ; but, like carbonat of lime, it is fo¬
luble in water charged with carbonic acid.
Carbonat of barytes is made artificially, for the native
kind is very fcarce. Barytes is feparated from the fulphat,
and then laturated with carbonic acid. The manner of
obtaining the barytes is (hewn in our fedtion on Ear¬
thy Subfiances, page 223. But the native carbonat of
barytes differs from that which is formed by art ; the for¬
mer lofes not an atom of its acid by expofure to great
heat ; the latter lofes a fmall portion of it.
Mixed with charcoal, and urged by a great heat, for
two hours, in a crucible, the carbonic acid is difengaged,
and the barytes remains pure ; but the procefs is uncertain,
and flow. If native and artificial carbonat be mixed to¬
gether in powder, and heated, the mixture takes a green
colour, which lafts for fome months; and then dilappears.
All the mineral acids decompofe it.
When this- fubftance, after having been long expoled
to the fire, is wanned with boiling water, and the fiolu-
3 U tion
25 8 C H E M I
tion filtered, the barytic earth fhoots into Ana 11 cryftals,
fome of which are evidently of an octahedral figure.
This faft has been obferved by Klaproth, Vauquelin,
and Pelletier. Like the carbonat of lime, it becomes fo-
luble by an excels of acid. The fuper-faturated carbo¬
nat is an extremely ufeful fubftance in chemical experi¬
ments. It ferves to precipitate the fulphuric acid, by
the infoluble compound which it forms with it. It
ferves to purify the phofphoric acid from the fulphuric,
and the carbonats oi potafhand foda from the fulphat
which they contain. It is prepared with great care, by
putting fome carbonat of barytes, or, which is the fame
thing, barytes precipitated from muriatic acid by an al¬
kaline carbonat, into a bottle of water impregnated
with carbonic acid. The bottle is inverted, and the
mixture left to digeft in the cold for fome hours. The
folution is filtered, and kept in inverted bottles, to pre¬
vent the efcape of the carbonic acid. By digefting fome
of the fulphat of barytes in water impregnated with car¬
bonic acid, Morveau obtained fome carbonat of barytes
with an excefs of acid. He conceives that a linall por¬
tion of the carbonat is mixed with the fulphat.
Carbonat of Strontian. — This is found at
Strontian, among the lead ore. It is of a light green co¬
lour, fome is tranfparent and colourlefsq fometimes it is
ftriated in a regular cryftalline form. Its fpecific gra¬
vity is from 36-583 to j6'7 50, confequently lighter than
carbonat of barytes. It retains the carbonic acid gas ve¬
ry ftrongly ; but with care, and by keeping up the fire,
about five or fix parts of carbonic acid gas may be fepa-
rated from 10a of carbonat of ftrontian, without putting
the crucible in danger ; yet the fire muft not be too ftrong,
for in that cafe the earth will attack the crucible, and
form glafs, of a cryfolite colour.
To an hundred parts of carbonat of ftrontian, add ten
parts of charcoal in powder, and make it into a ftrong
dough with ftarch ; and this fait may be decompofed in
the following manner: put this dough into a crucible,
with a little charcoalduft newly calcined : lay the dough
over the charcoal} cover the whole with powdered char¬
coal ; adapt a head to the crucible, and lute it with
earth. When the crucible is thus fecured, expofe it to
a very ftrong heat for a full hour, which will luffice for
difengaging the carbonic acid gas : when the crucible is
cold, open it, and the lump will be fouqd preferved,
weighing only feventy-two parts. If the remaining mat¬
ter be dilfolved in diftilled water, cryftallized ftrontian
is produced.
To manufaflure carbonat of ftrontian, expofe a folu¬
tion of this earth in water to the air, and a white pelli¬
cle will be formed over it, which is only a combination
of the ftrontian with the carbonic acid gas it has attract¬
ed from the atmofphere. The mineral acids decompofe
carbonat of ftrontian. This carbonat is neither vomit¬
ing nor deadly, as is the carbonat of barytes, both native
and factitious ;, w'hich fliews a great difference between
thefe carbonats.
Carbonat of Lime.' — All calcareous matters in. ge¬
neral, are neutral falts, refulting from the combination
of carbonic acid with lime. There are many fubftances
of this kind, as chalk, fpar, marble, {hells, concretions,
Sec. Each of thefe (alts is different in texture, tranfpa-
rence, and grain;, variations which arife from their quick
or flow combination, l'ublequent expofure to peculiar
temperature, See. Thefe matters are commonly colour¬
ed by metallic fubftances, as iron, manganefe, Sec. The
Icelandic fpar has the property of doubling the objeCt of vi-
fion, a phenomenon which has never been truly explain¬
ed. Chalk., or calcareous carbonat, improperly called
Spanifh white, is prepared in France at Marly, Mardon,
Cavereau, See. But the moft tranfparent calcareous fpar
only, fuch as white marble, {hould be ufed in. making
experiments to eftablifti the properties of this earthy fait.
When expol'ed to the action of heat, it loles its acid,
and water of cryftallization. Take calcareous fpar or
a.
S T R Y.
powdered marble; put it into a retort of porcelain or oft
earth, or rather into a glafs tube well luted ; or a gun-
barrel may be ufed, and laid through a furnace; (but in-
this cafe the operator muft not be furprized at finding a
little hydrogen gas in tjie courfe of his experiment; for
this is produced by the afition of the water contained in
the earthy fait with the iron.) Adapt a recurved tube
offafety to its lower extremity, which tube is to go un¬
der a bell-glafs, or jar. Then heat the tube, and car¬
bonic acid gas will be found under the jar: the refidue
in the tube or retort is quicklime, which no longer effer-
vefees with acids. If the tranfparent calcareous fpar be
fuddenly heated, it decrepitates and becomes opaque.
The procefs for the fabrication of lime, is founded on
the principles of the preceding experiments ; the object
is always to feparate the acid from the calcareous fub¬
ftances. A kind of hard calcareous ftone, called Ivne-Jlone,
is moft commonly ufed in making lime. Thefe ftones arc
to be piled up in the form of an oven or vauit 5 under
the arch a fire of wood is to be lighted, which muft be
continued till a ftrong flame, without fmoke, rifes con fi¬
de rably above the furnace, and till the ftones are be¬
come very white. Still the fire muft not be too ftrong, for
the furface of the ftones will vitrify, efpecially if they
contain 15 lex and alumine : in that cafe the lime is- info-
luble, and is called over-burnt lime. If the acid is net
yet difengaged, the lime is ftill infoluble, which is often
the cafe with the lime of commerce : fome pieces are
found alfo which are not baked enough, and fome too
much. The oxyd of iron contained in the ftone is pro¬
per alfo to excite fufion ; fo that, for ochreous ftone, a
more moderate heat fhould be employed, and longer
continued. The oxyds of iron and manganefe render
the lime better, efpecially the oxyd of manganefe.
Sometimes lime-ftone is white in the quarry ; grows
blackifli in the air, and even of a fine deep black : it is
becaufe the oxygen of the air lays open the oxyd of iron
or manganefe, which originally exifted as a white oxyd ;
water greatly favours the developement of' this oxyda-
tion. Lime, to be good, (hould be fonorous and hard;
Ihould heat quickly and ftrongly with water, and give
out a thick fmoke.
The calcareous carbonat is not changed by the air. It
is not foluble in pure water, but in water loaded with
carbonic acid : thus it is that nature diflblvea thofe cai4
careous mafies which the waters afterwards- carry away-.
When the waters, by expofure to the air, lofe the acid
which favoured the folution of the calcareous matters;
depofits are formed and hence arife the ftalaftites and in-
cruftations formed about fprings, &c. and even. beds of
calcareous laminae, which no doubt have been kept in
folution. If thefe waters, loft fuddenly the acid which
favoured folution, there is an irregular precipitation:
hence calcareous ftones which are loft, cellular, and
fpongy. But, if the cryftallization was flow, we have
cryftallizations, marble, ftalaftites, & c.
If acidulated water, holding carbonat of lime in folu¬
tion, be boiled, the excefs of acid evaporates, and the
calcareous carbonat is depofited. This procefs may be
ufed with advantage in the analyfis of mineral waters.
If an alkali,, as ammoniac for example, be poured into
an acid folution of carbonat of lime, there will be a pre¬
cipitation. The precipitation thus, obtained gives fome
trouble in analyling mineral waters ; for it is not known
whether it comes from the lime, or from the magnefia :
this therefore muft be tried s if it be a calcareous carbo¬
nat held in folution by the water, it will effervefee with
acids ; if it be magnefia, it will not. If the excefs of car¬
bonic acid found in a folution of calcareous earth, be fatu-
rated with lime, a precipitation will take place immedi¬
ately. All thefe experiments prove that lime cannot be
diflblved in water, but by an excefs of acid.
The fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic, acids, decompofe
the carbonat of lime ; they feparate the carbonic acid
with eifervefcence, The alkalis precipitate the. lime of
thele
CHEMISTRY.
thefe folutions. Fluoric acid decompofes it alfo, as does
boracic acid ; but this lalt will not decompofe the calca¬
reous fait without heat.
Carbonat of lime promotes the vitrification of fome
earthy and ftony fubftances. Mixed with filiceous earth,
it caufes fufion, when the latter is in the proportion of
one-third, or one-fourth. This fait, when naturally
mixed with argillaceous earth, forms the fubftance cal¬
led marl. This fubftance prefents a great number of va¬
rieties, with refpedl to colour, denlity, &c. and melts
into a greenilh yellow glafs, when urged by a ftrong
heat. It is ufed with great fuccefs as a manure to ferti¬
lize lands.
Barytes decompofes carbonat of lime, but not without
heat. Muriat of ammoniac is decompofed by it ; the re-
fults are, muriat of lime, and carbonat of ammoniac,
formerly called fal volatile of England, ox concrete volatile
Jalt. This operation is made, by diltilling in a ftone-
\vare retort, a mixture of one pound of fal ammoniac,
and two pounds of chalk or cretaceous fpar, in powder.
Thefe two fubftances mull be very dry. A receiver or
cucurbit of glafs is adapted to the retort, and the fire is
gradually railed to a low red heat, the receiver being
kept cool with wet cloths, or by a fmall ftream of cold
water, which runs on it during the whole operation.
White vapours pafs over, which condenle in very pure
and white cryftals on the fides of the receiver. This is
the carbonat of ammoniac. This experiment offers a
frefb proof that the variation of temperature changes the
affinities : for, carbonat of ammoniac decompoles mu¬
riat of lime when cold, which fhews an anomaly; the
contrary happens when heat is applied ; the heat tends
to detach the carbonic acid from the lime, and the am¬
moniac from the muriatic acid : hence it is not wonder¬
ful that the equilibrium of the divellentanc| quiefeentaf-
finities fhould be totally deftroyed by the difference be¬
tween cold and heat.
Carbonat of Potash. — To combine potalh, and
indeed any of the alkalis, with carbonic acid, we have
above delcribed an apparatus which Ihould always be
contrived fo that the furfaces of the fluids may be re¬
newed ; and this will be better performed by means of
the apparatus with double fyphons, which we have de-
feribed and figured, for obtaining carbonic acid gas ; in
which apparatus thefyphons of themfelves agitate andlhift
the liquors, and thus continually renew their furfaces.
The carbonic acid, though weak, neutralifes alkaline
fubftances, and forms falts ; yet the alkalis preferve with
it the property of reltoring vegetable tints, giving them
a green colour, and they continue fomething of an alka¬
line tafte. Thus carbonic acid has npt fo much of a latu-
rating property, with r el pecil to alkalis and earths, as
other acids.
It is not long fince carbonat of potalh has been known
in a ftate of purity ; it was formerly fuppofed to be deli-
quefeent ; it was called tartarian alkali, becaufe it was
obtained by burning tartar of wine to alhes. When
moiftened by the air, it was called oil of tartar per deli-
quinm : this property arofe only from the fixed fait of the
tartar not being laturated with the carbonic acid. Boh-
nius obtained this fait in the form of regular cryftals;
but he could not explain the procefs. Black and Berg¬
man have lince thrown great light upon the fubjedl.
As we now prepare this fait from its principles, by a
diredt combination of carbonic acid gas with potalh, we
havefeen the'polfibility of producing a fait, with proper¬
ties entirely different from that of which we have been
fpeaking: it has been called neutral carbonat of potalh,
to diftinguilh it from the other non-faturated alkalis,
which are met with in commerce. This neutral carbo¬
nat of potalh is no longer cauftic ; it is faitilh only, with
a Highly urinous talte. It is greatly altered by fire, lofing
therein 0'5’. of its weight, and what remains is cauftic
potalh. Diftilled in a retort, it lofes its water of cryftal-
lization, and its acid affumes the aeriform Hate; the pot-
259
alh remains at the bottom of the retort, retaining always
a little of the carbonic acid, which it is very difficult to
feparate. It undergoes no alteration by being expofed
to the air.
When common potalh is put in water for diflolution,
it atfirft abforbs a certain quantity of it, which it folidi-
fies ; then the potalh is diflolved in the excels of water
which is added. In general, when a fait abforbs and fo-
lidifies water, there lliould naturally be difengaged fome
caloric, which conftitutes the liquid form of w7ater. The
contrary happens when cold is produced. The abforp-
tion of the water by the potalh, is in truth a combina¬
tion in confequence of affinity or attraction ; which is
very different from Ample extenfion by folution in a li¬
quid : hence a fenfible heat is difengaged. This effedb
only takes place with the potalh met wfith in commercb.
If, on the other hand, a fait well cryftallized be put in¬
to water, there is furely a production of cold; for, in-
that cafe, there is no water to be folidified : it is a folid
converted into a liquid. But, if a dried fait be ufed, it
employs the ftrong affinity it has for the water, it feizes
it, and difengages its caloric ; then when faturated with
folid water, it dilfolves, and returns to the clafs of cryf¬
tallized falts. Four parts of cold water are required to
diftblve one of this fait : by evaporation, and cooling,
cryftals in various fliapes are produced; the moll com¬
mon is the quadrangular prifm, or laminae with dihedral
triangular lummits, fo that the faceanfwers to one of the
folid angles of the prifm.
Carbonat of potalh is decompofed by all the acids.-
Indeed the carbonic acid may be feparated by the im¬
pure acid refidues tempered with water, and by the refi-'-
dues of diftillation, fuch as acid fulphat of potalh, & c.
diflolved in water: the carbonic acid is always dilengh-
ged with effervefeence. The boracic acid will not de¬
compofe the carbonat of potalh without heat ; but, by
raifing the temperature, the decompofition takes place.
This fait may be ufed, like potalh, as a flux for vitrifia-
ble earths, becaufe the caloric decompofes it, by diflipa-
ting the carbonic acid. If one part of filex and three of
potalh be made into a palte, and melted either in a cru¬
cible, or by means of the blow-pipe, a glafs will be ob¬
tained.
Barytes, ftrontian, and lime, decompofe this fait. If
a folution of thefe terreftrial fubftances be poured into a
folution of carbonat of potalh, a precipitation immedi¬
ately takes place; the carbonic acid unites with the
earth, and forms an infoluble fait, while the potalh is
held in folution by the liquor. By this decompofition
may be prepared the lapis cauficus, or cauftic potalh.
But particular care mult be taken to have a quick eva¬
poration, and in fdver veffels, to have it pure, and that
it may not abforb the carbonic acid ; then dry it, melt
it, and pour it on marble.
The neutral falts are not changed by this carbonat.
The magnefian falts give no precipitate in the cold by
admixture wfith carbonat of potalh ; but, by boiling the
mixture, a precipitation is obtained. The fame eftedl
takes place by expofing the mixture to the air; carbonat
of magneliais produced, w-hich. may even be obtained in
the cryftallized form. Hence an excellent mode prefents
itfelf of feparating lime, barytes, and alumine, from
magnefia; for, by pouring carbonat of potalh into a fo¬
lution of thefe earthy fubftances, the lime is prefently
depofited, by feparating the fulphat, nitrat, &c. if com¬
bined with thefe acids, in a liquor previoufly analyzed j
then, by heating the liquor, magnefia is obtained.
The ules of carbonat of potalh in the arts are many;
it is employed in medicine as a very adlive folvent; in
obftrudlions of the mefentery and the urinary paffages, it
is not adminiftered but in fmall dofes, together with fome
fubftance which may moderate its adlion.
Carbonat of Soda.- — This fait was formerly called.
natrum, natron , mineral alkali, and fall offoda. This car¬
bonat, when ufed for the arts, is extracted from the alhes.
of
CH-EMISTR Y.
260
of marine plants : fuch is the carbonat of foda met with
in commerce. But it is found ready formed in the earth,
and in ieveral mineral waters, as the acidulated alkaline
waters j the overflowings of the Nile leave it abundantly
on the iiirface of the earth. Native carbonat of foda
feems to come from marine fait, decompofed by vege¬
table and animal fubftances, and efpecially by lime;
lienee we fee efflorefcences of carbonat of foda on walls
built with lome peculiar kinds of earth, under the arches
of bridges, and particularly in caverns near the fea; this
is muriat of foda decompofed by a terreftrial agent.
But foda, with us, is molt ufually obtained from ma¬
rine plants by combuftion ; Spanifh barilla furniflies the
belt. Colledt a heap of thefe faline plants, and dig a
round pit near them, growing larger towards the bottom,
and about a yard deep ; by means of this the vegetables
are to be burned, and the combuftion is to be continued
without interruption for feveral days ; when the com¬
buftion is finilhed, a mafs of alkaline fait is found, which
is' divided in pieces for fale or exportation ; this is called
■foda-Jlone, or foda. This is to be pounded, and expofed
in a fubterraneous place, where it may attradl carbonic
acid; it is then walhed as for falt-petre j the fea-falt is
feparated, • then drawn off; and, finally, you have pure
carbonat of foda. The foda exifts in the cauftic (late in
.the plant; for, if fulphuric or muriatic acid be poured
over the pulverized plant, a muriat, or fulphat, will be
obtained without effervefcence ; but, by combuftion, the
carbon of the plant itfelf furniflies the carbonic acid, and
the carbonat is formed.
To obtain this fait quite pure and well cryftallized,
proceed as for carbonat of potafh. It may likewife be
prepared by pouring carbonic acid into a veffel, the tides
of which have been moiftened with a folution of foda.
The veffel is covered with a wet bladder, and, at the end
of a few hours, the combination is effe&ed. The blad¬
der finks in the veffel, on account of the vacuum which
is formed in it, while the fait is depoftted in regular cryf-
tals on its fides.
The carbonat of foda has an alkaline tafte, and ren¬
ders the fyrup of violets green, though this does not alter
its colour fo much as the cauftic foda does; its tafte is
urinous, but neither fo burning nor fo cauftic as that of
the fame alkali in a ftate of purity. This neutral fait
haftily cryftallized, appears to be formed of rhomboidal
laminae, obliquely applied on each other, after the man¬
ner of tiles. When it is (lowly cryftallized, it takes the
form of rhombic o&ahedrons, whole pyramids are trun¬
cated very near their bafe, or decahedral folids, with two
acute and two obtule angles. By the aftion of heat it
Jofes 0 64 of its weight. If the fire be kept up, it lofes
its carbonic acid, and becomes cauftic; for, in propor¬
tion as part of the acid is difengaged, what remains is
more concentrated, and more ftraitly liolden by the fo¬
da, which makes a ftrong heat neceffary at the end of
the operation. This fait efflorefees in the air, and its
cryftals fall to powder, becaufe this carbonat has lefs
affinity with water than air. The warm dry air of fum-
mer ails brilkly upon it; yet air takes away only one
half of the weight of the water it contains ; to feparate
a greater quantity, there requires more than the aftion
of dry air, namely, that of caloric.
Carbonat of foda produces cold by its folution in w'a-
ter* it is more foluble than carbonat of potafh, as it re¬
quires only twice its weight of cold water, or half that
quantity of boiling water, to hold it in folution. It cryl-
tallizes by cooling; but Spontaneous evaporation affords
more regular cryftals.
This fait, well faturated and dried, is decompofed by
phofphorus. See the procefs in tlie account we have
given of Carbonic Acid. This carbonat favours the fu-
iion of vitrifiable earths much more than potalh ; and
the glafs it forms is more durable. If a folution of ba¬
rytes, ftrontian, or lime, be poured into a folution of
carbonat of foda, a precipitation takes place immediate¬
ly : the carbonic acid feizes on the earths, and forms an
infoluble fait ; the foda remains in folution in the liquor.
Potafh decompofes this fait alfo. All the acids feparate
its carbonic acid with effervefcence. Nothing is more
eafy than to decompofe the alkaline carbonats ; which;
no doubt, arifes from the carbonic acid having a great
affinity for caloric ; and this affinity a6ts in molt of the
experiments.
Carbonat of foda decompofes the calcareous, magne-
fian, and aluminous, falts. When a calcareous fait is to
be decompofed by carbonat of foda, the liquor mull be
heated ; otherwife there will remain in the lolution
enough of carbonat of foda to hold the carbonat of lime
in folution ; this excefs of acid is diffipated by heat. It
is the fame with the magnefian falts. This carbonat may
be employed for the fame ufes as the carbonat of potafh,
and is much more valuable in the manufactories of glafs,
foap, &c.
Carbonat of Ammoniac. — Pure ammoniac and
carbonat of ammoniac w'ere formerly fuppofed to be the
fame thing. It was formerly concrete volatile alkali, and
volatile fait of ammoniac , and a great affinity for lime is
given to it in the ancient tables : this was an error; it
is known now, that this affinity arofe from the prefence
of the carbonic acid, which was not then underftood or
even fufpedted ; and the effects it produced were attri¬
buted to the ammoniac.
Befides the methods pointed out in fpeaking of carbo¬
nat of lime, carbonat of ammoniac may be obtained fe¬
veral different ways ; as, 1. By agitating the alkali in the
upper part of a vat of fermenting liquor: 2. By palling
the carbonic acid into volatile alkaline fpirit : or, 3. By
pouring the acid into a veffel, on the (ides of which a
few drops of ammoniac diffolved in water are fpread ;
4.. By combining direCtly over mercury carbonic acid gas
and ammoniac. Thefe two gafes immediately unite;
much heat is extricated, and a concrete fait is formed
on the fides of the veffel in which the mixture is made.
In all thefe cafes, cryftals of ammoniacal carbonat are
formed. It is likewife obtained by decompofing ammo¬
niacal muriat, by the addition of carbonic neutral falts,
with bafe of potalh or foda. Its tafte is urinous, but
much lefs fo than that of pure and cauftic ammoniac ;
its fmell, though fimilar, is much fainter: it converts fy¬
rup of violets to a green. It is very volatile, and the
fmalleft heat fublimes it entirely, if it be well cryftal¬
lized. The firft effect of heat is that of liquefaction, by
means of its water of cryftallization, or the aqueous fu-
fion. It flowly attradls moillure from the air, efpecially
•when it is not entirely faturated with carbonic acid. It
is very foluble in water, and, like all other neutral falts,
produces cold; a property fo contrary to that of pure
ammoniac, as to afford an additional argument for rank¬
ing it among the neutral falts. Two parts of cold water
diffolve more than one of carbonat of ammoniac; hot
water dilfolves more than its own weight. Its cryftals
are many-fided prifms. But it is very difficult to obtain
this fait well cryftallized ; for, being more volatile than
water, if the liquor be left to evaporate, it will volati¬
lize : the carbonat of ammoniac mult therefore be dif¬
folved in water of 300 heat ; (train the liquor with a
covered funnel ; then, being lefs foluble cold than hot,
it cryftallizes as it cools. Carbonat of ammoniac will
not decompofe phofphorus ; becaufe the double affinity,
which favours this decompofition with alkalis, does not
take place here.
The fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and fluoric, acids,
have a ftronger affinity than the carbonic acid to ammo¬
niac : when one of thefe acids is poured on the carbonat
of ammoniac, a ftrong effervefcence arifes from the dif-
engagement of the carbonic acid. If this decompofition
be made in a tall (lender veffel, the prefence of the car¬
bonic acid gas may be obferved by the extinction of a
lighted candle, the reddening of the tinfture of tumfole,
or the precipitation of lime-water immerfed in a (mall
C H E M I
cup below its orifice. Thefe decompofitions of the car-
bonat of ammoniac by lime and fixed alkalis, which ieize
its acid and fepprate the ammoniac, and by acids which
ieize the alkali, and dilengage the carbonic acid, clearly
ills tv the nature of this felt. Bergman has found, by ac¬
curate experiments, that a cententary of this fait, con¬
tains forty-three parts of ammoniac, forty-five parts of
carbonic acid, and twelve of water. Fromtfteconf.de-
ration that this fait contains a larger proportion of acid
than carbonat of foda, and this laft a larger quantity
than carbonat of potalh, he concluded, that the weaker
the alkaline bafe, the more carbonic acid will be required
for its feturation. The acid of borax does not decom¬
pofe the carbonat of ammoniac in the cold ; but when
the latter is poured on a hot folution of boracic acid, a
very lenfible effervefcence is produced, and the difen-
gagement of carbonic acid is fhown by the ufual me¬
thods ; a true borat of ammoniac being alio found at
the bottom of the veiled. This experiment, proves, that
heat modifies or changes the laws of affinity, or eleftive
■attraftion, as Bergman long ago obferved.
This carbonat is decompoied by barytes, ftrontian,
and lime. If powdered lime be mingled with carbonat
■of ammoniac, an ammoniacal odour arifes immediately ;
this will be facilitated by adding a few drops of water.
But the experiment may be made at once with lime-wa¬
ter. If lime-water be poured into a folution of carbonat
of ammoniac, a precipitate is immediately formed, and
a ftrong fin ell of volatile alkali is perceived. The lime
feizes the carbonic acid, and forms chalk, or calcareous
carbonat, which falls down, and the ammoniac is difen-
gaged and volatilizes. With magneiia, there is but a
flight precipitate, becaule the mixture, while cold, re¬
tains a fufficient excefs of carbonic acid to hold the car¬
bonat of magnefia in folution; but, if the liquor be
heated, this excefs of acid is difiipated, and a precipitate is
formed. Potalh and foda decompofe this felt, as well as
lime, barytes, and ftrontian, by feparating the pure am¬
moniac, and uniting with its acid.
The carbonat of ammoniac is employed in medicine
as a fudorific, anti-hyfteric, &c. It is mixed with certain
aromatic matters ; and thus is prepared what we in Eng¬
land call fal 'volatile. It has been confidered as a fpecific
againft the bite of vipers ; but the Abbe Fontana, with
great reafon, combats this opinion. Many have advifed
the ufe of the carbonat of ammoniac, or concrete volatile
alkali, as a remedy in venereal dilorders ; experience,
however, has not yet decided on this head. All the know¬
ledge the art of medicine poffeffes with regard to this lalt
is, that it is purgative, opening, diuretic, diaphoretic,
difeuffive, and that it has a good e if eft in luch dilorders
as depend on the denfity of the lymph 5 as certain vene¬
real cafes, coagulations of milk, fcrophulous dilorders,
-&c. It is adminiftered in dofes of a few grains, in a pro¬
per vehicle, or compounded with opium.
Carbonat of Magnesia. — This is faid to be found
in. quarries in Savoy ; feveral mineral waters hold it in fo¬
lution; they waih it away in their courie, then it preci¬
pitates and cryftalliz.es. It is more foluble than lime in
acidulated waters which have an excefs of carbonic acid.
This felt has borne different names, it was ufed in me¬
dicine under the name of mica, or zvhite magnefia ; it was
•formerly made with the mother-water of nitre evaporat¬
ed to drynefs, or precipitated by fixed alkali; it was firft
known by the name of Count Palma's povjder, fovuder of
Sentinelli. It has likevrife been called laxative polycbrejl
povjder by Valentini, white magnefia of nitre, magnefia of
■cdmtnon fait, becaufe it was like wife obtained from the
mother-water of this laft felt. But the medicine, fo pre¬
pared, always contains calcareous earth, and other foreign
fubltances. The magnefia at prelent uled is commonly
precipitated from lulphat of magnefia by the fixed vege¬
table alkali or carbonat of potalh. Mr. B.utini lias del-
■cribed a procefs for obtaining very fine magnefia in the
greateft poffible quantity, A certain quantity of potalh
Vol. IV* No. 194.
S T R Y. 26!
is diftblved in double- its weight of cold water, and ex-
pofed to the air for fome months, if time permits, that
it may abforb carbonic acid from the atmofphere and pre¬
cipitate itsearth. Thisbeingfiltered,afolution ofanequ.al
weight of lulphat of magnefia in four or five times its
weight of water is made ; the dilution is filtered, and frefh
water added in about fifteen times the weight of the fait.
This liquor is heated, and, when it boils, the alkaline di¬
lution is poured in. A precipitate of magnefia being
formed, the mixture" fn uft be agitated and poured on a
filter of paper. The precipitate mult be walhed on the
filter with boiling water, to carry off the fulphat of pot-
alh it may contain. It is then taken from the filter, and
thinly fpread on papers, to dry by the heat of a ftove ;
when dry, it is in white pieces, eafily broken into a very
fine p’owder, which adheres to the Akin. This fait may
be obtained in the cryftallized form ; fometimes in final!
cubes ; at others in very fine brilliant needles, which
through a magnifier exhibit prifms of fix or eight fides.
To obtain very light carbonat of magnefia, the depo-
fits Ihould be dried very (lowly, in firiall pieces, and in
the fliade : this flow drying favours the fufpenfion of the
molecules, or elementary particles, and occafions thole
finail lump6 to preferve their lightnefs. Its talle is fweet-
ilh, almoft infipid; but its effeft is more fenfible on the
inteftines, as appears by its afting as a purgative. Ex-
pofed to the fire in a crucible, its lofes its acid and water,
and the magnefia remains pure : it is then called cauftic
tnagnefia ; but it is not fo, for La Grange afferts that half
a pound of it may be eaten without danger. When per-
feftly calcined, it no longer eifervelces with acids.
Calcined magnefia is ul'ed with good effedl to abforb aci¬
dity on the ftomach. If carbonat of magnefia be calcin¬
ed in dole veffels by the aid of the pneumatic apparatus,
the water and acid may be preferved.
Carbonat of magneiia is not leniibly altered by expo-
fure to air ; yet, as it gathers into lumps when kept in
a moift place, it feems to be (lightly deliquefcent. Wa¬
ter diffolves but an exceedingly fmall quantity of this
felt; and this lolubility varies accordingly as the quan¬
tity of carbonic acid is greater or lefs. The lulphuric,
nitric, and muriatic, acids, decompofe carbonat of mag¬
neiia. They unite to the magneiia, with which they have
a ftronger affinity than the carbonic acid, and difengage
the latter in the galeous form, which conftitutes effer¬
vefcence.
Barytes, ftrontian, and lime, decompofe this felt : By
pouring a folution of thefe earths into carbonat of mag¬
nefia, a confiderabie precipitate is produced, how final!
foever be the quantity of this neutral felt holden in fo¬
lution by the water. Fixed alkalis and ammoniac work
the feme effeft. The neutral calcareous (alts are decom-
pofed by magnefia with effervefcence, by the aftion of
double affinity.
Carbonat of Glucinc. — The carbonic acid unites
alfo with glucine, by direft combination ; for, if a pre¬
cipitate ol this earth by cauftic alkali be dried in the air,
it will produce an effervefcence by folution in other acids.
This carbonat is white, infipid, ii> foluble, and very light;
however dry it may be, it is never inclined to fall to pow¬
der ; it is always clammy, lumpy, fat, and loft to the
touch. It contains about one fourth of its weight of car¬
bonic acid, which it eafily lofes by heat. It appears
fcarcely foluble in carbonic acid ; yet it is decompofed
by all the acids and alkalis.
Carbonat of Alumine.- — Though the union of the
carbonic acid with alumine has been hitherto fcarcely
examined, yet it is certain that a portion of this acid
combines with aluminous earth ; becaule, 1. According
to the remark of Bergman, when a folution of alum is
precipitated by the alkaline carbonats, the filtered liquor
depofits, at the end of a certain time, a finail quantity of
earth, which was held in folution by the carbonic acid,
and is feparated in proportion as that acid flies oft.
z. This precipitation, when made in the cold, is not at-
3 X tended
262 C H E M I
tended with effervefcence, and a portion of the carbonic
acid feparated from the alkali, appears to combine with
the alumine, while another portion becomes diffolved in
the fluid. It is likewife acknowledged, from the analyfis
of many argillaceous earths, by modern chemifts, that
they contain the carbonic acid ; for they effervefce, when
diflolved in the fulphuric or muriatic acids.
Carbonat of Zircon. — This fait yet remains to be
inveftigated by modern chemifts j its properties not being
known.
Of METALLIC SUBSTANCES.
Before we proceed to the examination of each metallic
fubftance in particular, it may be neceflary to confider,
3. Their phyfical properties, 2. Their natural hiftory,
3. The art of knowing their nature and quantity, called
docimafia, or art of allaying. 4. The method of working
them in the large way, or metallurgy. 5. Their chemical
properties. 6. The manner of diltinguilhing one from
another, and the diviftons neceflary to be eftablifhed
amonglt them.
The ancients fuppofed metals to be compofed of fome
earthy fubftances, combined with phlogifton ; hence the
denomination of perfect and imperfedt metals. The al-
chemifts gave the name of folar metals to thofe which
were coloured, and lunar to fuch as are white. But me¬
tals in general are Ample fubftances. At prefent there
are reckoned twenty-one different fpecies of metallic fub-
ftances, which Fourcroyhas defcribed under fi.ve divifions.
I. Brittle and acidifiable metals, four kinds ; arfenic,
tungften, molybdena, and chrome.
II. Brittle and Amply oxydable, feven fpecies : titane,
nranite, nickel, cobalt, manganefe, bifmuth, antimony,
and tellure.
III. Metals femi-dudtile, and oxydiftable, two fpecies:
mercury and zink.
IV. Metals dudtile, and eafily oxydated, four fpecies ;
tin, lead, iron, and copper.
V. Metals very dudtile, and not eaAly oxydated, three
.fpecies : Alver, gold, and platina.
Of ARSENIC.
Native arfenic is often found ; it is in black mafles,
little Alining, and very heavy; fom.etimes it has a metallic
brightnefs, and refledts the colours of the rainbow. Pure
arfenic has alfo been called regulus of arfenic ; but which
denomination, fays Fourcroy, ought to be abandoned
as improper. In breaking it appears more fhining, and
deems compofed of a vaft number of little fca'les : when
thefe fcales are viflble on the outflde of the pieces, it is
called tefaceous arfenic , or, improperly, teflaceous cobalt,
fcalj or laminated arfenic. It is alfo found in friable mall’es
almoft without confidence. Arfenic, under thefe forms,
is brought from Bohemia, Hungary, Saxony, St. Marie
aux Mines, See.
Arfenic is fometimes in the form of a white oxyd, hav¬
ing even a vitreous afpedt this oxyd is often mingled
with certain earths, or in the form of a fuperfleial pow¬
der. It is in the metallic ftate in its combinations with
cobalt, in teftaceous cobalt, or with iron in mifpikel or
arfenical pyrites. It is often combined in the mines with
divers metals, as antimony, tin, iron, copper, and Alver.
It is difengaged by calcining thefe metals. In many places
they ufe long crooked chimnies which draw out the
arfenical vapours, and detain them : the cruft which is
formed on the walls or partitions of thefe chimnies is
taken oft’ ; and this is what is known in commerce under
the name of arfenic : this is the oxyd of white arfenic.
This oxyd, or calx, is often combined with fulphur; it
then forms or produces orpiment and realgar, or calxes
of yellow and red lulphurated arfenic. When red it is
called realgal, realgar , factitious rizigctl, or red arfenic.
When yellow, it is called orpinum, or factitious orpiment.
Orpiment and realgar are found native or complete in
certain places : cryftals of realgar are found at Salfaterra
z
S T R Y.
near Naples, according to Ferber; in the mines of Nag.-
yag in Tranfylvania ; in the mines of Felfobanga in Up¬
per Hungary ; in thofe of Joachimfthal in Bohemia, in
Marienburg,and in Saxony. Realgar is common in China,
where it is made into vafes, pagodas, and other ornamen¬
tal works : the Indians ufe thefe vafes for purging, by
drinking vinegar or lemon-juice which has flood in them
fome hours. Orpiment is lefs fcarce than realgar : it al¬
moft always accompanies it. But the orpiment met
with in commerce is lent to us from feveral parts of the
Levant, in irregular mafles, folid, or lamellated, of a fine
yellow colour.
Arfenic, heated, with the admiflion of air, is quickly
brought to an oxyd or calx : it flies off in a white -vapour,
which has much the fmell of garlic. It is fufed and fub-
limed in clofe veflels. It may be cryfta'llized in regular
four-ftded prifms, if fublimed flowly. When red-hot, it
burns with a blue flame. To fublime arfenic, flrft pul¬
verize it grofsly ; All a long-necked matrafs with it half¬
way; place it in a fand-bath, covering the matrafs nearly
up to the neck: proceed to lublimation with a gradual
heat, and continue till all the arfenic is fublimed : leave
it to get cold, 'and then break the matrafs. If the fire
was fufticiently ftrong, the fublimed arfenic undergoes a
kind of fufion ; but it becomes'tranfparent, and lies in
a white colourlefs mafs, if the heat was weaker. This
is what is known under the name of white oxyd, formerly
called calx of arfenic, and white arfenic.
If this oxyd be put into clofed veflels, it flies off, by
a gentle heat, into a, white cryftalline powder called flow¬
ers of arfenic. For this purpofe reduce the arfenical oxyd
to powder ; take a glafs retort with a very fhort and large
mouth ; fill it half or three parts full, and place it in the
fand-bath of a furnace ; lute on a globe to the mouth of
the retort, and proceed as in common diftillation. The
arfenic rifes in vapours, which are condcnfed inlide the
globe, in the form of a white powder ; at the bottom of
the retort remains a yellowifh matter, Amilar to that in
the preceding operation.
Arfenic, in the metallic ftate, does not adt fenfibly on
combuftible bodies ; yet it eafily diffolves in hydrogen gas;
Expofed to the air, arfenic grows fenfibly blacker; but
has no adtion with water. The adtion of faline earthy
matters upon arfenic, is not known. Weak fulphuric
acid has little adtion upon it ; it mull be concentrated
and boiling; then the folution is complete: it is tranfpa-
rent, but of a light brown colour. This folution furnifhes
in cooling a large quantity of fmall irregular cryftals r
this is arfenic reduced to the ftate of an oxyd.
Nitric acid dilfolves arfenic extremely well, even quick¬
ly ; but the acid mull be hot ; for, when cold, it has no
fenfible adtion. Strongly evaporated, it forms a fait with¬
out any regular fhape, according to Bucquet : Baume
fays, on the contrary, that the folution produces cryftals^
fome nearly cubical, others diamond-fafiiioned : Walle-
rius, in his Mineralogy, (vol. i. p. 404.) fays, that thefe
cryftals are like thofe of lunar nitre. Thefe experiments
therefore fliould be repeated, and the refults carefully
examined, in order to afeertain the fact.
Bayen and Charlard maintain, that muriatic acid,
when cold, has no adtion upon arfenic ; the adtion of fire
is therefore required to diifolve arfenic in that acid-.
Baume fays, that a yellow powder like fulphur is precipi¬
tated, which is infoluble,in water. Arfenic in powder,
mixed with oxygenated muriatic acid, burns with a white
flame. Mixed wilh fuper-oxygenated muriat of potafb,
the mixture is ftrongly detonated by trituration and the
ftroke of the hammer. It flames with extraordinary ra¬
pidity and brightnefs, by the contadt of fulphuric acid.
Oxyd of arlenic, or the white arfenic of commerce,
has properties very different from metallic arfenic, for¬
merly called regulus. To obtain arfenic in the metallic
ftate, or tt) reduce the oxyd of arfenic, make a palte of
the oxyd in powder and fioft foap, or linfeed-oil, or any
other oil drawn out by expreffion : put this palte in a
matrafs*
C H E M :
fifatrafs, and place it in, a fand-bath ; then proceed to
fiiblimation, firft with a gentle heat, in order to warm
the veflels, and diflipate damp vapours. Increafe the fire
by degrees, fo as to make the bottom of the veffel red -hot.
In the upper part of the matrafs a fubftance almoft black
will be fublimed. Break the matrafs, and feparate the
fublimed matter: this is metallic arfenic, or regulus.
This reduction may alfo be obtained by fufion : Mix
one part of oxyd of arfenic with, two parts of foft foap,
and one and a half of potalh. Melt the mixture quickly
in a crucible: as foon as melted, pour it into an iron-
mortar fomewhat heated and greafed; then cover it up;
when the matter is quite cold, feparate the arfenic, which
occupies the lower part, from the fcoria.
Oxyd of arfenic has a very ftrong and cauftic tafte. If
placed upon burning coals, it flies off in vapour with a
itrong fmell of garlic. In doled veflels, it is volatilized,
and vitrifies in a ftrong heat ; and hence ariles a tranf-
parent glafs, fufceptible of cryftallization into four-fided
pieces with truncated angles. This glafs eafily tarnilhes
or grows dim in the air, and becomes la&eous, undergo¬
ing a fort of efflorefcence. This oxyd unites very well
with fulphur : hence arifes a femi-tranfparent mafs, very
heavy, of a yellow or red colour, according to the pro¬
portion of lulphur. Take two parts of arfeniat 'of potalh
and one of fulphur ; put the whole into a fmall matrafs,
and expofe it to a fire that will make the bottom red-
hot ; take it off in an hour, and break it : it will produce
orpiment and a fine fublimed realgar. The bottom of
the matrafs contains a little arfeniated fulphure of pot-
afh, and l'ulphat of potalh. When red, it is called realgal,
realgar, factitious risigal, or red arfenic ; but, according
to the modem nomenclature, oxyd of red fulpburated arfe¬
nic. When yellow, it is called orpinum , or factitious or¬
piment, or oxyd of yellow fulpburated arfenic. But, as many
of thefe fubltances are found in commerce, it is not now
ufual in laboratories to work at fuch combinations.
Thefe oxyds of fulphurated arfenic are decompofed by
lime and alkalis, which have more affinity with fulphur
than oxyd of arfenic has. The oxyd of white arfenic may
be reduced by hydrogen gas, becaufe this gas has more
affinity with the oxygen than the arfenic. The oxyd of
arfenic is eafily diffolved in water : it requires but fifteen
parts of boiling water, and eighty parts of cold water, to
diffolve one. By evaporation and cooling, we obtain it
cryftallized in eight-fided prifms, but oftentimes under
various indeterminate Ihapes.
The oxyd of arfenic, then, participates in the proper¬
ties of faline fubftances, and differs from other metallic
oxyds, i. In being foluble. 2. As the metallic oxyds are
inodorous and fixed. 3. As the other oxyds form no
union with metals. 4. It unites with alkalis, whence
arife the falts we are now to examine. All thefe pro¬
perties, therefore, ferve to clal's this oxyd in the rank of
acids per fe. In this rank they are placed by Fourcroy,
who calls this oxyd arfenious acid ; a name which we
fhall preferve in fpeaking of it in this treatile.
Arsen ious Acid is an excellent folvent of earthy mat¬
ters in general ; it fixes with moft of thefe earths, and
promotes their vitrification : but every kind of glafs, in
the composition of which it enters, has the fault of foon
tarnifhing in the air. Arfenious acid combines with pot-
ath to the point of faturation ; with foda the fame. Am¬
moniac diffolves this acid alfo, and is obtained in a cryf¬
tallized ftate : if heated a little, the ammoniac is decom¬
pofed, the azotic gas is difengaged, the hydrogen unites
with a portion of the oxygen of the acid, and forms wa¬
ter. But thefe combinations have not yet been made
with fufficient care to eftablifh the properties of thefe
falts, which fhould be called arfeniats.
Sulphuric acid, concentrated and boiling, diffolves ar¬
fenious acid ; but, when the folution is cold, the arfe-
nicus acid is precipitated, and the fulphuric acid feems
no longer to retain it. Nitric acid concentrated attacks
the arfenious acid more effectually : Pour fix parts of ni-
s T £ Y. 263
trie acid upon one of concrete arfenious acid, and make
the experiment in clofed veflels, with the pneumatic che¬
mical apparatus, and with the help of caloric a nitrous
gas will be obtained. In the retort will remain a white
concrete matter, of properties entirely different from ar-
lenious acid : this is called arfenical acid. This method
may be employed to obtain it : When the muriatic acid
is much concentrated, it diffolves by ebullition a third
of its weight of arfenious acid ; and, in cooling, a great
part is fpontaneoufly feparated, but faturated with that
acid. With the oxygenated muriated acid, a complete
acidification of the arfenious acid may be obtained, as
with nitric acid.
The adtion of the other acids is not known. Becker,
Stahl, Kunkel, and Macquer, have particularly examined
the adlion of the arfenious acid upon the nitrat of pot-
afh. The "1 aft in particular repeated the experiments of
preceding chemifts ; he examined the refiduum,of which
thofe chemifts had not fpoken, and he clifcovered that it
was a particular neutral fait, -which he calls neutral ar¬
fenical fait.
To decompofer nitrat of potafh by means of arfenious
acid, mix equal parts of both, and put it into a retort
much larger than the proportions of the mixture, to al¬
low for the fwelling which follows: place it in a fand-
bath ; adapt a cap with two apertures, one large, to re*-
ceive the mouth of the retort ; the other, lefs wide, but
to be fo lengthened and narrowed, as to be received into
a tube, which in its bending is much leffened in diame¬
ter, and plunged into a bottle containing a quantity of
water, more or lefs, in proportion as the nitric acid is
required to be more or lefs concentrated. The appara¬
tus being thus prepared, lute up the joinings, and diftil
with a gentle heat. As the nitrous vapour is thrown off,
it pafl'es through the. tube, and is diffolved in the water;
fome nitrous gas alfo efcapes, which may be gathered
under a bell-glafs : the water imbibes a blue colour. The
refiduum is the neutral arfenical fait of Macquer, or ar-
feniat of potajh. Let this faline mafs be diffolved in a
fufficient quantity of boiling water; filter the liquor;
and, in cooling, very regular cryftals are obtained, in
four-fided prifms, terminated by pyramids of four equal
faces ; much variation is alfo oblerved in the figures of
the cryftals.
Nitrat of foda is alfo decompofed by the arfenious acid.
For this purpofe the fame precautions muft be taken as
in the preceding operation; the fame phenomena take
place; and the fame apparatus may be ufed. The refi¬
duum furnifhes not the fame fait : it cryftallizes into
hexagonal prifms, terminated by planes perpendicular to
their axis : this is arfeniat of foda.
Nitrat of ammoniac may in the fame manner be de¬
compofed by arfenious acid ; but the phenomena are dif¬
ferent. The operation formerly required great precau¬
tion ; but Pelletier has proved that it may be performed
without danger. This is his method : When the mix¬
ture has been made, in the proportions above-direfted,
it is put Into a pretty large retort of glafs, luted, and
placed in a reverberatory furnace with a balloon for a
receiver. Begin with a flight degree of heat; for the
decompofition is fo rapid, and the nitrous vapour flies off
with fuch force, that they may carry away a portion of
the arfenic not decompofed; but, by proceeding gently,
the decompofition is more gradual. Firft, fome nitrous
acid paffes off ; and, if the fire be increafed or continued,
fome ammoniac is difengaged ; laftly, if the fire be made
ftill ftronger, a portion of oxyd of arfenic is fublimed, in
the form of a white powder, and a. vitreous mafs remains
in the retort, which attacks the retort very violently, and
eats into it: this is arfenical acid. When the experiment
has been conduced with the precautions recommended,
there remains in the retort a faline mafs, which is to be
diffolved in boiling water ; filter the liquor, and let the
air evaporate : it furnifhes cryftals. This is arfeniat of
ammoniac .
We
C H E M I S T R Y.
264
We {hall prefently fee how all thefe falts may be pre¬
pared, by difeftly combining the arfenical acid with thefe
fame bales. We may alfo prepare thefe kinds of falts, by
pouring the mixture by degrees into a heated crucible.
JBy this means, particularly with care, the fwelling up
may be prevented ; but there is one very great inconve¬
nience, which is, that, when the arfenical acid is without
a bale, then it corrodes the earth or clay of the crucible ;
but, for the decompofition or the nitrat of potalh and of
loda, thefe may be eafily performed in iron-crucibles, ef-
pecially if we do not with to preferve the nitric acid : in that
cafe, by folutions and filtrations,. we deprive them of ar-
ienical fait with an argillaceous bale.
Arsenical Acid. — Scheele gives two precedes for
obtaining this acid : one by means of the oxygenated
muriatic acid ; the other by nitric acid. This acid may
alfo be obtained by decompoling the arfeniat of potafh
with fulphuric acid: Take arfeniat of potalh, well dried,
and mix it with half the quantity of fulphuric acid. Put
this mixture into a luted retort, and bring it by degrees
to a red heat : a white mafs remains in the retort, which
ftrongiy draws the humidity of the air. When the matter
is quite liquefied, there remains a white powder, which,
when well-walhed, is no longer arfeniat of potalh, but
•fulphat of potalh. The fame procefs will anfwer for de-
compofing arfeniat of l'oda.
Thefe experiments prove the polfibility of oxygenating
arlenic, and of converting the arfenious acid into arl'e-
nical acid. Hence we may underhand, alfo, why the ar¬
fenious acid, previous to being laturated with oxygen,
produces no arfeniats ; and why it cannot conttitute thole
falts, but after having been previoufly treated by the
acids it decompofes, and from wdiicli it extrafts oxygen
. by means of heat. This acid, in its concrete form, draw¬
ing the humidity of the air, has a lironger favour than the
arfenious acid : it turns the blue vegetable colours red.
If arfenical acid be put into a glais retort, and expofed
to a fire that will make it red-hot, it comes out tranf-
parent, but grows dull in cooling. If the heat be in-
crealed till the retort begins to melt, the acid rifes in
ebullition, and is fubiimed in the neck of the retort. If,
inltead of a retort, a covered crucible be ufed, and ex¬
pofed to a ftrong heat, the acid boils violently, and be¬
gins to fmoke in a quarter of an hour. If the crucible
be placed under a bell-glafs, while the acid linokes, it
will be found covered within with a white dult, which is
arfenious acid, not arfenical acid. In the crucible remains
a little tranfparent glafs, difficult to meit, which is fpread
over the fides of the crucible : this is arfeniat of Illumine.
Pure charcoal, or carbon, decompofes this acid. For
this purpofe, in a mixture of arfenical acid, there iliould
be about one-haif of charcoal : Put the mixture into a
glafs retort, luted with earth, and on a matrafs : put the
retort into a reverberating furnace, and heat it by de¬
grees till the bottom is red-hot; then the whole mafs
burns violently, the acid is reduced, and rifes into the
neck of the retort in a metallic form, 'mixed with a little
oxyd and charcoal-dufc : l'ome drops of an infipid liquor
are ufuaily found in the receiver.
With fulphur, different effects are produced. By di-
gefting a mixture of fix parts of arfenical acid and one
of puiverifed fulphur, it undergoes no change; but, by
evaporating to drynefs, and diddling in a glafs retort,
with a receiver, a violent combination is produced, as
foon as the mixture is hot enough to melt the fulphur.
The mafs rifes almoft all at once, and forms a red fubii-
mate. Sulphureous acid then paftes into the receiver.
Pelletier direfts another method : Take equal parts of
arfenical acid (in the vitreous form) and fulphur; put
the mixture into a matrafs, and keep it over the fire an
hour; a very ftrong fulphureous acid will be dilengaged:
when this acid is no longer perceived, take the matrafs
off the fire and break it : a very beautiful fubiimed real¬
gar will be the refult.
The arfenical acid lofes its acidifiable property, if put
in cent a ft with hydrogen gas. Take pure arfenical acid;
mix it with a little diitilled water ; the folution is tranf¬
parent. Introduce a certain quantity of hydrogen gas,
dilengaged by the aftion of fulphuric acid upon iron ;
tlie liquor grows thick ; a muriat is precipitated, which,
when well waflied with diitilled water, exhibits all the
phenomena of arfenic. The oxygen of the acid has united
with the hydrogen, and formed water, while the arfenical
acid came over : therefore the refult is arfenic, and fome-
times a dark-grey oxyd of arfenic. If, inltead of hydro¬
gen gas, fulphurated hydrogen gas be ufed, the refult
is water and a fdphure of arfenic. With phofphorus,
phofpboric acid is obtained. The arfenical acid may
alio be diffolved in two parts of water. How this acid
afts with other acids, is not yet known. According to
Scheele, barytes, lime, magneiia, and alumine, form ialts
with this acid ; but they are very little known, and rare¬
ly employed.
The combinations of this acid with alkalis, is better
known. By combining arfenical acid with potafh, the
true neutral arfenical fait of Macquer, arfeniat of potafh,
is produced. With foda, a fait is formed fimilar to that
obtained by decompofing nitrat of ioda with arfenious
acid. To obtain arfeniat of ammoniac, combine the ar-
lenical acid with the ammoniac to the point of faturation.
A ftrong effervefcence is brought on ; then evaporate the
liquor in a gentle heat, and let it cryftallize. Very re¬
gular cryftals are obtained, of a rhomboidal figure, which
at firft fight refemble nitrat of potafh, but they differ in
this : if expoled to the aftion of fire in a retort, they
firft iofe the water of diftiljation ; then the ammoniac ;
and a vitreous mafs remains in the retort, which ftrongiy
attrafts the humidity of the air, and is nothing butverypure
arfenical acid. Ail the alkaline arfeniats ate decompofed
by lime ; and it appears that lime and barytes have more
affinities with this acid than alkalis have. Of the neutral
falts, only fulphat of potafh and of foda, nitrat of pot¬
afh, muriat of foda, and muriat of ammoniac, are de¬
compofed by the arfenical acid ; but this decompofition
requires the aid of caloric, or heat.
Arfenic is ufed in many of the arts ; in wafhes for
whitening of metals; in glafs-houfes, for melting; and
in mining ; it alfo enters into the compofition of fome
kinds of varnifh. Orpine and realgar are much ufid in
painting; but, in general, arfenic is one of thofe pro¬
ductions whole advantages hardly compenlate for its de¬
leterious effefts : this metal, efpecially in the oxyd ltate,
or in that of arfenious acid, is well known to be a ftrong
and fatal poifon. To thofe who may be unfortunately
poifoned by arfenic in the ftate of a white oxyd, fulpbure
of potafh, formerly called liver of fulphur, diffolved in
water, may be given with effeft, as this decompofes the
arfenious acid ; then try fulphureous mineral waters, or
milk ; but never (what is commonly, though very eiTO-
neoufly, the firft thing adminiftered) oil.
Of TUNGSTEN.
There are two fpecies of mineral which have the gene¬
ric name of tungften. The one is called tungfen by the
Swedes, and lapis ponderofus, ponderous ftone ; and by
the chemifts, lungjlat of lime. The other is called wol¬
fram, or tungftat of iron. Some lay the German word
wolfram fignifies wolf's foam, becaufe the Germans, when
they put it in their furnaces, only oxyaated and lcorified
metals inftead of reducing them : others derive it from
wolf, and ram, or rba.m, • loot. When we come to ex¬
amine the tungftats of lime and iron, we fliall defetibe
the manner of obtaining tungften, and the tungftic acid.
This metal, when pure, is of a light brown colour,
extremely hard, very brittle, and cry ftallizable : it is
hardly to be touched by a file, and the magnet has no
effeft upon it. If a little metallic tungften be boiled
with muriatic acid, no hydrogen gas is difengaged, nor
does the metal feem to undergo any change. If nitro-
mur-iatic acid be boiled over the fame metal, it will be a
little
C H E M I
little oxydated ; red vapours fly off, and the metal be¬
comes of a lighter colour.
Of TUNGSTATS.
Tungstat of Lime. — This fubftance is found in the
iron mines of Bitzberg, in the tin mines of Schlecken-
walde in Bohemia ; and moll of the white tin cryltals of
Sauberg near Ehrenfrienderfdorf, are tungftat of lime.
This tungftat is not ienfibly altered by heat ; it de¬
crepitates, but it does not melt. It has a fparry ap-
.pea ranee.
To diftinguilh this from other native faline fubftances,
pour over it fome weak nitric acid, or muriatic acid, and
dig-ell with a gentle heat : with the muriatic acid more
efpeciall'y, the powder affumes, at the end of the opera¬
tion, a fine clear yellow colour.
There are various methods of decompofmg this cal¬
careous tungftat : i. One part of native calcareous tung¬
ftat in powder is fufed in an iron crucible, with four
parts of carbonat of potalh ; this mafs is lixiviated with
twelve parts of boiling water, and nitric acid is poured
on, which unites with the potalh, for which it has a
greater affinity, and difengages the tungftic acid. More
nitric acid may be poured in, which may be evaporated
to drynefs, and thus continue till no more red vapours
arife : then we are lure it is fufficiently oxygenated. 2.
About twelve parts of nitric acid, in the ftate of ordinary
aqua-fortis, are required for the complete decompofition
ot one part of calcareous tungftat. Scheele performed
this operation at feveral repeated times. After the ac¬
tion of three parts of weak nitric acid upon one part of
this neutral lalt, he pours two parts of cauftic ammoniac
upon the powder, which the nitric acid had changed to a
yellow colour; it becomes white by the aftion of the alka¬
li; and he repeats this fucceffive adfion of the acid and the
alkali, until the whole- of the calcareous tungftat is en¬
tirely diffolved. By precipitation from the nitric, acid
employed in this folution, by the addition of the pruffiat
of potalh, and afterwards by potafli itlelf, he obtained a
little prufiiat of iron, or Pruifian blue, and fifty-three
grains of chalk : the ammoniac, by the addition of nitric
acid, afforded an acid precipitate. In this experiment,
the nitric acid decompofes the calcareous tungftat, by
feizing the lime; and the tungftic acid, which is fet at
liberty by this decompofition, is leized by the ammoniac.
The ammoniacal fait formed by this laft folution is de-
compofed by the nitric acid, which has a ltronger affinity
with the ammoniac than this laft has with the tungftic
acid. As this laft acid is much lefs foluble than the am¬
moniacal tungftat, it falls down, in -proportion as it is fet.
at liberty, in the form of a white powder. This powder
is lixiviated with cold diftiiled water, in order to have
the tungftic acid in a ftate of purity.
Sulphuric acid has very little action upon tungftat of
lime; it decompofes but a very final! part of it. The
muriatic acid adds upon calcareous tungftat in the fame
manner as the nitric acid does, and decompofes it with
the fame energy.
Tungstat of Iron, or Wolfram. — Wolfram is
one of thofe minerals whofe equivocal effeft occaiioned it
to be often ranked with different fpecies, to which it
l’eemed to have fome refembiance ; l'o that it was long
before it obtained a permanent place. Henckel fays, that
at Altenbury in Milnia, it was erroneoufly called anti¬
mony ; hence, perhaps, the name of wolf's foam , or wol¬
fram. Many naturalifts regarded it as afchorl abounding
in iron ; others conlidered it as an arfenical ore of iron ;
Wallerius thought it a fpecies of manganefe. But d’El-
huyar, Vauquelin, and Hecht, put an end to thele con¬
jectures, by proving that wolfram contains a metal of a
peculiar nature, which is tungften.
.Wolfram is drawn from the mines of Saxony, Bohe¬
mia, and Sweden. It often accompanies cryltals of tin,
which are alfo of a blackifh colour, but differs materially
from it. It bas been found in France alio, in the de-
Vol, IV. No. 195.
S T R Y. 265
partment of Haute-Vienne, in the canton and commune
of St. Leonard, and at Puy-les-Mines. It is of a brown-
ifli black colour; eafily yields to the file, and then exhi¬
bits a brown colour, (lightly tinged with violet, where
the file has paffed : the dull, rubbed upon paper, exhi¬
bits. fpots of the fame colour. It is compofed of brilliant
laminae, which are eafily feparated by percuffion. Its
fpecific gravity is confiderable, according to M. Haiiy,
73-333. Laftly, It is very (lightly eieCtric, and does not
attradt the magnetic needle.
Chemical Properties. — It is not fufible with the aCtion
of the blow-pipe. With borax it diffolves, running into
a greenifli globule. With phofphat of loda and ammo¬
niac, it runs into a tranfparent globule of a deep red co-
cour. D’Elhuyar and Vauquelin have feveral proceffes
for decompofing of wolfram: 1. With nitrat of potafh,,
2 With carbonat of potalh. 3. With muriatic acid.
To make this decompofition by means of nitrat of pot-
affi, introduce by degrees into a porcelain crucible, made
red -hot, three parts of nitrat of potafh, and one part of
wolfram, in powder; it is neceflary that the crucible be
large, to prevent the matter from running over, in con-
fequence of the ftrong ebullition occafioned by the ni¬
trous acid, which comes up in red vapours. Having
kept the mixture in fuiion for about half an hour, pour
it on an iron-plate, where it collects into a green mafs,
cryltallized in needles on the furface; this mafs diluted
with water, leaves a brown infoluble powder : the drained
liquor retains a green colour, which may be taken away
by boiling, after which it again depofits a brown fedi-
ment. The acids precipitate from this tranfparent liquor
a white powder, which is tungftic acid combined with
potafli, and which has retained a certain quantity of the
acid ufed in the precipitation of this fubftance. The
brown powder which the liquor precipitates in, boiling,
as well as that which is inloluble in water, are a mixture
ofoxyd of iron, and oxyd of manganefe.
Wolfram may in like manner be decompofed, by ex-
pofing to the abtion of heat one part of wolfram, and
two parts of carbonat of potafh. The liquor obtained
in this procefs is likewife a mixture of tungftic acid and
potafh. But the analyfis of wolfram by the muriatic acid
is to be preferred, becaufe the pure acid may thereby be
obtained with expedition and facility ; whereas, in the
preceding experiments, the triple fait mult be firft de¬
compofed. Let one hundred parts of wolfram be boiled
for a quarter of an hour, with three times its weight of
muriatic acid ; as loon as the liquor begins to heat, a
yellow dull appears, and the liquor affumes a brown co¬
lour. When cold, decant the liquor, and lixiviate the
depofit ; digeft this for fome hours with ammoniac,
which diffolves a part of it. Repeat the operation
upon the refidues, till the matter, undergoing no far¬
ther change, is reduced to about fix parts, and is in¬
foluble. By thus repeating the procefs, the wolfram is
entirely decompofed ; the ammoniacal liquor being eva¬
porated to drynefs, and the fait it furnifhed calcined, a
yellow powder is obtained which anfwers to thirty-four
parts. Put into the acid liquor, containing iron and
manganefe, fome fulphuric acid, and evaporate to di y-
nefs ; diffoive lulphats of iron and manganefe in the wa¬
ter; three parts of filex will be gained by filtration. Sa¬
turate the excefs of acid of the liquor with carbonat of
potafh ; the liquor affumes a brown colour, but does not
become turbid ; by boiling, it lofes its brown colour, and
throws down a red powder. The tranfparent liquor,
mixed with carbonat of potafli, itill precipitates a yel-
lovviih matter, compofed ofoxyd of manganefe and oxyd
of iron. By treating the precipitate as laid down in the
foregoing experiment, the oxyd of manganefe may be
feparated. By this operation, Vauquelin obtained from
100 parts of wolfram, 67 parts of calcined tungftic acid,
18 of black oxyd of iron, 6-25 of black oxyd of manga¬
nefe, and 1-50 of filex; making in all yi’i 5, fo that 5 25
only were loft,
' 3 .Y fungjlic
CHEMISTRY.
266
TungJUc Acid, — With the blow-pipe, in a fpoon ofpla-
tina, this acid affumes a dark green colour; upon coals,
it turns almoft entirely black. It diffolves in borax, with¬
out changing the colour or tranfparency of the globule,
even if in a pretty large quantity ; but a very confider-
able quantity will at length turn the borax black, or
dark blue.
The ammoniacal phofphat of foda diffolves this matter
completely, forming a dark blue globule. By long cal¬
cination with exposure to the air, the yellow colour be¬
comes darker, and fometimes changes to green ; expofed
to heat for feveral hours in a covered crucible, it affumes
a blackilh grey colour. Thus calcined, it has no tafte,
is not foluble in water, and very little fo in acids. Tri¬
turated with water, the acid remains long fufpended,
forming a kind of yellowilh milk, which does not impart
a red to the blue vegetable colours. It changes colour
neither by expofure to the fun, nor to moilfure. The
nitric acid has no adtion upon this acid.
From thele experiments Vauquelin concludes, that the
fubftance formed by the combination of tungften with
oxygen, does not poflefs the properties generally attri¬
buted to acids ; fince it is infallible in water, does not
change the blue vegetable colours, and has no apparent
favour. If Scheele, adds the fame chemift, regarded it as
an acid, it was becaufe he never obtained it but in a tri¬
ple combination, which then poffelfes the acidifiable pro¬
perties, becaufe it always retains a portion of that acid,
which was ufed in precipitating the tungftic acid from
its alkaline lolutions. Vauquelin therefore advifes to
exclude this fubftance from metallic acids, and to regard
it as an oxyd of tungften ; fuch as are the oxyds of zink,
tin, antimony, and arfenic, which, like this fubftance,
unite with earths, alkalis, and fome other metallic oxyds,
with which they form a kind of neutral f'alts. To re¬
duce the oxyd of tungften to the metallic ftate, put one
hundred parts of it into a ftrong crucible with a little
oil, and expofe the mixture for two hours to the violent
heat of a forge furnace. When it is cold, there is found
in the crucible a matter of a blackifh grey colour, con¬
fiding of a vaft number of globules. Morveau has lately
difcovered, that the tungftic oxyd renders vegetable co¬
lours fo fixed, as not to be adted on even by the oxyge¬
nated muriatic acid.
Tungstat of Magnesia. — Mix oxyd of magnefia
with carbonat of magnefia and water; boil the mixture
for fome time, and the ftrained liquor, with the help of
an acid, precipitates a white powder. By evaporation a
foluble fait is obtained, of a fimilar tafte to other lalts of
this pature ; it is unchangeable by air, and cryftallizes
in little bright fpangles. Whether this oxyd will com¬
bine with barytes or alumine, is not known.
Tungstat ofPotash. — Caufticpotafh diflolves oxyd
of tungften even when cold; but, if the liquor be boil¬
ed, and a certain quantity of the oxyd remains undid-
folved, the liquor contains always an excefs of potafh :
by evaporation a fait is obtained, in form of a wdiite
powder, without any regular cryftallization. This fait
has a metallic Cauftic tafte, is foluble in water, and ftrongly
attradfs the moilfure of the air; its aqueous folution is
decoinpofed by all the acids, which throw down a white
precipitate, which is a triple fait, differing in its nature
according to the acid ufed.
Tungstat of Soda. — This oxyd is to be treated in
the fame manner, with a falution of cauftic foda, or even
carbonat of foda. By evaporating the liquor, a fait is
obtained cryftallized in long hexahedrais. This fait has
an acrid metallic tafte ; it is foluble in four times its
weight of cold water ; boiiing water diffolves one-half of
its weight. It reftores the colour of turnfole reddened
by an acid ; the fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, acetous, and
oxalic, acids, decompofe it, forming a white triple fait;
it is precipitated alfo by lime-water; but phofphoric acid
occasions no precipitation 5 muriat of lime and barytes.
and the acid fulphat of alumine, occafion a white pre¬
cipitate.
Tungstat of Ammoniac. — Ammoniac quickly dif¬
folves oxyd of tungften, even when cold; and it pro¬
duces a fait which cryftallizes fometimes in little fpan¬
gles, like the boracic acid, fometimes in fmall needles,
which incline to the form of three-fided prifms. This,
like other falts of the kind, has a metallic tafte ; it is fo¬
luble in water, draws no humidity from air, and is com¬
pletely decompofed by heat. The ammoniac, as it is
difengaged, leaves the oxyd of tungften free, and of yel¬
low colour : one hundred parts of this fait contain feven-
ty-eight parts of oxyd of tungften.
Of MOLYBDENA.
Certain fubftances have long been confounded under
the names of black-lead ore, mineral lead, plumbago, or
molybdena, which the more exadt analyfis of Scheele has
proved to be of a different nature. Molybdena can now-
no longer be confounded with that of ore, of which
drawing-pencils are made, called black-lead; the differ¬
ences are fo obvious, that no doubts can remain. Mo¬
lybdena is compofed of hexagonal fcales, of greater or
lefs lize, very ftightly adhering to each other: it is foft
and fat to the touch, foils the fingers, and leaves traces
upon paper, which are bluifti, or of a filvery grey cqlour ;
the traces from plumbago are darker and rougher. When
it is reduced to powder, which is'difiicult to be perform->
ed, on account of the elafticity of its fcales, it has a bluifti
colour; it yields eafiiy to the knife, is not brittle, and
has not the granulated texture of black-lead, now called
carbure of iron. In order to pulverize the ore of mo¬
lybdena, it is . neceflary, after the procefs of Scheele, to
throw a fmall quantity of fulphat of potafli into the
mortar along with it ; the powder mult afterwards be
waffled with hot water, which carries off the fait, and the
mineral remains pure. By calcination it gives a ful¬
phuric fmell, and the refidue is a whitifli earth. The ni¬
tric and arfenical acids are the only kinds which attack
it; it diffolves with effervelcence in foda, with the help
of the blow-pipe; it makes a detonation with nitrat of
potafh, and the refiduum is reddifh ; expofed to the blow¬
pipe in a metallic fpcon, it emits white fumes.
Molybdena is found in Iceland, Sweden, Saxony, Spain,
and France : in Iceland -it is in thin plates, in red feld-
fpar mingled with quartz. William Bowles fpeaks of
molybdena found near the hamlet of Beal de Monafte-
rio ; it is in ltone-quarries, fometimes mixed with gra¬
nite. Molybdena, according to Mr. Hatchett, in his va¬
luable analyfis of the Carinthian molybdat ot lead, ( Phil.
Tranf. for 1796,) feems to exift in four different degrees
of oxygenation. The firft is that of the black oxyd, the
fecond the blue oxyd, the third the green oxyd, which
feems to be an intermediate degree between the blue oxyd
and the fourth and laft ftate, that of the yellow acid,
Molybdena cannot be reduced in dole veffels, and is
very hard to work upon. Muriatic acid has no adlion
on this mineral ; but nitric acid attacks it very violently ;
emits a great quantity of red vapours, and the molyh-
dena is diredlly converted into a white powder. Thirty-
parts of nitric acid will be required to one of molybdena:
diftil at five fucceflive operations, that is, uiing fix parts
of the acid at a time. When all the acid is ufed, and no
more vapours are perceived, take out the white powder
remaining in the i-etort ; wafti it with a little diftilled
water, to leparate the laft portions of fulphuric acid which
might adhere ; but it will be proper, previous to wafliing
it, to warm it in a retort. The oxygen of the nitric acid
attacks the molybdena and the lulphur, converting the
one into a metallic oxyd, the other into fulphuric acid.
Thefe are the means to be ufed for obtaining the tnoljb-
dic acid.
The acid of molybdena obtained by calcination, or the
action of the nitric acid, cannot be reduced, if treated
with
CHEMISTRY,
with the black flux, alkali; carbon, or the other faline
fol vents ; but, with the addition of oxyd of lead or cop¬
per, the metals that afil'e are mixed with a portion of
molybdena, which may be feparated. Let oxyd of mo-
lybdena, made into a palle with oil, and dried by lire, be
put into a clofe crucible, and urged with a Ifrong heat
for two hours ; the fubllance will be found glutinous,
black, breaking eafily in the fingers, and having a me¬
tallic brilliancy ; feen through a magnifier, little round
grains of a greyilh metallic colour may be difcerned.
This is true molybdena in the metallic ftate.
When calcined, it changes into an oxyd more or
lefs white. It detonates with nitre 5 and the refidue
is oxyd of molybdena mixed with alkali. The nitric
acid converts it into a white acid oxyd. Treated with
alkalis, in the dry way, hydrogen gas is difengaged, and
the refidue is only the molybdena in the oxyd hate, com¬
bined with the alkali. It mixes with metals in various
ways : combined with iron, copper, and filver, it is very
friable. Laftly, treated with fulphur, it re-produces the
mineral molybdena, or fulphure of molybdena.
Molyedic Acid.- — This acid is of a light yellow co¬
lour, leaving on the tongue an acidical metallic talfe :
its lpecific gravity, according to Bergman, is to that of
pure water, as 3-46 to i'oo. The air occafions no change
in it ; but it cannot be fublimed without air. It tinges
the native phofphat with a fine green. Under the blow¬
pipe, it is volatilized in a white fume, 'which is condenf-
ed in needle-formed cryftais, at the fame time that part
is melted on the fides of the crucible. Diftilled with
three parts of fulphur, fulphure of molybdena is repro.
duced. It diflolves in 576 parts of water at a mean tem¬
perature. It decompoles the folutions of foap, and pre¬
cipitates alkaline fulphures.
The molybdic acid diflolves in great quantities in the
concentrated fulphuric acid, by the afliflance of heat.
This folution affumes a fine blue colour, and becomes
thick by cooling. Both phenomena may be made to dif-
appear by heat, and re-appear again in proportion as the
fluid cools. If the combination be ftrongly heated in a
retort, the fulphuric acid is volatilized, and the molyb¬
dic acid remains in a dry ftate at the bottom of the veffel.
The nitric acid has no action on the molybdic acid. The
common muriaticacid diflolves a large quantity by ebul¬
lition. This folution affords a refidue of a fine deep blue
colour, when diftilled to drynefs. If the fire be more
ftrongly urged, the refidue affords a white fublimate, and
another bluifh ; a grey refidue remaining in the retort.
The fublimate is deliquefeent, and colours metals blue :
the muriatic acid paffes oxygenated into the receiver. It
is eafy to underftand, that, in this operation, the muriatic
acid deprives the molybdi c acid of a portion of oxygen , and
that a portion of this acid paffes to the ftate of molybdena.
The molybdic acid, by the afliftance of heat, decompofes
die alkaline nitrats and muriats, by difengaging their
acids, and forms with their bafes neutral falts, whofe
properties Scheele did not examine. This acid likewife
difengages the carbonic acid from the three alkalis, and
forms neutral falts with their bafes.
Though Scheele has not made us acquainted with all
the properties of the neutral falts which we defign by the
names of molybdats of potafh, of foda, of ammoniac,
&c. he has neverthelefs pointed out three, which are fuf-
ficient to characterize their ftate of neutralization. He
has dilcovered, 1. That fixed alkali renders the acid of
molybdena more foluble in water. 2. That this fait pre¬
vents the acid of molybdena from volatilization by heat.
3- That the molybdat of potafh falls down by cooling in
final 1 cryftalline grains, and that it may likewife be fepa¬
rated from this folvent by the fulphuricand muriatic acids.
The acid of molybdena decompofes the barytic nitrat
and muriat. The barytic molybdat, formed in thefe
operations, is foluble in water. The acid of molybdena
appears partly to decompofe the fulphat of potafh by a
267
ftrong heat. The molybdic acid diflolves feveral metals,
and affumes a blue colour in proportion as this acid
abandons to them part of its oxygen.
The affinity of molybdena for oxygen feems to be very-
weak, for confulerable changes are produced in it by
only a finall difference in the proportion of the acids or
alkalis with which it is combined, or the temperature to
which it is expofed. In confirmation of this it may be
remarked, that all metals, gold and platina excepted, de¬
prive the molybdic acid of a portion of its oxygen, fo as
to caufe it to become blue. Pelletier obferved, that a..
folution of molybdic acid became blue, when hydroge¬
nous gas was paffed through it. Klaproth remarked, that
light, in certain circuinltances, changed the colour of
molybdic acid to blue. The fame phenomena were ob¬
ferved by Mr. Hatchett. Molybdic acid yields its oxygen
in diftillation to arfenic, by which the arfenic is convert¬
ed into the white oxyd. The molybdic is alfo the only
metallic oxyd which is deprived of its oxygen by diftil¬
lation with fulphat of ammoniac.
The blue carmine is prepared by precipitating tin fr»m
its folution in muriatic acid by the molybdat of potafh.
The muriatic acid unites with the alkali, and the mo¬
lybdic with the tin, to form the blue precipitate.
Of CHROME.
This nietal, newly difeovered by Vauquelin, is found
in the acid ftate in the red lead of Siberia, and in the
oxyd ftate in the emerald, and in the green lead which
is found among red lead. It was thought proper to give
a name to this metal, from its principal diftinguifhing
properties. For, the combinations of this metal with
oxygen, give a green oxyd, or a red oxyd, according to
the proportions of each principle, and thefe fubftances
communicate the fame colour to all. the combinations
they enter into; the name chrome, from therefore,
which fignifies colour, is very properly applied to this
fubftance.
To obtain this acid, boil the red-lead, reduced to pow¬
der, with two parts of carbonat of potafh. The lead
combines with the carbonic acid of the potafh ; the al¬
kali unites with a particular acid, which gives it an orange
colour, and the property of furni thing cryftais of the fame
colour. This new combination is afterwards decompofed
by the mineral acids, and by evaporating the liquor ufed
in the operation, we obtain, 1. The fait produced by the
mineral acid which was formed. 2. Acid of red lead,
in the form of lengthened prifms of a ruby-colour.
Another method, not lefs eafy than the foregoing,
confifts in pouring upon one part of red-le;;d in powder,
the fame quantity of muriatic acid, mixed with an equal
part of water : a muriat of lead is thus formed, which
is depofited in the form of white cryftais, and the liquor
affumes a beautiful orange colour. In this operation the
native acid of the red lead is feparated, and remains dif-
folved in the water of the muriatic acid. Bv evaporat¬
ing the liquor llowly in the dark, cryftais of the acid of
lead are formed, which are of a ruby-red colour. But
if the muriatic acid be in too great quantity, or too high¬
ly concentrated, or if the operation be conduced in a
ftrong heat, inftead of a red acid, a deep green liquor is
formed by the combination of the oxyd of the new me¬
tal with the muriatic acid. Sulphuric acid alfo decom¬
pofes the red lead, but it is difficult to feparate the pro¬
ducts which are formed. Nitric acid produces no change
in the nature of red lead.
Chromic Acid. — This is of an orange-red colour,
with a pungent metallic fmell ; it is very foluble in wa¬
ter ; and the folution, evaporated with a gentle heat, or
fpontaneoufly in the air, cryltallizes in finall lengthened,
prifms, of a ruby-red colour. If paper be wet with this
acid, and expofed for forne days to the rays of the fun,
it affumes a green colour, which does not alter in the
dark. A thin piece of iron or pewter, put into the folu-
268 C H E M I
tion cf this acid, gives it the fame colour. Ether and
alcohol, boiled a fhort time in this fubftance, produce
the fame effedf. The muriatic acid, heated in a retort
with this acid, either folid or in folution, produces a briik
effervefcence 5 a quantity of oxygenated muriatic acid is
produced, and the liquor a flumes a fine dark-green co¬
lour. This acid, mixed with a folution of hydro-fnl-
phure of potalh, is precipitated in the form of green ifli-
brown flakes. Heated with the blow-pipe, it boils up,
and leaves a green infulible matter. Melted with phof-
phoric glafs and borax, it produces vitreous pearls of a
beautiful emerald-green.
Earthy and Alkaline Chromats.
Chromat of Barytes. — The chromic acid eafdy
unites with barytes ; it forms with this earth a fait very
little l’oluble in water; for, by pouring liquid chromic
acid into a folution of this earth, a precipitate of a pale
citron colour, is produced ; but the fait is not entirely in-
foluble, for the liquor ftill preferves a flightly-yellow co¬
lour, though the two principles of the fait be reciprocally
faturated. This pulverulent fait has no fenfible tafte :
it is decompofed by mineral acids ; gives out vital air, or
oxygen gas, by means of heat ; and there remains an
earthy mafs of a green colour.
Chromat of Lime. — This fait, formed by the com¬
bination of lime with the chromic acid, differs from the
barytic chromat only in having alefs degree of folubility,
and by different affinities and proportions in its principles.
With fire, and with acids, its effefts are the fame.
Alkaline Chromats, — The moll Ample procefs for
preparing thefe falts, is to boil one part of red-lead in
fine powder, with two parts of alkali, (whether potalh,
foda, or ammoniac,) and forty parts of water. Hereby
a double affinity is put in adiion; by which carbonat of
lead is formed, which falls to the bottom, and a combi¬
nation of the acid of the lead with the alkali employed,
which combination, being foluble, remains in the water.
The colour of thefe combinations of the acid with the
alkalis, is a pale yellow ; that with ammoniac is in yellow
laminae, Ihining like gold. Their folutions produce cryf-
tals of nearly the fame colour, but rather darker ; their
ihape has not been alcertained. .
_ Thefe falts are decompofed by barytes, lime, and ftron-
tian. The mineral acids decompofe them alfo. They
give out oxygen gas by the adlion of'fire, and the refidue
is a green mafs ; but that with ammoniac muff be again
excepted, for its bafe is partly decompofed by the oxygen
of the acid, and it leaves in the retort a pure green oxyd,
becaufe that portion of the ammoniac which is not de¬
compofed flies off in vapours. By double affinity, thefe
kilts decompofe the calcareous, barytic, magneiian, and
aluminous, lalts.
To reduce this acid to the metallic ftate, take feventy-
two parts of the chromic acid ; put it into a crucible of
charcoal, enclofed in another crucible of porcelain, filled
with charcoal -duft; place the apparatus in a forge-fur¬
nace, and heat it for an hour with a very brifk fire. In
the hollow of the charcoal will be found a metallic mafs
of a light-grey colour, formed of needles interwoven to¬
gether. From feventy-two parts, Vauquelin obtained
forty-four parts of metal.
This metal is very brittle, infulible, fixed, and cryf-
tallized in needles. Expofed to heat with a blow-pipe,
a lilac-coloured cruft is formed over it, which grows green
in cooling. Heated in the fame manner with borax, it
does not melt; but part of.it, after being oxydated, dif-
lolves in the lalt, communicating to it a very beautiful
green colour. Acids have but very little effedf upon it,
the nitric acid only producing any remarkable change ;
by diftilling five or fix times fuccefiively, to drynefs, twen¬
ty parts of concentrated nitric acid with one of the me¬
tal,- it is converted into an orange-coloured powder,
which at firll is green. This powder has all the proper¬
ties of the chromic acid. The ufes of this metal are not
S T R Y.
yet known. Perhaps it may afford beautiful and durable
colours to the painter and enameller.
Of TITANIUM.
The fubftance whence titanium is extradled, is the red
fchorl, principally found in Hungary ; but it has fince
been found in France, in the province of Brittany, can¬
ton of St. Yrieux. It alfo appears to be the fame fubftance
with that which Mr. M‘Gregor found in an iron ore,
from Menakan in Cornwall, and of which he eftablifhes
an interefting account, in Crell’s Journal for, 1791. The
red fchorl found in F ranee is in fome fpecimens of a bright
red colour, in others darker. It is found at the furface
of the foil, in lumps never more than an inch in diameter,
and generally appear rubbed or worn on the furface ;
fome preferve a regular cryftalline form. It is very hard,
will cut glafs, and is difficultly reduced to powder. The
pieces which fly off under the hammer are very bright,
with polilhedfurfaces. This oxyd, melted with fmalt, gives
to porcelain a pure regular Itraw-colour. It has been
long ufed at the manufadture of Sevres, to give porcelain
a brown colour.
If red fchorl be mixed with carbonat of potafh, the
fchorl feparates from the potalh a certain quantity of
carbonic acid. For this purpole, 100 parts of red fchorl,
found in France, were reduced to powder and melted in
a crucible with 600 of carbonat of potafh ; the mixture
acquired a greenifh colour. By dilution with boiling
water, this melted mafs afforded a whitilh precipitate,
which, after being waflied and dried, weighed 157 parts.
The alkaline liquor contained only a fmall portion of
filex and alumine, which it feemed to have taken from
the crucible ; it held cauftic potalh in folution, and the
precipitate itfelf poffefled the property of eft’ervefeing
with acids. This precipitate loft 0-25 of its weight by
expofing it Amply to a ftrongheat. Vauquelin and Hecht,
therefore, confider this precipitate as a combination of
the metallic oxyd with carbonic acid, and call it the car¬
bonat of titanium.
To reduce this oxyd in the dry wray, take carbonat of
titanium, prepared as above ; make it into a palte with
fifli-oil; place it in a hollow formed of finely-powdered
charcoal with a little alumine ; expofe it for an hour and
a half to a very ftrong heat: a blackilh irregular mafs
will be produced, fome of whofe points have a reddifh
metallic colour. This is the titanium in the metallic Hate.
Acids have a fenfible adtion upon this metal. If a
fmall quantity of the metallic titanium be boiled with
pure nitric acid, there is not much adlion between thefe
two bodies ; yet the metallic brightnefs dilappears from
the furface, and is occupied by a whitilh fubftance. With
the nitro-muriatic acid, a white powder is formed, which
fpreads all over the liquor ; the furface of the titanium
is covered with a white pellicle. With fulphuric acid,
as foon as ebullition begins, fulphureous acid vapours
are difengaged, and the matter changes into a wffiite pow¬
der, of which a part remains in folution in the fulphu¬
ric acid.
Although the matter of red fchorl has not yet been
completely melted and reduced, yet thole who carefully
examine the experiments of Klaproth, Vauquelin, and
Hecht, muft conclude, that red fchorl is a diftindt me¬
tallic fubftance, exilling in nature in the oxyd ftate, and
whofe general properties place it among brittle and oxy-
dable metals.
Of URANIUM.
This metal was lately difeovered by Klaproth; it has
not yet been found native. Klaproth called ur unite , or
uranium, from uranus, the name which Bode gave to
Herfchel’s newly-difcovered planet, by us called the
Georgium fidus. Klaproth detedfed this metal, combined
in a certain mineral, found in a mine belonging to George
Wagsforfl, at John-Georgenftadt, in Germany. Its-dif-
coverer, Klaproth, to whom we ow'e its analyfis alio, firfli
-s extradited
CHE M I
extracted it from fulphur ; then he diffolyed it in the ni¬
tric and nitro-nujriatic acids, and precipitated by alka¬
lis ; he , obtained precipitates of a lemon or orange co¬
lour: with ammoniac, the precipitate is of a dirty yellow.
For the reduction of this metal, feparate the yellow
precipitates from the folution by means of acids; make
a pafteof them with linfeed-oil, which put into a roaft-
i tig-furnace; a black powder is obtained, .which is to be
put in a crucible, well fecured with charcoal, and ex-
poled to a ltrong heat.
This metal is of a dark-grey colour at the furface ;
■within, it is of a pale-brown ; its Ipecific graviry is 6- 44.
It poffelfes a confiderable degree of hardnefs. It is lets
inclined to fufion than manganefe. DiiTolved in ftrong
acids, it gives a precipitate with alkalis ; with pruffiats, the
precipitate is of a brow nidi red ; with ammoniacal ful-
phure, it is obtained of a brownifli yellow'. Tliefe ex¬
periments are not very conclufive, becaule the metal has
never been yet obtained in large quantities; fo that it is
not eafiy to difcover all its properties.
Of NICKEL.
It appears that nickel had been ufed by the Cliinefe,
before the European difcovery of this metal, lince an
alloy is known in that country under the name of pak-
foiid., which contains nickel. Engeltroem difcovered
that it was a mixture of copper, zink, and nickel ; and
that the proportions of the lalt were various, according
to the ufe for which is wras intended ; they make falie
jewels of it. Hyerne is the firft who wrote of nickel un¬
der the name of kupfer-iiickel, or falfe copper, in 1694..
Hencker regarded it as a fpecies of cobalt, or arfenic
mixed with copper. Cramer confidered it alfo as a cop¬
per ore. It was not till 1751 that Cronftedt extracted a
new metal from this fuppofed mixture. Kupfernickel is
found in Germany, Dauphiny, and the Pyrenees ; alfo at
St. Sauveur, near Barege, in calcareous done. The dif-
cove.ry of this metal, then, is due to Cronftedt. Several
mineralogifts have denied its exiftence, regarding it as a
mixture . of feveral metallic fubftances ; but Bergman and
other chemifts have proved, that this fubftance, fo diffi¬
cult to obtain pure, poffeffes all theproperties of a metal.
To obtain pure nickel, the ore is firft to be roafted, to
feparate the lulphur and arfenic ; it changes into a green-
ifh oxyd ; the greener it is, the more nickel it contains,
according to Bergman and Arfvidfon. Mix the oxyd
with two or three parts of a black flux ; put the mixture
into a crucible, cover it with rnuriat of foda, and urge it.
to fufion with a very ftrong forge-furnace fire. Breaking
the crucible, there will appear, under the fcoria, which
are brown, blackilh, andfometimes blue, a button weigh¬
ing a tenth, a fifth, or even one half, of the rough ore.
Still this is far from being pure. Bergman and Arfvid¬
fon took peculiar pains in the purification of this metal :
tliefe chemifts have (hewn that it is impofiible to feparate
all the iron it may contain ; for fulphur, fulphure of
potafti, detonation with nitre, folution in the nitric acid
and in ammoniac, all lucceffively employed by Arfvid¬
fon, w'ould not fucceed ; the button ftill continued to be
attracted by the magnet. Perhaps this property may be¬
long to the metal itfelf, lince thepurelt cobalt has a mag¬
netic property as ftrong as iron.
The experiments of La Grange, in the humid way,
fliew that keepfernickel may be diffolved in nitro-muri-
atic acid. By diluting the muriatic folution with fix
parts ot water, a flight precipitation is obtained ; fepa¬
rate this firft precipitate, add pure carbonat of potafh to
the liquor, and another precipitate is made, of a blue-
grey colour; heat the mafs to drive off the excefs of car¬
bonic acid, and add pure potafh, the precipitate will then
be of a light grey. The precipitate being feparated, a
very alkaline liquor remains; faturate it with muriatic
acid, and pour on lime-water to excels; a very plentiful
precipitate will be obtained.
Vol. IV. No. 195,
S T R Y. 269
At prefent, it does not feem poflihle to determine ab-
folutely the nature of nickel, fince it always participates
of iron, which contaminates its properties. The follow¬
ing defcription of it is colkCted from Bergman, Arfvid¬
fon, Cronftedt, and La Grange. Its texture is not plat¬
ed, as Cronftedt aflerted, but granulated, as its fraCture
fhows. It is nine times heavier than water. It is not
brittle, but, on the contrary, fufficiently duCtile to make
it a queftion with Bergman, whether lie fhould rank it
among the metals or femi-metals. It is nearly as difficult
to melt as forged iron, is extremely fixed in the fire, and
becomes calcined wdien heated with accefs of air, afford¬
ing an oxyd of a green colour, which is deeper in pro¬
portion to its purity: Guyton fays this oxyd is fufible
into glafs. The fluxes and combuftible matters common¬
ly ufed in reducing the metals, produce their effieCt with
this. The aCtion of air and water qn nickel are not
known : its oxyd, when melted with matters proper to
form glafs, gives them a hyacinthine colour, more or lefs
red. The aCtion of lime, magnefia, and the three pure
alkalis, on nickel, are ftiil unknown.
Nickel is foluble in all the acids, and communicates
to them a green colour. Salts, more or lels coloured,
lome of them in cryftals, may be obtained from tliefe fo-
lutions; but the properties of thefe falts have not yet
been examined.
The oxyd of nickel parti}'- decompofes rnuriat of am¬
moniac. This metal combines readily with fulphur by
fufion ; Cronftedt, who made the experiment, fays alfo,
that it diffolves in the alkaline fulphures, and produces
a combination like the yellow ores of copper. Nickel
unites readily with gold, and renders that metal white
and brittle. It may be. feparated from the gold by oxyda-
tion. Nickel melts alfo with platina. Silver melts eafily
with nickel, without lofing much of its colour or dufti-
lity. If this mixture be detonated with nitrat of potafti,
the nickel will be oxydated, and the lilver remain un¬
changed. Nickel precipitates filver from its folution in
nitric acid. Nickel does not amalgamate with mercury.
In the heat it difengages the mercury from cinnabar, by
uniting with the lulphur. Nickel unites likewife with
arfenic. But in general all the properties we have men¬
tioned require the teft of frelh experiments.
Of COBALT.
Cobalt was employed in manufactories to give a blue
colour to glafs, long before it was fufpeCted to be a pe¬
culiar metal : this was firft difcovered by Brandt, a Swpde:
It has never yet been found pure and native ; but moftly
oxydated, and united with arfenic, arfenical acid, ful¬
phur, iron, &c.
To affay cobalt ore, it is pounded, waflied, and after¬
wards roafted to diffipate the arfenic. The cobalt remains
in a ftate of black oxyd, more or lefs deep with relpedt
to colour ; this is mixed with three parts of black flux, and
one part of decrepitated marine fait ; fome add one half part
of rofin. Put the whole into a crucible, which fhould be
only two-thirds full ; place it in a furnace; heat gently
til] the rofin ceafes to burn ; then ufe the bellows to in-
creafe the fire by degrees, and bring the crucible to a
white heat; keep it thus till every thing is perfectly melt¬
ed ; let the crucible get cold, then break it, and feparate
the metallic button from the fcoria, which are always of
a blue colour.
It has never been poffible to obtain cobalt in a ftate of
purity; but Taflaert’s method of treating the cobalt of
Tunaberg, as inferted in the Annales de Chimie, may
anfwer for fixing precifely the characters of this metal.
Having obtained the oxyd of cobalt in a very pure ftate,
his mode of reducing it is as follows : Take a porcelain
crucible, which is to be lined with carbon obtained from
carbonic acid ; put in the oxyd of cobalt, and expofe it
for an hour and a half to a forge-furnace ; let it cool,
then break it, and a button will be found, of the colour
3 Z of
2' jo CHEMISTRY.
of iron, brittle, which being broken exhibits a foliaceous
texture like fern-leaves, of an iron-grey colour, without
much metallic brilliancy. The fpecific gravity of this
very pure cobalt, according tb Hauy, is 8-5384; and this
metal, though entirely deprived of iron, is ftill ftrongly
attracted by the magnet. As this gentleman has not let
down the other charafferiftics of this metal thus purified,
our following remarks mull be taken to refer tb cobalt
procured by the ufual methods.
In the arts, and in the large works, cobalt is not ex¬
tracted in the metallic form : after pounding and walking
the cobalt ore, it is roafted in a furnace, which terminates
in a long horizontal flue, that ferves inftead of a chimney.
In this flue, the oxyd of arfenic, being fubiimed, becomes
condenled into the iemi-vitrified fubilance, which is im¬
properly called white arfenic. If the ore contain bifmuth,
this very fufible metal is collected at the bottom of the
furnace ; the cobalt remains in the Hate of an obfcure
grey oxyd, called zaffre. The zalire, in commerce, is
never pure, but is mixed with three times its weight of
pulverifed flints. In this ftate, if it be expofed to a flxong
Are, it melts into a glafs, of a dark blue colour, called
fmalt. This is reduced to powder in mills, and mixed with
watej\ The firft portion which falls down is the largeft
grained, and is called coarfe fmalt ; the turbid water being
decanted off, affords a fecond precipitate ; and this de¬
cantation is repeated four times in the whole : the laft de-
polition, which is finer than the reft, is improperly called
azure of four fires. This azure is ufed in many arts to
give a blue colour to metals, glaffes, See.
The zaft're of commerce, fufed with three times its
weight of black flux, a fmall quantity of tallow and ma¬
rine l'alt, affords the femi-metal, known by the improper
name of regulus of cohalt. The red uCtion of zaffre is
very difficult. A large quantity of flux mult be ufed,
and the crucible muft be kept a confiderable time in a
white-red heat, that the matter may become very fluid,
and that the fcoria may be completely fufed into a blue
glafs ; at this period the cobalt links to the bottom, in
the form of a button ; this is what modern chemifts call
metallic cobalt.
Cobalt, expofed to heat, does not melt till it is well
ignited. This metal appears to be very fixed in the
fire, and it is not know-11 whether it can be volatilized
in clofe vefl’els. If it be fulfered to cool flowly, it cry-
ftallizes in needle-formed plifms, placed one on the
other, and united in bundles. It confiderably refembles
mafles of bafaltes, which are feparated from each other,
as Mongez obferves. To fucceed in this cryrtallization,
the cobalt muft be melted in a crucible till it appears to
boil ; and, when the furface of the femi-metal becomes
fixed, on withdraw-ing it from the fire, the veffel is to be
inclined. The metal, which ftill remains fluid, runs out 5
and that portion which adheres to the fides of the kind
of geodes, formed by the cooling of the furface of the
cobalt, is found to be covered with cryftals.
Cobalt, melted and expofed to the air, becomes cover¬
ed with a dull pellicle, which is an oxyd of the femi-
metal, formed by its combination with oxygen. A larger
quantity of the oxyd of cobalt may be more eafily had,
by expoling the pulverized femi-metal, in a fhallow veffel,
under the muffle of a cuppelling furnace, and ftirring it
up, from time to time, to renew the calcining furface.
This powder, after remaining ignited forfome time, lofes
its brilliancy, increafes in weight, and becomes black.
This black oxyd requires a molt violent heat to convert
it into glafs, which is then of a deep blue colour.
Cobalt becomes flightly tarnifhed by expofure to air,
and is not attacked by water. It does not unite with ful-
phur without difficulty ; but, with the addition of an
alkali the combination is very ftrong, fo that they cannot
be feparated without folution in acids. For this purpofe
melt in a crucible equal parts of the calcined ore of co¬
balt, potafh, fulphat of lime,' and rofin ; when the mix¬
ture is melted, let it grow cold, and a confiderable quan¬
tity of cobalt will be found combined with the fulphure
formed during the operation; this combination generally
fwims above the fcoria ; the remainder, collected at the
bottom of the crucible, feetns compofed of feveral me¬
tallic fubftances feparated from the cobalt. This fulphu-
rated cobalt diflolves eafily in nitric acid, and throws
down a w'hite powder containing fulphur, and fome other
metallic fubftances.
To obtain phofphorated cobalt, melt a mixture of one
part of phofphorated glafs, one part of metallic cobalt
in powder, and one-eighth part of charcoal. The pro¬
duct of this fufion is a layer of phofphdrated cobalt covered
with a beautiful blue glafs. This phofphonuion may be
produced by making cobalt red-hot in a crucible, and
throwing in little bits of phofphorus up to the point of
faturation. Phofphorated cobalt differs from common
cobalt in colour ; it is white, more inclined to blue ; it
is brittle, and in, breaking thews a cryftalline form. It
lofes its brightnefs. Under the blow-pipe, the phofpho¬
rus burns on the furface, and the refldue is a fmall vitreous
globule of a dark blue colour.
The aCtion of barytes, magnefia, and lime, on cobalt,
is not known. Alkalis diflolved in water manifeftly alter
it ; but thefe changes have not been accurately deferib-
ed. This metal diflolves in all the acids, but with dif¬
ferent phenomena, according to its own ftate and that of
the acid. It is not foiuble in fulphuric acid, unlefs it be
concentrated and boiled. This folution is made in a
glafs phial or retort; putting in one part of cobalt in
powder, and pouring over it three parts of concentric
fulphuric acid. Place the retort in a fand-bath, fit on a
receiver, and proceed to diftillation, firft with a gentle
fire, which is to be increaled by degrees till the acid
boils; a quantity of fulphurous gas pafles over. When
the acid is almoft entirely evaporated, the refidue muft
be waffled ; a portion diflolves in the water, and commu¬
nicates a rofy or greenilh colour; it is the fulphat of co¬
balt. The other part coniifts of cobalt, oxydated by the
acid, wliofe oxygen has combined with the metal. Beaume
affirms, that by fufficiently evaporating the fulphuric fo¬
lution of cobalt, two forts of cryftals are obtained by
cooling ; the one white, fmall, and cubical; the other
greenifh, quadrangular, fix lines in length, and- four in
breadth. He conliders thefe laft as the fulphat of cobalt.
The former are produced by certain foreign matters
united to the cobalt. The cryftals of the fulphat of co¬
balt moll commonly obtained have the form of fmall
needles, deferibed by Sage as tetrahedral-rhomboidal
prifms, terminated by a dihedral fummit, with rhombic
faces. They are decompofable by fire, and leave an oxyd
of cobalt, not reducible alone. Barytes, magnefia, lime,
and the three alkalis, likewife decompofe this fait, and
precipitate a rofe-coloured oxyd of cobalt.
This fait attracts the moifture of the air; and is de-
compofed by heat. Nitric acid diflolves it with the af-
fiftance of caloric : Put cobalt in powder into a matrafs ;
pour over it five or fix times its weight of nitric acid at
400 ; place the matrafs on a fand-bath, and heat it till
the cobalt is diflolved ; let the folution ftand to fettle,
then draw it off 5 the folution, when at the point of fa¬
turation, will be of a rofy brown, or elfe a bright
green. Evaporate this folution over a fand-heat to one-
half ; in cooling, it furnilhes cryftals in fmall-conneCted
needles : this is nitrat of cobalt. This fait is very deli-
quefeent, boils up on hot coals, without detonating, and
leaves a deep red oxyd. It is decompofed by the fame
faline intermediums as the fulphat of cobalt. If more
alkali be added in thefe decompofitions than is neceffary
to precipitate the oxyd of cobalt, the precipitate difap-
pears, by folution in the excefs of alkali.
The muriatic acid does not diffolve cobalt in the cold,
but takes up a portion by the afliftance of heat*. This
acid aCts more ftrongly on the oxyd, forming a fo¬
lution of a red brown, which becomes green when heat¬
ed. By evaporation, it affords a muriat of cohalt cryl-
tallized
271
s C H E M I
talllzed in fjnall needles, very deliquefcent, which be¬
comes green when heated, and is foon after decompofed.
If the folution be not evaporated, it forms what is
called Jympathetic ink. This ink may be prepared alfo
with nitro-muriatic acid; or thus : Put into a matrafs
one part of cobalt, or rather zaffre, with four parts of ni¬
tric acid ; let the mixture digeft in a hot fand-bath for
three or four hours, or till the diffolution is almoft com¬
plete : then add as much rnuriat of foda as was ufed of
of cobalt, and of water four times the quantity of the ni¬
tric acid ; filter the liquor through paper, and you have
a fym pathetic ink, with which, if you write upon white
paper, no mark will be vifib'le ; but, by (lightly warming
it, the charafters will appear of a beautiful fea-green co¬
lour; as the paper gets cold, the colour difappears, but
may be revived again by heat.
The aflion of the other acids on cobalt is not known.
The boracic acid is the only one which feems capable of
combining with it; and this muft be by the aftion of
double affinity : Mix a folution of borat of foda and a
folution of cobalt in one of the foregoing acids, and a
double decompofition takes place. The foda unites with
the acid which held the metallic oxyd in folution, and the
boracic acid, combined with that acid, forms a fait which
is precipitated. The borat of cobalt is feparated by fil¬
tration.
Nitrat of potalh oxydates cobalt : Mix one part of co¬
balt with three of nitrat of pota(h : make the mixture
detonate by throwing it in fpoonfuls into a red-hot cru¬
cible ; a fmall detonation is heard each time. When all
the mixture is in the crucible, urge it with a ftrong heat;
then take the crucible off the fire, pour out the contents,
wa(h them in plenty of boiling water, and drain the li¬
quor. The powder remaining after filtration is oxyd of
cobalt, which has different degrees of red, but is often
greenifh. Cobalt detonates under the hammer, when
mingled with the fuper-oxygenated rnuriat of potafli : if
this mixture be brought in contact with fulphuric acid,
it burns with great rapidity, and the fmoke rifes in the
air affuming the form of a crown, in the fame manner as
phofphorated hydrogen gas burning fpontaneoufly in a
tranquil atmofphere.
Cobalt unites by fufion with gold ; but the poperties
of the mixture are little known. It precipitates gold
from its folution in aqua regia. £obalt alfo melts with
platina, and precipitates it from its folution in aqua re¬
gia. Silver does not unite by fufion with cobalt. The
folution of filver in nitric acid is precipitated by cobalt,
thirty-feven parts of cobalt only being required to pre¬
cipitate one hundred of filver. Mercury does not appear
to amalgamate with cobalt. It is precipitated from ni¬
tric acid by cobalt in its metallic (late. Lead, accord¬
ing to Gmelin, unites by fufion with cobalt, and is pre¬
cipitated by this metal from its folution in acids. Bif-
muth does not unite by fufion with cobalt. It alfo is
precipitated by the cobalt from its folutions in acids.
Nickel unites readily by fufion with cobalt, and is fepa¬
rated from it withgreatdifficulty. Thisfeparation iseffeft-
ed by melting it with a fulphure of potafli, which aiffolves
the cobalt more eafily than the nickel. The affinity of
thefe two metals for acids has not been determined,
though there is reafon to think that the affinity of the
cobalt is ftrongeft. When a bit of nickel is introduced
into a folution of nitrat of cobalt, a change in the colour
is produced, but without any evident precipitation of
cobalt. Copper melts with cobalt. They may be fepa¬
rated by fublimation with rnuriat of ammoniac. Copper
is precipitated from its folution in acids by cobalt. From
a folution of copper and cobalt in aqua regia, the copper
may be precipitated by zink, which produces no change
in the folution of cobalt. Arfenic and its oxyd unite
with cobalt. They may be feparated by roalting them
with charcoal. The ari'enic does not precipitate cobalt
from acids, though it feems to have a greater affinity
with thefe lubltances than cobalt. Iron melts eafily with
S T R Y.
cobalt. Neither of thefe metals feem to precipitate the
other from its folution in acids. Tin produces a flight
precipitation from rnuriat of cobalt.
The oxyd of cobalt diflolves in cauftic ammoniac, but
not without the affiftance of heat; and the liquor af-
fumes a beautiful rofe colour. Onlv the oxyd of cobalt
is employed in the arts, not the metal. It is ufed in
painting earthen ware and porcelain ; former painters
ufed it ground with oil, hence that very rough blue vifi-
bie in the ground-work and draperies of old piffures ;
for the colour grows darker with age by contaft with air.
It is a colouring matter for glafs and enamel. Azure is
ufed in dying cloth, in making ftarch, &c.
Of MANGANESE.
This was long unknown as a metal, though much ufed
in the arts ; it has been employed in glafs works for
more than two thoufand years. This mineral has the
property of whitening glafs, or rendering it colourlefs ;
whence it has been called foap of glafs Only Scheele,,
and the chemifts of his day, have (hewn that this fub-
ftance is a metal of a peculiar nature. Native manganefe
is laid to have been found by Picot la Peyroufe, in iron-
mines in the valley of Vicdelos, in the ci-devant county
of Foix, in France. It was in globules, fomewhat flat¬
ted, malleable, and of a lamellated texture.
Manganefe, however, is generally in the oxyd Hate,
prefenting feveral varieties. The oxyd is either black,
red, or white, compaft, friable, in long four-fided cry(-
tals like needles, particularly in the heavy fpar; fome is
globulous, ftala&iceous, and pulverulent, like black duff:
which foils the fingers. The white is the molt weakly
oxydated ; it is found in iron-mines, but not mixed with
the iron. The black oxyd of manganefe is often found
among hematites. The carbonat of manganeie contains
a good deal of iron, carbonic acid, lime, &c. Scheele
has proved that the afhes of vegetables contain manga¬
nefe ; it is feparated by treating with nitrat of potafh ;
urging the mixture to fufion, a coloured glafs, either blue
or green, is obtained.
To reduce manganefe to the metallic ftate, line a cru¬
cible ; put in at the hole a globule of oxyd of man¬
ganefe foftened with oil or gum-water, and cover the
whole with a layer of charcoal ; fix another crucible over
this, and urge the fire very ftrongly for an hour, or an
hour and a half. The metal which refults generally has
inequalities on its lurface. The redufition is rather
difficult; this metal is very refractory, and requires a
llrong heat ; it is, befides, much difpofed to vitrify,
which is another difficulty: fo vitrifiable indeed is it,
that Guyton, who enclofed a button of this fubffance in
a fmall crucible well luted, and urged it with a (trong
fire in Macquer’s furnace, could obtain but one-half me¬
tal ; the reft was fcoria and vitreous matters. It is faid
in Crell’s Journal, that, by mixing carbonat of magnefia
with charcoal, pouring in nitric acid, and then evapo¬
rating to drynefs, a dry matter would be produced,
which, being well wafhed and feparated, would give a
complete metal, very beautiful, which is metallic man¬
ganefe. If this be true, it is a reduftion in the humid
way. Gah.n is one of the firft who fucceeded in reducing
the oxyd of manganefe.
The metal manganefe is white; its frafture is granu¬
lated, irregular, of a metallic whitenefs, (hining, but loon
growing dull in the air. Reduced to powder, it is eafily
oxydated by air. If it'be heated in contaft with air, it
is converted into an oxyd, at firft whitifh, but which be¬
comes more and more black in proportion as the calci¬
nation proceeds, and finally turns green. It requires an
exceflive degree of heat to melt it. The fulphuric acid
attacks this metal. Scheele and Bergman fay, that, dur¬
ing the folution, there is an effervefcence which ariles
from the difengagement of a certain quantity of hydro-,
gen gas. Fourcroy, on the contrary, affects, that the
Sulphuric acid is decompofed by the manganefe : this,
therefore.
therefore, requires frefli experiments. Nitric acid dif-
folves it, throwing off red vapours. The muriatic acid
diffolves it alfo ; this fol'ution cryftallizes very difficultly.
The alkalis, and even water, precipitate the metal from
this folution. It is laid that it mixes with other metals.
Hut all that is known of this metal, is at prefent very
uncertain : it is not even known, perhaps, at all in a
pure ftate; for Bergman is doubtful whether it can be
completely feparated from the iron it contains. To ob¬
tain manganefe as free from iron as poffible, Richter re¬
commends the following procefs : A faturated folution
of fulphat of manganefe is to be mixed with a folution
of tartarit of potafh, and the mixture placed on a find-
bath. In the courfe of a few minutes, a white precipi¬
tate is formed, which increafes in proportion as the fluid
is evaporated. When the evaporation has been carried
fo far on, that the fulphat of potafli is difpofed to
cryffallize, the clear liquor is to be decanted off, and the
precipitate well edulcorated with a fmall quantity of
water. The water ufed for edulcoration, together with
a frefli quantity of the tartarit of potafli, is to be added
to the liquor, in order that any manganefe which they
contain may be precipitated. The precipitate, which is
a pure tartarit of manganefe, may be decompofed by a
flrong fire, and fubjedied to the ufual procefs for obtain¬
ing this liibftance in its metallic ftate.
The properties of the native oxyd of manganefe are,
however, better known. The accurate experiments of
Scheele, and thofe of Bergman, Gahn, Rinman, Engef-
troem, Ifleman, La Peyroule, and Fourcroy, have thrown
great light upon the properties of this metallic fubftance.
The pure oxyd of manganefe is pulverulent, loft to the
touch, and foils the fingers. Melted under the blow¬
pipe, with microcofmical fait, a tranfparent glafs is ob¬
tained, of a bluifli red colour; if left to grow cold and
melted again, flowly, the colour difappears ; melted afrefli
with the outward flame of a blow-pipe, the colour may
be made to come and go alternately.
By heating the native oxyd alone in the pneumatic
apparatus, very pure oxygen gas is obtained. It is this
oxygen or vital air alone, which can be ufed to advan¬
tage by patients whofe diforders require the adminiftra-
ticn of this fluid. It is to be remarked, that in diftilling
the native oxyd of manganefe, in order to obtain vital
air in a very pure ftate, the retort mull; be completely
filled with this fubftance, fo as to allow no atmofpherical
air to remain in the retort. It is in this way that the
vital air intended for the ufe of the lick, or for the com¬
petition of water, ought to be prepared. Without this
precaution, a confiderable quantity of nitric acid will
be formed, or a mephitic relidue produced, which Hops
the combuftion of the hydrogen gas, and renders it necef-
fary to empty the receiver. After the operation, a grey
matter remains in the retort ; this, if expofed to the air,
will attraft oxygen, and become of the natural black co¬
lour of the oxyd. By diftilling oxyd of manganefe with
charcoal, the produfl is carbonic acid gas. The action
of other combuftible bodies with it is not known.
Gmelin, it is faid, lucceeded in forming a mixture of
oxyd of manganefe and fulphur. If fulphuric acid be
poured on oxyd of manganefe, with the help of a very
gentle heat, oxyrgen gas is difengaged. See on Oxygen
Gas, page 193, for the manner of the operation. If a
larger quantity of the acid be poured in, the oxyd dif-
folves : the lolution is coloured, but is deprived of co¬
lour by the addition of a combuftible body, as fugar or
honey ; it furnifhes a tranfparent fulphat of manganefe
in parallelopiped cryftals. This fulphat is decompofed
by fire, and gives out oxygen gas. The alkalis leparate
an oxyd from manganefe, in form of awhitiffi gelatinous
matter, which becomes brown by expofure to the air:
this change of colour is owing to the ablorption of
oxygen.
The oxyd of manganefe is not attacked by the nitric
acid, becaule the acid finds the manganefe already oxy-
S T R Y.
dated ; nor is it much aflefled by the fuming or hot acid
of Boyle ; but, by the addition of a combuftible body,
as fugar, honey, &c. the diffolution is complete. This
fait has not yet been obtained in cryftals. Alkalis pre¬
cipitate from its lolutions a.white oxyd, foluble in acids,
which, when heated, becomes black, and is oxydated
ftill more. Bergman thinks that this metal has a greater
affinity with falts than moll metallic fubltances ; he places
it in his table, near the top of that column which con¬
tains the eledtive attractions of acids. The muriatic
acid likewife diffolves manganefe; and, when digefted,
it feizes on the o-xygen, and pafies in vapours through
the water : this is what is called oxygenated muriatic acid.
See the feCtion on that acid, page a 18. Muriat of man¬
ganefe is decompofed by alkalis alfo.
• Fluoric acid forms with oxyd of manganefe, a fait fo¬
luble with difficulty ; but, by deeompofmg the fulphat,
nitrat, or muriat, of manganefe, with the fluat of ammo¬
niac, a fluat of manganefe is precipitated. The carbonic
and acetous acids have little effedt upon the oxyd of
manganefe. Its adtion with terreftrial fubftances has not
been fully examined. Combined in a large proportion
with gold and filver, manganefe renders theie metals very
brittle. It precipitates filver from acids in a ftate nearly
approaching to the metallic. Mercury and manganefe
do not enter into combination. Manganefe precipitates
mercury from its folution in acids; oxyd of tnanganele
has no adlion on the oxygenated muriat of mercury;
but, diftilled in the proportion of two to one with ordi¬
nary muriat, it converts the mercurial muriat into the
oxygenated. During its diftillation with cinnabar, ful¬
phuric acid gas, and fluid mercury,, are difengaged. Lead,
according to Gmelin, unites with great difficulty to man¬
ganefe. The properties of the lead, by this admixture,
are but little changed. Copper unites, by repeated melt¬
ings, with manganefe, and forms with it a white malle¬
able metallic mafs. Manganefe does not precipitate it
from its folution in acids. Arfenic forms a metallic mix¬
ture by melting it in dole vellels with manganefe. In
diftillation together, the white oxyd of arfenic pafies over
unchanged.
The oxyd of manganefe combines very well with alka¬
lis; it is revived by combination with ammoniac. In
this combination a peculiar gas is dilengaged, which ap¬
pears from the difeovery of Berthollet to be azotic gas,
and that the hydrogen of the ammoniac combines with
the oxygen, and takes it from the manganele, which is
thus reduced, and becomes white.
Scheele has given the name of cameleon mineral to a
combination of potalh and oxyd of manganele in the dry
way : Reduce the oxyd of manganefe to powder, and mix
it with the potafli ; put the mixture into a crucible, and
urge the fire. The produdt is a kind of vitreous frit, fo¬
luble in water. Put an equal weight of this matter into
two glafles, and pour hot water upon one, and cold water
upon the other; and you have at the fame time a folu¬
tion of a red colour in the cold water, and' of a beautiful
green in the hot. The fame matter in the fame water at
different temperatures will aflume various colours : this
arifes from the feveral degrees of oxydation ; for, at the
end of four and-twenty or fix-and-thirty hours, all the
liquors are as colourlefs as water, and the manganefe is
equally precipitated in both glafles. The fame pheno¬
mena arife from nitrat of potafli mixed with oxyd of
manganele. The nitrat is decompofed by caloric; and
the oxyd with the potafli form a foluble mafs, of a dark
green colour, fliewing the fame properties as mentioned
above.
Borax, melted with oxyd of manganefe, afiumes a
brown or violet colour. Muriat of ammoniac, diftilled
with this metallic oxyd, affords ammoniac in part de¬
compofed ; in which procefs water is formed by the union
of hydrogen, one of the principles of this fait, with the
oxygen of the oxyds, while the azot, or the other prin¬
ciple of the ammoniac, is difengaged in the aeriform
ftate.
CHEMISTRY.
ftate, Nitric acid is likewife formed during this procefs.
See the fedtion on Ammoniac , page 226, for the manner
of making this experiment with liquid ammoniac, rather
than with muriat of ammoniac.
By adding oxyd of manganefe to the materials ufed in
making glal's, it is rendered of a clear white : the addi¬
tion of nitrat of potafh gives the glafs a violet-colour,
which will be fo much the ftronger, in proportion as the
oxydation of the metal by the nitric acid was the more
complete. Thus the oxyd of manganefe is ufed in glal's-
works, either to take away the yellow, green, or blue,
tinge, from glafs intended to be of a clear white ; or in
other proportions to give the glafs a violet colour. The
■affinity of manganefe for the principle of combuftion
ferves likewife to guide modern chemifts in a great num¬
ber of cafes, and may lead to dilcoveries concerning the
nature of many fubftances at prel'ent unknown.
Of BISMUTH.
Bifmuth is often found native in the bowels of the
earth ; or combined with fulphur, arfenic or oxygen.
The primitive form of the metal is a regular odtahedron.
To reduce, or fmelt, the ore of bifmuth, a cavity is made
in the earth, which is covered with billets of wood
placed one on the other ; the wood is fet on fire, and
the ore, being broken fmall, is thrown in it. The bif-
rnuth melts, and runs into the cavity, where it takes an
orbicular form. In other places the trunk of a pine tree,
hollowed into the form of a gutter, is placed in the earth
in an inclined pofition, and wood laid over it; the bif¬
muth is thrown on this combuftible matter, after it is fet
on fire : the metal melts, falls into the channel, which
conduits it into a cavity made in the earth, over which
the extremity of the trunk is placed. The bifmuth, thus
obtained, is poured into iron moulds. It is then of a
light yellow colour, of a lamellous texture, and brittle;
its metallic brilliancy is changed by expofure to the air,
and it affumes a violet tinge ; and at length a white pow¬
der is formed on the furface, which is bifmuth in the
oxyd date.
Bifmuth is extremely fufible, and melts long before
the red-heat commences. The following is the mode of
obtaining it in crylials. Enclofe it in a crucible, and
melt it; when melted, take the crucible off the fire, and
let it ftand a fhort time to cool ; then pour it off; the li¬
quid part runs off ; but the congealed part, adhering to
the crucible, fhews the metal in cryftals at the lower part
and at bottom. Another mode of operation, according
to Monges, is to ufe a crucible with a hole and Hopper
at the bottom. When the metal is melted, let it co¬
agulate at the furface; when it begins to adhere, re¬
move the ftopper from the bottom, and the liquid part
runs out ; then the fides of the crucible, and the under
part of the upper furface of congealed matter exhibit cry-
-ftals, fometimes cubical, fometimes oftahedral.
If bifmuth be kept in fufion with contaft of air, its
furface becomes covered with a pellicle, which changes
into an oxyd of a greenifh grey, or brown, named allies
or calx of bifmuth, Nineteen drachms of bifmuth cal¬
cined in a capfule of glafs, afforded Baume twenty
drachms thirty-four grains of oxyd. Bifmuth heated to
rednefs, burns with a fmall blue flame, fcarcely fenfible.
Its oxyd evaporates in the form of a yellowifli fmoke,
which condenfes on the furface of cold bodies. The ex¬
periment is performed as follows : Put the bifmuth into a
crucible, and urge it with a ftrong heat : as foon as the
blue flame arifes, take the crucible off the fire, and fix
over it a glafs funnel, in which the bifmuth will fublime
in the oxyd ftate. When the bifmuth no longer fmokes,
heat it again to the fame degree;. and repeat the experi¬
ment till the bifinuth will no longer volatilife : this was
formerly called flowers of bifmuth. The oxyd of bifmuth
is very fufible ; it melts alone by the aftion of fire, and
is converted into a yellow tranlparent glafs : this glafs
corrodes and vitrifies the crucible. This oxyd may be
VOL. IV. No. 195.
2 73
reduced, orreftored to the metallic ftate, by being made
into a pafte with black foap, and melted in a crucible.
Hydrogen gas alters the colour of bifmuth, and gives
it a violet tinge. Sulphur combines with this metal by
fufion, and produces a fort of ore of bifmuth, fulphure-
ous, artificial, blackifh, and porous, which, when melted
again, becomes grey, fnining, ftriated, and is even fuf-
ceptible of cryftallization.
Bifmuth has, according to Pelletier, very little affinity
for phofphorus. Of the experiments made for phofpho-
rating bifmuth, the following lucceeded the belt : A lit¬
tle bifmuth was melted in a crucible ; when melted, fome
little bits of phofphorus were thrown in, one after the
other : the crucible was then taken off the fire, and the
phofphorated bifmuth was found to adhere very ftrongly
to it. . It is very brittle, like bifmuth; under the blow'-
pipe, it emits a fmall green flame in theinftant of fufion;
by expofure to the air, it affumes a varied colour; tin-ow¬
ing fome filings of it upon burning coals, fmall greenifh
flames will arii’e with a pholphoric fmell.
Concentrated and boiling fulphuric acid adts on bif¬
muth ; the acid is partly decompofed, and fulphureous
gas is exhaled. The mars remaining in the veil'd, after
the decompofition of a part of the acid, is white ; that
portion which is in the faline ftate may be feparated by
means of water, from the other portion which is oxyd-
ated, and does not contain any acid; the lixivium, by
evaporation, affords a fulphat of bifmuth in fmall deli-
quefeent needles. This fait is decompofable by fire, by
the falino-terreftrial fubftances, by alkalis, and even by
water alone, in large quantities.
The nitric acid diffolves bifmuth with an aftonifhing
rapidity ; or rather this metal decompofes the acid, and
very quickly takes from it a part of its oxygen ; the mix¬
ture becomes very ftrongly heated, and emits, denfe red
Vapours. If the combination be made in the pneumatic
apparatus, a large quantity of nitrous gas is obtained;
and this procefs is one of the readied and mod conveni¬
ent for procuring this gas. During the folution, a black
powder is precipitated, which Lemery fuppofed to be
bitumen, and Pot confidered as calcined oxyd of bifmuth ;
Baume fufpedted it to be fulphur; perhaps it may be
charcoal.
The nitric folution of bifmuth is without colour, and,
when it is much faturated, it affords cryftals without
evaporation. Evaporation, and cooling, afford a nitrat
of bifmuth ; it is a white very firming fait, concerning
the form of which chemifts differ. Fourcroy, by flow
evaporation, obtained flattened rhomboids, very large,
and perfedtly fimilar to the calcareous fpar of Iceland.
The nitrat of bifmuth detonates feebly, and with reddifh
fcintillations, after which it melts and fwells up, leaving
an oxyd of a greenifh yellow, not reducible without ad¬
dition. This fait expofed to air, lofes its tranfparency,
at the fame time that the w'ater of cryftallization is diiii-
pated. If water be added, inftead of diflblving it, the
fluid becomes white, milk}', and an oxyd of bifmuth
is precipitated. The fame thing happens, if the nitric
folution of bifmuth be poured into water, the greateft
part of the oxyd of this metal being precipitated under
the form of a white powder, called magifery of bifmuth .
If it be defined to be very white and fine, diffolve the bif¬
muth in the nitric acid as mentioned before, dilute it in
twice its weight of water, then let it fettle well, and
draw it off to feparate the black precipitate. Pour the
folution into a large quantity of frefh water, and a white
precipitate will take place ; when this has well fettled,.
filtre the liquor; wafli the depofit remaining after filtra¬
tion in feveral waters, to feparate all the acid, and then
dry it : this is what is called magifery of bifmuth , white
paint, and pearl-powder. By the ladies it is ufed as a
pigment for rendering the fkin white; but it h3s the in¬
convenience of becoming black when in contadt with
odoriferous or combuftible matters. This property has
occafioned many a painful ftruggle between black, white,
4 A and
274 C H E M
and red. If fulphure of potafli, or hydro-fulphure, be
poured into a folution of nitrat of bifmuth, precipitated
by water, the oxyd is changed from white to a deep black.
The magiftery of bifmuth fhouidbe very white and corn-
pad.
The muriatic acid aCts with difficulty on this metal.
It is neceflary that the acid fhould be very concentrated,
and be kept in digellion on the bifmuth for a long time ;
the folution fucceeds llill better, when a large quantity
«f muriatic acid is diftilled from the metal. The mix¬
ture has a fetid fmell ; the refidue is to be walhed with
water, which becomes charged with a portion of the me¬
tallic oxyd united to the acid. The muriat of bifmuth
cryltallizes with difficulty ; it may be fublimed into a
kind of foft fait, improperly called butter of bifmuth \ it
Ifrcngly attracts the humidity of the air; and, laftly,
water decompofes it, and precipitates it in the form of a
■white oxyd. The nitro-muriatic acid dilfolves bifmuth
alfo; the folution is at firft greenilh, but afterwards it
grows white.
Bifmuth makes no detonation with nitre ; yet that fait
converts it into an oxyd. Bifmuth in powder, mixed
with the fuper-oxygenated muriat of potafli, detonates
with a blow. Muriat of ammoniac is decompofed by the
oxyd of bifmuth, but not by the metal ; the produCt is
what was formerly called bifmiitbical flowers of fed ammo¬
niac, and a large quantity of ammoniacai gas is difen-
gaged. Mix together one part of the oxyd of bifmuth,
and two parts of muriat of ammoniac ; put the mixture
into a glafs retort, and proceed to dillillation with the
pneumatic apparatus : fome ammoniac pafles over; and
a little oxyd of bifmuth mixed with undecompofed mu¬
riat of ammoniac, rifes and flicks to the neck of the re¬
tort; the refidue is a combination of the metallic oxyd
with the muriatic acid: The oxyd of bifmuth may be
leparated from the muriat of ammoniac by Ample folu¬
tion in water.
Bifmuth unites, by means of fluxes, with gold, and
forms with it a pale, brittle, heavy mafs. When this
mafs is expofed in an open fire, tire bifmuth is oxydated,
and leaves the gold unchanged. Bifmuth precipitates
gold from its folution in aqua regia. Platina melts with
bifmuth, and the mixture becomes fufible in proportion
to the quantity of bifmuth which it contains. The bif¬
muth is oxydated by expofure to an open fire, but it is
difficult to leparate it completely from the platina, for the
mixture becomes infoluble in proportion as it is lepa-
rated. Bifmuth precipitates platina from its folution in
aqua regia. Bifmuth unites eafily with filver, which
becomes brittle, and lofes its brilliancy. By expofing
the mixture in an open fire, the bifmuth is vitrified, and
the filver left unchanged. Bifmuth precipitates filver
from its folution in nitric acid, firft in its metallic ftate,
and at lalt in the form of an oxyd. Bifmuth amalga¬
mates eafily with mercury, and is often uled to adulte¬
rate that fluid. It is difficult to feparate the bifmuth
again, even by diftillation and filtration through leather.
Mercury diflolved in nitric or fulphuric acid is precipi¬
tated in its metallic ftate by bifmuth. If three parts of
bifmuth and feven of oxygenated muriat of mercury be
diftilled together, a butter of bifmuth will be formed,
and the mercury will pafs over in a fluid ftate into the
receiver. By the afliftance of heat, bifmuth feparates the
mercury alfo in a fluid ftate from cinnabar. The refult
is a fulphure of bifmuth. Lead unites eafily by fluxes
with bifmuth, and by this union becomes harder, more
brittle, and more fufible. Thefe metals may be fepa-
rated from each other by folution in aqua-fords, and
dilution with water; for the water precipitates the oxyd
of bifmuth, and leaves the lead in combination with the
acid. Lead precipitates bifmuth from its folution in
acids. The lead has alfo a ftronger affinity in the dry
way for fuiphur, and feparates it from the fulphure of
bifmuth.
Bifmuth may be ufed for making a fympathetic ink.
a
S T R Y.
Any of the folutions of bifmuth 'will do ; but we fliould
choofe in preference an acid which will not corrode the
paper, as the acetit of bifmuth. Write the characters on
the paper, and they will be invifible ; to make them ap--
pear, take an alkaline fulphure, (the fulphure of am¬
moniac in preference ;) putting this in contaCt with the
paper, the vapour difoxygenates the bifmuth, and black¬
ens it, forming a fulphure of bifmuth. The experiment
may be made by putting the fulphure of ammoniac in a
glafs, and inverting the paper over it; the vapours of
the fulphure will rile, and foor, render the characters vi-
fible. Bifmuth is employed by the pewterers to commu¬
nicate hardnels to tin. It may be lubliituted inltead of
lead, in the art of cupelling the perfeCt metals, becaule,
like that metal, it has the property of flowing into a glafs,
which is abforbed by the cupels. Geoffrey the younger
has obferved and recorded many circumftances in which
this brittle metal refembles lead. The eftecis of bifmuth
on the animal economy can only be conjectured ; but
there is reafon to think that its ufe, like that of lead,
would be dangerous; and there are fome inftances of
bad effeCts- ariling from the external ufe of this metal.
We have already oblerved, that the oxyd of bifmuth is
ufed as a pigment for the Ikin, and that ftrong duelling
matters alter its colour; Inch finells as are fetid more
particularly produce this effeCt. The vicinity of flaugh-
ter-houfes, of common fewers, and alrnoft every other
itrong fmell, has that effeCt onthis oxyd, and caules its
colour to become more or leli*> black; and hence it in¬
jures the tkin. The vapour of alkaline lulphures, or the
fmell of eggs, produce this eil'eCt quickly. A very com¬
mon experiment in natural philolophy. thews this proper-
ty in a linking manner. If characters be written with a
lolution of bilmuth on the firft page of a book of fifty
leaves, and the lalt page be impregnated with a final!
quantity of the liquid alkaline fulphures, a fiiort
time afterwards, the hepatic vapour carried by the air,
which circulates between all the leaves, arrives at the
other extremity of the book, and converts the colourlefs
characters marked even on the firft page, into a deep
brown. It is affirmed, that the fulphurated hydrogen,
or hepatic gas, pafles through the paper; but Monge
has proved, that it is the air which carries it in this man¬
ner, from one leaf to another, fince the erfect does not
take place, when the leaves are glued together.
Of ANTIMONY.
The Latins called this metal flibium : it was firft called
antimonium , or antimony, in England, from its having
been given to fome monks , as a purgative. The prior of
a monaftery at Canterbury had given fome of it to his
hogs, and he found that it purged them and increaled their
appetite; he eflaved to do as much by his monks, a lazy
crew, who were often ill, and loft their appetites for
want of exercile ; but the greater part of them died.
No metal has given lo much employment to alchemifts,
and volumes have been written upon it. Alchemifts
have given it various names, as root of metals , fugar of
lead , &c.
To feparate the antimony from its gangue, and other
metallic matters with which it may be mixed, two
earthen pots are taken, one of which is pierced at the
bottom in many places; into this the ore is put; ano¬
ther pot, placed below the firft, for the purpofe of re¬
ceiving the fulphure of antimony in proportion as it
melts, being funk in the earth. A fire is then made
round the fuperior -pot, fo as to produce gentle heat at
the beginning, becaule the antimony is very fufible;
but towards the end the heat is railed,- that the whoie of
the antimony contained in the mineral may be melted
out. The Icoriae remain in the upper pot. This fub-
Itance is of a blackilli grey colour,, in thin plates, or
needles of different lizes, and friable.
To obtain the oxyd of antimony from the native ful-
phtu'e, break the fulphure into finall pieces, and expole
it
C H E M I
it to heat, which volatilizes a part of the fulphur. A
very gentle heat muft be uled to reduce the grey oxyd of
antimony : Take eight parts of the fulphurated grey oxyd
of antimony, fix of tartar, and three of nitrat of potalh ;
put thefe together into a crucible. Theproduft will be,
according to the different affinities of the fubftances em¬
ployed, carbonic acid and azot, which are difengaged,
a little carbonat of potafli, fulphure of potafh containing
a little antimony, and lalfly fulpbat of potafh ; thefe
three products are found in the crucible, befides the an¬
timony which lies at the bottom. This reduftion may
be effefted with equal parts of grey oxyd of antimony and
black flux, mixed with a little black foap. The black
flux, in this operation, anfwers two intentions ; the al¬
kali which it contains unites to the fulphur, which has
not been diffipated from the ore by the aftion of the fire,
and the coaly matter favours the reduftion of the metallic
oxyd. This is the method of preparing, what is called
the regulus of antimony in the huge way, for commercial
purpofes.
Antimony, when pure, is brittle, of a brilliant white,
compofed of plates or leaves lying upon each other ; it is
generally made up in round flatted lumps, which prefent
upon their furface a fort of cryftallization in the form of
leaves of fern. The air changes it but little ; fometimes
the furface becomes a little tarnifhed or dull. This me¬
tal has a very fenfible tafte oraftion on the ftomach, be¬
ing both emetic and purgative. It diffolves in the gaf-
tric juice; and hence it was fuppbfed that antimonial
pills would be a good purge : thele were called perpetual
pills by the ancients.
Antimony, melted in an open crucible, and then left
to cool (lowly, will be found cryftallized in regular pyra¬
mids ; but, if ftrongly heated in clofed veflels, it is en¬
tirely fubiimed without decompcfition or alteration. But,
when the evaporation is made in open veflels, it becomes>
oxydated at the furface, and converted into a white fume.
To obtain this oxyd, place the crucible in the furnace,
not upright, hut (loping, or nearly horizontal, fo that
its rim applies to the opening or door of the furnace ; it
muft be luted with clay ; apply another crucible to its
aperture to receive the oxyd. Heat the crucible to a
white-red heat ; remove the fecond crucible every half-
hour, and apply another in its place: it is commonly fill¬
ed with a white fhining fubftance ; clear it out, and de-
' tach with a feather what adheres to the crucible : this is
what is improperly called fl-very flowers of regulus of an¬
timony, or /now of antimony. It is a fubiimed metallic
oxyd, in very (lender, white, brilliant, needles. This
fubftance has faline properties ; is not eafily foluble in
water; and may be reduced to the metallic ftate by com-
buftible bodies. This oxyd may alio be melted into an
orange-coloured glafs, paler and more tranfparent than
is made with the grey oxyd and fulphure of antimony.
All combuftible matters aft more or lefs on antimony.
Hydrogen gas alters its furface, and gives it a darker co¬
lour. It acts in a much more efficacious manner on its
folutions.
Antimony unites with phofphorus : Mix equal parts of
phofphoric glafs and antimony ; add one-eighth part of
.charcoal in powder, and melt the whole in a crucible.
rThe refult is a white metallic brittle fubftance, which
breaks into ftnall cubes : this is phofphorated antimony.
Phol'phure of antimony may be produced alfo by putting
in the phofphorus over the antimony : the crucible muft
be taken off the fire as foon as the laft pieces of pliof-
phorus are thrown in, or all the phofphorus would be
volatilized.
Sulphur alfo combines very readily with antimony, and
forms an artificial ore, perfeftly firmlar to native fulphure
of antimony. To obtain this combination, equal parts
of fulphur and of the antimon)'' in powder are to be quick¬
ly melted in a crucible. A mineral in the form of nee¬
dles of a dark grey is produced, which never contains lb
much as the half of its weight of fulphur, unleis one
part and a half of the latter fubftance be ufed with one
S T R y. 275
part only of the metal. Alkaline fulphures, or livers of
fulphur, completely diffolve anthnony, and form a yellovv-
ifh mafs, from which antimoniated fulphur may be pre¬
cipitated by any acid, which gives it immediately an
orange colour. Hepatic, or fulphurated hydrogen gas,
afts on the folutions of this metal ablolufeiy in the fame
manner as the hydrogen gas. This experiment may be
made by pouring water charged with fulphurated hydro¬
gen over the white oxyd of antimony. By either method
a yellow precipitate is formed.
Arfenic, nickel, cobalt, and bifmuth, unite with an¬
timony ; the properties, however, of thefe feveral mix¬
tures, have not yet been fufficiently examined. But the
action of acids on this metal has been more attended to.
When concentrated fulphuric acid is flowly boiled on the
regulus, the former is decompofed, and the latter partly
oxydated ; a large portion of fulphureous gas is exhaled,
and towards the end a fmall quantity of fulphur fublimes,
a brownifh mafs remaining after the decompofition of the
acid, which confifts of much metallic oxyd, cryftallized
in needles, and a fmall proportion of metal, combined
with the acid in the ftate of fulphat of antimony. The
Inline part may be feparated by means of diftilled water.
This fait, when brought to a dry ftate by evaporation, is
very deliquelcent, and cannot be made to afford cryftals.
Fire eafily decompofes it; pure water, the terreftrial fub¬
ftances, and alkalis, likewife feparate thefe- principles.
The nitric acid afts in the fame manner as the fill-
pliuric acid, but with more energy : the fait which is
produced has the fame properties as the fulphat of an¬
timony. The muriatic acid, when hot, fsems complete¬
ly to diffolve the antimony; but, in cooling, the cal¬
cined part is precipitated, and muriat of antimony is
retained, which may- be feparated by evaporating the
liquor, but it is very deliquelcent. The nitro-muria-
tic acid diffolves antimony better than the other acids ;
yet ltill a part of the oxyd is precipitated in tool¬
ing. The oxygenated muriatic acid burns antimony
with great eale ; to this end it is reduced to powder, and
thrown into a jar filled with this gas; the jar muft be
very dry ; the metal burns rapidly, with a bright white-
flame. Super-oxygenated muriat of antimony may be
obtained by mixing luper-oxygenated muriat of mercury
with antimony, in the manner to be related when we
come to treat of mercury. Phofphoric acid alfo attacks
antimony; but the fait thence arifing has not been yet
afcertained.
The aftion of alkalis with antimony is but little known.
Nitrat of potafh is decompofed very readily by antimony.
When equal parts of this metal and of nitre in powder
are thrown by fmall portions at a time into a red-hot cru¬
cible, a ftrong detonation takes place, and the metal is
burned by the afliftance of the oxygen afforded by the
nitre. After this operation, the crucible is found to con¬
tain the fixed alkali or bafe of the nitre, and the anti¬
mony in the ftate of a white oxyd. This oxyd is called
diaphoretic antimony ; modern chemifts call it oxyd of anti¬
mony by nitre . Antimony is not ufually employed in this
operation, but the native fulphure of antimony, or its
ore ; in which cafe, a larger quantity of nitre is required
to be added ; as for example, three parts to one ot this
mineral, in order that not only the metal may be burned,
but likewife all the fulphur to which it is united The
reafon why the ore is preferred in this procels is, that the
fulphur renders the detonation of the nitre more rapid,
and Angularly facilitates the combuflion of the antimony.
The matter that remains in the crucible after the deto¬
nation, is compofed of the oxyd of antimony, united
partly to the fixed alkali of the nitre, and partly to a
portion of the nitre which efcaped the detonation. It
likewife contains a fmall quantity of fulphat of potafli,
formed by the acid of the fulphur, and the fixed alkali
of the nitre. This compound is called the folveut of
Rotrou, or •unwajhed diaphoretic antimony. The matter
being thrown into hot water, the faline part is diffolved,
and the metallic oxyd remains fufpended. The water is
poured
276 C H E M
poured off before fubfidence, and the white and fixed
oxyd is then fuffered to fall down ; this is called vsajhed
diaphoretic antimony. It mull be carefully dried, and then
moulded into little fquare pieces. The water, which
floats above, holds in Jolution the. faline matters which
were contained in the mixture, and alfo a portion of the
metallic oxyd, alinoft acidified, united to the alkali of
nitre. This kind of antimoniat of potafh is fulceptible
of cryftallization, according to Berthollet. Acids decom-
pofe it, and precipitate an oxyd of antimony, called ce-
r ufs of antimony , or the materia perlata of Kerkringius.
The liquor which remains after the precipitation contains
a fmall quantity cf nitre which had efcaped the detona¬
tion, a fmall quantity of fulphat of potafn produced dur¬
ing the detonation, and the neutral fait formed by the
union of the acid to the alkali, which holds the metallic
oxyd in folution. Though the latt l'alt varies according
to the acid made ufe of, it is very improperly called an -
timoniated nitre of Stahl. This fait in general is not nitre,
becaufe the fulphuric or muriatic acids are ufually appli¬
ed to precipitate the oxyd of antimony; and, when the
precipitation is well made, no part of the oxyd remains
in the fait.
Equal parts of fuper-oxygenatedmuriat of potafli, and
of antimony in powder, fmoke under a blow of the ham¬
mer, but only produce reddifh fparks with fulphuric acid.
Antimony appears capable of decompofing muriat of
foda; for, if a mixture of thefe two fubltances be heated
in a retort, fublimated muriat of antimony pafles over into
the receiver, according to the obfervation of Monnet.
This cliemilt has not deferibed the refidue of the opera¬
tion. This metal does not readily decompofe muriat of
ammoniac, according to Bucquet, and the butter, or fub¬
limated muriat, of antimony, is not obtained in this pro-
cefs, as Juncker affirms.
Antimony unites by fufion with gold, and renders it
pale and brittle. It may be leparated from gold by a vio¬
lent heat in the form of a white fublimate. Antimony
precipitates gold from its folution inaqua regia, but it falls
along with the gold in the Hate of an oxyd. Platina and
antimony combine eafily together. The mixturels hard,
brittle, and fine grained. It is difficult to free the pla¬
tina from this metal again, for it becomes infufible.in
proportion as the-antimony is feparated. Platina is pre¬
cipitated from aqua regia by antimony, but the antimony
falls down along with it in the form of an oxyd. Silver
melts eafily with antimony, and forms with it a very brit¬
tle mixture. Antimony precipitates filver from nitric
acid. Silver takes fulpliur from the fulphure of antimo¬
ny by fufion. Mercury does not amalgamate eafily with
antimony. JDiftilled with cinnabar, the antimony unites
with the fulphur, and allows the mercury to pafs over
into the receiver. If three parts of antimony, with eight
of oxygenated muriat of mercury, be diltilled together,
the muriat, ufually termed butter of antimony, pafles
over into the receiver, and the reduced mercury, with
fome antimony, remains in the retort. If inftead of the
metal, fulphure of antimony be ufed in this procefs, cin¬
nabar will be fublimed into the neck of the retort. Lead
and antimony form by fufion a brittle mats. It is a mix¬
ture of this kind which is ufed for making printers’ types,
in the proportion of eighty parts of lead, to from twen¬
ty-five to fifteen of antimony. Lead has the ftrongeft
affinity for acids,- and takes by fufion the fulphur from
fulphure of antimony; Bifmuth and antimony form a
brittle niafs. Bifmuth has the ftronger affinity for acids,
and takes fulphur by fufion from the antimonial fulphure.
Antimony forms a lead -coloured mixture with nickel.
It has a lefs affinity than nickel for acids and fulphur.
Copper becomes pale and brittle by its union with anti¬
mony. It precipitates antimony from acids, and takes
by fufion fulphur from the fulphure of antimony. Arfe-
nic forms a brittle mafs with antimony. The oxyd of
arfenic melts with it into a flux. Iron melts with anti¬
mony into a hard white brittle mafs. The antimony may
r S T R Y.
be feparated from this combination by fire, or by folution.
in aqua regia, and fubfequent dilution with water. Iron
having a ftronger affinity for fulphur than antimony, is
commonly ufed to free it from that fubftance. Cobalt
and antimony form by fufion a brittle mafs. The cobalt
has the ftrongell affinity for acids and fulphur. Tin
melts with antimony into a white brittle mixture. An¬
timony is alfo ufed to harden tin. It yields to tin in its
affinities for acids and fulphur. Zink forms with anti¬
mony a brittle mafs. In precipitating antimony from
aqua regia, a portion of the oxyd of zink falls along with
it. The zink has an inferior affinity for fulphur.
Having now examined the principal properties of the
metal antimony, it is neceflary likewile to confider its ore,
which is improperly called antimony, or crude antimony ;
but which modern chemifts call native fulphure of anti¬
mony. At the beginning of this article it has been fliewn
how to feparate a portion offulphurfromthisfulphure, and
t-liat a grey oxyd refults from the operation. Ifinftead ofmel t-
ing this grey oxyd with combultible matters, it be brought
alonein fufion, it is converted into a vitreous tranfparent
matter, varioufly coloured, from a faint yellow to a very
lirong hyacinth-red. This is called glafs of antimony.
To perform this operation, put the fulphurated grey
oxyd of antimony into a crucible ; place it in a furnace,
and urge the fire till the matter be in perfect fufion : to
know when it is fufficiently melted, put in an iron wire ;
if it draw out a tranfparent thready matter, like common
glafs, it is well ; take off the crucible, and pour its con¬
tents on a plate of copper : this is glafs of antimony : it
is very brittle, and breaks of itfelf in cooling.
There is another preparation, called liver of antimo?iy,
from its dark colour like the liver of animals, which only
differs from the preceding in the oxyd containing much
more fulphur; lb that the glafs proceeding from it is
more fufible and more opaque. Calcine, for this purpofe,
the antimonial fulphure, but much lefs than when it is
intended to convert the oxyd into glafs. Then melt the
oxyd in a crucible, which is eafily done : pour it into an
iron mortar, and you have a vi triform matter of the co¬
lour of liver. If the antimony fhould be too much cal¬
cined, a fubftance would be produced partaking of the
nature and tranfparency of glafs of antimony ; but this
may be remedied by adding a little fulphure of antimony
in powder.
Sulphure of antimony, or the natural combination of
fulphur with the metal, is in general more l'oluble, and
is lefs oxydated by acids than the metal itfelf. It feems
as if the fulphur partly defended the antimony from the
adlion of thefe faline fubftances. The adlion of the ful¬
phuric, nitric, and muriatic, acids, on this fulphure,
has not been fufficiently examined ; it is known only that
a fmall portion of kerrnes is formed by the folution of ful¬
phure of antimony in muriatic acid, which proves that
the water has been decompol'ed. The nitro-muriatic acid
has a moderate aftion on this fubftance ; fome fulphur
is feparated and precipitated. Reduce the fulphure of
antimony to a grofs powder ; put it into a matrafs ; pour
over it four times its weight of nitro-muriatic acid ; heat
the matrafs flightly, if neceflary ; but, if the acid be good,
the folution may be made without heat; the antimony
dilfolves, and the fulphur forms a white precipitate,
which becomes yellow after being waffied and dried. If
lime-water be poured over fulphure of antimony in pow¬
der, a yellowiffi precipitate will be formed in a few hours j
if left in digeltion for feveral days, it affords a golden
fulphur of a beautiful red colour.
The mixture of l’uiphure of antimony with potafh,
form a preparation known under the name of kermes mi¬
neral. The name of kermes was given to it by a Char-
treux friar, named Simon, doubtlefs on account of its co¬
lour, which refembles that of the animal called kermes,
which is employed in dying. Kermes mineral has like-
wife been called Poudre des Cbartreux, becaufe it was firfi
prepared by perfons of that religious order. The difeo-
very
C H E M
very of this medicine is due to Glauber, who prepared
it with fulphure of antimony, and a folution of nitre
fixed by coal ; but he has described his procefs in an
unintelligible manner, and almoft entirely under alche-
miftical emblems. Lemery, who laboured much with
antimony, and who has given us a preparation analogous
to hermes, under another name, may be regarded as the
true inventor. This remedy, however, was ottered to
the public as an entirely new invention many years
after the publication of the works of that chemill, and,
in fail, owes its celebrity to the lingular cures effected
by means of it in the hands of brother Simon. This
friar had the compofition from a furgeon, named La Li-
gerie, who was not hi'mfelf the inventor. This lad
affirmed that he received it from Chaftenay, lieutenant in
the army at Landau, to whom it had been communicat¬
ed by an apothecary, who pretended to be a difciple of
Glauber. Dodart, then fir It phyiician to the French
king, applied to La Ligerie to publilh the receipt of
kerrnei , which he accordingly did in the year 1720. Le-
mery the younger claimed the difcovery in the name of
his father in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy, and
with great jultice, as molt chemiits Hill make ul'e of the
procefs invented by him for the preparation of this re¬
medy.
The procefs defcribed by La Ligerie, confilts in boiling
for two hours' a pint of rain water, with four ounces of
the liquor of nitre fixed by charcoal, and a pound of ful¬
phure of antimony broken into fmall pieces. The boil¬
ing liquor is filtered, and the fame ere is again boiled
with three ounces of freftj lixivium, diluted in a pint of
rain water. Laftly, the fecond refidue is boiled a third
time with the preceding lixivium ; two ounces of liquor
of fixed nitre, and a pint of rain water, being added. It
is then filtered, and the kermes fuffered to lettle, which
being wafhed till it is inlipid, is then dried ; and, laftly,
after fpirit of wine has been burned upon it, it is reduced
to powder. This procefs is very long, and affords but
a fmall quantity of kermes, not more than two or three
drachms from a pound of fulphure of antimony. It is,
moreover, very troublefome, on account of the long
ebullition, and the evaporation of the water. It alfo
occafions a lofs of more than three quarters of the ore
of antimony, on account of the lmall quantity of alkali
employed in proportion to that of the mineral.
Baume, who adopted the procefs of Lemery, gives two
methods for the ealy preparation of a large quantity of
the red fulphurated oxyd of antimony or kermes, in a
fhort time ; the one by the dry, the other by the humid,
Way. According to the firft method, one pound of ful¬
phure of antimony is melted in a crucible, together with
two pounds of very pure fait of tartar, and one ounce of
fulphur, the whole being previoufly well pulverized. This
melted mixture is poured out into an iron mortar, and is of
a deep red colour; it is pulverized grofsly when cold, andis
then boiled in a fufticient quantity of water. The liquor
being filtered thro’ paper, affords a kermes of a red brown
in cooling, which", being firft wafhed with cold and after¬
wards with boiling water, till it is deprived of all faline mat¬
ter, is dried, pulverized, and paffed through a fine fieve.
By the humid way, according to the fame chemift, a lixi¬
vium of five or fix pounds of cauftic fixed alkali is boiled
with fifteen or twenty pounds of river water. Four or five
ounces of fulphure of antimony, previoufly levigated, is
thrown into this boiling liquor, and the mixture being
well agitated, and fuffered to boii for a fliort time, is
poured on the filter. This liquor depofits much kermes
during its cooling, which is to be wafhed in the fame
manner as the kermes produced by fufion. According to
Baume, this laft procefs affords twelve or thirteen ounces
from a pound of antimony, and he affures us that the
two kermes are perfectly fimilar. Chaptal has alfo, in
his Elements of Chemiftry, given a method of proce¬
dure, which ne fays fucceeded the beft : Boil ten or twelve
parts of the pure liquid alkali, with two parts of fulphure
of antimony ; keep up the ebullition for half an hour ;
Vox.. IV, No. 136.
I S T R Y. 277
then filtre, and a quantity of kermes is obtained by cool¬
ing. Digeft lome frefh alkali over the antimony, till it
is exhauited; then wafh it, and let it dry.
Here we fhall add the procefs of M. Deyeux, which
will be found very ufeful to thofe who prepare kermes
as a medicine in the large way : Take nitre fixed by
charcoal and then purified, or carbonat of potalh, one
part ; fulphure of antimony, broken in fmall pieces, four
parts ; filtrated river-water, eight parts. Boil the whole
in a very clean iron veffel for a full quarter of an hour ;
then take_ out a little of the liquor with a fpoon; if, as
it cools, it grows turbid, and depofits a red fediment, be
allured that it holds kermes in lolution : if otherwife,
keep up the boiling longer, till the above appearance takes
place; then pour the boiling liquor into a filtre of paper, laid
on a cloth drawn moderately tight: the liquor paffes off
very clear; but, as it gets to the bottom of the earthen
veflel, it grows turbid, and depofits a plentiful lediment.
Some perlons recommend the putting in water, to batten
the reparation of the precipitate ; but, befides that it
will not have that effeft, it has the inconvenience of
Weakening the colour of the kermes. During the filtra¬
tion of the liquor, pour over the fulphure of antimony
which remains in the veffel, either fixed nitre, or potafti
and water, as much of either as was employed at firft 5
and repeat the procefs as before. This may be continued
even tour times, taking care to keep each filtration fepa-
rate. During the fourth operation, the filtration^ of the
two firft liquors have time to depofit the kermes they con¬
tained ; draw them off carefully, and boil them afrefli
with the lulpliure ofnntimony remaining in the iron vef¬
lel. The lame mode is to be purfued with the third and
fourth liquors ; but, as the water and alkali diminifh as
the operations are multiplied, a folution ot potalh in wa¬
ter is to be added from time to time, obferving only that
the potalh be not in too great quantit), for then the
kermes would remain in folution in the liquor, and would
not be precipitated in cooling. The filtering-papers mult
alio be renewed frequently, for they loon clog up : re¬
turn the matter they are covered witlrinto the iron veffel.
The kermes depefited in each earthen pan Ihould be
kept feparate till the defired quantity is obtained ; then
you have only to leparate the alkali, which Hill keeps it
moift, and to proceed to entire deficcation. For this-
purpofe, having drawn off', with all poilible care, the
little fluid which remains floating, pour into the precipi¬
tate a great quantity of clear river-water, cold; let it
fettle, then draw it off, and pour on frefh water; continue
the walhing till the water has no longer an alkaline tafte;
then give it a final walhing with hot water. The preci¬
pitate, which is collected at the bottom of this laft fluid,
Ihould be laid over leveral fibres of paper, placed either
in funnels, or on cloths, lo that between each filtre there
may be about two fingers breadth. It dries very (lowly,
diminilhes, cracks, and acquires a fort of confluence ': a
little of it is to be taken up from time to time lor exami¬
nation ; when, on moving it with a fpatula, it feems to
break away, and not to run into a pafte, it mult be lpte-
dily put between blotting paper, and placed in a prtis
wrapped up in linen. It muff at firft be prelfed very gent¬
ly, leavinga quarter orlialf an hour between, otherwife tlie
filtreand linen will both betorn., Ic may be known when the
matter has been preffed enough by the extremities of It feel¬
ing folid to the fingers : then loofen the prefs, and take off
the cloth and paper, which will come away eafily enough.
Divide the kermes as much as poilible with a wooden
fpatula, and put it in a hair-fieve lined with blotting-
paper: this Ihould be expofed in the fun, or put into a
ltove flightly heated : thus will the kermes be very tho¬
roughly dried, efpecially if care be taken to break the
larger clots with a glals pellle, or a fpatula. Once dried,
the divifion is completed with the help of porphyry ; and
then it is to be put into bottles clofely corked; thefe bot¬
tles fliould not be much expofed to the light, as that will
weaken the colour of the kermes by degrees. “ This
procefs,” fays Deyeux, “ is indeed longer and more ex-
4- B penlive
278 C H E M I
penfive than thofe eommonly ufed ; but it always pro:
duces the beft kermes, which may be relied on, efpeci-
ally if the materials be of a good quality.”
One remarkable thing, firft noticed by Rouelle, is, that
the kermes precipitated at each filtration is feidom of
the fame colour, whatever may be the procefs : fometimes
the colour is dark, fometimes lighter; and although the
fame matters have been employed, the fame veifels, and
the boiling continued the fame time, a precipitation ex¬
actly fimilar can never be obtained. And this variation
is the more remarkable when the air is moi'.t, or when
it is very dry. But this chemift oblerved, that there was
fome difference between operating in a free air, and in that
under the chimney of a laboratory. Upon the whole thefe
differences are of little importance with refpeCt to the
virtue of the medicine, if all the precipitates are mixed
together; for thus, the high and low coloured being unit¬
ed, there is equal colour through the whole, and you are
lure of having a kermes poffefiing uniform properties.
There is yet Another proceis, ufed by M. Dize, com¬
pounder of medicines for the military holpitals of France :
Mix twenty-five parts of cauftic foda, with 1 50 parts of
the pure loda of commerce, called cryltals of foda, and
add twenty-five parts of pulyejdfed fulpluire of antimony.
Boil the mixture in a lufl’icient quantity of wetter ; by
filtration and cooling a great quantity of kermes is ob¬
tained ; which is to be well wallted, and then dried.
If any acid be poured into the liquor from which
kermes has been produced, after it has been entirely fe-
parnted by cooling, and will furnilh no more, this liquor
becomes again troubled, and a yellow orange precipitate
of fulphurated oxyd of antimony, called the golden ful-
phur of antimony , is produced. The liquor being filtered,
the orange-coloured fulphurated oxyd of antimony may
be precipitated anew by means of acids 5 but this lecond
precipitate will by no means have fo bright a colour as
the fil'd.
It will now be eafy to underftand the theory of this
operation, efpecially after the judicious remarks of Ber-
thollet on fulphurated hydrogen, who afferts that the
whole procefs depends on the union, more or lefs imme¬
diate, of the oxyd of antimony with fulphurated hydro¬
gen. The principal difference between golden fulpliur,
and Rennes, is that the latter contains only the hydro-
fulphure of the antimony, while the former contains be-
fides, fome of the fulphurated oxyd of antimony ; and it
is not to be doubted that the kermes-mineral owes its
medicinal virtues to the prefence of the fulphurated hy¬
drogen.
The cauftic alkalis aCt with much more ftrength upon
the fulphure of antimony than do the effervefeing alka¬
lis ; but, to produce a greater quantity of kermes, the
liquor muff be kept boiling longer.
The fulphure of antimony decompofes nitrat of pot-
afh, as we have already fhewn in the preparation of dia¬
phoretic antimony. This fubftance, calcined feven times
fucceflively, with freffi nitre each time, and lixiviated
after each operation to feparate the falts, produces an
oxyd of antimony, known by -the name of poudre de Che¬
valier ay.
For the combination called liver of antimony , mix equal
parts of nitrat of potafli and antimony ; throw the mix¬
ture by fpoonfuls into a red-hot crucible ; a detonation
takes place at each projection for fome time. When the
detonation ceafes, the fire is increafed l'o as to melt the
whole ; and, inftead of a diaphoretic antimony, a brown
opaque brilliant brittle mafs is found in the crucible,
which is glafs of antimony covered with fcoriae. In this
operation the nitre is not fufftcient in quantity to burn
all the fulphnr; the remainder therefore holds an oxyd
of antimony in folution. When the mixture is not heat¬
ed lufiiciently to melt it, nothing is obtained but a vitre¬
ous fcoria, to which the name o 1 falfe liver of anihnony of
P.ullmd is given This matter reduced into powder, and
waflied with water, forms crocus metallorum j which is
S T R Y.
merely oxyd of vitreous antimony pulverized and ftps-
rated from the faline matters produced by the detonation,
of the nitre.
There are two other preparations analogous to the
foregoing, which are true glafles of fulphurated antimo¬
ny ; the one is the ruby of antimony, or tnagnefia opa-
lina, made by melting together equal pa.rts of decre¬
pitated muriaf of foda, nitre, and fulphure of antimony.
This fufion, which takes place without detonation, af¬
fords a vitreous mafs of a brown colour, very brilliant,
and covered with white fcoriae. The other, improperly
called the medical regulus, is prepared by filling a mixture
of fifteen ounces ofTulphure of antimony,' twelve ounces
of decrepitated muriat of foda, and three ounces of tar¬
tar. The refult is a .black fliining very opaque denfe
glafs, not at all metallic in its appearance.
Antimony has been long employed in the arts, and in
medicine. It was formerly ufed as a purge. Wine or
wrater wras poured into veffels made of this metal, and
fuffered to ftand for the fpace of a night, and the follow¬
ing day the liquor was drunk: but as variations of the
temperature of the place in which this operation was
made, and of the acidity of the wine made ufe of, mult
have neceffarilv produced differences in the quantity of
metal taken up, it is with juftice that this medicine was
abandoned, as not being to be depended on. For fimilar
reafons, the perpetual pills, or fmall balls of this metal,
which were fwallowed as purges, have been renounced.
The ftateof the digeftive juices, the nature of the mucus
in the firff paffages, and the lenfibility of different indi¬
viduals, muff have rendered their effects uncertain, and
often dangerous.
Crude fulphure of antimony, Rotrou’s folvent, oxyd
of antimony called diaphoretic , kermes mineral, and the
golden fulphur, are the antimonial medicines at prefent
moftly ufed. Sulphure of antimony is employed as a fu-
dorific in cutaneous diforders. It is fufpended in a linen
bag in the veffels in which the ptifans appropriated to
thele diforders are prepared ; but many phyficians deny
it to have any virtue when adminiftered in this manner.
It is likewife taken in fubftance, being firft finely levi¬
gated, and made up into pills for the fame purpofe.
The folvent of Rotrou, or the alkaline oxyd of anti¬
mony, is greatly recommended in lymphatic diforders,
produced by the congelation of that liquid, as in fero-
phulous affeCtions, and in general in all glandular tu¬
mours. Many phyficians have no confidence in the ef¬
fects of waflred diaphoretic antimony. They confider
this medicine as a pure oxyd of antimony without any
virtue whatfoever. We cannot, however, forbear ob-
ferving, that this oxyd, in which Rouelle the younger
has oblerved a remarkable degree of folubility, ma.y pro¬
duce lingular effeCts in confequen.ee of this property. It
is likewife certain, that, as the aCtion of the gaftric and
inteltinal juices on metallic oxyds are not known, it can¬
not therefore be determined whether a fubftance infoluble
and infipid to all appearance, has any virtue or no. Ob-
fervation, however, teaches us, that' this medicine pro¬
duces but flight effeCts in eruptions, and in the moll ob-
ftinate diforders of the fkin, though employed for a long
time. The unwafhed diaphoretic antimony, or folvent
of Rotrou, which is much more aCtive than the before-
mentioned preparation, by reafon of the alkali it contain.^,
deferves to be preferred. In thefe affeCtions the medi¬
cine, called Poudre de Chevalleray, is ufed. It does not
fenfibly differ from the wafted diaphoretic antimony, be-
caufe the metal, once well oxydated, as it is when deto¬
nated with three times its weight of nitre, cannot be fur¬
ther oxydated, and for that reafon in this preparation
no fucceeding detonation takes place. The prelent me¬
dicine is^oblerved to be abfolutely ineffectual when de¬
prived of the alkali.
Kermes mineral is one of the moll valuable antimonial
remedies we are in poffeflion of ; it is attenuating, and is
employed with thegreateft fuccefs in pituitous affections
of
P HEM
of the ftomach, the lungs', the inteftines, and even the
urinary palfage. It is moil: commonly ufed in diforders
qf the breail to affift experioration. It ought not, how¬
ever, to be adminiftered, till after the inflammation is
abated. It has likewife great fuccefs when given in re¬
peated fmall dofes in catarrhs of the breaft, the humid
afthma, maladies of the (kin, glandular lvvellings, &e.
It is adminiftered in a dofe from half a grain to two or three
grains in proper liquids, or made up in piils. It fome-
times caules vomiting, and very frequently a6ls as a l'u-
dorific or a diuretic.
The golden fulphur, on account of its being a violent
emetic and cathartic, is not much ufed. It was formerly
given in the lame diforders as the kermes, but its effects
are much more uncertain. There are alfo many other
preparations of antimony, which are ufed in medicine
to great advantage. This metallic fubftanceis one of the
molt important in the Materia Medica, and pliyficians
cannot pay too great an attention to its properties. It
is one of thofe upon which the alchemifts, and even the
chemifts, have bellowed great labour, which has given
rife to the numerous preparations above defcribed.
Of TELLURIUM.
We are indebted to Klaproth for the difoovery of this
metal : lie found it in an ore of white gold, called the
auriferous ore, otherwife aurum paradoxicum or problcma-
ticurn. It exifts, i. In the mine called miriahilf, in the
Fatzebay hills, near Zalethna, in Tranfyl vania. 2. In
the graphic gold of Oftenbanza. 3. In the ore from the
yellow mine of Nagyag. 4. In the ore from the mine
known by the name of the mine of grey foliated gold of
Nagyag.
To obtain this metal from the ore, the ore is gently
heated with fix parts of the muriatic acid; three parts
of the nitric being then added, the mixture is boiled,
upon which there arifes a confiderable erfervefcence, and
a complete folution is obtained. The filtered folution
is diluted with as much water as it can bear without be¬
coming turbid, which is a very fmall quantity, and a fo¬
lution of caullic potalh is then added to the liquor until
the white precipitate which is at firit formed difappears
again, and nothing remains but a brown flaky fediment.
This lad precipitate is the oxyd of gold mixed with the
oxyd of iron, and a feparation is efferied by the common
means. The muriatic acid is added to the alkaline folu-
tion in fufficient quantity to faturate the alkali entirely.
An excefs of the acid mull be avoided. A white preci¬
pitate, which by heat fettles at the bottom of the veil'd
under the form of a heavy powder, is produced in great
abundance. After the precipitate has been walhed and
dried, it is formed into a kind of palle with a fufficient
quantity of any fat oil, and this mafs is put into a fmall
glafs retort, to which a recipient is (lightly fitted. When
this arrangement is made, it is gradually brought to a
red heat, and in proportion as. the oil is decompofed,
there are obferved, as in the diftillation of mercury,
brilliant and metallic drops, which cover the upper part
of the retort, and which at interval's fall to the bottom
of the velfel, and are immediately replaced by others.
After it is cooled, concreted metallic fixed drops are
found adhering to the lides of the retort and at the bot¬
tom of the velfel, and the remainder of the metal is re¬
duced and melted, with a brilliant furface, and almoft
always cryftallized.
Elfential character of this new metal : It has the white
colour of tin approaching to the grey colour of lead. Its
metallic fplendour is confiderable, and its frafture lami¬
nated. It is highly brittle and friable. By fullering it to
cool quietly and gradually, it readily allumes a cryftallized
lurface. Its fpecific gravity is 6* 1 1 3. 1 1 belongs to the clafs
of the moft fufible metals. When heated with the blow¬
pipe upon charcoal, it burns with a very lively flame, of a
blue colour, inclining at the edges to a green. It is fo vola¬
tile as to rife entirely in a whitilh grey fmoke, and exhales
a difagreeable odour like that of radilhes. On cealing
to heat it, without having entirely volatilized the fmall
portion fubjefted to this operation, the button which re¬
mained retained for a long time its liquidity, and by
cooling it was covered with a radiated vegetation.
This metal amalgamates eafily with mercury. With
fulphur it forms a grey fulphure, of a radiated ftruflure.
A folution of it in the nitric acid is tranfparent and co-
lourlefs. When concentrated, it produces in rime fmall
white light cryftals in the form of needles, which exhibit
a dendritic aggregation.
■ This metal diflblves in the nitro-muriatic acid. When
a large quantity of water is added to fuch a Saturated fo¬
lution, the metal is precipitated in the ftate of an oxyd
under the form of a white powder, which in this ftate is
foluble in the muriatic acid. By mixing cold, in a well
flopped velfel, a fmall quantity of this metal with 100
times its weight of concentrated fulphuric acid, the lat¬
ter gradually allumes a beautiful criinfon red colour. By
means of a fmall quantity of water added drop by drop,
the liquor difappears, and the fmall quantity of the me¬
tal dilfolved depofits itfelf under the form of black flakes.
Heat deftroys the folution; it makes the red colour difap-
pear, and difpoles the metal to feparate in the ftate of a
white oxyd. When, on the contrary, the concentrated
fulphuric acid is diluted with two or three parts of wa¬
ter, and a fmall quantity of the nitric acid has been added,
a confiderable quantity of the metal will then be dilfolv-
ed. The folution is tranfparent and colourlefs, and is
not decompofed by the mixture of a larger quantity of
water.
All the pure alkalis precipitate from acid folutions of
this metal an oxyd of a white colour, foluble in all acids.
By an excefs of alkali, the precipitate which is formed-
is entirely re-diflolved. If carbonat be employed inftead
of pure alkali, the fame phenomenon lakes place, with
this difference, however, that by excefs of the latter the
precipitate formed is re-diflolved only in part. Exceed-
ingly pure pruffiat of potalh produces no precipitate in
folutions of this metal.
Alkaline fulphures mixed with acid folutions occafion
a brown or blackilh precipitate, according as the metal
is combined with more or lels oxygen. It fometimes
happens that the colour of the precipitate has a perfedl
refemblance to mineral kermes, or red fulphurated oxyd
of antimony. When the fulphure of tellurium is expof-
ed on burning charcoal, the metal burns with a blue co¬
lour conjointly with the l'ulphur. The infufion of nut-
galls, combined with the fame folutions, gives birth to
a flaky precipitate, of an Ifabella colour.
Iron and zink precipitate tellurium from its acid folu¬
tions in a metallic ftate under the form of fmall black
flakes, which refume their fplendour by fridlion, and
which on burning charcoal melt into a metallic button.
Tin and antimony produce the fame phenomenon with
the acid folutions of this new metal. The precipitate
formed by the antimony proves, in a ftriking manner,
that tellurium is not a diiguifed antimony, as has been
i'uppofed. A folution of tin in the muriatic acid, mixed
with a folution of tellurium in the fame acid, produced
alfo a black and metallic precipitate.
The oxyd of tellurium obtained from acid folutions by
alkalis, or that from alkaline folutions by acids, are both
reduced with a rapidity refembling detonation, when
they are expofed to heat on charcoal. It burns and is
volatilized. By heating for fome time this oxyd of tel¬
lurium in a retort, it melts and appears after cooling
with a yellow ftraw colour, having acquired a lort of ra¬
diated texture. Mixed with fat bodies, the oxyd of tel¬
lurium is perfectly reduced.
This is all at prefent known with regard to this metal:
when a large quantity of it (hall have been obtained, its
charafters and properties may be more fully eftablilhed.
The communications of Klaproth have however diffid¬
ently proved it to be a diftind metal.
©p
a8o
CHEMISTRY.
Of MERCURY, or. QUICKSILVER.
Mercury, fo named by the alchemifts, is not found
abundantly in nature. Jt is met with in the earth, either
in the virgin date, poffefling all its ufual properties, or
in the ftate of an oxyd, or combined with acids, fulphur,
or other metallic matters in the mineralized ftate. Run¬
ning mercury is found in globules, or larger unifies, in
friable earths and ftones, and moft commonly exifts in
the clefts or cavities of its ores. At Idria, in Spain,
and in America, it is collected in the cavities and clefts
of rocks. It is likewife found fometimes in clay at Al-
maden, and in beds of chalk in Sicily. It is found like-
wife in filver and lead ores, and mixed with the white
oxyd of arfenic.
Sage mentions an ore of mercury, in the ftate of an
oxyd, at Idria, in Friuli; it is of a brown red, very foft,
and granulated in its fra&ure ; fome globules of running
mercury exift in it, and it is reducible by mere heat,,
without addition. Kirwan confiders it as the combina¬
tion of mercurial oxyd and carbonic acid ; one hundred
parts of the ore afford ninety-one parts of mercury. In
1776, Mr. Woulfe found, at Obermufchel in the duchy
ofDeuxponts, a cryftallized, ponderous, fpatliofe, white,
yellow, or greenifb, ore of mercury, in which, by means
of alkalis, he difcovered the prefence of the l'ulphuric
and muriatic acids. It is a compound of fulphat of mer¬
cury, and corroiive mercurial muriat. Sage affirms, that
it contains eighty-fix paits of mercury in the hundred.
This chemift has defcribed a corneous brown ore of mer¬
cury, from Carinthia. Mercury is moft commonly found
naturally combined with fulphur; it is then known by
the name of cinnabar. This mineral fubftance is red,
and has not a metallic appearance, though the quantity
of fulphur is but Email in companion to the mercury ; a
proof that the combination of thefe two bodies is very
intimate. Cinnabar is found in the duchy of Deuxponts,
in the Palatinate, in Hungary, in Friuli, and Almaden
in Spain, and in South America, efpeciaily at Guamanga
in Peru. It is fometimes compadt, and its colour varies
from a pale red, to a deep and blackilh red. Sometimes
it is found in tranfparent ruby-coloured cryftals, and
often in a kind of fcales, or flattened laminae. It is call¬
ed native vermillion, and cinnabar in flowers, when it is
in the form of a very brilliant red powder. It is all'o
found difperfed with different earths in fulphat of lime,
mixed with iron, with pyrites, and with filver. Mr.
Cronftedt in his Mineralogy, fpeaks of an ore of mer¬
cury, in which that fubftance is united to lulphur and
copper; it is of a blackilh grey, brittle and ponderous 5
its fradture is vitreous, and it decrepitates in the fire. It
is found at Mufchel Lanfberg. The fame mineralogift
affirms, that mercury amalgamated with virgin filver,
has been found in the mine of Sr.hlberg in Sweden. Mcn-
net, in his Syftem of Mineralogy, fpeaks of an ore brought
from Dauphiny, by Mr. Montigny, in 1768, which con¬
tained mercury, fulphur, arfenic, cobalt, iron, and filver.
It is grey, whitilh, and friable. He found it to contain
one pound of mercury and three or four ounces of filver
per quintal. The mine which fumiffies it in greateft
quantity is that of Almaden in Spain.
It was long taken for granted, that mercury could
not be deprived of its fluidity ; but .lie academicians of
Peterlburg have proved the contrary. Thefe learned men
availed themfelves of the exceffive cold in the year 1759,
to try many important experiments. They increafed the
natural cold by the afiiftance of a mixture of fnow and
fuming fpirit of nitre, and by that means l'ucceeded in
caufing a mercurial thermometer to fall to ^1 3 degrees,
according to the graduation of De Lille ; which anfwers
to forty-fix degrees below freezing of the gradation of
Reaumur. Thefe philofophers, obferving that at this
degree the mercury defcended no longer, broke the ball
of glals, and found the metallic fluid frozen in the form
of a folid, which, on trial, proved capable of extenfioil
1
under the hammer. This experiment demonftrated that
mercury, like all other metallic fubftances, is capable of
affuming the folid form, and that it is then in a certain
degree dudtile. They could not determine the degree
of duftility it is ful’ceptible of, becaufe every ftroke of
the hammer communicating heat to fome part of the,
metal, melted it, and caufed it to flow in that point.
Pallas, who fucceeded in congealing mercury in the
year 1772, at Krafnejark, by the natural cold of 55 de¬
grees and a half, obferved that it then reiembled loft
tin, and was capable of being beat out into plates, that
it broke eafily, and that the pieces being brought toge¬
ther united again. In 177 5, Mr. Hutchins obferved the
fame phenomenon at Albany fort, and Mr. Bieker at
Rotterdam in 1776, at the fifty-fixth degree below zero.
This congelation was all'o effected in 17S3, in England,
at a more moderate degree of cold; and it was determined
that 32 degrees below o, or zero, of the thermometer of
Reaumur, is theterm at whichthis congelation takes place.
If therefore the mercury defcended lower in the early
experiments, the phenomenon mull be attributed to the
condenfation of the lolid metal. Hence we fee that this
metal is the moft fufible of any we know. The greateft
cold known in the countries from whence it is obtained,
cannot render it folid. It is probable that if in the pre¬
ceding experiments the cold by which the mercury was
frozen had been produced by infenfible degrees, that
metallic fubftance would have taken a regular cryftal¬
lized form.
The prefence of mercury may be afcertained by fub-
liming a piece of ore, and bringing a damp glals in con¬
tain with the fumes ; a white powder will be collefted,
with which rub a piece of gold ; if it whitens it, there is
no doubt but it contains mercury. An ore of mercury
is known by pounding and mixing it with lime or alkalis;
this being thrown on a hot brick, and the whole covered
with a glals or jar, the mercury is reduced into vapours,
and condenfes on the fides of the veffel. If the objedt
be to difcover the quantity of mercury it contains, the
ore, after being pulverized and waflied, muft be diftillecl
with fuch additional matters as are capable of feizing
the fulphur, and difengaging the mercury. If the ore
be carefully weighed before the allay and likewife the
mercury obtained by diftiilation, the proportional quan¬
tity, which may be expedited from any other mafs of the
ore," will be known.
There are feveral proceffes for extracting the mercury
from the ores in which it is contained. The ufual way
is by raking among the ore, and drawing off the water.
Some employ what are called draining galleries. Some¬
times the ore is mixed with lime, and diftilled in iron re¬
torts : thefe retorts are immoveably fixed in the furnace;
the matter is put in at the neck, and the mercury is re¬
ceived in veffels filled with water. The mercury obtain¬
ed by diftiilation is always pure, becaufe it is not then
mixed with volatile bodies. Mercury differs from other
metallic fubftances by its fluidity, wdiich has caufed it to
be efteemed a peculiar metallic water, called aqua min
madefaciens manus , “ water which does not wet the
hands.”
The mercury met with in commerce is feldom pure, as
it isalmoft always mixed with pewter, or foreign metallic
matters, whence it appears tarnifhed, and inftead of di¬
viding itfelf into neat globules, it flattens, and feems to
be covered with points : the merchants then lay it draws
a tail. When pure, and efpeciaily when obtained from
cinnabar, which is called mercury revivified from cinnabar ,
it poffeffes an extreme degree of divifibiiity ; and its glo¬
bules always run into a convex form.
Mercury has no tafte that the nerves of the tongue and
palate can diftinguiih, but it produces a very evident effedl
on the ftomachand inteftines, as well as on the furfaceofthe
Ikin. Infedts and worms are infinitely more lenfible of
this tafte than other animals, and for that reafon it very
foon kills them ; and phyficians adminifter it as an excel¬
lent
S T R Yi
C H E M ]
lent vermifuge. It is by virtue of this property likewife
that it cures the itch, and other cutaneous diforders.
Rubbed for a fhort time between the fingers, it emits a
flight peculiar fmell. When it is very pure, and is agi¬
tated, it is fometimes obferved, more efpecially in hot
weather, to fhine with a fmall phofphoric light clearly
difcernible. This phenomenon has been fhewn with the
mercury of the barometer by feveral natural philofophers.
If the hand be plunged in this metallic fluid, a fenfation
of cold is perceived, -which feems to (hew that its tem¬
perature is much beneath that of the atmofpheric air ;
yet, by plunging a thermometer in the fame mercury, it
is immediately 1'een that their temperatures do not differ.
This efteCl, which deceives us, is to be attributed en¬
tirely to the great rapidity with which the heat pafles
from the hand into the mercury, for this metal is known
to be a powerful conduftor of heat.
Mercury, when divided by continual agitation, fuch
as that of the fails of a mill, changes by degrees into a
very fine black powder, called Ethiops per fe, by reafon of
its colour. As the mercury experiences a commence¬
ment of combuffion in this experiment, this powder is
called black oxyd of mercury. The mercury, by a flight
heat, or by trituration in a warm mortar, may be made
to refume its ufual fluidity and brilliancy; and, if the
experiment be made in dole veflels, with the pneumatic
apparatus, oxygen gas will be obtained : if, after being
. fprinkled with ammoniac, it be expofed to the fun’s rays,
it changes into metallic globules.
We have before remarked, that mercury is eafily re¬
duced into vapours by the aflion of fire; hence diftilla-
tion is the bell method of purifying it, and of feparating
the matters with which it is ufually vitiated in com¬
merce. For this purpofe, put the mercury into a glafs re¬
tort, and fufpend to its neck a bit of flax, which is juft:
to dip into the water contained in the matrafs or balloon
adapted to the retort; then proceed to diffillation. If
the mercury is pure, it pafles over entire, without altera¬
tion or diminution; if it contained any foreign or ex¬
traneous matters, they will remain at the bottom of the
retort; often there will be left a fmall quantity of a grey
powder, which is only a little of the mercury oxydated
by means of the air contained in the veflels. Boerhaave
diftilled the fame quantity of mercury five hundred times
fucceffively, and found it not in any refpeft altered. It
only appeared more brilliant, heavy, and fluid; doubt-
lefs becaufe the purification was very accurate. In
this diftillation he obtained a fmall quantity of the grey
powder juft fpoken of. It was black oxyd of mercury
produced by the air contained in the apparatus.
Mercury, reduced into vapour, has a very confiderable
force of expanfion, and is capable of producing danger¬
ous explofions when confined. Hellot related to the
French Academy, that a certain perlon, being defirous
of fixing mercury, had put a quantity into an iron-ball,
well foldered together. The ball being thrown into the
middle of a heated furnace, had fcarcely become red,
when the mercury burft through its confinement with a
great report, and efcaped. Beaume, in his Experimental
Chemiftry, relates a fimilar fa£l.
Mercury is infinitely more fufceptible of oxydation by
the contaft of air, and many other bodies, than has hi¬
therto been fuppoled, A grey blackifh pellicle is con¬
tinually formed upon its furface, which is a true oxyd
of mercury. Heated with the concourfe of air, this me¬
tal, at the end of fome days, becomes changed, into a
brilliant red powder, of an earthy appearance, difpofed
in fmall fcales. This powder, which no longer pofiefles
the metallic afpeCl, is a true mercurial oxyd. The al-
chemifts, who believed that the mercury was fixed in
this experiment, called it, improperly, mercury precipi¬
tated by itfelf, or precipitate per fe. As mercury, though
very volatile, requires neverthelefs the concourfe of air
to calcine it, an inftrument fufficiently commodious has
been invented for this operation, ufually .called Boyle's
Vol. IV. No. 196.
281
Hell. It is a large glafs veflei, flat at the bottom, fo
that the mercury, enclofed within it, forms a very thin
ftratum, and confequently prefents a large furface. It is
clofed by a large Hopper, accurately fitted to its neck,
and perforated by an exceedingly fmall hole. The vefitl
is placed on a fand-bath, and the mercury heated till it
boils. The opening in frhe Hopper, on account of its mi-
nutenefs, allows the air to have accefs to the bottle, with¬
out fullering. the mercury to efcape. At the end of feve¬
ral months of digeltion, an oxyd, which is formed on
the furface of the mercury, may be feparated. This is
done by pouring the whole into a piece of clofe linen;
the mercury pafles through by preflure, and the red oxyd
remains on the cloth. This procefs may be performed
with equal fuccefs, with a flat-bottomed matrafs, into
which a fuflicient quantity of mercury is poured to form
a thin ftratum. The neck of the matrafs is afterwards
drawn out into a- capillary tube, and the point broken
oft'. This method, contrived by Beaume, is better adapt¬
ed to the oxydation of mercury, becaufe the veflei con¬
tains more air. It is likewife more eafily heated, lefs ex-
penfive, and lefs fubjeCl to be broken, than Boyle’s vef-
fel. To fucceed in this experiment, the mercury mull:
be kept in a heat fuflicient to make it boil gently night
and day for feveral weeks. By placing a number of fuch
veflels on the fame fand-bath, a very large quantity of
precipitate per fe, or red oxyd of mercury, may be ob¬
tained, and a certain quantity may be had in fifteen or
twenty days. It has been propofed to abridge this labour
by ufing a glafs veflei, which has a neck about half an
inch in width and four feet long, and of which the bot¬
tom part is not more than three or four inches in dia¬
meter. Half a pound of mercury having been intro¬
duced into this veflei, and its mouth covered loofely with
a bit of paper, fo as not to exclude the external air, it is
to be placed in a fand-bath, and an uninterrupted heat
applied to it, fuflicient to raife the vapours of the mer¬
cury about two feet in the veflei. This procefs will be
facilitated by removing, from time to time, the oxyd
which is formed, and which covers the fluid mercury.
The precipitate per fe is a true oxyd of mercury, or
combination of metallic fubftance, with oxygen, which
it gradually feizes from the atmofphere. This is proved
in a convincing manner, from the following circum-
ftances : 1. Mercury can never be converted into preci¬
pitate per fe, without contact of air. 2. This combina¬
tion cannot be made but with vital air, and does not
take place in the different gafes which are not pure air.
3. The mercury in this experiment becomes heavier. 4.
When heated in clofed veflels, it may be entirely reduced
into running mercury, at the fame time that a large
quantity of elaftic fluid is difengaged, in which combuf-
tible bodies burn four times more rapidly in the air of
the atmofphere. This is the fame fluid that was firft
difcovered by Dr. Prieftley, and by him called depblogif-
ticated air, and which we now call oxygen gas, or vital
air. Before it is entirely reduced, it returns to the
orange and the yellow colour ; and, if the operation be
flopped at the moment it is on the point of being re¬
duced, it will be found in a black powder.
The red oxyd of mercury may be turned black alfo by
contadl with pure ammoniac ; in which operation azotic
gas is difengaged, proceeding from the decompolition of
the ammoniac. This oxyd may alfo be reduced by light.
If this red oxyd of mercury be triturated with running
mercury, a black oxyd of mercury is produced ; the ex¬
tinction is very quick, and may be ufed with advantage,
whenever it is defirable to bring mercury to this Hate to
combine it with fat fubftances, or indeed any other.
Mercury combines very readily with fulphur. When
one part of this metallic fluid is triturated with three
parts of fulphur, the mercury is gradually extinguifhed,
and a black powder is produced, being the black ful-
phure of mercury, formerly called JEtbiops mineral, ’and
whofe colour becomes deeper fome time after it is made.
4 C This
282 CHE M
This combination is more quickly effefted, by mixing
mercury with melted fulphur. The mixture being ftir-
red up immediately, becomes black, and very readily
takes fire. In order to preferve it black, it mult be taken
irom the fire, the flame extinguilhed as foon as it be¬
gins to appear, and the matter mull be flirted till it be¬
comes fqlid, and in lumps. It mull then be pulverized,
mid palled through a fine fieve. When this compound
(four parts ot powdered fulphur to one of mercury) is
expofed to a conliderable degree of heat, it takes fire, the
greatell part of the fulphur burns, and after the combuf-
tiori a matter remains, which, when pulverized, is of a
violet colour. This powder is put into matrafles, which
are heated till their bottoms become red, and kept in this
Hate for feveral hours, till it appears that the matter is
entirely fublimed. An artificial cinnabar, or red fulphure
or mercury, is found fublimed to the upper part of the
matrafs, in cryllalline needles, of a reddifn brown. It is
of a lighter and more lively colour, when fublimed in
retorts. The Dutch prepare in the large way the cinna¬
bar employed in the arts; it is made in loaves of various
thicknefs, and divided by layers which mark the different
iublimations made in the fame veffel, without feparating
the cinnabar from the preceding fublimatior.s.
The fulphure of red mercury, or cinnabar, levigated
with water on marble, lofes much of the intenfity of its
colour, and becomes of a fine bright red, by reafon of its
extreme divifion ; afterwards it is put into a large quan¬
tity of water, and the powder left to fettle; then draw
off the water, and dry the powder: this is called Vermil¬
lion; it is much ui'ed in painting, and fometimes in me¬
dicine.
If die black fulphure of mercury be boiled with pot¬
ash it is converted into cinnabar : Berthollet, who re¬
peated die experiment, fays he ufed pure potalh, but that
it required a long ebullition to produce the efvefit. Cin¬
nabar is not decompofed by the aftion of fire in clofe
veflels ; when heated in open veflels, the fulphur burns
gradually, and the mercury is volatilized. Many fub-
llances are capable of decompofing red fulphure of mer¬
cury, by virtue of their affinity to fulphur. Lime and
alkalis have this property ; when thefe are heated in a
retort, with twice their weight of cinnabar, running mer¬
cury is obtained, and the reiidue is found to be an alka¬
line or earthy fulphure. Many brittle metals, fuch as
cobalt, bifmuth, and antimony, have likevvife the pro¬
perty of depriving mercury of its fulphur. And almoll
all the duftile metals, lead, tin, iron, copper, and filver,
Lave Jikewile a ftronger affinity with fulphur than mer¬
cury, and confequently decompofe cinnabar. But iron
is principally ufed to fsparate the . mercury from this
compound. The metallic fluid obtained by thefe pro-
cefles is perfeftly pure, and is diftiirguiflied by the name
of mercury revived from cinnabar.
Mercury immediately decompofes alkaline fulphures,
but produces different phenomena, according to the na¬
ture of thefe compounds, With a folution of hydroge¬
nated fulphure of potalh, it is reduced to a black ful¬
phure, which in the courfe of feveral days becomes red.
With hydro-fulphure of ammoniac, it becomes a black
powder, The hydrogenated fulphure of ammoniac changes
the mercury itfelf into a black powder ; but in a few days
.this powder affumes a beautiful red colour ; the fiiper-
natant liquor becomes at the fame time colourlefs. It
may be decompofed by muriatic acid ; and much fulphu-
. rated hydrogen gas is dilengaged, without any precipi¬
tation. of fulphur.
From this experiment it appears, that the mercury
combines at full with the fulphur and fulphurated hy¬
drogen ; but tire ammoniac regains by degrees the- ful¬
phurated hydrogen, by giving out fulphur ; fo that, at
the end of the operation, the fulphur is found entire with
the mercury, and the fulphurated hydrogen with the am¬
moniac. The new combination is black, becaufe it con¬
tains fulphurated hydrogen ; it becomes red, becaufe
I S T R Y.
the fulphurated hydrogen has been taken away by the
ammoniac, which has given out fulphur in exchange ;
but with the hydro-fulphure of ammoniac this exchange
cannot take place. This difference there is then between
the black fulphure of mercury and the red,, that the firfl:
contains more or lefs of fulphurated hydrogen,- while the
lad is an unmixed fulphure; the firfl; is hydrogenated
fulphure, the laft is fulphure of mercury. Fourcroy dis¬
covered, that by ftirring mercury in water charged either
naturally or artificially with fulphurated hydrogen gas,
,it. would be quickly decompofed, and converted into a
black fulphure.
To phofphorize mercury, put into a matrafs equal
parts of the red oxyd of mercury and pliofphorus ; add
a little water, and then place the matrafs over a warm,
land-bath : fltake the matrafs from time to time, and
keep it a long while on the fire. The oxyd of mercury
becomes black, and then unites with the phofphorus
the water becomes acid, and contains phofphoric acid.
In this experiment, the oxygen contained in the oxyd of
mercury, quits the metal to attack a portion of the phof-
phorus, which it changes into phofphoric acid ; then the
mercury, deprived of its oxygen, is in a Hate of extreme
divifion, and thus it unites with phofphorus, forming a
peculiar combination, in which the phofphorus predomi¬
nates; this produft foftens in boiling water, and takes a
confluence as the water cools. This pliofphorated mer¬
cury is to be put into a bag of chamois leather; hold it
in boiling water, and fqueeze it 'gently; a little tranf-
parent phofphorus comes through ; and there will remain
in the bag pliofphorated mercury, of a firm conliftence,
black colour, breaking under the knife ; on examination,
it will appear to confiit of little molecules of mercury not
well combined. This phofphure of mercury, expoled to
a dry air, emits white vapours with a phoiphoric odour.
The combination is broken by diftillation : the pholpho-
rus pufles over firfl:, then the mercury ; and both will be
found in the receiver, entirely feparate.
Mercury does not feem to diflolve in Water. Phyficians
are, neverthelefs, in the habit of caufing a bag full of this
metal to be fufpended in vermifuge decoctions during,
their ebullition ; and experience has fliewn, that this
practice is attended with good eflefts. Lemery affirms,
that mercury lofes nothing of its weight by this decoc¬
tion. It is probable, that- a principle, fimilar to that of
fmell, emanates from the mercury, a principle fo fugitive
and fubtle, that its weight cannot be found. It is per¬
haps this principle that communicates the anthelminthic
virtue to water.
Neither arfenic nor cobalt will unite with mercurv.
Bifmuth, however, unites completely; hence ariles a
bright friable matter, more or lefs lolid, according to the
proportion of bifmuth: this amalgama cryftallizes in
four-fided prifms, which fometimes unite in octahedrons.
When heated in a retort, this mixture parts with its
mercury with great difficulty. There is no union with
nickel, or with antimony.
The fulphuric acid does not aft on this metallic fub-
ffance but when it is well concentrated and hot. To
make this folution, one part of mercury is poured into a
glafs retort, and one part and a half or two parts of con¬
centrated fulphuric acid are added ; the mixture is heal¬
ed, and a violent effervefcence is loon after . excited ; the
furface of the mercury becomes white, and a powderof the
fame colour is feparated, which renders the acid opake ;
and a large quanti ty of fulphureous gas is dilengaged,
which may be collected over mercury. This, method, as
we have leen in Ipeaking of the fulphuric acid, is mod
commonly ufed to obtain that gas. A portion of water,;
charged with fulphureous acid gas, iikewife pall’es over.
When thi s, dill illation rs urged till the fulphureous acid no.
longer palles over, a white opake veryeaufiic mafs is formed
at the bottom of the retort, which weighs one-third more
than the mercury made ule. of, and Itrongly attrafts the
humidity of the air. The greateft. part of this mafs is an
CHEMISTRY.
ox yd of mercury united to a fiViall portion of the fuiphu-
ric acid. It is coafiderably fixed, according to the ob-
lervatffons of Kunckel, Macquer, and Bucquet. In this
operation- the fulphuric acid is decompofed by a double
elec tire attraction ; the mercury, which is a combuitible
fu bftan.ee, unites to the oxygen contained in. the acid,
while the heat difen gages the fulphureons gas and the
water. The metal mult therefore be in the ftate. of an
oxyd, and mult confequ'ehtly have much more fixity than
fluid mercury.
A portion of this fulphuric mercurial mafs is foiuble
in water. When a large quantity of water is poured
upon it, it mixes with the mafs, and a white powder pre¬
cipitates, if the water be cold ; but, if boiling water be ul'ed,
the powder is of a beautiful brilliant yellow colour ; draw
off the liquor, and fet it afide ; then pour over the yellow
powder a frefli quantity of boiling water, which is to be
decanted in the fame manner; and continue to wadi the
powder till the water comes away quite infipid. This
was anciently called turbith mineral, or yellow precipitate.
We now call it yellontu mercurial oxyd. This oxyd has no
tafte. Melted by the blow-pipe with pholphoric glafs, it
acquires a green colour. When urged by a ftrong- fire
in a retort, it gives out at firft a Little fulphureons acid,
and is then reduced into running mercury, giving out a
great quantity of vital air. In a flow fire it is converted
into the red oxyd of mercury. The water which has
been poured on the white fulphuric mercurial mafs, is
loaded with a portion of the acid which was not decotn-
pofed ; but, as oxyd of mercury is vety foiuble in that
acid, a certain quantity is always, taken up, fo that the
water, holds in folution a true fulphat of mercury. By
evaporating the water,, this lalt is depofited in fmail
needles, the" form of which has not been determined, be-
c.rafe they are fcarcely confiftent, and quickly attradt hu¬
midity. When boiling water is thrown on the cryftals
of fulphat of mercury, they become yellow, and in the
ffate of a mercurial oxyd, becaufe the water feparatfis
the acid, which adheres but weakly, and isaves the oxyd
pure. The fame event happens when the water em¬
ployed for the n r it wafhing or the mercurial mafs is moftly
evaporated, and the remainder is afterwards diluted by
the addition of a large quantity of boiling water, Lnitead
of bringing it to cryltals. A yellow powder is precipi¬
tated in the ftate of a true oxyd. If cold water be ufed,
the precipitate is white; but it immediately affumes a
yellow colour by the addition of boiling water. In this
manner the folution of the oxyd of mercury may be ren¬
dered decompofable or not by water. For this purpofe
it is fufiicient to evaporate it nearly to cryfiallization, or
to charge the acid with all the mercurial oxyd it is ca-
pable of difl'olving ; for then the union of thefetwo bo¬
dies is eaiily deftroyed by water. Iff a fmall quantity of
acid be added, water is no longer capable of caufmg a
precipitation. Fourcroy proved this iu the moft fatisfac-
tory manner, by difl'olving well-walked turbith. mineral
in weak fulphuric acid ; the folution is not l'aturated
with mercurial oxyd, and is at the fame time not preci-
pitable by water. But if the folution be charged with as
much turbith mineral as it can diffolve by the affiltance
of heat, which may be done by adding that fubftance till
it is no longer taken up, then the folution being poured
into cold water, affords a white precipitate ; or if into
hot water, a yellow powder. In this ffate, if a fmall
quantity of fulphuric acid be added, it ceafes fo afford
any precipitate. The white mercurial oxyd which the
fulphat of mercury depofits when cold water is poured on
it, is very foiuble, and.may be made to difappear, by add¬
ing fulphuric acid to the. mixture.
Sulpbat of. mercury may be. decompofed by magne/ia
and lime, a yellow precipitate being depofited; and fixed-
alkalis leparate an oxyd of mercury nearly of the fame-
colour. Ammoniac does not precipitate fulphat of mer¬
cury when it contains an excels off acid ; it forms a triple
fait,. :Oiz ammoruacQ-mercurial fulphadi. When the fulphat
283
of mercury is properly neutralized, and without -excels
of acid, only a fmall portion of black oxyd is feparated
by the ammoniac, which it renders reducible by the con¬
tact of light alone. It forms a triple fait with the greater
part of the fulphat of.metcury. This fait is not fixed by
fire ; it melts and fublimes ; it is reduced by a ftrong heat.
Mercury is attacked by the nitric acid both hot and
cold ; but the differences of temperature make a great
difference in the folution : when the operation is per¬
formed cold, the folution cannot be decompofed bv dif-
tilled water; but, if done with heat, the decomposition
takes place; becaufe that, with heat, the acid is over¬
charged with the oxyd. To procure the folution of mer¬
cury in the nitric acid, put into a matrafs of a proper
fize, one part of mercury,- with one and a half of the
acid; when the firiu effervefcence has ceaft-d, place the
matrafs on a land-bath, in order to afi'nt the folution by
heat; but, if the acid be good, the folution will take
place without fire. A great quantity of nitrous gas is
difengaged ; and the mercury, reduced to an oxyd, re¬
mains in folution. Tips faline metallic fubftance is ex¬
ceedingly cauftic, and capable of corroding and deftroy'-
ing our organs. When it falls on the (kin, it forms (pots
of fo deep a purple, that theyr appear almoft black ; thei'e,
fpots cannot be diflipated but by the reparation of the
epidermis, which 1'caLes off. The folution is ufed a-s a
powerful efcharotic in furgery, by the name of mercurial
wafer. The folution of mercury in the nitric acid is
capable of affording cryftals, by a cooling only, in fiat
needles, very long and very (harp, ftriated all their length.
This fait is very cauftic, and corrodes the (kin in the
fame manner as the loiution ; it deronates on burning
coals. When very dry, a ftrong whitifh flame efcapes,
which foon ceafes. Expcfed to the air, it becomes yel¬
low', and is decompofed very (lowly.
The nit rat of mercury melts when heated in a crucible,
and emits very thick r ed vapours. In proportion as it
lofes its water and nitrous .gas, it takes a deeper yellow
colour, which is afterwards converted to an orange, and
laftly to a brilliant red. In this ftate it is called red pre¬
cipitate. We term it red oxyd of mercury by the nitric acid.
Inftead of ufing the nitrat of mercury, the mercurial fo¬
lution may be evaporated to dryneffs : pulverize the mafs
in a glafs mortar, put it into one matrafs or feveral ; place
them in a fand-bath ; heat the vefiels, and calcine the
contents, till they prefent an orange colour on the fur-
face ; let the vefleis cool, and then break them : the con¬
tained matter will be found in layers of different colours ;
the under part of a bright red, the upper part orange
colour. Then pulverize the red part, which is the red
oxyd of mercury. Melt this oxyd under the blow-pipe
with pholphoric glafs, and it communicates various co¬
lours to it. Mercurial nitrat diftiiied in a retort affords
a fub-acid phlegm, and nitrous gas at firft, after which
it becomes red oxyd ; and a ftronger heat being applied,
occafions a large quantity of vital air, with a final! por¬
tion of azotic gas, to be dilengaged, the mercury being
fublimed in the metallic form. This fait is folubie in
diftiiied water, in a larger quantity when boiling, than
in the cold, and confequently cryftallizes by cooling.
When this fait is diftblved in water, a portion remains,
which is of a yellowifh colour, and is not taken up. Mon-
net calls this matter nitrous turbith, and obferves, that a
larger quantity may be obtained by boiling water. If it
be intended that the mercurial nitrat fhall be entirely
difToived, water muff be employed, in which aqua fortis
-muft be poured, until the precipitate appears. We have
obferved, that when boiling water is poured on the purelt
nitrat of mercury, it immediately becomes yellow, and
affords an. oxyd of a deep colour,' which, when expofed
to fire, becomes red more quickly than that which is
made by tne fulphuric acid.
Barytes, ftrontian, niagnefki> lime, and alkalis, decom-
poffe nitrat of mercury, and precipitate the metal in the
ftate of oxyd. Tlieie precipitates are- oS different colours,
weight,
284* C H E M
weight, and quantity, according to the ftate of the folu- '
tion. Cauftic fixed alkalis afford a yellow precipitate,
more or lefs brown, or of a brick colour, according as
their caufticity is more perfecf . Ammoniac precipitates
the nitric mercurial folution, of a grey (late colour, pro¬
vided it be of that kind which water cannot decompofe ;
but the fame fait produces a white precipitate, in a fatu-
rated folution of mercury, fuch as water can precipitate.
The precipitates are mere oxyds of mercury, more or lefs
oxygenated ; they are all reducible without addition, and
by mere heat in clofed veffels, and all afford pure air
during their reduction. Thofe which have been preci¬
pitated by alkaline carbonats, afford a certain quantity of
carbonic acid by the aifion of heat. Thofe which, with¬
out having been precipitated by carbonats, have been
merely expofed to the contaff of atmofpherical air, ex¬
hibit the fame phenomenon, becaufe they always abforb
this acid from the atmofphere ; a property common to
all the oxyds of mercury, and even to thofe of feveral
other metals. The oxyds of mercury, by alkaline inter¬
mediums have a property, difcovered by Bayen, which
mull not be paffed over in filence. They detonate like
gunpowder, when expofed in an iron-fpoon to a gradual
heat, after having been triturated in the quantity of half
a drachm, with fix grains of flowers of fulphur 5 after the
detonation a violet-coloured powder remains, which may
be fublimed into cinnabar.
The fulphuric acid, and the falts into which it enters,
3 ike wife decompofe nitrat of mercury, on account of the
ll conger affinity of the fulphuric acid to mercury. If
fulphuric acid, ora folution of fulphats of potafh, foda,
&c. or of any other fulphuric fait, be poured into a folu¬
tion of mercurial nitrat, a whitifh precipitate is formed,
if the nitric folution be not faturated ; but it is yellower
in proportion as the nitrat of mercury contains lefs acid,
and more mercurial 0x5 d. This precipitate is fulphat of
mercury neutralized in the firft inffance, and with excefs.
of oxyd in the fecond. Bayen found that it always re¬
tains a portion of nitric acid.
The muriatic acid has no fenfible aftion on mercury,
though it be one of thofe which have the ftrongeft affinity
with the oxyd of that metal; but its aftion on mercurial
oxyd, with which it forms a peculiar neutral fait, is very
powerful. This combination takes place whenever the
muriatic acid is brought into contadl with the oxyd, in
a. ftate of extreme diviffon. If a fmall quantity of mu¬
riatic acid be poured on a nitric folution of mercury,
this acid feizes the oxyd of the metal, and forms a fait
which'is precipitated in a kind of whitifh coagulum, called
•vjhite precipitate ; the muriatic falts, fays Dupont, with
bale of alkali, or of any falin >-terreftrial lubftance, abun¬
dantly produce the fame effect, and form befides nitric
falts, differing according to the nature of the bafe. But
it mult be obferved, with refpeft to this precipitation,
that it does not take place when the oxygenated muria¬
tic acid is uled; becaufe, though this acid takes the oxyd
of mercury from the nitric acid, the lalt which it forms
with that oxyd is very folu'ole in water ; whereas the fait
formed by the common muriatic 3cid is not at all folu-
ble. This acid has a ftronger affinity than the fulphuric
acid with the oxyd of mercury, and occafions the fame
precipitate in the fulphuric folutions of that metal, as it
does in the nitric folutions. The compound of muriatic
acid and oxyd of mercury may exifl in two dates, as we
have before obferved, according to the Ample or oxyge¬
nated flats of the acid ; the latter conltitutes the oxyge¬
nated mui iat, or corrofive, and the former the mild, mer¬
curial muriat.
There are feveral procefles for preparing Corrofive fub-
limate, or corrofive mercurial muriat ; in general, equal
parts of dried mercurial nitrat, decrepitated muriat of
loda, and calcined lulphat of iron, or white martial vi¬
triol, are mixed and put into a matrafs, two-thirds of
whofe capacity are left empty. This veffel is plunged
into a fami-bath, and gradually heated till its bottom
S T R Y.
becomes of an obfcure red ; the fulphuric acid difengages
the muriatic acid from the foda ; the latter feparates the
mercury from the nitrous' acid, from which it takes a
portion of its oxygen, fo that it becomes oxygenated
muriatic acid; it then combines with the oxyd of mer¬
cury and forms corrofive mercurial muriat, which is fub¬
limed in the form of flattened and pointed cryftals to the
upper part of the matrafs ; the nitric acid being diflipat-
ed in the form of nitrous gas. The refidue is reddifh or
brown, and contains oxyd of iron, and fulphat of foda,
formed by the union of the fulphuric acid with the bale
of the marine fait. This fait is prepared in the large way
in Holland, by triturating equal parts of mercury, mu¬
riat of foda, and fulphat of iron, together, and expoling
the mafs to a violent fire. In this operation the oxyd of
iron, deprived of the llflphuric acid by heat, and highly
oxygenated, appears to caufe the muriatic acid to pals
into the oxygenated ftate, fince this iaft only is prefenfr
in fufficient quantity perfectly to diffolve the mercury
made ufe of. The corrofive mercurial muriat may like-
wife be obtained by fublimation, from mixtures of ful¬
phat of iron, muriat of foda, and mercurial precipitates,
by fixed alkalis, or from every kind of oxyd of mercury.
Boulduc has given a very good procefs for preparing
corrofive mercurial muriat; but Spielman remarks, that
it was before defcribed byKunckel, in his Chemical La¬
boratory. It confifts in heating equal quantities of ful¬
phat of mercury, and decrepitated muriat of foda, in a
matrafs ; the muriat of mercury is volatilized, and the
refidue confifts of fulphat of foda. Monnet affirms, that
he has likewile obtained this fait, by treating, in a retort,
very dry muriat of foda and mercurial oxyd, precipitated
from its nitrous folution by fixed alkali. In all thefe
preparations of mercurial corrofive muriat, care mull: be
taken not to break the fublimatory veffel till it is entirely
cool, in order to avoid the vapours of the fublimed fair.
There is another way of preparing the corrofive mercurial
muriat more readily ; it confifts in pouring into a folu¬
tion of nitrat of mercury a quantity of oxygenated mu¬
riatic acid, and evaporating flowly the mixture. When
the nitrous acid is difengaged the liquor affords, by
cooling, cryftals of corrofive mercurial muriat. Chaptal
propofed to mix the red oxyd of mercury with muriatic
acid. Or a fuper-oxygenated muriat might be ul’ed;
with a fait whofe bafe is mercury.
The fait, called corrofive mercurial muriat, orcorofive
fublimate, delerves to be carefully attended to by che-
mifts and phylicians ; it poflefles a great number of pro¬
perties which are highly neceflary to be known, and of
which we ftiall proceed to give a fketch. Its tafte is ex¬
ceedingly cauftic : the fmalleft quantity being laid upon
the tongue, leaves for a very long time an highly difa-
greeable ftyptic and metallic tafte. This impreifion is
carried even to the larynx, which it contrafts fpafmodi-
cally for a long time, efpecially in delicate perfons. The
adtion of this fait is ftill ftronger on the tunics of thefto-
mach and the inteftines. When it is applied to thefe for
any length of time, it corrodes them, and deftroys their
fubftance, for which reafon it is one of the moll violent
poifons we know. The caufticity of corrofive mercurial
muriat appears to depend on the ftate of the mercury, as
Macquer has very ingenioufly obferved. It cannot be
attributed to the muriatic acid, as fome authors have
thought; for the mercury is more than treble the quan¬
tity of the acid. On this account the fait renders tyrup
of violets green, rather than red, according to the ob-
fervation of Rouelle. The tafte of mercurial muriat is
befides exceflively ftronger than that of the muriatic acid.
A drachm of fpirit of fait, diluted with water, may be
taken with impunity ; whereas a few grains of con olive
mercurial muriat, dilfolvedin the fame quantity of water,
would poilbn without remedy. Bucquet thought that
this extreme ftrength of tafte depended on the combina¬
tion of the two bodies, and from thence deduced one of
his ftrongelt proofs of the law of affinity, whicheftablilhes,
that
CHEMISTRY.
that compounds have new properties, very different from
tliofe of either of their component parts.
Corrofive mercurial muriat is not l'enlibly altered by
light; heat volatilizes and femi-vitj ifies it. If it be
llrongly heated with accefs of air, it is diflipated in the
form of a white fume, whofe effedfs on the animal eco¬
nomy are very active, and exceedingly dangerous.
When heated /lowly, and by degrees, it l’ublimes in a
cryltalline and regular form, into prifms, fo flattened
that it is impoflible to determine th'e number of their
faces. They terminate in very acute fummifs, and have
been very properly compared to the blades of poniards-
thrown confuiedly among each other. Fire alone is not
capable of decompofing this fait, neither is it fufceptible
of alteration from the air. It is i'oluble in nineteen parts
of water, and cryftallizes by evaporation, in flattened
prifms, very fliarp, their extremity being flmilar to tliofe
obtained by fublimation.
Barytes, magnefia, and lime, decompofe the corrofive
mercurial muriat, and precipitate the mercurial oxyd.
The phagedenic water made ufe of as a corrofive by bur¬
geons, is made by throwing half a drachm of this fait,
in powder, into a pound of lime-water; a yellow preci¬
pitate is formed, which renders the fluid opake, and it is
employed before this fublides. Fixed alkalis precipitate
from corrofive mercurial muriat, an orange coloured
oxyd, which becomes deeper coloured by keeping. Am¬
moniac affords a white precipitate, which after a fliort
time becomes of a flate colour.
Acids and neutral alkaline falls, produce no change
in the corrofive mercurial muriat. This lalt contracts
an intimate union with muriat of ammoniac without de-
compofition. This very lingular faline compound, which
was highly efteemed by the alchemifts, and called by
them fal alembrotb » fait of art, or of wifloin, See. is form¬
ed either by fublimation or cryllallization. The ammo-
niacal muriat renders the corrofive mercurial muriat very
I'oluble, lince, according to Bait hie, three ounces of wa¬
ter charged with nine drachms of the former, diflblves
five ounces of the latter fait. This folution is made with
heat, and affords a folid mafs in cooling. A prepara¬
tion, called white mercurial precipitate, is made from
this fait. A pound of corrofive mercurial muriat in
powder is thrown into a folution of the fame quantity of
muriat of ammoniac; when the lalt is perfectly diflblved
a folution of carbonat of potafli is added, which forms a
white precipitate, which is walhed and dried in the form
of finall lozenges. In this operation the potalh difen-
gages the ammoniac, which precipitates the mercury in a
white oxyd. Heat, and even light, gives this precipi¬
tate a yellow colour.
Corrofive mercurial muriat is altered by hydrogen gas.
Sulphur does net change it, but alkaline fulphure de-
compofes this as well as all the other folutions of mercu¬
ry; a black precipitate being produced, Which arifes from
the combination of the liilphur with the mercury. Moll
of the metals weliave mentioned are capable of decompo¬
fing this fait, and each decompofition exhibits peculiar
phenomena, which well deferve to he examined. If two
parts of corrofive mercurial muriat, with one of arlenic,
be diitilled by a mild heat, a tranlparent fubltance, of
the confidence of oil, pallets into the receiver, part of
which foon condenfes into a kind of White jelly, called
corrofive oil, or butter of arfenic. If the heat be continued
after the butter has palled over, running mercury is ob¬
tained ; fo that the procefs affords a method of deter¬
mining accurately the principles of corrofive mercurial
nuif iat. The muriat of arlenic does not appear capable
of cryllallization, melts with a gentle heat, and is fo
cauftic that it inlfantly deftroys the organs of animals.
It is I'oluble in water, which partly decompofes it; but
its other properties are unknown. Oxyd of arlenic does
not afford it, becaufe in this date the metal, being already
combined with a portion of oxygen, cannot take it from
Vox.. IV. No. j96.
2&5
the oxyd of the mercury, nor difengage the mercury from
its muriatic combination.
The efi'edts of cobalt, nickel, and manganefe, on cor¬
rofive mercurial muriat, have not been yet examined.
Bifmuth, antimony, and zink, decompofe this lad lalt
with great facility. When two parts of corrofive mercu¬
rial muriat, and one part of bilhiuth, are diddled toge¬
ther, a thick fluid fubltance is obtained, which congeals
into a mat's of a greafy appearance, fufible by heat, and
precipitable by wafning with much water ; and ina word,
a true folid: muriat of bifmuth. Poli, who fil'd deferibed
this experiment, in the Hiltory of the Royal Academy
for 1713, affirms, that, when this butter of bifmuth is
l'ublime.d fcveral times, there remains in the vefl'el a pow¬
der of the colour of oriental pearls, very i'oft to the
touch, and as it were glutinous ; he propofes this pow¬
der to be employed as a pigment.
If twelve ounces of antimony, and thirty-two ounces
of corrofive mercurial muriat, be accurately mixed toge¬
ther, heat is excited, which /hews that there is a rapid
action between them. If the mixture be diddled by a
gentle heat, a thick liquor is obtained, which becomes
fixed in the receiver, and often in the neck of the retort,
in the form of a white mafs, called butter of antimony.
This fublimed muriat of antimony ufually weighs fixteen
ounces and a few drachms. ■ The relidue is compofed of
mercury, and a grey powder of antimony, which floats
on the metallic fluid. If the diddlation be continued
after the muriat of antimony has palled over, a new re¬
ceiver being adapted, running mercury is obtained, foil¬
ed by a (mail quantity of the muriat of antimony, which
it is impoflible to clear entirely out of the neck of the
retort. Baume, who has accurately delci-ibed this ope¬
ration, affirms, that by this procels two ounces of run¬
ning mercury may be obtained, one ounce of antimony
in powder, mixed with the mercury, and fix drachms
twenty-four grains of antimony melted in the retort.
The latter is partly oxydated, it affords a red oxyd and
a white, in part fublimed. In this experiment the anti¬
mony is oxydated by the oxygen which is leparated from
the oxyd of mercury, and unites to the muriatic acid,
with which it forms the muriat of antimony. The fame
decompofition takes place equally well with fulphure of
antimony; one part of that mineral in powder being dif-
tilledwith two parts of corrofive mercurial muriat, af¬
fording a fublimed muriat of antimony. But the refidue,
inltead of containing running mercury, exhibits a com¬
bination of fulphur with that metal. Tins combination
may be fublimed by a ftronger fire into red needles, im¬
properly called cinnabar of antimony.
This fublimed muriat of antimony, or the combina¬
tion of the muriatic acid with antimony, does not take
place but in proportion as the muriat takes the oxygen
from the mercury,' as we have already obferved of ar¬
lenic. This compound is in a (olid form; it cry/lallizes
in thick parailelopipeds ; its caulticity is fufficiently ltrong
to deltroy both animal and vegetable matters in a very
fliort time. The action of light changes it: by a low
heat it is melted, and becomes fixed by cooling ; for
which reafon it has been called butter of antimony. It
is eafily deprived of its white colour; and it may be rec¬
tified by diitillation. When expoled to the air it attracts
moillure, and is diflblved into a thick fluid, apparently
oleaginous : it does not completely cl ifl'olve in water, the
greater part being decompoled by that fluid. When
lublimated muriat of antimony is thrown into diitilled
water, a very abundant precipitate is immediately form¬
ed, which is known by the name of emetic powder, or
powder of Algaroth, from the name of an Italian phyfician
who firlt uled it. It has been improperly called mercurius
wita. This precipitate is an oxyd of antimony, which
is violently purgative and emetic. The lublimated mu¬
riat of antimony diflblves with heat and etfervelcence in
the nitric acid ; a large quantity of nitrous gas being at
- 4 D the *
2^6 C H E M
the i'.ime time difengaged with confiderable agitation of
the fluid. The muriat of antimony difappears, and the
liquid becomes of a yellow reddilh. colour. It is a folu-
tion of oxyd of antimony in nitro-muriatic acid. The
oxyd is loon depofited in the form of a powder, or white
magma. If the folution of muriat of antimony by the
nitric acid be evaporated to drynefs immediately auer it
is made, a very white oxyd is obtained. This oxyd is
diluted with its own weight of the fame acid, which is
likewife evaporated, and the fame procefs is a third time
repeated ; after which the matter is calcined in a crucible
kept red-hot for about half an hour, and affords an oxyd,
which, when cold, is found to be white on the upper part,
and of a role colour below. Thefe two portions mixed
together conflitute the preparation called Bezoar mineral.
Corrolive mercurial muriat is decompofed by zink. If
a mixture of two parts of this l'alt, with one part of zink
in filings, or coarl'e powder, be diftilled in a glafs retort,
a very white and folid fait arifes, which cryftallizes in
fmall united needles, fimilar to the aggregates of which
Italablites are compofed. The mercury remains pure in
the retort, and paffes over after the fait. This muriat
of zink fumes (lightly when taken out of the receiver,
and melts with a mild heat, becomes coloured by inflam¬
mable vapours, and is partly decompofed by water, like
the fublimed muriat of antimony.
The moft lingular property of corrofive mercurial mu¬
riat, is its combination with running mercury. When
faturated with this metallic fluid, it lofes molt of its pro¬
perties, efpecially in its talte and folubility. To make
this combination, corrofive mercurial muriat was former¬
ly triturated in a glafs mortar with running mercury,
added by a little at a time, till no more could be made
to difappear. The quantity of mercury, which the fait
takes up by this procefs, amounts to three-fourths of its
weight, as Lemery and Baume have obferved. The mix¬
ture was placed in fmall velfels, two-thirds of which were
left empty, and in this manner fublimed three times fuc-
ceflively, care being taken each time to leparate a white
powder which is found beneath the fublimed matter, and
is very corrofive. The produfl, called fiveet fublmate ,
mercuriu } dulcis, or aquila alba, or more properly mild
mercurial muriat, differs from the corrofive by its infolu-
bility in water, by .its infipidity, and by its cryltalline
form. The cryltals obtained by flow fublimation, are
tetrahedral prifms, terminated by four-fided pyramids ;
two very long and tetrahedral pyramids are frequently
united a.t their bale, and form a very acute oflahedron.
The foregoing procefs for the preparation of mercurius
dulcis, is inconvenient in many refpefts. The .tritura¬
tion of corrofive mercurial muriat with running mercury,
till the latter difappears, is very tedious and difficult ; and
at the fame time a fubtle powder rifes of fo pernicious
a quality, that the operator is under the necefiity of co¬
vering his mouth and nofe with a cloth. The mercury
is never abfolutely made to difappear in the mortar, and
the fublimations are very flow. Bailleau, of Paris, has
communicated to the Royal Society of Medicine, a pro¬
cefs for making mild mercurial muriat, which is free from
the imperfections and danger of the common methods.
It confilts in forming a palte of corrofive mercurial muriat
and water, and triturating it with running mercury ; the
trituration in the courfe of half an hour caufes the mer¬
cury to dilappear, becaufe the water promotes its com¬
minution, and the combination is completed by digelting
the mixture on a fand-bath with a mild heat. The mat¬
ter, which at firfl is grey, becomes white, and forms a
very mild mercurial muriat, which requires only one
fublimation to render it perfectly pure.
The following procefs defcribedby Scheelefor the pre¬
paration of the mild muriat of mercury, in the humid
way, does not feem liable to any of the objections which
Fourcroy ftates to the preparation of this fubftance
from the corrofive muriat. Introduce equal parts of mer-
: S T R Y.
cury and common aqua-fortis into a fmall cucurbit with
a long neck, and place this veflel in the heat of a fand-
bath. When the acid appears to aCt no longer on the
mercury, the fire is to be augmented fo as nearly to make
the folution boil. This degree of heat is to be continu¬
ed for three or four hours, and the veflel now and then
to be lhaken. Towards the end the heat is to be regu¬
lated fo, that the folution (hall boil gently for a quarter
of an hour. In the meantime, four ounces and a half
of pure muriat of foda are to be dilfolved in lix or eight
ounces of water, Into this folution, heated to the boil¬
ing point, the folution of mercury is to be poured in
fmall quantities at a time, with conftant agitation. When
the muriat of mercury, which is formed, has lubfided,
the clear liquor is to be decanted off, and hot water pour¬
ed on the precipitate, with which it is to be edulcorated
till the wrater (landing upon it lhall be entirely taftelefs.
It is then to be dried by a gentle heat. By this procefs,
about eight -ounces and a half of the mild muriat are
commonly obtained from four and a half of the mercury.
The experiments of Baume teach us, that it is poflible
to change the mild mercurial muriat into corrofive, by
fubliming it with decrepitated muriat of foda and fulphat
of iron calcined to whitenefs. In this operation the
muriatic acid, being difengaged and oxygenated by the
lulphuric acid, leizes the oxyd of the mild mercurial
muriat, and converts it into corrofive muriat. Baume
has afcertained another circumftance, which (hows the
great difference between the mild mercurial muriat and
the corrofive ; namely, that it does not unite with ammo-
niacal muriat, as corrofive mercurial muriat does, in the
preparation of lal-alembroth, or the ammoniaco-mercu-
rial muriat. He therefore advifes the waffling of mild
mercurial muriat with water charged with a fmall quan¬
tity of ammoniacal muriat, in order that all the corrofive
mercurial muriat, which is rendered very foluble by this
fait, maybe carried off. Lallly, He has difcovered, that
at each fublimation the mild mercurial muriat lofes a por¬
tion of mercury, and confequently affords a fmall quan¬
tity of corrofive mercurial muriat; fo that, by repeated
fublimations, mild muriat may be entirely changed into
corrofive. From this lalt experiment it obvioufly follows,
that the preparation known under the name of panacea
mercurialis , which is made by fubliming mild mercurial
muriat nine times, is fo far from being rendered milder
by thefe operations, as moll chemills and phyficians have
fuppoled, that it does not at all differ from what it was
at firfl.
Of the other acids, there are feveral which will not
unite immediately with mercury : but moll of them will
unite by means of the double affinity. The aftion of
the carbonic, fluoric, and boracic, acids, on mercury,
are not known. It is known, however, that the alkaline
carbonats precipitate mercury from its acid folutions,
and that thefe precipitates are different from thofe ob¬
tained with pure alkalis. It is necelfary to employ the
combination of boracic acid with a bafe, for the obtain¬
ing of a mercurial borat by the way of double affinity.
A faturated borat of foda being poured into a nitric io-
lution of mercury, an abundant yellow precipitate is
formed, as Monnet firlt obferved. In this operation the
foda of the borax unites with the nitric acid, and forms
nitrat of foda, while the acid of the borax combines
with the oxyd of mercury, in the form of a neutral fait,
which, being l’paringly loluble, falls down. The filtrat¬
ed liquor affords, by evaporation, fine and brilliant pel¬
licles of mercurial borat. Chauflier employed this faiine
combination with fuccefs in the venereal difeafe. This
fait, by expofure to the air, becomes gradually of a green-
ilh hue. Ammoniacal muriat renders it very loluble,
and forms with it a compound, analogous to the ammo-
niaco- mercurial muriat ; lime-water throws down a yel¬
low precipitate, which changes to deep red ; and potalh
caufes a white precipitate.
Neutral
C H E M I
Neutral falls have fcavcely any a&ion on mercury.
Tliough this affertion is more efpecially applicable to the
different l'ulphats, Fourcroy oblerved, neverthelefs, that
mercury becomes very quickly extinguilhed in fulphat
of potafh.
Mercury does not appear capable of altering ammo-
niacal muriat by dillillation. Bucquet, who made this
experiment, obterved, that two parts or mercury are not
well extinguilhed by one part of this fait, and that the
mixture does not afford ammoniac by diltillation. The
count de la Garaye, neverthelefs, prepared with thefe
two fubtlances, a medicine, to which he gave the name
of tintture of mercury. Macquer, who examined his pro-
cefs, found it to fucceed perfectly well. It confided in
triturating one ounce of running mercury, with four
ounces of ammoniacal muriat, in a marble mortar, moift-
ening the mixture with a fmall quantity of water, till the
mercury entirely difappeared. This matter being left
expofed to the air five or fix weeks, and from time to
time agitated, is then to be triturated afrefh, and after-
tjvards expofed in a matrafs on a fand-batli, covering the
powder to the depth of about two inches with good fpi-
rit of wine. The mixture being made to boil flowly,
the alcohol affumes a yellow colour, and contains mer¬
cury, as appears from its whitening a flip of copper.
From this experiment it appears, that the ammoniac is gra¬
dually difengaged by the mercury ; that ammoniaco-
itiercurial muriat is formed, part of which is difl'olved
by the fpirit of wine ; and that the different quantity of
the mercury, and the flow aftion produced during the
maceration, are the caules of the difference between this
experiment and that of BuCquet. The red fulphure
of mercury may be made to detonate with the fuper-oxy-
genated muriat of potafh ; but does not flame with the
fulphuric acid.
Mercury combines with many other fubflances, as
gums, fyrups, vegetable acids, See. as will appear in the
courfe of this treatife. Mercury is of the molt extenfive
tile in the arts, fuch as gilding, filvering of glaffes, con-
ftru&ing of meteorological inftruments, metallurgy, &c.
it is ufed in medicine in a great variety of forms. Crude
mercury was formerly employed in the iliac paffion. It
is kill boiled in w'ater, to which it communicates a ver¬
mifuge property. Mixed with fat fubflances, it forms an
ointment ufed in venereal diforders. Turbifh mineral, or
yellow oxyd of mercury by fulphtiric acid, has likewife
been recommended in the fame diforders, in the dofe of
a few grains. This medicine is emetic and purgative in
a high degree. Mercurial water, or its nitric folution, is
ufed by furgeons as a powerful efcharotic. Red precipi¬
tate, or red oxyd by the nitric acid, anfwers the fame
purpofe. A citron-coloured ointment is prepared with
hog’s lard and the nitric folution of mercury, which is a
certain cure for the itch. Corrofive mercurial muriat has
been recommended by Sanches and Van Swieten, in ve¬
nereal diforders. A few grains are difl'olved in brandy,
and a fpoonful of this folution is taken at a time in a
large quantity of mild liquid. The exhibition of this
remedy requires great care, more efpecially with regard
to the ftate of the ftomach and lungs. Mild mercurial
muriat, given in the dofe of twelve or fifteen grains, is a
purgative, and in the dofe of three or four grains, is an
alterative. The phagedenic water is ufed in lurgery to
corrode and deftroy fungus, or proud flelh, &c. Mercu¬
rial borat has been ufed with fuccefs in venereal diforders
by Chauflier the younger, of the academy of Dijon. Cin¬
nabar has been confidered improperly as an anti-fpafmo-
dic and fedative medicine. It enters into the compofition
of the pulvis temperans of Stahl, which is prepared ac¬
cording to the Pharmacopeia of Paris, by accurately mix¬
ing three grains of fulphat of potafh, and of nitrat of
potafh, vitriqlated tartar and nitre, with two fcruples of
artificial cinnabar. This compound is ftill ufed, by ex-
pofing the patients to its vapour. It then conftitutes one
S T R Y, 287
of the methods of treatment of venereal diforders by fu¬
migation.
_ All the preparations of mercury, which are internally
given, produce very beneficial eft'etfts in other diforders,
as well as thole of the venereal kind ; fuch as moft dit-
orders of the fkin, fcrophulous diforders, lymphatic fwel-
lings, &c. We cannot, however, forbear obferving, that
thefe medicines, more efpecially the faline mercurial pre¬
parations, ought not to be applied but by experienced
and cautious phyficians ; and that it is dangerous to the
health, and even to the life of men, that mercurial reme¬
dies fliould be in the hands of a great number of perfons,
who, generally fpeaking, are deficient, not only in the
knpwledge which is necefl'ary to adminifler them with
fuccefs, but even in that knowledge which might enable
them to avoid danger.
Of ZINK.
Native zink is very rare; naturalifts even doubt whe¬
ther it exifts at all. The ores of zink are not worked for
the purpofe of gaining this metal. It is obferved, during
the finelting of lead-ores mixed with blende, that the
zink is fublimed in the chimneys of the furnaces, in the
form of an oxyd, and produces greyifli incruftations,
named inttia, or cadmla fornaciun. Another portion is
obtained in the metallic form, by cooling the anterior
part of the furnace. The zink, being driven up in the
vapourous form by the aftion of the fire, is condenfed in
this place, and falls in fmall grains into powder of char¬
coal, which covers a done placed below. This metal is
preferved from oxydation by the powder of charcoal,
and is afterwards melted in a crucible, and run into
moulds. Such is the procefs by which the greateft part
of the zink found in commerce is obtained at Rammelf-
burg, whether in the ftate of oxyd or metal. This zink.
is always united to a certain quantity of lead : it feems
that the zink prepared in China, which comes to us un¬
der the name of tutenag, is much purer, but the manner
of preparing it is unknown with us. Sage ftates, that
the Engliflt obtain zink in the large \*ay, from lapis cala-
minaris, by diftillation ; but the method is kept a fecret.
Zink is a brilliant bluilh white metallic fubftance, cryf-
tallized in narrow plates. It has neither tafte nor ftnell.
It cannot be reduced into powder like the other metals,
but becomes flattened under the hammer, and may even
be laminated, provided it has. not ■ previoufly been too
much hammered. This experiment was made by Sage.
When it is required to have zink in a ftate of extreme
divifion, it muft be granulated, that is to fry, poured
melted into cold water, or elfe reduced into filings. It
has the inconvenience of choking up the files. Macquer
affirms, that, when heated nearly to melting, it becomes
very brittle, and may then be pulverized. This property
is very different from that of the metals, which become
more duftile by the aftion of heat, and qft'ords an advan¬
tageous procel's for obtaining zink in a ftate of extreme
divifion. It may likewife be obtained in this ftate, by
triturating it while melted, and keeping its particles
afunder by continual motion, before they take the folid
form by cooling. This operation muft not be made in
an iron-mortar, becaufe zink always diffolves a portion
of this metal ; a mortar and peftle of marble muft be ufed.
Mongez fucceeded in obtaining this metal in a regular
form; for this purpofe he ufed a veffel pierced at the
bottom and at its fides, with a number of holes which
he flopped with earth of bones. When the' zink cools
at its furface, the holes are to be opened gradually,
and the metal agitated by a red-hot iron, introduced
through one of thefe openings. This Ample procefs oc-
cafions the melted portion of the zink to run out; the
veffel is then to be iliaken, till no more melted metal runs
out, and the cold portion cryftallizes. If it be left in the
veflel, it retains its metallic colour ; but, if it be expofed
to air, it takes a tarnilh of rainbow colours. When zink
is
288 C H E M
is melted with conta£I of air, it becomes covered with a
grey pellicle, which is quickly converted into a yellowilh
oxyd, and eafdy reducible. This oxyd weighs more than
the /.ink made ufe of; but, if the metal be lirongly heat¬
ed, it burns with a white or light green ilh yellow flame,
very brilliant, and funilar to that of phol'phorus. The
current of this flame drives up the oxyd of /.ink, which
is condenfed in the air in the form of white and very light
flocks, named flowers of zink, powpholix, nihil album, phi-
lofophical wool, or cotton.
’ The following is La Grange’s procefs for obtaining
this white oxyd : Place a large crucible upon two bricks
in a good furnace ; let the crucible be inclined at an an¬
gle of about 450; fix the cover of the crucible fo that it
may ealily be doled when neceflary. Put zink in the
crucible, and urge it to fufion with a fire capable of main¬
taining a white heat, and keep the crucible flint. When
it is very hot, uncover the crucible, arid a perfect white
flame, very vivid, riles from the furface of the zink ; at
the fame time arifes a very white flaky matter like cot¬
ton : this is white oxyd of zink. Take this away with
a long-handled iron- fpoon ; more is immediately form¬
ed, which is to be taken away in like manner, till all the
zink is converted into oxyd. This oxyd is not volatile,
though it riles in the manner of volatile bodies ; it is,
on the contrary, extremely fixed by fire. This oxyd
may be melted into glafs, but it requires an intenfe heat :
the vitrified oxyd w ill be of a fine yellow colour, and not
reducible by charcoal, or any other combultible body.
Zink is fcarcely alterable by the air. Its furface tar-
nifhes a little, and appears to fuller a flight beginning of
oxydation.
Phofphorus may be united to zink : Put into a Hone
retort two parts of zink-filings, and one of phofphorus':
proceed to diftillation, having firft adapted a receiver to
the neck of the retort. The produdf is a little pholpho-
rus ; and in the neck of the retort, r. Zink in the metallic
form. 2. A red efflorefeent fublimation. 3. White oxyd
of zink. 4. A fublimation in needles, of a metallic ap¬
pearance, a little bluiflr and rainbow-coloured. A black-
ilh matter, like Icoria, remains in the retort. Pelletier
regards the red efflorelcence, and the needled fublima¬
tion, as a phofphorated oxyd of zink. But this combina¬
tion is molt ealily eftedted, by throwing at different times
final 1 pieces of phofphorus upon zink, heated in a cru¬
cible, and by covering the mixture with refill to prevent
the oxydation of the metal. Phofphure of zink has a
metallic lultre, not unlike that of lead ; it is flightly mal¬
leable, burns in the fire like zink, and leaves behind it a
Ipongy reiidue.
Zink difl’olves in hydrogen gas : Put four parts of the
roalted blende, with one part of decrepitated charcoal!
into a retort : adapt a recurved tube, which goes into
water under a jar in the pneumatic apparatus. When
the temperature is not ftrong enough to reduce the zink,
the gas which is difengaged has no other properties than
carbonated hydrogen gas ; but, as foon as the redudfion
begins, the hydrogen gas holds zink in folution, which
is eafdy perceived by the bluifli yellow flame it emits in
burning. The nearer the operation draws to a conclu-
fion, the heat being maintained, the more the gas is
loaded with zink. During the experiment, then," there
is produced carbonic acid gas, and zinkated and carbo¬
nated hydrogen gas.
This compound gas is much heavier than common hy¬
drogen gas ; but it is lighter than atmolpherical air, and
gives vyay to it. If this gas be let on fire, there is no fen-
fible refidue on the lides of the vefiel, as happens with
•iulphurated hydrogen; but, if the veflel be prefently
filled with water, the furface of the liquid will be charged
with a lhining pellicle of a light grey colour, which if
collected, will be found to poflefs all the properties of
metallic zink. Only a part of the zink therefore is burnt
with the hydrogen gas, fince part efcapes in combuftipn,
1
S T R Y.
and is found in the metallic Hate. Zinkated hydrogen-
gas is not clecompofed by the oxygenated muriatic acid,
like the Iulphurated and phofphorated hydrogen gas. If
the mixture be fet on fire in the air, the combultion is
more rapid, the flame is whiter, and no metallic zink is ■
depolited ; on the contrary, the zink is combined with
the muriatic acid in the oxyd Hate, as may be fhewn by
an alkaline carbon.it, or a hydro-fulpluire. Vauqiielin
could not difcover the prefence of zink in the hydrogen
gas produced by difl’olving that metal in acids weakened
with water.
The metallic zink does not appear to combine with
fulphur but with the greateft difficulty. When thefe two
lubftances are melted together, they remain diftinq! with¬
out contrafling any kind of union. Dehne, however, ob-
ferved, that, if they be kept for a certain time in fufion
together, the zink is partly oxydated, affirming at the
fame time a brown orgreyilh colour, and becoming hea¬
vier. Morveau difeovered, fince the time of the remark
of Dehne, that the oxyd of zink unites ealily with ful¬
phur by fufion, and that a grey mineral is produced very
limilar to the blende of Huelgoef, from which yellow and
prifmatic needles are fometimes fublimed, and fix them-
lelves to the cover of the crucible.
Malouin has not fucceed^d in his attempts to combine
zink with the alkaline fulphure, whether by the humid
or by the dry way, or by varying the proportions of thele
two lubltances to each other.
The fame chemift combined zink with arfenic. He
obferved, that this metal does not unite fo well with
zink, as the oxyd of arfenic does ; neverthelels, in an
experiment, wherein he dillilled a mixture of this oxyd
with tallow and zink, he obtained a blackifli mafs relem-
bling blende, but lefs confident. It likewife appears that
the zink feizes the oxygen of the oxyd of arfenic when
they are diftiiled together, and that a portion of this me¬
tal is burned, at the lame time that a portion of the oxyd
of arfenic is revived. A feries of experiments, made with
a view to difcover the reciprocal aftion of metallic oxyds
and metals on each other, and to determine the elective
attractions of the oxygen with thefe fubltances, could not
fail of proving highly in ffruftive.
It is not known whether zink is capable of being al¬
loyed with cobalt.
It does not combine with bifinuth, and when thefe two
"metals ate fufed together, the bifinuth takes the lower
place on account of its greater weight, and they may be
Separated by a ffroke of the hammer.
Zink, fufed with antimony, affords a hard and brittle
alloy, which Malouin fimply mentions, without pointing
out any of its other properties.
Mercury combines with zink by fufion ; but the zink
muff not be very hot ; the proper degree of heat is that
which will finge a card without burning it. The amal¬
gam it forms with this metal is folid, but becomes fluid
by trituration ; when melted, and left to cool flowly, it
cryftallizes in plates, which have a lquare appearance,
rounded at the edges.
Water is decompofed by zink. When this metal be¬
gins to be red-hot, it is then ealily oxydated, and a large
quantity of inflammable gas is given out; a proof that
the water is decompofed by the zink, which feizes its
oxygen by the affiffance of an elevated temperature. La-
voifier and Meufnier have alcertained this fluff in their
experiments concerning the decompofition of water. The
hydrogen gas obtained in this procefs, holds a fmall quan¬
tity of charcoal in folution, which comes from the zink.
Sulphuric acid a£!s very well upon zink, even in the
cold: Put one part of granulated zink into a matrafs,
and pour over it two parts of lulphuric acid diluted with
water: if it be delired to colled! the gas which is difen¬
gaged, adapt a recurved tube, which is to go under. a jar
of water in the pneumatic apparatus. In proportion as
the acid exerts its action, the metal becomes of a blackifh
grey,
e H E M
grey, much heat is produced, and a Black powder is pre¬
cipitated, which was long unknown, but is found to Con-
flit of carbure of iron, or plumbago. A large quantity
of hydrogen gas, holding a fmall quantity of charcoal in
folution, is difengaged. It affords a white fulphat of
zink by evaporation, rather more foluble in hot than in
cold water, and of which a portion cryftallizes by cool¬
ing. Very regular cryltals of this fait, known in the arts
by the name of white copperas , white vitriol, or Gqflar
vitriol, are eafily obtained by expofing for fome days to
the air a folution of the fait made in boiling water, and a
little evaporated : tetrahedral prifms are then formed, ter¬
minated by pyramids of four fides. Monnet, however,
affirms, that this fait cryftallizes with great difficulty,
and requires much evaporation, and fudden cooling, to
afford regular cryftals without confidence. The white
oxyd of zink likewife diflolves ill the fulphuric acid, and
affords fulphat of zink.
This fait has a ftrong ftyptic tafte. According to Hel-
lot, it lofes a part of its acid by the action of fire, and
then appears to be converted into fulpliit of zink, whole
properties are not well known. The fulphat of zink is
very little altered by expofure to air, when it is very
pure: in the courfe of time its oxyd becomes calcined
ltill more by abforbing oxygen ; it afl'umes a yellow co¬
lour, and is no longer perfe&ly foluble in water. Sul-
phat of zink is decompofable by alumine, barytes, mag-
nefia, lime, and the three alkalis. The oxyd or zink pre¬
cipitated by thefe fubftances, may be re-diffolved in acids,
and even in alkalis. Ammoniac becomes of a dirty brown
colour after diflblving it. The fulphat of zink d.ecom-
pofes nitre, and is itfelf decompoled by this neutral fait.
By diftiiling this mixture, two kinds of nitrous acid, which
do not mix, are obtained, together with the glacial ful¬
phuric acid j we fhall fpeak more fully on this fubjeft at
the article of fulphat of iron, or martial vitriol.
A fulphat of zink, prepared in the large way at Goflar,
is met with in commerce under the name of white vitriol.
It is made thus : blendes are roafted, a portion of the
fulpluir burns, and furnifhes fulphuric acid, which dif-
folves the oxyd of zink. The roafted ore is then waflied,
and the lixivium being decanted, is expofed to evapora¬
tion, and affords cryftals. The fait being melted by a
gentle heat, fo as to deprive it of its water of cryftalliza-
tion, and then differed to cool, becomes condenfed into
white, opake, and granulated, maffes, refembling fugar.
The vitriol of Goflar , when difl’olved in boiling water,
cryftallizes by cooling. Its cryftals are fomevvhat reddifli,
a circumftance to be attributed to the impurities of the
fait, which is fuppofed to contain a fmall quantity of
lead and iron. To purify it, zink may be thrown into
its folution. This metal precipitates the oxyds of iron
and of lead, becaufe it has a ltronger affinity with the
fulphuric acid; and the liquor being filtrated, is conse¬
quently found to contain pure fulphat of zink. There
is ltill greater reafo.n to think, that the impurity of the
vitriol of Goflar confifts in the oxyd of iron, from the
circumftance of the zink met with in trade being mag-
netical, doubtlefs becaufe it contains iron. Experiments
concerning this metal ought therefore not to be made,
but with zin|k prepared by reducing the precipitate of
lulphat of zink purified in the manner here fhewn.
"We muft, however, obferve, that zink is very often mag-
netical only at that part of the piece which has been
cut with fciflars, or iron wedges.
Nitric acid diflolves zink with great facility, and is de-
compoled by it. This acid will diflolve about one-fifth
of its weight of zink : Put the zink into a matrafs as be¬
fore, and pour over it weak or diluted nitric acid. A
confiderable heat is produced in this folution, as well as
in that wherein the fulphuric acid is ufed. The lively
tffervefcence which accompanies this combination, is oc-
eafioned by the difengagement of a large quantity of ni¬
trous gas. This. experiment fhews that zink decompoles
the nitric acid, and deprives it of a portion of its oxy-
Vol. IV, No. 197.
I S T R Y. 289
gen. The nitric acid holds £ much larger quantity of
oxyd of zink in folution than the fulphuric. The nitric
folution of zink is of a greenifh yellow, and not perfe&ly
clear when newly made, but it lofes this colour, and be¬
comes transparent, after Handing for fome time. It is
very cauftic, pnd quickly corrodes the fxin, though made
with an acid diluted with water. It fufniffies, by evapo¬
ration and cooling, cryftals in tetrahedral ftriated fiat
prifms, terminated by pyramids of four fides, likewife
ftriated. The nitrat of zink, being put on hot coals, firft
melts and detonates as the portions become dry, and the
detonation is attended with a fmall reddifli flame. The
fame phenomenon does not appear when the fufion is
performed in a crucible. It cannot be dried, even by the
mildeft heat, without alteration ; vapours of nitrous gas
in this cafe e.fcape, and it becomes of a brown red, and
of the confiftence of a jelly. If it be differed to cool in
this ftate, it preferves its foftnefs for fome time; but, If it
be kept heated for a fufficient time, it dries entirely, and
leaves a yellowiffi oxyd. Hellot obtained from the diftil-
lation of nitrat of zink a very fuming nitrous acid, and
obferved the red colour it afl’umes in melting. It may
be conceived, that, heat difengaging the nitrous gas of
this fait, it pa.ffes to the ftate of nitrat of zink. It like¬
wife affords a certain quantity of oxygenous gas or vital
air. The nitrat of zink quickly attra£ls humidity, and
lofes its regular form after fome days expofure to the air,
nothing remaining but ftriated and pointed prifms, whole
figure can fcarcely be determined.
The muriatic acid afts on zink as ftrongly as the ni¬
tric. During the rapid effervefcence which accompanies
this combination, much hydrogen gas is difengaged,
which has the fame properties as that afforded by the
fulphuric acid ; and this laft is known to be derived from
water decompofed by zink. Black flocks are gradually
depofited, which is nothing elfe but a combination of
carbon, or charcoal and iron, or carbure of iron. The
folution of zink by the muriatic acid is colourlefs, and
does not afford cryftals by evaporation ; when heated, it
becomes of a blackilh brown, emits acrid and penetrating
vapours of muriatic acid, and becomes very thick. Ex¬
pofed to the air for eight days in this ftate, it affords no
cryftals. By diftillation it gives out a fmall quantity of
very fuming acid, and a folid and fufible inuriat of zink.
There remains in the retort ufed for this diftillation, a
blackilh vitriform and deliquefcent matter.
The liquid carbonic acid in which zink or its oxyd
are digefted in the cold, diflolves, at the end of twenty-
four hours, a confiderable quantity of this metal, accord¬
ing to Bergman. This folution, when expofed to the
air, becomes covered with a pellicle, which refiefls vari¬
ous colours, and is merely a carbonat of zink, according
to that celebrated chemilt. The aftion of the other acids
on zink are not known.
All the folutions of zink in acids are precipitated by
lime-Water, magnefia, the fixed alkalis, and ammoniac.
Silex and alumine form no combination with zink; but
its oxyd enters into vitreous compofitions, and gives the
glals a red colour. There is no aftion with barytes,
llrontian, magnefia, and lime. If liquid potaffi or caul-
tic foda be boiled over this metal, its liirface will be
darkened, and afl’ume a dirty yellow colour, holding in
folution a certain portion of the oxyd of zink, which
cannot be feparated by acids. Ammoniac heated does
not aift fo well upon zink, certainly on account of its
volatility ; -but, digefted upon zink in the cold way, it
diflolves a little ; in the three alkaline folutions of zink,
a certain quantity of hydrogen gas is difengaged, arifing
from .the decompofition of the water.
Gold and zink melt eafily together. Equal parts of
thefe metals form a hard brittle inafs, which receives an
excellent poliffi. The zink may be -feparated from the
gold by oxydation in the fire, or by folution in nitric
acid. Zink unites eafily with platina, and forms with it
a brittle hard bluifti- coloured mixture. It is very difficult
4 E to
29o C H E M I
to feparate it entirely from the platina by roafting. Zink
precipitates platina from its foiution in aqua regia. Four
hundred and lixteen parts of zink are required, accord¬
ing to Bergman, to precipitate feventy-l’even parts of
platina. Silver forms a brittle mat's with zink, which,
like that with gold, may be decompofed in the fire. The
iilver is precipitated by zink from its foiution in nitric
acid, partly in an oxydated, and partly in a metallic, ftate.
A portion of the zink, however, falls along with the
filver. To combine lead with zink it is neceflary to co¬
ver the mixture with charcoal, and to exclude from it
carefully the external air. Zink precipitates lead from
acids. Very beautiful metallic ^vegetations , as they have
been termed, may be produced by fufpending a bit of
zink in a foiution of -acetat of lead. It does not appear
to be determined whether zink can be made to combine
with bifmuth. It precipitates thebilmuth in its metallic
ftate from acids. Zink unites with nickel. It occafions
no perceptible precipitation of nickel from acids. Zink
unites difficultly with arfenic, not taking up more than
2 - 5th of that metal. The mixture is of a grey colour,
and brittle. If oxyd of arfenic be melted with zink, the
zink is oxydated, and a portion of the arlenic rifes in its
metallic ftate. Chemifts differ in opinion with regard
to the poffibility of combining zink with iron, but the
difficulty feems to arife chiefly from the volatility and
eafy oxydation of the zink. Iron is precipitated by this
metal from its folutions in acids; the precipitate ap¬
proaches more or lefs to the metallic ftate, according to
the previous degree of its own oxydation, and the oxy¬
dation of the zink. Zink melts difficultly with cobalt.
It does not precipitate this metal from acids, nor change
the red colour of its folutions. A very beautiful green
paint is produced in precipitating by potafli from a mix¬
ture of cobalt diffolved in aqua regia, and nitrat of zink,
the oxyds of thefe metals. The prefence of iron deftroys
the beauty of the colour. Zink unites eafily with tin,
and renders it harder and more brittle. It precipitates
tin from its folutidn in acids. With the muriatic and
acetic folutions it produces metallic vegetations.
Zink, in filings, or in powder, caufes nitre to detonate
with Angular rapidity. The mixture being very
dry, and thrown by fpoonfuls into a red-hot crucible,
produces a white and red flame. The activity of the
inflammation is fuch, that portions of burning matter
are thrown to a difta-nce out of the crucible, in fuch a
manner as to require fome precaution on the part of the
operator. The zink burns by the afliftance of the oxy¬
gen afforded by the nitre, and is afterwards found in the
ftate of an oxyd, more or lefs perfect, according to the
quantity of nitre ufed. One part of the’ refidue is folu-
ble in water. It confifts of the potafli combined with a
portion of the oxyd of zink, which may be precipitated
from its foiution by the addition of acids. Refpour at¬
tributed to this foiution the property of difl'olving all the
metals, if Hellot may be credited, who gives it as the al-
kaheft of that alchemift.
Zink, according to the experiments of Pott, appears
capable of decompoftng muriat of foda. It efpecially
decompofes ammoniacal muriat with great facility.
Monnet affirms, that this metal triturated with ammo¬
niacal muriat, difengages the ammoniac. Bucquet has
obferved, that when this fait and zink are diltilled toge¬
ther, much ammoniac gas and hydrogen gas are pro¬
duced by the combination of the muriatic acid with this
metal : and he was fynfible that the facility with which
the zink difengages the ammoniac, is a confequence oft
its ftrong action on the muriatic acid. The oxyd of zink
likewile difengages it, according to Hellot. The refidue
of this decompofition is muriat of zipk, which may be
fublimed.
Zink is of great ufe in the arts. It is employed in,
many alloys, efpecially in topibac, ruchbec, or prince’s
meta}. Fine filings of zink are ufed to produce the
white and brilliant ftars in fire-works. The German
S T R Y.
pliyficians employ the fublimed oxyd of zink with fuc-
cefs as an antifpafmodic in convuliions and epileptic fits.
Pompholix, tatty, or the different oxyds of zink, are ufed
as excellent deficcative medicines, to be externally ap¬
plied in diforders of the eyes.
Of TIN.
Mod mir.eralogifts doubt the exiftence of native tin ;
fome authors however affirm that it has been found in
Saxony, in Bohemia, and in the peninfula of Malacca.
It is ftrongly affirmed, that it exifts in the mines of Corn¬
wall 5 and Sage has defcribed a fpecimen of this tin gi¬
ven him by Mr. Woulfe, a chemift of London. This
piece is grey and brilliant in its frafture ; and, when
beaten on the anvil, it forms brilliant and flexible lami¬
nae; There have as yet been no mines of tin difcovered
in France. Baume, however, fufpe&s, that it might be
found in the neighbourhood of Alengon, and in fome
cantons of Britany, becaufe rock cryllals are found,
which appear to be coloured by that metal. The coun¬
tries where they are the mod abundant, and are worked,
are the counties of Cornwall and Devonfhire, in England;
alfo in Germany, Bohemia, Saxony, the ifland of Banca,
and the peninfula of' Malacca, in the Eall Indies.
To make the allay of an ore of tin, it muft be grofsly
pounded, after dividing it into different parcels, wafhed
and roafted in a covered capfule of earth, care being
taken to uncover it from time to time, in order to diflir
pate the tin as little as poffible ; for, if it be roafted in an
open -fire, much of that metal is loft, as Cramer remarks.
It muft likewile be roafted with expedition, left the tin
fliould be too much oxydated. Baume, to obviate thefe
two inconveniences, propoles to mix a quantity of rofin
or pitch, which reduces a portion of the oxyd formed in
this operation. After the ore is roafted, it is to be quick¬
ly fufed in the crucible, with three parts of black flux,
and a fmall quantity of decrepitated marine fait. B.y
comparing the weight of the wafhed and roafted ore with
that of the metallic button obtained, the quantity of fo¬
reign matter, and the proportion of tin it will afford in
the hundred, is known. Cramer propofes to make this
affay in a more expeditious manner, and perhaps with
lefs lofs, by making ufe of two large pieces of charcoal :
one of them muft have a cavity,, to ferve inltead of a
crucible, into which the ore is put, with a lufficient
quantity of pitch ; the other is perforated with a fmall
opening, to give iffue to the vapours. This is applied
on the former to cover it, and they are tied together with
iron wire, after having luted the joinings. Thefe are fet
on fire before the noozle of a pair of forge bellows, and
kept there by means of charcoal placed round them. As
foon as a fufficient heat has been given to fufe the tin,
the charcoal is to be extinguifhed with water, and the
tin is found within them in the form of a button or
globule.
Bergman propofes to affay the ores of tin by foiution
in fulphuric acid, to which the muriatic acid is afterwards
added ; and to precipitate it by fixed alkali. If the tin
be pure, one hundred and thirty- one grains of the pre¬
cipitate wiil be equal to one hundred and fix of tin. If
it be mixed with copper and iron, thefe foreign metals
are to be removed by means of the nitric and muriatic
acids.
The working of ores of tin in the large way is fimilar
to the procefs before defcribed ; it is often neceflary to
make fires of wood in the mine, to calcine and l'often
the gangue, which is very hard, by which very dangerous
vapours are difengaged. This procefs is ufed in the mines
of Geyer. In other places the ores are found in land, at a
very fmall depth, as at Ebenftock. The pounded ore is
is waxed in boxes, with little partitions of cloth, to re¬
tain the metallic particles ; it is then rohfted in reverbe¬
ratory furnaces, to which a horizontal chimney is adapt¬
ed, to collect the fulphur and arlenic ; after which it is
fufed and poured into moulds, to give it the form of
blocks.
Chemistry.
blocks. The ores of tin are wrought nearly in the fame
way in Germany and in England. The purelt tin of all is
that which comes from Malacca' and JBanca ; the firil has
been run into moulds, which give it the form of a qua¬
drangular truncated pyramid, .with a narrow (lope round
its bai ; each ingot weighs about a pound. The fecond
is in oblong ingots, weighing forty-five or fifty pounds ;
tlieic two kinds of tin are covered with a grey full:, more
or lefs thick.
The tin produced in England, which is much more
ufed than the pure tin of the Indies, its price being lower,
is in the form of large blocks, of about three hundred
pounds weight. It is alloyed with copper; and, to faci¬
litate the fale, it is afterwards melted into (mall ingots-,
or Hicks, of nine or ten lines in circumference, and about
a foot and a half long. Tin is of a whiter and more
brilliant colour than lead, but not quite fo white as (li¬
ver ; by the alchemills it had the name of Jupiter. It is
eafily bent, and produces a crackling noife when bent, a
phenomenon which we have already obferved, though
lefs evidently, in zink, and which has been urged by
Malouin, as an inftance of fimilarity between that metal
and tin. This noife appears to depend on the hidden
i'eparation of the parts of the metal, and feems to (hew,
that a fra 61 u re takes place, though tin refills very little
the effort which is made to bend it. “ Tin is the lighted
of all the metals ; it is fufficiently foft to be fcratciied
with the nail. In water it loles about one-feventh of its
weight. It has evidently a fmell, which becomes much
ftronger by heating or rubbing. It has likewife a pecu¬
liarly difagreeable fade, fo drong, that fome phyficians
have luppofed it to have a fenfible aflion on the animal
economy, and confequently have recommended it in fe-
veral diforders. Its extreme foftnefs renders it fcarcely
at all fonorous. Tin is the fecond among metals in the
order of dublility ; it is reducible beneath the hammer
into laminae, thinner than leaves of paper, which are of
great ufe in many arts. Its toughnefs is fuch, that a
wire of tin, of the tenth of an inch in diameter, fupports
a weight of forty-nine pounds and a half without break¬
ing. The abbe Mongez did not fucceed in his attempts
to crydallize tin ; but De la Chenoye fucceeded, by fuf-
.ing the tin for a number of f'ucceiiive times, by which
means he obtained a rhomboidal affemblage of prifms or
needles, united longitudinally to each other.
The fpecific gravity of tin, according to Kirwan, is
7-67 times that of water ; according to Briffon, 7'29- It
is not more eladic than lead. Its fufibility has not been
well determined ; fome equivocal experiments have been
made, which fixed it at 1680 of Reaumur; in which caie
its fufibility mud be greater than that of lead, which melts
only at 258° of the fame fcale, employing the fame means.
This fluidity cannot be determined by Wedgewood's py¬
rometer, becaufe that begins only at 460° of Reaumur’s
thermometer. It melts, however, at a heat of about 420
degrees, long before a red-heat is produced, and remains
fixed as long as the fire is not railed; but a confiderable
heat volatilizes it. If heated with accefs of air, its fur-
face becomes covered with a dull greyifh pellicle, and
aifumes a fhrivelled appearance. When this is taken
away, the tin is feen underneath with all its metallic
brilliancy. A new pellicle foon becomes colledled, and
in this manner mod of the tin may be reduced into pel¬
licles, which are nothing elle but a metallic oxyd, or
combination of the metal with the oxygen of the atmof-
phere. Then take the veffel off the fire ; let it cool ; pul¬
verize the oxyd in an iron-mortar; pals it through a
fieve, to Separate the uncalcined portions of the tin. Take
the oxyd thus prepared, and calcine it afrefh, in an earthen
capfule, in a cupelling or Macquer’s furnace, for fix or
feven hours, taking care to dir it from time to time with
an iron hook ; the oxyd becomes white, and is more
oxydated : in this date it is called putty of tin ; and is
ufed- for polifhing looking-glades, deel, and other hard
bodies. If it be expofed to an exceeding drong heat, it
291
melts into glafs, which (hews the prifmatic rays.' This
oxyd may be decompofed by the addition of animal or
vegetable combudible matters, as greafe, foap, & c. but
not without difficulty.
Tin heated by the biow-pipe, and thrown immediately
on the ground, or on a done, appears fparkling. It re¬
fills the adlion of the air extremely well; its furface be¬
comes a little tarnifned-, and covered with a greyifh pow¬
der, which is merely fuperficial, and never penetrates into
the metal.
To phofphorate tin, take equal parts of tin and phof-
phoric glafs, with one-eighth of charcoal ; mix them care¬
fully, and melt them in a crucible; fome grains of me¬
tal, pretty large, will be obtained, which appear like
tin ; but, when melted under a blow-pipe, the pliofpho-
rus will be feen to quit the. tin, and to burn at the fur-
face of the metal. , Care mud be taken in the manage¬
ment of the fire, when tin is to be melted with charcoal-
dud and phofphoric glafs, becaufe the phofphorus readily
quits the metal.
Tin may be eafily combined with fulphur, by throwing
one or two parts of fulphur in powder, on five or fix parts
of tin melted in an iron ladle; the mixture, being agi¬
tated with an iron fpatula, becomes black, and takes
fire. If it be melted in a crucible, a brittle maCs, difpofed
in flat needles united together, is obtained. To unite
arfenic with tin, put into a retort three parts of tin \6ith
one-eighth part of arfenic in powder ; fit on a receiver,
and heat the retort to rednefs ; very little arfenic riles,
and a metallic lump is found at the bottom : this mix¬
ture contains-about one-fifteenth part of arfenic ; it cryf-
tallizes in large facets, very brittle, and hard to melt.
The arfeniat of potafh combines much better with tin :
Melt equal parts of tin and arfeniat of potafh in a cru¬
cible ; the produft is a rough lump, brittle, and com-
pofed of very brilliant facets. The tin, thus united to
arfenic, will not melt under a red heat.
Crondedt affirms, that nickel united to tin forms a
white and brilliant mafs, which, "when calcined under a
muffle, rifes in a white oxyd under the form of a vegeta¬
tion. One-half part of melted tin with two parts of co¬
balt, and the fame quantity of muriat of foda, furnifhed
Baumc with an alloy in fmall clofe grains of a light vio¬
let colour. From equal parts of tin and bifinuth, by fu-
iion, Geilert obtained a very brittle alloy, of a medium
colour between thole metals, prefenting cubic facets in
its fra&ure : but all the bifinuth does not mix with the
tin, a fmall part is lod.
Antimony, united to this metal, affords, according1 to
Geilert, a white and very brittle metal, whofe fpecific
gravity is lei's than that of the two metallic fubltances
taken leparately. Zink unites perfectly with tin, and pro¬
duces a hard metal of a clofe-grained fradlure, and more
du6lile in proportion as the quantity of tin is larger.
Mercury dill'olves tin with great facility, and in ail pro¬
portions. To make this combination, heated mercury is
poured on melted tin ; the amalgam produced differs in
l'olidity according to the relative dofes of thefe two me¬
tallic lubllances.
An amalgam was formerly made with four parts of tin,
and one of mercury, which were call into balls that be¬
came folid in cooling; thefe balls were lul'pended in wa¬
ter for the purpofe of purifying it. An operation fome-
what fimilar to this is ufed in filvering looking-glalfes :
a mixture of tin and mercury is applied, which amalga¬
mates immediately.
Cold water has but little a£tion upon tin, but it tar-
nilhes its furface in time; the well-water of Paris has
this property in a peculiar degree.
Tin diflblves in the fulphuric acid, whether concen¬
trated or diluted with water: when concentrated, ac¬
cording to Kunckel, it diffolves half its weight of tin.
The lolution is performed very well by the abidance of
heat. Sulphureous gas, of a very penetrating fmell, is
difengaged, without any apparent eliervefcence or mo¬
tion.
CHEMISTRY.
292
tion. Sulphuric acid diluted with a fmall quantity of
water, adts likewife on tin ; but the folution is more per¬
manent, and affords a lefs abundant precipitate, on the ad¬
dition of more water. In this combination the tin feizes
the oxygen of the fulphuric acid, in fitch quantities that
fulphur is very fuddenly formed. This lubftance gives
the folution a brown colour while it is warm, and is pre¬
cipitated as foon as it becomes cold. When the folution
is more ftrongly heated, the tin is precipitated in the
form of a white oxyd. The fame phenomenon takes
place without the afliftance of heat, though in a much
longer time. Tin dilfolved in the fulphuric acid is very
cauftic. Monnet, by cooling, obtained cryftals fimilar
to calcareous fulphat, or fine needles, intermixed with
each other. The oxyd of tin precipitated from its folu¬
tion by handing, or by heat, is foluble in the fulphuric
acid. If the fulphuric folution of tin be evaporated to
• drynefs, the oxyd it affords is of a grey colour, very
difficult of redufiion, and no longer foluble in the acid.
Alkalis precipitate tin from the fulphuric acid, in the
form of a very white oxyd.
Nitric acid is decompofed by tin, even in the cold,
with a fingular degree of rapidity. This folution is one
of the molt ftriking and rapid among chemical pheno¬
mena. It appears that tin has a very itrong tendency to
unite' with the oxygen of the nitric acid; and as azot is
far from adhering as ftrongly to the oxygen in this acid,
as fulphur to the fame principle in the fulphuric acid, it
is not furprifmg that the decompofition of the former by
tin fhould be much quicker than that of the latter by
the fame metal. Morveau has obferved, that, in a folu¬
tion of tin by the nitric acid, no gas is dilengaged, but
that ammoniac is formed. We fee, therefore, that the
tin not only decompofes the nitric acid, but likewife the
water, fince it can only be the hydrogen of the water,
which, uniting to the azot of the nitric acid, forms the
ammoniac produced in this operation. The tin is con¬
verted into a white oxyd, which Macquer in vain at¬
tempted to reduce. The metal in this ftate appears to
be fuperfaturated with oxygen. The nitric acid holds
but a very fmall quantity of the metal in folution ; and
when evaporated with the intention of obtaining cryf¬
tals, the dilfolved portion quickly precipitates, and the
acid remains nearly in a ftate of purity. Bucquet how¬
ever affirms, that a nitratof tin, whofe form he has not
determined, may be obtained from this folution ; it is
very deliquefeent. He likewife afferts, that if the oxyd
of tin, produced by the decompofition of the nitric acid,
be wafhed with water, the fluid diffolves a fmall quantity
of the nitrat of tin, which may be obtained by evapo¬
ration. The nitric acid retains a fomewhat larger quan¬
tity of tin in folution, when it is ufed in a very diluted
ftate ; but it let its fall by ftanding, or by the applica¬
tion of heat. Bayen and Charlard, in their valuable
inquiries concerning tin, have difeovered, that when the
nitric acid is charged with all the tin it can oxydate, fo
as to become thick and incapable of adfing on new por¬
tions of the metal, a ftanno-nitrous fait is obtained, by
waffling the mafs with a large quantity of diftilled water,
and evaporating the water to drynefs, which fait detonates
alone .in a heated veflel, and burns with a white and
denle flame, like that of phofphorus. This fait is not a
nitrat of tin, but a kind of triple fait or nitrat of am¬
moniac and tin. Diftilled in a retort, it fwells up, boils,
and inftantly fills the receiver with a white thick vapour
of a nitrous fmell.
The fuming muriatic acid adts ftrongly on tin, and
diffolves it by the help of a gentle heat, and even in the
cold, inftantly lofing its colour and property of emitting
fumes. The very flight effervefcence which takes place
in this combination difengages a fetid inflammable gas
from the mixture, not at all refembling the fmell of ar-
fenic, as fbme chemifts have affirmed. The water is there¬
fore decompofed by the tin with the afliftanceof the acftL
The muriatic acid diffolves more than half its weight of
tin ; the folution is yellowifn, of a very fetid fmell, and
does not afford a precipitateof oxyd of the tin like two laft
mentioned acids. By evaporation it affords brilliant and
very regularly formed needles, which attraft the humidity
of the air. If this fait be diftilled in a retort, with a re¬
ceiver adapted, the water of cryftallization will firft ap¬
pear, then fome fuper-oxygenattd muriat of tin will be
volatiiized, and an oxyd of tin remains in the retort. If
to a recent folution of muriat of tin, be added a folution
of gold, a purple precipitate is formed, known by the
name of precipitate of CaJJius ; but the precipitation will
not take place if the oxygenated muriat of tin be ufed
inftead of the common muriat.
Oxygenated muriatic aciddiffolves tin very readily, and
without fenfible effervefcence, becaufe that metal quickly
abforbs the fuperabundant oxygen from the acid, and does
not require any decompofition of the water to effedf its
oxydation. The folution has then all the charadfers of
the preceding. If a muriatic folution of tin be left in
contaft with air, it becomes oxygenated; the fame effedt
takes place with the red oxyd of mercury, and the oxy¬
genated muriat of mercury.
Nitro-muriatic acid, made with two parts of nitric
acid and one of muriatic acid, diffolves tin with effer¬
vefcence. A ftrongheat is excited, which mult be check¬
ed by plunging the mixture into cold water. To form a
permanent folution of tin in this mixed acid, the metal
mull be added by fmall portions at a time, one portion
being buffered entirely to difappear before a fucceeding
one be added; if the whole were addpd at once, great
part of the metal would be oxydated. Aqua regia, by
this management, will diffolve half its weight of tin.
The folution is of a reddifh brown, nearly tranfparent,
and frequently, in a few feconds, becomes converted
into a tremulous jelly, of the appearance of rofin. Some¬
times it becomes concrete, on the addition of half its
weight of water, though it was perfectly fluid before :
but the jelly formed by the addition of water is of an
opal colour, becaufe, according to the remark of Mac¬
quer, the folution itfelf being decompofable by water, a
portion of the oxyd of tin is precipitated, ami deftroys
the tranfparency of the jelly.
Tin decompofes the corrofive mercurial muriat. To
effedt this, the tin is firft divided by the addition of a
fmall portion of mercury ; equal parts of this amalgam,
and the corrofive mercurial muriat, are triturated toge¬
ther, and the mixture expofed fo diftiilation in a glafs
retort, by a very gentle heat. A colourlefs liquor firft
paffes over, and is followed by a thick white vapour,
which ifiues with a kind of explofion, and covers the in¬
ternal furface of the receiver with a very thin cruft. The
vapour becomes condenfed into a tranfparent liquor,
which continually emits a thick, white, and very abun¬
dant, fume. It is called the fuming liquor of Libavius,
and is the combination of the muriatic acid and tin, the
acid appearing to be fuperfaturated with oxygen. Adet,
who read a memoir to the Academy upon the fuming li¬
quor of Libavius, has fliown, 1. That the effervefcence,
which takes place as often as it is mixed with water, de¬
pends on the difengagement of an elaftic fluid, which
polleffes all the properties of azotic gas. 2. That the
fuming liquor, combined with water, in the proportion
of feven to twenty-two, forms a folid body, which melts
by the adtion of heat, congeals by cold, and refembles
the oxygenated muriat of tin, or butter of tin. 3. That
the fumingliquor, diluted with water, diifolves tin with¬
out the difengagement of hydrogen gas, and affords a
fait fimilar to that which is obtained by thediredt combi¬
nation. of the muriatic acid and tin. He concludes, from
his various experiments, that the fuming liquor is no¬
thing elfe but a compound of the muriatic acid in the
aeriform ftate, and the oxyd of tin in which oxygen pre¬
dominates ; and that this fait is the fame, with reipedt to
the common muriat of tin, as the oxygenated muriat of
mercury is to the muriat of mercury, or mercurius dulcis .
The
C H E M I
The refidue of the diftillation of the fuming liquor of
Libavius, exhibits phenomena equally interesting -with
thofe of the liquor ltfelf. The upper part and the neck
of the retort are covered with alight, white, and greyifh,
crult, which, according to the experiments of Rou.elie
the younger, contains -a . l'mall quantity of the fuming
liquor, concrete muriat of tin, or corneous tin, mercu¬
rial muriat, and running mercury; the bottom of the
veffel contains an. amalgam of mercury and tin, above
which is a corneous tin of a light grey, folid and com¬
pact, which may be volatilized by a ftronger heat.
Fluoric acid, dilfolves the oxyds of tin, and forms with
it a gelatinous mafs, the properties of which are but little
known. The boracic acid difl'olves tin by boiling in
water, and (hoots with it into final! irregular granular
■cryftals. In the fire this fait melts into an opake grey
(lag. Phofphoric acid combines by the afliftance of heat
- with tin, and forms with it a fait difficultly foluble in
water. Phofphat of tin is ea(ily changed into a glafs like
fubftance in the fire. Phofphoric acid precipitates tin
from its folution in aqua regia; but the affinity of this
compared with the other acids is not known. Pure tar¬
taric acid has no perceptible action on tin; but a folu-
tion of tartarit of potaffi boiled with water and tin dif-
folves a conliderable quantity of this metal, and forms
with it an ealily foluble, permanent, needle-fhaped fait.
Tin diffolved by heat in oxalic acid at firft becomes black,
and is afterwards covered with a grey powder. An elaltic
fluid is difengaged, which does not appear to have been
examined. The l'olution has an aultere take, and affords,
by evaporation, prihnatic cryftals. By quick evapora¬
tion a horny-like mafs is formed, which gives a copious
precipitate with alkalis. Oxyd of tin dilfolves eafily in
oxalic acid. The oxalat of tin has always an excels of
acid, and is difficultly foluble in water. Acetic acid dif-
folves tin only in a (mall quantity. The folution, which
has a metallic fade, foon becomes muddy, and depofits a
white oxyd. This combination does not cryftallize. The
oxyd of tin dilfolves readily in acetic acid. If fpirit of
wine be added to this dilution after it has been evapo¬
rated to the confidence of affyrup, crydals of acetat of
tin are obtained, which are hard, heavy, white, tranfpa-
rent, and tadelefs. This fait is decompofed by the i'ul-
phuric, muriatic, and nitric, acids, and by fire. The ci-
trat and malat of tin are unknown. The benzoic acid,
according to Trommfdorff, afts direfily neither on tin
nor its oxyd; but benzoat of potafli is faid to decom-
pofe the muriat of tin, and to form with the tin a fait
difficultly foluble even in boiling water. Prufliat of pot-
afii precipitates tin white from its folution in muriatic
acid. The precipitate by the gallic acid is of a white
grey colour.
An oxyd of tin is prepared with three parts of putty
of tin, and fix parts of nitrat of potafli : Put this mix¬
ture into a crucible, and keep it over a drong fire for
four hours : let it cool, and walla it to feparate the oxyd
of tin ; then take fix parts of this oxyd of tin, and mix
with four parts of fulphur ; put this mixture into a wide
crucible, which is to be only one-third full; introduce
an earthen cover, Hoped off fo that it may go into the
crucible, and leave a hollow of only about eight lines
above the contents of the crucible ; then lute on a pro¬
per head over the crucible. Put the crucible, thus le-
cured, into a larger, which is to contain lome And alfo ;
thus the crucible containing the mixture, which is to
form what is called mufirve gold, is in a fand-bath. Place
the apparatus immediately over the grate of a common
furnace, and raile the fire with care. In general, for the
formation of fine mufive gold, it mud be prepared with a
gentle heat, long continued : the' degree of heat necef-
lary to lublime muriat ot ammoniac is what is required
here, and it diould be kept up for eight or ten hours : it
will be no detriment to continue the fire even a longer
time, provided it be not increaied ; for, with this degree
of beat, the mufive gold will not be decompofed. The
VOL. IV. No/197.
S T R Y. 291
addition of a little water to the mixtures will make the-
operation fucceed the better. Or, the experiment may
be performed in a glafs retort : dillil the mixture with a
gentle heat; a very fmall quantity of fulphur will be
fublimed, a little fulphureous gas will be produced, and
the mufive gold will be found in the retort.
The following is another procefs for obtaining mufive
gold : Make an amalgam with equal parts of tin and
mercury. Fird heat a copper mortar, and put the mer¬
cury therein ; when it has acquired a certain degree of
heat, pour in the melted tin; agitate and triturate the
mixture till it becomes cold ; then mix with it fix parts
of fulphur, and four of ammoniacal muriat. Put the
whole into a matrafs, and place it on a land-bath, and
heat it fo as to make the bottom of the matrafs of a dull
red ; keep up the fire for three hours. This procefs pro¬
duces commonly very fine mufive gold. But if, indead
of placing the matrafs on a fand-bath, it be put direftly
on the coals, and the fire be made fierce, the mixture
will take fire, and the mufive gold will be fublimed in the
neck of the retort.
Pelletier obtained a very beautiful mufive gold by dif-
tilling together equal parts of mercury, muriat of am¬
moniac, tin, and fulphur. The explanation which this
chemid gives of the different changes which, occur in
this complicated procefs is fo extremely happy, that we
cannot do better than place the whole of it immediately
under the eye of the reader. “ The previous rubbing
with the mercury helps to oxydate the tin. A difengagc-
ment of hydrogen gas is produced by the re-a£lion of the
muriat of ammoniac on the tin. The oxyd of tin which
is formed decompofes the muriat of ammoniac, and the
difengaged ammoniac, uniting with the fulphur, pafles
over into the receiver in the form of. an ammoniacal ful-
pliure. The -muriatic acid unites with the oxyd of tin,
and forms with it muriat of tin, a very linall portion of
which palfes over in diftillation; the other portion is af¬
terwards decompofed by the aftion of the fire, while the
oxyd of tin which remains unites with the fulphur to
form the mufive gold. The muriatic acid, which is vo¬
latilized, meeting with the ammoniac, combines with it,
and produces muriat of ammoniac. In this procefs there
is a portion of tin which has been Amply oxydated, and
which in this ftate unites with the fulphur to form mu-
five gold. There is alfo a portion of muriat of ammo¬
niac which elcapes decompofition, and which of courfe
is fublimed. The mercury combines with the fulphur,
and forms with it the fulphure of mercury, which palles
over during diftillation. A l'mall portion of mufive gold,
in beautiful plates, is fometimes found in the upper part
of the veffel in which the fublimation is performed. The
muriat of ammoniac, in being volatilized, carries along
with it a fmall portion of the oxyd of tin ; and it is this
portion of oxyd which in the moment of volatilization
unites to the fulphur it meets with in a ftate of vapour,
and forms with it the mufive gold that is attached to the
upper part of the veffel. It is very neceffary in this pro-
ceis to be cautious in the management of the fire ; for, if
this be raifed too high, fulphureous acid gas will pals
ever towards the end of the operation, and, ipttead of
mufive gold, a black-coloured metallic fubftance, or com¬
mon fulphure of tin, will be obtained.” The different
parts of this explanation will be fully illuftrated by the
following experiments.
Six hundred grains of fulphur being added to a folu¬
tion of fix hundred grains of tin in four ounces of mu¬
riatic acid, and evaporated by a gentle heat, a concrete
fubftance was obtained. During the evaporation, copious
vapours of muriatic acid were difengaged. This con¬
crete fubftance being reduced to a powder, was put into
a retort, and expoled to a ftrong heat. Concrete muriat
of tin, and afterwards a little fulphur, were fublimed in¬
to the neck of the retort. The refidue vyas mufive gold*
of a beautiful colour.
A mixture of equal parts of tin-filings, fulphur, and
4 F muriat
294 C H E M :
muriat of ammoniac, afford by diftillation a fulphure of
ammoniac, fulphurated hydrogen gas, a little fulphuf, and
muriat of ammoniac. In this procefs the muriat of am¬
moniac is decompofed by the tin, and the difengaged
ammoniac unites with the fulphur, and forms the ful¬
phure of ammoniac. The muriatic; acid unites with the
tin, and dilengages the hydrogen gas, which, in being
volatilized, carries along with it a (mall portion of ful¬
phur, and forms with it the fulphurated hydrogen gas.
The muriat of tin is afterwards decompofed by the fire :
the difengaged acid finding again the ammoniac, re-pro¬
duces the muriat of ammoniac, while the oxyd of tin
remaining fixed, unites with the fulphur to form mufive
gold.
The frequent failure which artills experience in the
procefs for making mufive gold, appearing to Pelletier to
depend on the too great degree of heat which they em¬
ploy, he was induced to try the following experiment :
Sulphur was added in different portions to one hundred
ounces of melted tin, till the tin appeared to be faturated
with it. By each addition, the metal feemed to become
lefs fulible. When cooled, the mafs weighed 116 ounces
and a half. Equal parts of this mafs reduced to powder,
and muriat of ammoniac, were diftilled together in ,a
heated retort. A fraall portion of ammoniac v/as difen¬
gaged, fome drops of fulphure of ammoniac came over;
and, laflly, muriat of ammoniac was fublimed into the
neck of the retort. The refidue was a black iridefcent
mafs, refembling fome fpecies of pyrites. To the ingre¬
dients of the former mixture, an equal portion of ful¬
phur was added, and the whole lubjefted to diftillation.
The products were, fulphurated hydrogen gas, fulphat
of ammoniac,, a little fulphur, and muriat of ammoniac,
having a yellow colour. The refidue was mufive gold.
In this experiment the ammoniac difengaged from the
muriatic acid finds a portion of uncombined fulphur
with which it unites, and forms the fulphure of ammo¬
niac. The oxyd and muriat of tin which are formed alfo
uncombined, find fulphur ; fo that the oxyd of tin is
eventually fully faturated with fulphur.
Three ounces of fulphure of tin were diftilled with
three ounces of the oxygenated muriat of mercury.
White vapours were difengaged, muriat of tin was fub¬
limed into the neck of the retort, and fluid mercury puff¬
ed over into the receiver. The relidue, a very beautiful
mufive gold, weighed two ounces and a half. Muriat of
tin. in this procefs, was volatilized, becaufe the quanti¬
ty of fulphur contained in the fulphure of tin was not
fufficient to iaturate the whole of the oxyd which had
been produced. Perhaps, by diminifliing the quantity
of oxygenated muriat of mercury, or by adding a little
more of the fulphur, it may be poflible to prevent alto¬
gether the lofs which ariles from the volatilization of the
muriat of tin/
A mixture of equal parts of muriat of tin and red oxyd
of mercury, by the nitric acid, were diftilled together.
Fluid mercury came over into the receiver, and the reii-
due confilted of a mixture of mufive gold and undecom-
pofed fulphure of tin.
Six hundred grains of fulphure of tin were diftilled with
fix hundred grains of cinnabar, or the fulphurated oxyd
of mercury. Fluid mercury palled over into the receiver ;
the refidue in the retort was mufive gold. In this pro-
cefs, the oxygen, of the mercury united with the tin to
form the oxyd of tin, while this retained not only the
fulphur with which it was formerly combined, but alfo
that which had been imparted to it by the fulphure of
mercury. But as fulphure of mercury contains twenty
per cent, of fulphur, and fulphure of tin from fifteen to
twenty, mufive gold mufti neceffarily contain from thirty-
five to forty per cent: of that fubltance.
Equal parts of fulphur and oxyd of tin, precipitated
from its folution in muriatic acid, were diftilled together.
Sulphureous acid gas was difengaged, and fome fulphur
fublimed into the neck of the retort. The refidue was
a
S T R Y,
mufive gold. Similar productions were obtained with an
oxyd of tin from the nitric acid.
Sulphat of ammoniac was added to a folution of tin in
muriatic acid. A reddifh precipitate was formed, which
affumed a black colour by drying it. Diftilled in a gentle
heat, this precipitate gave out a little ammoniac : the re¬
fidue was mufive gold. In this procefs, the muriatic acid
quits the oxyd of tin, to unite with the ammoniac acid,
and the oxyd of tin, in its turn, feizes on the fulphur it
finds in a ltate of perfeCt divifion, to form mufive gold.
This laft requires only to be heated, in order to exhibit
its peculiar colour. It is to be oblerved, that in this in-
ftance the mufive gold feems to have been formed in the
humid way.
A folution of tin in the muriatic acid was precipitated
by a folution of fulphure of potafh. The precipitate was
of a dark colour, approaching to yellow. By diftillation,
fulphureous acid was difengaged, and a little fulphur
fublimed into the neck of the retort : the relidue was
mufive gold. This, therefore, may be confidered as an¬
other inftance of the formation of this fubltance in the
humid way.
Mufive gold was fubjeCted to diftillation in a ftrong
heat ; a confiderable quantity of fulphureous acid gas was
difengaged, and fome fulphur fublimed into the neck of
the retort ; the refidue was a black fhining metallic mafs.
It feems almoft fuperfluous to remark, that the fulphu¬
reous acid gas mult have beerr formed by the combina¬
tion of a portion of the fulphur with the oxygen of the
oxyd of tin.. The change which takes place in thi? ex¬
periment, in the order of the affinities, is to be attributed
in this, as in many other inftances, to a difference in the
degree of temperature.
Two hundred grains of charcoal in powder, with 600
of mufive gold, were introduced into a retort, and placed
in a reverberatory furnace, and the neck of the retort
connected with a chemical pneumatic apparatus. By-
keeping the mixture in a red-heat for three hours, about
100 cubic inches of an elaftic fluid were difengaged. The
firft portion of this gas which palled over, feemed to be
carbonic acid, containing about i-iooth of fulphurated
hydrogen. This gas had alfo volatilized, and held as it
were in folution, a large quantity of fulphur, which was
afterwards depofited on the furface of the water, by which
the gas was abf’orbed. The gas difengaged towards the
end of the procefs contained a greater quantity of ful¬
phurated hydrogen, till at laft bubbles of pure hydrogen
gas were evolved : the refidue was a fulphure of tin di¬
vided by charcoal.
Six hundred grains of mufive gold were digefted for
fome hours in'muriatic acid, but the colour remained un¬
changed. After being filtered and dried, it weighed ftill
580 grains. The twenty grains that difappeared were
probably a fulphure which had been mixed with the mu-^
live gold ; for, when this fubftance was digefted a fecond
time with muriatic acid, no lofs of weight could be per¬
ceived. From thefe experiments it appears clearly, that
tin, whether in its native ftate, or amalgamated with mer¬
cury, or combined with fulphur, is uniformly oxydated
during the production of mufive gold.
This preparation is ufed for colouring bronze, and to
increale the power of the eleCtric machine, by rubbing-
the cufhions with it. Inftead of this, fays La Grange,
“ I have often feen ufed a fubftance which is collected in
fine powder from the pedicles between the branches of
the licopodium?'
Potafh feems to have but little aCtion with tin; but
this preparation has not been thoroughly examined. It
is the fame with ammoniac ; it is known only that the
metal is attacked by that faiine fubftance, tarnifhing its
furface, and prefenting rainbow-colours.
Earthy matters contradno union with this metal. Its
oxyd, which is very infufible, does not form a tranfpa-
rent nor coloured glafs with vitrifying fubftances ; but,
as it is exceedingly white, it renders the glals of a very
opake
C H E M I
opake white colour, by its interposition between the
traniparent parts. This kind of vitreous frit is called
enamel. Putty of tin, on account of its infufibility, de¬
prives all glalfes of their transparency, and converts them
into coloured enamels. Thefulphats of potafh and foda
are decompoled by jtin. Equal parts of fulphat of potafh
and tin being heated in a crucible, afford a greenifh melt¬
ed mafs, which no longer exhibits any metal, and is a
true fulphure of tin. The tin deprives the Sulphuric
acid of its oxygen ; the fulphur difengaged by this de-
compofition combines with the potafh, and this fulphure
diffolves a portion of the oxyd of tin.
This metal caufes nitre todetonate with rapidity. For
this purpofe it is melted, and made obfcurely red-hot in
a crucible. Dry nitre in powder being then thrown in,
produces a white and brilliant flame. Add a frefh quan¬
tity of uitre, till there is no longer any detonation.
Then take the crucible off the fire, and feparate its con¬
tents; wafh in water, and filtre the liquor, which will
be found to contain the potafh of the nitrat, and there
remains oxyd of tin, which contains a little alkali ren¬
dered cauftic by the tin. It fhould therefore be well
wafhed; and, by the addition of an acid, all the oxyd
of tin may be precipitated.
The muriat of ammoniac is alfo decompofed by tin :
Take of granulated tin, and of ammoniacal muriat in
powder, nearly equal quantities ; putthe mixtureintoa re¬
tort, and adapt a receiver, with the mercurial .pneumatic
apparatus ; asi'oonas theretortisheated,caufticammoniac
is difengaged in the ftate of gas. The refidue of tbede-
compolition is a folid muriat of tin, decompofable by
water, and flmilarto that which is formed by this metal
with coiTofive muriat of mercury.
The ufes of tin are very numerous. It is applied to ma¬
ny purpoies in the arts, in forming many veffels, organ pipes,
decorations, &c. Bell metal, and bronze for flatues, are
compounds of this metal, with copper. The pewterers mix
tin with bifmuth, antimony, lead, and copper, to make
utenfils of all forts, which are' very fubjeft to change by
expofure to air. Tin is melted with oxyd of lead and
fand, to make enamel, as well as to glaze pottery, & c.
The cryftallized muriat of tin is ufeful in the art of calico
printing. Its iolution in aqua regia, or nitro-muriatic
acid, heightens the tindure of cochineal, of gum lac,
&c. lb as to convert it into the molt lively fire colour.
The dyers make ufe ofthisfolution, which they call com-
poiition, 'to make fcarlet. When it is mixed in the dyers
bath, it forms a precipitate, which carries down the co¬
louring matter, and depoiits it on the fluff which is to be
dyed. This oblervation is due to Macquer, whole la¬
bours have greatly improved this art.
Many, phyficians, who have directed their attention t,o
metallic lubftances, confidered as medicines, have ac¬
knowledged the innocence of t.in, and have even advifed
its filings to be taken in fubltance in diforders of the li¬
ver, of the matrix, and for worms. Schulz, in his dif-
fertation on the ufe of Metallic Veffels, in the prepara¬
tion of food and medicines, recommends pure tin as very
wholefome. La Poterie prefcribes oxyd of tin as one of
the component parts of a preparation called antihedic,
which conlifts of oxyds of antimony and tin, formed by
detonation with nitre ; the alkali, which the water dif¬
folves, always retains a portion of the metallic oxyd.
Tin is recommended as a vermifuge. Some people are
in the habit of infufing fweet wine for four hours in the
cold, in a tin veffel, and giving a glafs of this liquor to
their children who are troubled with worms. It ads as a
violent purgative.
Of LEAD. ,
The ores of lead are found in lumps and in furrows,
in mountains, foils, and rocks, and in ftones of all ages
and kinds: its moft ordinary gangues are, quartz, hea¬
vy fpar, calcareous fpars, fluor, clay, l'chiflus, &c. fbme-
S T R Y. ; 295
times mixed with fulphure of iron, zink, calcedony,
and even with jafper. Lead has little hardnefs, and (till
lefs elafticity ; it is the fweeteft of metals, having a pecu¬
liar fmell perceptible on rubbing, which arifes from a
beginning of oxydation ; the fame may be faid of its tafle.
The foftnefs of lead occafions it to be fo little fonorous.
To this metal the alchemifts gave the name of Saturn.
Its cohefion is manifefl by the adhefion of its parts re¬
cently divided, as loon as brought into contact : it isin-
deed the only metal which can be brought perfectly in
contad: if a leaden bullet be cut in two, and the parts
immediately put clofe together, they will adhere very
ftrongly. It eafily extends under the hammer, and may
be reduced into plates or leaves thinner than paper.
To obtain it in grains, it mull be melted, and then tri¬
turated in an iron mortar.
Lead, expofed to heat, melts long before it becomes
ignited. The heat neceffary to hold it in fufion, is fo
inconfiderable, that the hand may be plunged in it when
melted without pain; and in this ilate it does not burn
vegetable fubltances. It is laid to melt at 5400 of Fah¬
renheit. If it be fuffered to cool very flowly after being
melted, and the melted portion be poured off from that
which is become folid, it is found to be cryftallized in
quadrangular pyramids. When melted with the contact
of air, it foon becomes covered with a grey and dull pel¬
licle; this pellicle is carefully taken off, and reduced by
agitation into an oxyd of a greenifh grey, verging towards
yellow. When feparated by thefieve from the grains of
lead with which it is mixed, and afterwards expofed to
a more violent red heat, it becomes of a deep yellow, and
in this ftate is named mafiicot. This laft, flowly heat¬
ed by a gentle fire, aflumes a beautiful red colour, and
is known by the name of minium. If maflicot be ftrongly
heated, fo as to produce a femi-vitrification, its parts ag¬
glutinate in little thin fcales* which preferve their red co¬
lour, but not fo bright : this oxyd takes the name of li¬
tharge of gold, and litharge of fiver when the colour is
paler. This compofition is never made on purpofe :
that which is found in the (hops is either procured from
the purifying of gold and filver in the large way, or from,
the works for converting lead intolitharge. If red oxyd,
or litharge, be expofed to heat in a crucible, it will
melt, but not fo eafily as lead, and is converted into
glafs ; which glaf’s is fo fufible, that impenetrates the cru¬
cible, and efcapes. To avoid fill is inconvenience, add
one part of fand to three parts of the oxyd ; put the mix¬
ture into a good crucible, place it on the muffle of a fur¬
nace, and keep it to a white heat for two or three hours,
or till it melts; a fine amber-coloured glafs will be pro¬
duced. \
All the oxyds, and even the glaffes, of lead, are eafily
decompofed by combuftible bodies. For this purpofe it
is fuflicient to mix them with charcoal, foot, greale, oil,
relin, or, in a word, any inflammable fubltance what¬
ever, and to heat them for a certain time, in order to ob¬
tain a button of lead. This reduction may be made ei¬
ther in a crucible, or witlxcharcoal under the blow-pipe.
Hydrogen gas tinges the lurface of lead with rainbow
colours; it even revives the oxyds of lead. If the red
oxyd of lead be put in contact with this gas, it becomes
black and dull.
Lead mixed with fulphur produces a true fulphure :
Melt three parts of lead and one of fulphur in an iron la¬
dle ; ftir the mixture; the fulphur quickly combines
with the lead, and converts it into a black powder of a
fcaly texture. If this be put into a crucible, it will not
melt at lefs than a red heat; and the refult then is a
black, brittle, fragile, mafs, difpofed in facets; this is
fulphure of lead, or artificial galena.
Phofphorus enters into fufion with lead : Melt in a cru¬
cible equal parts of lead filings and phofphoric glafs,
with one-eighth part of charcoal: the product appears
very little different from lead; it is malleable, eafily cut
with
296 £ C H E M
with a knife, but loftes its brilliancy fooner than lead ;
and, when melted with the blow pipe upon a coal, the
phofphorus burns, and quits the lead.
The alloy of lead with arfenic has not been examined.
Nickel, manganefe, cobalt, and zink, do not unite with
lead by fufion. Antimony forms a brittle alloy with
fome brilliant facets, fimilar in texture and colour to iron
or fte'el, according to the proportions of the mixture,
and of a fpecific gravity more confiderable than the two
metallic i'ubftances, feparately taken, would compote.
Lead alfo combines with bifunith, and affords a metal of
a fine and dole grain, which is very brittle. Mercury
dillolves lead with the greateft facility ; this amalgam is
made by-pouring hot mercury into melted lead. It is
white and brilliant, and becomes folid at the end of a
certain time. Lead unites very eafily by fufion with tin.
Two parts of lead, and one of tin, form an alloy more
fufible than either of the metals taken feparately, and
conftitutes the folder of the plumbers. Eight parts of
bifinuth, five of lead, and three of tin, compofe an al¬
loy fo fufible, that the heat of boiling water is fufficient
to melt it. Tin and lead melted together, become reci¬
procally oxydated : thele two oxyds compounded toge¬
ther form the balls of different enamels, and the glafing
of delft-ware. The ufual way is to calcine one hundred
parts of lead and thirty of tin in an oven ; mixjrhe oxyds
with one hundred parts of fand and thirty of potalh :
melt this mixture, and the produft will be a white opake
glafs, called white enamel. This enamel may be colour¬
ed at pleafure by means of the metallic oxyds.
Lead is not altered by pure water, becaufe the princi¬
ples of the water are not feparated by that metal ; yet the
internal parts of lead pipes which coijduft water are co¬
vered with a whitilh cruft, or a kind of cerufe, which
doubtlefs is produced by the aftion of the different fub-
ftances contained in the water on this metallic fubftance.
Mr. Luzuriaga has obferved, that by agitating granu¬
lated lead in a fmall quantity of water, with the contact
of air, the metal becomes quickly oxydated.
This metal is foluble in all the acids; but concentrat¬
ed fulphuric acid does not attack it, except it be boiling,
and the lead be in fmall pieces. In this procefs fuiphu-
reous acid gas paffes over. When moll of the acid is de-
compofed, the mixture is white and dry, and feparates
into two portions, on being wafhed with diftilled water.
The moll confiderable part is infoluble in water, and is
an oxyd of lead containinga little fulphuric acid, formed
by the oxygen which the metal has taken from the acid
during the time of the dilengagement of the fulphureous
gas. The other portion, foluble by water, is a combi¬
nation of fulphuric acid and oxyd of lead; this folution,
by evaporation, affords fmall needles of l'ulphat of lead.
It is decompofed by fire alone, and alfo by lime and al¬
kalis, and then becomes a fulphure. The nitric acid ap¬
pears to aft very ftrongly on lead : Pour into a matrafs
two parts of weak nitric acid upon one of lead-filings;
place the matrafs on a warm land-bath : the nitric acid
diffolves the lead, and, during. the lolution a grey pow¬
der is precipitated, which Groffe took to be mercury;
but Baume affirms that this matter is nothing but a por¬
tion of the oxyd of lead. This folution does not afford
a precipitate on the addition of water. Its cryftals, ob¬
tained by cooling, are of an opake white, in the form of
flat triangles, whofe angles are truncated ; the fame iolu-
tion, by a flow evaporation of feveral months, affords
cryftals, the largeft one inch in thicknels, of the form of
hexlahedral pyramids, whole three faces are alternately
large and fmall, and whofe point is truncated, io that
each cryftal is an eight-fided folid. The nitrat of lead
decrepitates in the fire, and melts with a yellowilh flame
when laid on ignited charcoal. The oxyd, which is at
fiift yellow, becomes quickly reduced into globules of
lead. If this fait be diftilled ill clofevefiels with a ftrong
heat, it gives out a confiderable quantity of oxygen gas.
Mixed with inflammable lubftances, it detonates in the
I S T R Y.
fire, and has, on that account, been termed fulminating
lead This la.lt is decompofable by lime and alkalis.
The fulphuric acid, though it afts but feebly on lead,
has neverthelefs a llronger affinity to the oxyd of this me¬
tal than the nitric acid. If pure fulphuric acid, or any
neutral, earthy, or alkaline fulphuric fait, be added to a
nitric folution of lead, a white precipitate is formed in a
very fhort time : this precipitation takes place, becaufe
the fulphuric acid, feizing the oxyd of lead, forms with
it fulphat of lead, fimilar to that which is prepared by
the immediate combination of the fulphuric acid with
that metal.
The pure muriatic acid, by the affiftance of heat, oxy-
dates lead, and jjdi Solves part of its oxyd ; but it is diffi¬
cult to faturate it completely. This metal becomes
more readily and intimately combined with the muriatic
acid, by adding the acid itfelf, or the acid united with
an alkaline or earthy bafe, to a folution of nitrat of lead.
A white precipitate is immediately formed, which is
much more abundant than that produced by the fulphu¬
ric acid, and relembles a coagulum. It is a combina¬
tion of the oxyd of lead with the muriatic acid, which
has feparated the oxyd of this metal from the nitric acid.
This fait falls down, becaufe it is much lefts foluble ia
water than nitrat oft lead ; if it be expofed to heat, it gives
out vapours, whole talle refembles fugar, and melts into
a brown mafs, called corneous had. It is foluble in thirty
times its weight of boiling water. The lolution of this
fait by evaporation cryllallizes into fmall, fine, and bril¬
liant needles, which form bundles, or unite by one of
their extremities in an obtufe angle. This fait has a
lvveetilh tafte ; it melts eafily, and in cooling takes the
fliape of a horn, whence the name Corneous lead, though
Fourcroy gives a different interpretation; it may then
be cut and flatted ; lime and alkalis decompofe it.
The oxygenated muriatic acid dillolves lead ; if added
in a certain proportion, the folution becomes red: thus
may be obtained a fuper-oxygenated muriat of lead.
Phofphoric acid combines with the oxyh of lead, but
not with the metal. Boracic acid will not attack lead ;
but a borat may be formed by decompofing nitrat of
lead ; it may be obtained alio by rfleans of its oxyds.
Fluoric acid has, i'ome action on lead, but the effeft is
much llronger on the oxyds. The oxyds of lead feem
to have a ftrong attraftion for carbonic acid ; but this
acid does not difl’olve lead’ either in its metallic or oxyd¬
ated Hate.
Oxyd of lead unites with filex. The fame oxyd, added
to common glafs, does not alter its tranfparency, but
gives it a greater degree of weight, and more efpecially a
kind of unftuoufnefs, which renders it capable of being’
cut and poliffied more _ eafily without breaking. This
glafs is very proper to form achromatic lenfes ; buj: it is
lubjeft to veins, and to have a gelatinous afpeft.’ It is"
called flint glafs.
Lead is oxydated by nitrat of potalh, or nitre. With
this, neutral lalt in powder is thrown on the melted metal
in a low red heat, it excites fcarcely any detonation or
apparent flame, though the lead is oxydated'and vitrified
by the alkali of nitre, and takes the form of fmall yel¬
lowilh feales, fimilar to litharge. Lead decompoles am-
moniacal muriat by the affiftance of heat. For this pur-
pofe, take two parts of muriat of ammoniac in powder,
and- two or three parts of red oxyd of lead : put the mix¬
ture into a ftone retort, and place it in a reverberating
furnace ; adapt a balloon to the neck of the retort, and
from this mull go a tube, which is to be plunged into a
Woulfe’s bottle, containing a quantity of water equal to
the muriat of ammoniac ; lute the joinings, and proceed
to diftillation with a gradual fire, which mull be in-
creafed towards the end of the operation, fo as to make
the retort red-hot. Very pure and very cauftic ammo¬
niac paffes over ; when no more ammoniac comes over,
the operation is ended. The mafs which remains in the
retort after the decompofition is muriat of lead, which
melts
C H E M I
smelts by a moderate heat into corneous lead, and is to¬
tally foluble in water. This mats was employed by
Margraaf in the procefs for making the pholphorus of
urine. The red oxyd of lead afts in the fame manner
with m lariat of ammoniac in the cold j for, as foon as the
mixture is made, the ammoniac begins to come over.
The femi-vitreous oxyd of lead decompofes muriat of
foda : Take four parts of this oxyd and one of muriat of
foda ; reduce the oxyd to powder, and diffolve the mu¬
riat in four times its weight of water ; mix the two fub-
Itances together into a light pafte. Thus let it remain ;
and, when the furface begins to whiten, work it with a
wooden fpatula : if it acquires too much folidity, dilute
it with frelh quantities of the folution of muriat of foda ;
if there is not enough of this folution, then ufe common
water. At the end of a few days. the decompofition is
complete j and the refult is a homogeneous pafte, very
white, without clods. To feparate the foda, dilute the
pafte in a fuffkient quantity of boiling water, ftirring the
mixture continually ; for otherwife the pafte will clod,
and the lixiviation becomes very difficult. Draw off the
floating liquor of foda by decantation, and feparate the
reft of the alkali by filtration and expreffion with a cloth :
then evaporate the liquor in iron veffels, and thus the
foda will remain dry. By calcining the other product of
this operation, which is muriat of lead, it gives a yellow,
ftrong, bright, colour, which may be 1'uccefsfully ufed
with oil.
Muriat of lead may be decompofed alfo with fulphuric
acid weakened to 250 ; a fulphat of lead is the refult, ve¬
ry white, and in a ftate of extreme divifion and finenefs.
Wafli it in a great deal of water; triturate it very care¬
fully till it gets a certain con fi Hence ; then dry it. This
white colour may be liiccefsfully ufed in painting, and
never grows yellow with oils. The grey oxyd of lead
mixed with fuper-oxygenated muriat of potalh, and laid
in a heap, will detonate by an eleftric fhock.
Lead is ufed in a great number of works. It forms a
part of many alloys, and is made into pipes for the con¬
veyance of water. Its oxyds are employed in glafs-mak-
ing, and in the preparation of enamels. It is ufed to
imitate the colour of yellow precious Hones, and to give
fufibility to the glaze of earthen ware. Utenfils and vef¬
fels proper for economical ufes are made with this metal,
but not without danger in their ufe. Fountains, or vef-
fels of lead, in which water is buffered to remain a long
time, often communicate a noxious quality to it. Its
vapour is dangerous to the workmen who melt it, and
its tafte is Hill more dangerous to fuch as file and fcrape
it. This metal, lodged in certain parts of the ftomach
and inteftines, produces violent colics, often accompa¬
nied with vomiting a very brown bile, and characterized
by the flatnefs of the belly, .and linking of the navel. It
has been obferved, that, in fuch cafes, antimonial eme¬
tics and purges have been attended with great fuccefs.
Wavier advifes the different alkaline fulphures in cafes of
poifoning by the preparations of lead, as well as in fuch
as are produced of arfenic and corrofive mercurial muriat ;
and it is more particularly in the pally and tremblings
which commonly remain after the colica pittcnum, or
painters colic, that this phyfician boafts of the good ef¬
fects of alkaline fulphure and fulphureous waters. At
all events, when thelefafts are duly confidered, we ought
to avoid the internal ufe of preparations of lead, and
only apply it as an external medicine; and even in this
laft cafe it ought not to be adminiftered but with all that
care and caution which are required in the ufe of a ftrong
repellent.
Of IRON.
This metal, called Mars by the alchemifts, is very abun¬
dant in nature, under different modifications. Various
terreftrial fubftances, contain it in the form of grains
which may be extracted ; and in a Brill greater number
it is a colouring, principle. Pure iron is foft, and foft
Von. IV, No. 197.
S T R Y. 297
iron is duCtile. Caft iron is that which has been feparated
from its ore, and rendered fufible by a fmall quantity of
charcoal and a certain proportion of oxygen : there are
three forts, black, white, and grey.
Steel is iron, which, after being caft, is become duCtile
by hammering ; then it is made to re-abforb the charcoal
it retains, which greatly increafes its weight ; it acquires
another property alfo, temper. The temper does not in-
creafe the denfity of the iron. By touching fteel with
an acid, there is a black fpot, which is not the cafe with
iron. The procefs for converting iron into fteel, is as
follows : Short bars of iron are ericlofed in an earthen
boxorveffel, filled with a cement, commonly compofed
of very combuftible matters, fuch as foot, or the coal of
animal matters, animal oil, to which is ufoally added,
allies, calcined bones, marine fait, or fal-ammonias.
The box, being well doled, is heated for ten or twelve
hours, till the bars become white, and are ready to melt.
In this operation the iron becomes purified, and is com¬
pletely reduced by the affiftance of the combuftible mat¬
ters with which it is furrounded; the portions which
were not perfectly in the metallic ftate,' affume that ftate ; -
and the phofphure of iron, if it ftill remains, appears to
be entirely decompofed. The iron being foftened and
dilated, abforbs the charcoal which l'urrounds it ; and
hence the fteel of cementation is nothing elfe but a com¬
bination of pure and well-reduced iron with charcoal.
It differs from iron in containing charcoal, and from caft
iron in this, that the crude iron contains not only char¬
coal, but a greater or Ids quantity of oxygen. If call
iron be deprived of its oxygen without leparating the
charcoal, or by giving it a new quantity, fteel will be
produced without refining the iron. Clouet lays a i-32d
part of charcoal is fufficient to convert iron into fteel.
In a quantity equal to one i-6th of the iron it affords a
fteel more fufible and ftill malleable, but beyond this
term it approaches to caft iron, and has not a fufficient
degree of tenacity. Steel -is much more fufible than iron,
for which reafon the bars which are converted into fteel
by cementation, are foftened to that degree, that the
carbonic acid, which is difengagedin bubbles during the
adlion of heat, forms fmall buffers, or very fenfible cavi¬
ties, on its furface. This kind of fteel is called blijler
Jleel. The differences of fteel depend upon the greater
or lefs reduftion of the iron, the quantity of charcoal
which it contains, and the more or lefs ludden cooling
it has been fubjefted to. The quantity of charcoal con¬
tained in fteel may be afcertained by pouring fulphureous
acid over the metal : the iron and the fulphur remain in
folution, and the carbure of iron is precipitated ; by dry¬
ing this laft fait, the quantity of charcoal will be known,
as the proportions of the conftituent parts of carbure of
iron are well known.
A new method of preparing caft fteel has been lately
announced in France by Clouet. His procefs is the fol¬
lowing: Take fmall pieces of iron and place them in a
crucible, with a mixture of carbonat of lime and the
earth of Heflian crucibles, fix parts of the carbonat of
lime, and fix of this earth, muff be employed for twenty
parts of iron. The mixture is to be dilpoled fo, that af¬
ter fufion the iron may be completely covered by it to pre¬
vent the iron from coming into contadl with the external
air. The mixture is then to be gradually heated, and at
laft expofed to a heat capable of melting iron. If the
fire be well kept up, an hour will generally be fufficient
to convert two pounds of iron into excellent and exceed¬
ingly hard fteel, capable of being forged; an advantage
not poffeffed by fteel in the common manner. The oxyds
of iron are equally lufceptible of paffmg to the ftate of foft
iron, fteel, and caft iron, according to the quantity of
carbon employed. The black oxyd, the ftate of which
fee ms to be the moft unalterable, becomes iron when
treated in the crucible with an equal volume of charcoal
duff. By doubling the .quantity of the charcoal, fteel is
formed, and a progreflive increafe gives it the thara&ers
4 G of
29-8 C HEM'
of white and grey caft iron. A fifth part only of call
iron is required to convert iron into fieel. The iron and
the oxyd do not unite intimately. The black oxyd,
mixed with one half lefs of carbon than is neceffary for
its redu&ion, gives a foft iron, but not very tenacious,
black, and without a granulated fradlure. A fixth part
of. the oxyd brings back common fteel to the ftate of
iron, by treating them together, either in the forge or by
cementation.
Magnetifm is a charadleriftic of iron ; it appears every
where, even in ftone, in marble, and in bodies where it
exiftsin very fmall quantities, and is only a colouring
principle. In the green marble of Campan it attradls the
magnetic needle ; in the green marble it does not,
though that contains more iron ; but in this la ft it is
.more oxy dated.
Iron has a confiderable fmell, efpecially when rubbed
or heated. It likewife has a very evident ftyptic tafte,
which afts ftrongly on the animal economy. Next after
tjn, it is the lighted of metallic fubftances ; a cubical foot
of this metal, when forged, weighs 580 pounds. It may
be extended into plates by beating; but as it is very
hard, and becomes ftill harder under the hammer, it
cannot be made into leaves. Its dudlility, when drawn
into wire, is much more confiderable; very fine wires be¬
ing made of this iubft.mce formufical purpofes : this pro¬
perty appears to depend on its tenacity. In fadl, iron 'is
the molt tenacious of all metals, except gold. An iron
wire, of one tenth of an inch in diameter, fuitains a
weight of 450 pounds without breaking. Another lingu¬
lar property is that of taking fire, or fuddenly melting,
by the ltroke of a flint; a phenomenon to which the
poets univerfally attribute the difcovery of fire by the
firft men. Another property which diltinguilh.es it is,
that it is found with manganefe in plants and animals,
whole fluids it partly colours. It is likewife lufceptible
of a regular form, or cryftallization. If iron-filings be
thrown on burning coals, or even through the flame of a
taper, it fuddenly takes fire, and produces very brilliant
fparkles. Thefe are fimilar to thole produced by the
ftroke of the Iteel againft flint, and if colledted on a white
paper, they are found to be melted, and relemble a kind
of fcoriae. This metal, expofed to the focus of the lens
of De Trudaine, fuddenly throw's out inflamed and burn¬
ing fparkles. Macquer, who melted fteel and iron in
this lens, obferved, that fteel was the molt fufible, which
arifes from its combination with charcoal. Iron melted
and fullered to cool llowly, takes a peculiar cryftalline
form ; Mongez deicribed it to be a pyramid of three or
four fides.
The blow pipe, with vital air, caufes the filings of
iron to burn as rapidly as the focus of a lens. If an iron
wire turned in a fpiral form, and terminated by a fmall
piece of lighted quick match, be plunged into a vefiel of
vital air, thejnetal fuddenly catches fire, and bums with
a very remarkable degree of rapidity and deflagration.
In all thefe fufions, the iron becomes brittle and is oxy-
dated, at the fame time that it aflumes a black colour.
Iron, though very hard and refraftory, is very eafily cal¬
cined or oxydated ; when it begins to grow red, it com¬
bines with the oxygen, and burns without any apparent
flame. A bar of iron kept red hot for a long time, be¬
comes covered with fcales, which may be beat oft’ with
the hammer. In thefe, however, the metal is only partly
oxydated, fince they are attradlable by the magnet. A
more perfedl oxyd of iron is made, by expofing filings
of fteel, and ftill more quickly the fcales of hammered
iron, to heat under a muffle. They are converted into a
reddilh brown powder, not attradlable by the magnet,
and called afringent faffron of Mars. We call it the red
oxyd of iron, and the fcales the black oxyd, ox hammerings.
This laft fubftance contains from twenty to twenty-five
per cent, of oxygen ; the red oxyd contains from thirty-
jwo to thirty-four.
The purelt iron expofed to moilt air, foon lofes its me-
S T R Y.
tallic brilliancy, becomes covered with a pulverulent cruft,
of a yellow brown colour. This matter is ufually called
rujl. Common iron is much more fubjedt to ruft than
fteel; the more this metal is divided, the more rapid is
its alteration by expofure to air. In this manner the pre¬
paration, known in pharmacy under the name of aperi¬
tive faff r on of Mars, is prepared. Iron-filings are expofed
to the air, and moiftened with water, by which means
they very quickly ruft. Then pulverife the filings in an
iron mortar ; a yellowilh dull appears ; this is to be fepa-
rated by lifting through lilk, and will be found to be the
faffron of Mars, or rather a combination of the oxyd of
iron with carbonic acid.
Iron may be united with phofphorus : mix equal parts
of phofphoric glafs and iron in chips, with one-eighth
part of charcoal ; melt the whole in a crucible, and the
button v/ill be found very brittle, white in its fradlure,
with a ftriated and granulated appearance ; fometimes
cryftallized in rhomboidal prilms : this is phofphure of
iron. If this phofphure be heated with the blow-pipe, it
produces a phol'phorous flame. The exiftence of phof¬
phorus in forne fpecies of fteel, is fully afcertained by the
following experiment of Vauquelin; 576 grains of fteel
filings were difi'oived in fulphuric acid, diluted with five
parts of water. From this folution, laturated with car-
bonatof potalh, nineteen grains of a white taftelefs pow¬
der were depofited, completely foluble in muriatic acid.
This matter, by boiling it in a folution of cauftic foda,
aflumeda deep red colour, and was greatly diminilhed in
its volume. The liquor being filtered, and mixed with
concentrated muriatic acid, gave no fign of effervefcence ;
and formed, before and after its mixture with muriatic
acid, a white precipitate, by the addition of lime water.
On examination thisprecipitate was found to bephofphat
of lime.
Charcoal unites with iron, forming carbureof iron, or
plumbago. Carbure of iron is of a finning blue black, of
a greafy feel, and tuberculated fradlure ; it foils the
hands, and makes a black trace on paper. It is not al¬
tered by fire in clofe veflels : Pelletier, who has made
experimental inquiries on this fubftance, which confirm
the refultsof Scheele, expofed 200 grains in a porcelain
crucible, accurately clofed, to the heat of the furnace of
the manufactory ofSeve; the lofs was no more than ten
grains. But, when heated with coiltadl of air, it burns,
and is oxydated, leaving fcarcely any refidue. Quill,
Gahn, and Hielm, obferved, that one hundred grains,
treated in this manner, in a muffle, left only ten grains
of ferruginous oxyd. This oxydation is a flow combuf-
tion, not eafdy performed. It does not fucceed in a com¬
mon crucible: a thin layer of carbure of iron muft be
expofed, in a fhallow vefiel, to the action of aftrongfire,
and the furfaces muft be often renewed, by ftirring the
matter. It is in this way that the carbure of iron em¬
ployed to cover Hones, See. is gradually burned.
Air, water, and earthy fubftances, have no adlion on
carbure of iron. Alkalis add ftrongly on this fubftance.
If one part of carbure of iron, with two parts of dry
cauftic fixed alkali, or lapis cauflicus, be expofed to heat
in a retort, with the pneumatic apparatus, the fmall
quantity of water contained in the fait is fufficient to fa¬
vour the combuftion : carbonated hydrogen gas is ob¬
tained, the alkali is charged with carbonic acid, and the
carbure of iron is found to have difappeared. Among
the acids, only the muriatic ferves to purify it, becaule
this aciddiffolves all the fubftances with which it is com¬
bined.
We have feen that iron readily abforbs charcoal by
heat, and that it forms caf iron and feel by its union
with this coinbuftible fubftance ; with this difference,
however, that it contains oxygen in the former of thefe
compounds, but not in the latter. In both, the quantity
of iron greatly exceeds that of the charcoal. Chemical
analyfis, which is fo much indebted to the labours of
Scheele, has proved to this chemift, that plumbago, a mi¬
neral
C H £ M I
neral wliofe nature and rank among„other minerals had
long embarrafled philofophers, is nothing more than a
natural combination of a large proportion of charcoal
with a very fmall quantity of iron. Plumbago was a long
time confounded with molybdena. Both, without dil-
tinftion, were called lead ore, Englifk crayon, flomb de
mer, black cerufe, mica of the painters , crayon of lead, falfe
galena, talc, blende, potelot, See. The native carbure of
iron, a name fubftituted for that of plumbago, as being
more expreffive of the nature of the compound, is found
in mountains, often between beds of quartz, felt fpar,
clay, or calcareous earth, in the form of roundifh irre¬
gular pieces, of different magnitudes ; the largeft of which
weigh from eight to ten or eleven pounds; it is likewife
found diffem mated in much fmaller fragments, and,
Sometimes even in beds or llrata. La Peyroufe reckons
carbure of iron among the minerals of the Pyrenean
mountains. It is likewife found in Spain and Germany,
and alfo in the county of Cumberland in England, where
it is made into pencils, which are highly efteemed.
North America, and the Cape of Good Hope, likewife
afford lotne fpecimens. Within thefe few years, plum¬
bago, cryftallized in oftahedrqns, has been difeovered.
Iron has a great affinity, or elective attraftion, for ful-
phur ; hence this metal decompofes almoft all the metal¬
lic fulphures. To make fulphure of iron, take two parts
of iron-filings, with one part of fulphur; mix, and melt
them together in a crucible. Vauquelin conceives this
metal to be only an hydro-fulphure, becaufe, by pour¬
ing an acid into the mixture, a great quantity of fulphu-
rated hydrogen is difengaged. Or, this artificial fulphure
may be made, by applying a fmall bar of iron, heated to
whitenefs, to a roll of fulphur ; they both melt. This
fliould be done over a vefTel of water, that the portion of
fulphur not combined with the iron may be immediately
extinguifhed. The combination in the water is found to
confiit of blackiffi brittle globules, fimilar to pyrites, and,
like them, formed of fmall (lender pyramids, converging
to a centre.
Another way: A mixture of iron filings and fulphur
in powder, moiftened with a fmall quantity of water,
becomes hot in a few hours, at which time it fwells up,
its parts adhere together, it a b forks the water, breaks
with a perceptible noife or crackling, and emits aqueous
vapours, attended with a very manifefc odour, refem-
biing that of fulphurated hydrogen gas.
All the pyrites, or native fulphure of iron, are eafily
decovnpofed. A fmall degree of heat is fufficient to de¬
prive them of their fulphur. Expofed to the air, theful-'
phure of iron undergoes achange, efpecially when damp ;
it fwells, cracks, lofes its biightnefs, and is covered
with an efflcrefcence of a greenifh white colour, which
is nothing but fulphat of iron. By melting the fulphure
of irony and fprinkling it with muriatic acid, fulphura¬
ted hydrogen gas may be obtained by means of the pneu¬
matic apparatus.
Iron combined with arfenic, affords a brittle alloy,
very little known. With cobalt it conftitutes a mixed
metal, clole-grained, hard, and difficult to break. Melt
in a crucible one half-part of fteel-filings, two of cobalt,
and two of miiriat of foda : the mixture is foon in fufion.
Bifmuth will not unite with iron. Antimony combines
well with this metal by fufion : in the proportions of one
part of iron, and two of antimony, it forms a hard alloy,
with fmall facets, which fcarcely yields to the hammer.
Iron has a flronger affinity with fulphur than with this
brittle metal, and confequently is capable of decompo-
fing fulphure of antimony. To effeft this, five ounces
of the points of horfe-fhoe nails are heated red-hot in a
crucible ; a pound of pulverized fulphure of antimony is
then thrown in, and a ffrong heat fuddenly given to melt
the mixture : the iron attacks the fulphur. When the
mixture is well fufed, an ounce of nitre in powder is
added, to facilitate the feparation of the fcorise from the
.antimony. The mixture being fuffered to cool, anjtimo-
S T R Y. 299
ny is found in the crucible, which does not contain iron ;
but, if one part of iron be ufed with two of fulphure of
antimony, the antimony will be alloyed with iron-; this
was called regulus of iron. The fcorise, which are found
above the antimony alloyed with iron, and prepared with
nitre and tartar, have a yellowifh colour, fimilar to that
of amber, produced by the iron they contain, whence
Stahl called them fuccinaied fcoria. He directs them to be
reduced into powder, and boiled in water, which takes
up the moft fubtle part of the powder ; after which the
fluid muff be decanted off, filtered, and the powder on
the filter detonated three times its weight of nitre : this
being vvaflied and dried, is Stahl's aperitive, and antimo-
niated faffron of Mars.
It is (till uncertain whether zink be capable of uniting
with iron. Malouin has (hewn, that this metal may be
applied, like tin, to the furface of iron, for the purpofe of
defending it from the contaft of air, a circumftance which
fhews that thefe two metallic matters are capable of com¬
bining. It feems that nickel is capable of being very in¬
timately united with iron, fince thefe two metallic fub-
ftances can never beperfeftly feparated, as Bergman has
demonftrated.
Mercury does not contract any union with iron in its
metallic date; it has in vain been attempted to unite
thefe two metals immediately, but the combination is
fuccefsfully made by prefenting them to each other in the
ftate of oxyds. Navier has obferved, that a whitifh
fnowy precipitate is obtained, by mixing a folution of
iron and of mercury^ by the fulphuric acid, and evapo¬
rating the mixture ; in this operation fmall fiat cryftals,
fimilar to thofe of boracic acid, are formed. Navier af¬
firms, that thefe cryftals are a combination of iron and
of mercury. Lead is not capable of uniting with iron.
Iron and tin appear fufceptible of union by fufion.
The preparation of white iron, or, as it is commonly
called, tin,' which confifts of iron plates covered with^a
thin ftratum of tin, fhews that this combination takes
place. In order to tin iron, it is neceflary that the fur-
face of the metal fliould be very clear and bright; for
that purpofe it is corroded by an acid, or fometimes filed
or feraped, or covered with a folution of fai -ammoniac ;
it is afterwards plunged vertically into a vellel of melted
tin, moved backwards and forwards, to increafe the con¬
tact, and when fufficiently tinned, it is taken out and
rubbed with faw-duft, or bran, to clear off the fat or
pitch with which the melted tin was covered, and which
adheres to the furface of the tinned iron. With manga-
nefe an alloy or mixture cannot be obtained, but by
taking both the ironand the manganefe in the oxyd Hate :
Take equal parts of the oxyd of iron and manganefe;
make them into a pafte with oil : put the mixture into a
crucible. A metallic button is obtained, brittle, ami
granulated in the fra ft u re.
By means of water, a preparation is made with iron,
known by the name of martial Etbiops, or faffron. of Mars.
There are a vafl many proceffes for obtaining Ethiops.
The following are felefted as molt worthy of attention.
1. That of Vauquelin. Take two parts of iron in fine
powder, and one part of red oxyd of iron ; put the mix¬
ture into a covered crucible, and expofe it to a flrong
heat for two hours. In this experiment, the iron takes
a portion of oxygen from the red oxyd ; and, by . tlie ba¬
lance which is thus eftablifhed between the two portions
of iron, makes the whole pafs into'a black homogeneous
oxyd. 2. That of M. Save. Take hammerings of iron,
and reduce them to powder; triturate this powder on
marble with a little water; put the mixture into a cruci¬
ble, and heat it till it is entirely deprived of moifturej
then pour in a few drops of oil, taking care to fp read
them equally; and a very black oxyd is immediately
produced, which is to be left fome time longer on the
fire, in order to burn all the oil: reduce the clots which
may be formed. A third method is, to work a certain
quantity of iron-filings- into a pafte with water ; then dry
300 C H E M
it, and add more water; and repeat the operation till all
the pafte is reduced to a fine black powder. Throw this
powder into boiling water; and, having left it to fettle,
draw off the water, and dry the precipitate. If, inftead
of iron filings, iron already oxydated be ufed, a fingle
operation is fufficient to convert the whole into Ethiops.
For thedecompofitionof water by iron, fee page 207. If
concentrated fulphuricacid be poured overiron-fil ings,ful-
phureous acid gas is obtained. When this mixture is
diftilled to drynefs, the retort is found to contain flowers
of fulphur fublimed, and a white mafs offulphatof iron,
partly foluble in water, which, however, does not afford
cryftals. If this acid, diluted with two parts of water,
be mixed with half its weight of iron-filings, it difiolves
the metal very readily. The folution is attended with
the dif'engagement of a large quantity of hydrogen gas,
. which may be made to detonate with a confiderable noife,
by applying a lighted candle to the aperture of the veffel,
after having clofed it for a flrort time with the hand. In
proportion as the diluted fulphuric acid adls on the iron,
a portion of the metal is precipitated in a black powder,
which Stahl fuppofed to be fulphur, but Monnet found,
on examination, to be martial PEthiops. This portion
of black oxyd of iron, fuperabundant to the faturation,
frequently contains carbure of iron. The fulphuric
acid diflblves more than half its weight of iron, and the
folution filtered and evaporated, affords, by cooling, a
tranfparent fait, of a green colour, cryftallized in rhom¬
boids, called martial vitriol, ok green copperas-, we term
l it fulphat of iron. This fait is not made in the direft
way, becaufe it is abundantly afforded by nature, and is
eafily extracted by art from martial pyrites.
Sulphat of iron is of an emerald green colour, and has
a very ftrong aftringent tafle; its cryftals contain, ac¬
cording to Kunckel and .Monnet, more than half their
weight of water; if' it be heated brifkly, it liquifies like
all falts, which are more foluble in hot than in cold wa¬
ter ; it becomes of a whitifh grey by drying, it was call¬
ed 'vitriol calcined to whitenefs. Diftilled in a retort
placed in a reverberatory furnace, this fait affords firft,
water flightly acid, called dew of 'vitriol . The receiver
is to be changed, in order to obtain feparately the con¬
centrated fulphuric acid, which, when the heat is very
ftrong, paffes over of a black colour, and exhaling a
fuffocating fmell of volatile fulphureous acid. Thefe
characters depend on its being deprived of a part of its
oxygen, which is fixed in the iron, according to the doc¬
trine of the gafes ; towards the end of the operation,
the acid which comes over takes a concrete and cryftal-
line form, and is diftinguifhed by the name of glacial
fulphuric acid. When glacial fulphuric acid is diftilled in
a finall retort, it gives out fulphureous gas, and comes
over white and fluid ; its concrete ltate is therefore
owing to the prefence of this gas ; it unites with water
with noife and heat, fulphureous gas being at the fame
time difengaged. The fuming oil of vitriol of Noor-
thauffen is of this kind, and the concrete fait obtained
from it by a gentle heat, of which Fourcroy gave an
analyfis in a memoir publifhed among thofe of the Aca¬
demy for the year 1785.
The refill ue of fulphat of iron, after diftillation, is red.
Colcothar is fulphat of iron, calcined to rednefs : Put
fulphat of iron into a crucible ; cover the crucible, place
it in a furnace, and make it red-hot; keep it in this ftate
for an hour, then let it cool, and it will be of a red co¬
lour. When walhed with water, a white fait little
known, and named fait of colcothar , or fixed fait of 'vi¬
triol, isfeparated; a red inlipid earth, which is a pure
oxyd of iron, and is called fweet earth of 'vitriol, remains
behind.
Sulphat of iron expofed to the air becomes yellowifli,
and covered with ruft; oxygen being gradually abforbed,
oxydates the iron more and more, lb that it cannot re¬
main united with the fulphuric acid. Thus the green
fulphat is changed to red. The fame thing may be done
1
I S V R Y.
by diflolving this fait in aerated water, by agitating its
folution in the air, by the aftion of nitric acid, or of
oxygenated muriatic acid; in fliort, by all thofe methods .
which communicate oxygen, and which may increafethe
quantity of 0-27 of oxygen, which it contained at firft, to
o-48, the proportion neceflary to conftitute the red oxyd.
From thefe experiments, firft made by Prouft, it ap¬
pears, that there are two lulphats of iron, very different
from each other. The properties which that chemift dis¬
covered in each areas follow: That the green fulphat was
cryftallizable, and infoluble in alcohol, of a fea-green
colour, effiorefcing and turning yellow by expofureto the
air, not altered by the gallic acid, yielding no Prufiian
blue with the alkaline prufliats; it gives with cauftic al¬
kalis a dark green precipitate which grows black under
water when deprived of contact with air, and contain¬
ing o-27 of oxygen, and 0^73 of iron. The red fulphat
of iron does not cryftallize; it is foluble in alcohol, deli-
quefcent, gives a black precipitate with the gallic acid,
and blue with the alkaline prufliats, but with pure alkalis
a reddilh yellow precipitate, no longer oxydable, and
containing 0-48 of oxygen, and 0-52 of iron. Hydro-
fulphurated water, or fulphureous water, decompofes
and precipitates the red fulphat of iron, nitrat of iron,
&c. but does not affeCt the green fulphat : the red oxyd
burns the hydrogen, and the fulphur. Thus the mo¬
ther-water of fulphat of iron, or this fait fuper-oxygena-
ted, may be reftored to the ftate of a green and cryltalli-
zable fait. When this laft is precipitated by fulphureous
water, the precipitate is brown, which is occafioned by
a fulphat of iron, being often mixed with this fait for
fale. The prefence of copper in this fulphat will be evi¬
dent upon plunging a bar of iron into the folution, or by
means of ammoniac.
Sulphat of iron is decompofed by lime. Lime-water
poured into' a folution of this fait, forms a precipitate in
flocks, of a deep olive green ; a portion of this precipi¬
tate is re-diflolved in the lime-water, and communicates
to it a reddifti colour. Potafh, faturated with the car¬
bonic acid, or the carbonat of potafli, forms a precipi¬
tate of a. greenifh white colour, not foluble in the alkali ;
this difference arifes from the prefence of the carbonic
acid, which feizes the iron, in proportion as it is itfelf fe-
parated from the alkali by the fulphuric acid. Pure or
cauftic ammoniac feparates from the folution of fulphat
of iron a precipitate of lo deep a green, that it appears
almoft black; it is trot foluble in the ammoniac.
Vegetable aftringent matters, fuch as nut-galls, fu-
nuch, rind of pomegranates, hulks of unts, quinquina,
cyprefs nuts, logwood, tea, &c. have the property of
precipitating fulphat of a black colour ; this precipitate,
which cannot be miftaken for iron, is fo extremely divi¬
ded, that it remains fufpended in the fluid ; the addition
of gum arabic to the mixture, caufes the iron to be per¬
manently fufpended, and forms the black fluid, called
ink. We call this fait the gallic acid, and fhall give an
account of it in the vegetable clals.
Thedecompofitionof fulphat of iron, by analkali calcin¬
ed with bullock’s blood, is a phenomenon ftill more diffi¬
cult to be underftood than the aCtion of the nut-gall on this
fait; the precipitate obtained is of a beautiful blue co¬
lour, and infoluble in acids. This precipitate is called
P ruffian or Berlin blue, from the place of its dilcovery.
To form Pruffian blue, four ounces of nitre fixed by
tartar, are mixed with an, equal weight of dried ox’s
blood; this mixture is calcined in a crucible tillitrefem-
bles coal, and no longer produces any flame ; a fuffici¬
ent quantity of water is then added to diffolve all the fa-
line matter, which is called pblogifiicated alkali, or colour¬
ing lixi'vium, or pruffiat of potajh with excefs of alkali,
and is concentrated by evaporation ; two ounces of ful¬
phat of iron, and fourounces of fulphat of alumine, are
afterwards diffolved in a pint of water; the folution of
thefe falts is mixed with the alkaline lixivium, a green¬
ifh precipitate foils down, whichis feparated by the filter,
C fl E M
upd, muriatic acid being poured on it, it immediately
becomes of a more beautiful and deeper blue, and is to
be then dried by a mild heat, or by expofure to the air.
Many chemiils have, iince the time of Woodward, at¬
tended to the theory and- preparation of Prufiian blue.
With regai d to its preparation, it is now known that a
great number of lubftances are capable of comm u it i eat¬
ing to the alkali the property of precipitating iron of a
blue colour. In the manufactories, they take another
mode: Equal parts of the blood, horns, nails, and fkin,
of oxen, are reduced to a coal, of which they mix ten
parts with thirty parts of potufh ; calcine this mixture in
an iron pot; in twelve hours the mixture will be in a
foft parte ; then they are poured into tubs of water ; fil-
tre, and mix this iolution with another, compoled of
three paits of alum, and one of fulphat of iron.
Prufiian blue takes flame fooner than fulphur. It de¬
tonates (trongly with the i'uper-oxygenated muriat of pot-
afli. Diflilled in the pneumatic apparatus, ammoniacal
gas, carbonat of ammoniac, and hydrogen gas, are ob¬
tained ; oxyd of iron and fotne alumine remain in the re¬
tort. Ammoniac heated over Prufiian blue, decompofes
it by feparating the colouring principle. Fourcroy difi-
covered, that lime-water put in digeftion over Prufiian
blue had the property of decompofirig it with the help of
a little heat. Thus may be prepared the pruffiat of lime ;
for the lime-water faturates itfeif entirely with the co¬
louring principle,’ which in this cafe, performs the office
of an acid ; hence it has been called Pruffic acid. Pruf-
liat of lime is the moft certain mode of difeovering the
prefence of iron in mineral water. Pure fixed alkalis de¬
prive Prufiian blue of its colour immediately, and with¬
out heat ; they are to be preferred to the alkaline carbo-
nafs. Magnefia alio attacks the colouring matter of
Prufiian blue, but much more weakly than . lime. Ba¬
rytes has the fame property.
Scheele has. fine wn, that the red oxyd of mercury fe-
parates the colouring matter from Prufiian blue; and this
is the mode of obtaining the Pruffic acid. The procefs
confifls in uniting in a glafs cucurbit, or a matrals, two
parts of Prufiian blue in powder, one part of red oxyd of
mercury, and fix parts of water; boil this mixture for
half an hour, ftirring it continually ; it will aflumea yel¬
low colour, inclining to green ; filtre, and pour over the
refidue two parts more of boiling water ; leave the whole
together to cryltaliize by evaporation. In this - experi¬
ment, the Pruffic acid quits the ox; d of iron to unite
with the oxyd of mercury, with which it has a ftronger
itttraftion, and forms a lolublefalt, which cryftallizes in
tetrahedral prilms, terminated by quadrangular pyramids,
whole planes anlv.erto the angles of the prifin. This is
Pruffiat of mercury'-, it is decontpofed neither by acids nor
alkalis. To obtain Pruffic acid from this, dlflolve the
pruiliat of mercury in water, or take the liquor as above
delcribed, previous to evaporation. Pour the quantity
obtained in the preceding experiment, into a bottle over
450 grains of iron-filings; add 180 grains of concentrat¬
ed iulphuric acid (Berthoilet prefers the muriatic acid,)
and agitate the mixture Itrongly for fome minutes. The
whole becomes of a black colour by the redu<5lion of the
mercury; the liquor loles its mercurial tafte, and afiumes
that of the colouring lixiviation ; the iron unites with
the oxygen of the mercury, and combines with the ful-
phuric acid. Let it fettle; then decant the liquor, and
put it into a retort on afand-bath ; adapt a receiver with
a little dillilled water to abforb the acid ; then lute care¬
fully. By the' help of a gentle heat, the colouring prin¬
ciple paffes firft, as being more volatile than water:
ftop the operation when about one-fourth of the liquor
has palled over. This liquor will contain a little ful-
phuric acid ; to feparate which, re-diftil with a very flight
heat over pulverized chalk ; and then the Pruffic acid
will be obtained in its greateft purity.
This acid has an odour peculiar to itfeif, fomewhat like
bitter almonds ; it is of al'weet tafte 5 it does not redden
Vol. IV. No. 198.
I S T R Y. 301
blue paper; it thickens the folutions of foap and cf al¬
kaline fulphures. It precipitates alumine from its nitric
Iolution; it decompoles oxygenated muriatic acid, ab-
fyrbs its oxygen, and becomes fragrant. In this ftate, it
feems to ha\e no great tendency to alkaline fubffances..
It no longer precipitates iron of a blue, but of a green
colour; and this green precipitate is foluble in acids. It
becomes blue again by contadl with the rays of the fun,
or by the addition of fulpbureous acid and iron.
When, by means of oxygenated muriatic acid, the
Pruffic acid is brought to the ftate of making a green pre¬
cipitate with iron, ammoniac is formed as fooh as it is
mixed with alkaii or lime. An acid, poured into tit i s
mixture, no longer reftores to Pruffic acid its own pecu¬
liar odour ; Berthoilet fuppofes this acid to be entirely
deftroyed. Though perfeftly-pure potalh be ufed, an
acid poured in after it has adfted, will produce an eft’ei vef-
cence, and difengages carbonic acid which is entirely
formed. Berthoilet, who has publilhed fome very inte-
refting papers on the Pruffic acid and its combinations,
concludes, from the experiments here detailed, that
azot, hydrogen, and carbon, united in proportion, ami
with a degree of condenfiition not at prelent known, form
what is called Pruffic acid.
Vauquelin has publilhed fome remarks on the formation
of this acid. To afeertain whether it contains oxygen,
he made the following experiments : 1. Put into a retort,
one hundred parts of muriat of ammoniac, fifty of lime,
and twenty-five of charcoal finely powdered: adapt a re -
ceiver containing a flight foluticn of fulphat of iron, in
which plunge the beak of the retort. Give a brilk heat,
and continue the ahtion of the fire till nothing comes
over. 2. Into the fame apparatus put one hundred parts
of muriat of ammoniac, fifty parts of the femi-vitreous
oxyd of lead, and twenty-five parts of charcoal. Heat
as before ; agitate brifkly the liquors contained in the re¬
ceivers, and leave thehi expofed to the air for feveraL
days, that the combination may be complete between the
oxyd of iron and the Pruffic acid, and that the Pruiliat
of iron may abforb as much oxygen, as is neceffiuy to
pafs to the ftate of blue Pruffiat, not to be adled upon by
acids. Pour into thefe liquors equal quantities of ful-
phuric acid much weakened with wrater, and a Pruffiau
blue is produced whofe qualities are as one to fix, com¬
pared with the preceding experiment, that is to fay, the
product was fix times as plentiful w ith oxyd of lead, than
in that experiment where he ufed lime to difengage the
ammoniac.
> What can caufe the great difference in the refults of
thefe two experiments ? fays Vauquelin. Can it be the
prel’enceof oxygen in the oxyd of lead; or becaufe that
oxyd, by diiengaging the ammoniac more flowly, gives
time for diflblving more carbon? Thefe queftions we rea¬
dily fet down as he has left them, becaule they may
awaken the attention of future chemiils, and lead to new
experiments and ufeful contlulions. Though Vauquelin,
has not refolved thefe queftions, yet it appears certain,
that, whenever a fubftance containing oxygen is intro¬
duced into a mixture proper for forming Pr uffic acid, a
greater quantity of that acid will be produced. The lame
chemilt remarked, that an alkaline Pruffiat, how dry foever,
by decompofition in well-clofed veffels, always afforded
carbonat of ammoniac. Curaudeau has fhewn, that, by
heating cauftic potalh with common charcoal dult in a
crucible of platina, a liquor is obtained by lixiviation,
which precipitates iron of a true Prufiian blue.
The Pruffic acid combines with different bales. With
potalh and the pure acid, a flight heat produces a fait
which cryftallizes in fquare plates, the edges bevelled,-
formed in octahedrons with the two oppolite pyramids
truncated : to obtain thefe cryltals, evaporate the liquor
to drynefs, re-diffolve, filtrate, and then concentrate,
with a gentle heat. In this ftate, the Pruffiat no longer
affords a blue colour with acids. This fait may alfo be
prepared by laturating cauftic potalh with the colouring
4H matter,
364 ; C H E M I S T R Y.
matter, and digefting it over white lead, to feparate the Solution of fulphat of iron charged ‘with nitrous gas. _ If
hepatic gas it may contain; mix it with acetic acid; ex- one gallon of nitrous gas be put into a folution, contain-
poie it to the fun to precipitate the iron ; and then add ing an ounce and a half of fulphat of iron, more than fix
two parts of alcohol. The Prufliat of potafli will be pre- pints of the gas will be abforbed. For this operation,
cipitated in lameilated Aiming flocks ; walh it with frefli take a doubly-tubulated bottle, as fliewn in the pre¬
alcohol, dry it, and dilfoive it in diftilled water. If ful- ceding engravings, and therein put the iron-filings ; to
phuric acid" be mixed with a folution of Prufliat of ordi- one of the necks adapt a recurved tube, which is to go
dinary potafli, a blue precipitate is obtained, by expofing into another bottle containing a folution of potafli ; from
it to the folar rays, or to a b rifle heat ; which proves that this lecond bottle goes another tube, which is plunged
it is a triple lalt, containg oxyd of iron. into a third, containing a folution of fulphat of iron.
Berthoiiet found no lenfible difference between the When the apparatus is well luted, pour in at the neck of
Pruffiats of potafli and of foda, except that the lad; cryf- the firft bottle, iome nitric'acid at 300. An effervelcence
tallizes differently. Mineral acids difengage the Pruilic takes place, and nitrous gas is difengaged; this gas pafl'es
acid, which is partly fixed in the Prulfian blue which pre- through the folution of potafli before it reaches the ful-
cipitates. The Pruffiats of ammoniac, lime, barytes, See. phat of iron, a ready way to be afl'ured of the purity of
are prepared in the fame manner. The folution of iron the nitrous gas. The nitrous gas loles entirely its elaftic
by the Pruflic acid, forms Prufliat of iron. According to form, and there remains but a very fmall proportion of
Prouft, there are two kinds of Prufliat of iron. One kind is it in the mixture. Azotic gas alfo is difengaged; and
produced by mixing a folution of green fulphat or mu- the green colour of the folution of fulphat of iron changes
riat of iron, with a faturated folution of prufliat of pot- to dark brown, without lofing its tranlparency, or giving
afli. When the mixture is made, ftop the bottle, and a any depofit. Its fweet ferruginous tafte becomes ftyp-
white depofit is obtained, which foon takes a flight tint tic, and very aftringent. Mixed with a ley of caultlc
of green, occaficned either by the fmall quantity of air potafli, it precipitates a dark green oxyd-of iron, and ex-
contained in the vefl'el, or by the red oxyd which is al- hales a very evident vapour of ammoniac. Mixed with
ways prefent, more or lei's, in alkaline Pruffiats. Prouft concentrated fulphuric acid, it throws off white vapours,
regards the whiteriefs as the natural colour of this pruf- . well known to be nitric acid. It tinges tiinfture of turn-
fiat of iron : it is therefore ‘white Prufiat of iron. foie with a deep red. Hence it appears, that, in this ex-
The author recommends to pour an excels of alkaline periment, ammoniac and nitric acid are produced. See
Prufliat over the metallic fulphat, in order to decompofe further the fedtion upon nitrous gas, page 215.
it entirely. After ftanding fome hours, this white Prufliat Sulphureous acid attacks iron; the colour of the fo-
will be covered with a yellow liquid, which is a mixture lution is green, the tafte aftringent. By evaporation' and
of Prufliat and fulphat with an alkaline bafe, holding in epoling, a fait is obtained, cryitallized in rhomboids. If
folution a little of the white oxyd of iron. On opening-^a ftronger acid than the fuiphureons be added to the fo-
the bottle, this laft abforbs oxygen from the atmofphere, lution, a brifk effervefcence takes place, and the fulphur
takes a blue colour, becomes inlbluble, and fpreads on is precipitated. When iron is diffoived in the fulphu-
the white Prufliat, which, feeling likewife the influence reous acid, there is neither a difengagement of gas, nor
of the atmofpherical air, becomes blue, by degrees, from any precipitation. It appears that part of the fulphu-
the furface to the. very bottom of the velfel ; at laft the reous acid is decompoied, and the lulphur thence pro¬
whole is converted into blue Prufiat. The fame eft'eft ceeding remains in lolution in the fait thereby formed,
w ill arife by putting the white precipitate on a filter, which is called fulphurattd fulphit of iron.
The blue Prufliat may be again converted to white, by Iron ‘with •weak nitric 'acid. — If weak nitric acid be
keeping it in a bottle with plates of iron and tin. In poured over iron in thin plates or chips, there is a flight
this caie the addition of the metal difbxydates the iron, effervefcence; the folution is greenilh, fometimes brown,
and converts it into a green oxyd. A folution of ful- By evaporation, a red oxyd of iron is precipitated, but
phurated hydrogen gas, kept with blue Prufliat in a clofe it furnifhes no cryftals ; the liquor takes the form of a
bottle, decompol'es it, and turns it white. This Prufliat reddifn jelly, which is only in part foiuble in water, the
has the fame properties as that formed immediately from other part precipitating. The concentrated nitric acid
the green fulphat. The white Prufliat, treated in the fame attacks iron with violence; the oxyd of iron hereby
manner, undergoes no change. The fulphuric and mu- formed is precipitated red by little and little, and but a
riatic acids have no effeft upon the' white Prufliat. The fmall part of it remains in folution in the nitric acid,
nitric acids, and the oxygenated muriatic acid, turn it Ammoniac is formed by the feparaticn of the hydrogen
blue : this lajl lofes its fmell at the fame time. from the water, which is decompofed over the azot of
Sulphat of iron decompofes nitre very readily : Take the nitric acid. This folution gives a magma fimilar to
equal parts of nitrat of potafli, and fulphat of iron, (lightly that obtained by the weak acid.
calcined red ; put the mixture in a (tone retort, which If the nitrat of iron be kept heated, red vapours, in
place in a reverberating furnace ; adapt to the neck of large quantities, are difengaged, the magma becomes
the retort a long-necked balloon, and to the lower ex- dry, and affords an oxyd of a brick-duit reel colour;
tremity of that fix a tube, which is to be plunged into a this magma, by diftillation in a retort, affords a ftnall
jar half filled with water. A quantity of nitric acid, very quantity of fuming nitrous acid, much nitrous gas, and
red and fuming, is obtained ; the relidue, by lixiviation, azotic gas. Vital air cannot be obtained, becaufe the
affords fulphat of potafli, fixed alkali, and a red oxyd of iron retains all the oxygen of the acid ; the oxyd which
iron remains on the filter; but, if ftrongly calcined ful- remains after the diftillation of nitrat. of iron, is of a
phat be made ufe of, together with nitre which has fuf- lively red, and may afford a good colour for painters,
lered fufion, the produft obtained is very inconfiderable. The nitric folution of iron, however concentrated, does
This produdf confifts of two liquors ; the one, of a dark not appear to afford a precipitate by the addition of dif-
and almoft black colour, floats on the furface of the other, tilled water. Alkalis decompofe it with different pheno-
which is red and ponderous ; for which reafon Baume toena, according to their nature. Cauftic potafli preci-
confidered this liquor as a kind "of oil. There afterwards pitates it of a light brown colour; the mixture pafl'es
paffes into the neck of the retort a white faline mafs, very quickly to a blackifli brown, and much deeper than
which attradfs the humidity of the air, and is foiuble the colour of the firft folution. This phenomenon arifes
with heat and great rapidity in water, emitting a ltrbng from the portion of the precipitate diffoived by the alkali,
fmell of fpirit of nitre, and very red thick vapours: this though the quantity be very fmall. Carbonat of potafli
folution, faturated with potafli, affords fulphat of pot- feparates a yellowifh oxyd, which quickly becomes of a
afli; the white mafs therefore is merely fulphuric acid, beautiful orange red; if the mixture be agitated, an ef-
rendered concrete by a portion of nitrous gas. fervefcence takes place, the precipitate is re-diffolved in
a much
CHE M
much grcaterabundance than that produced by the cauftic
potaffi. Monnet took notice of this phenomenon, and
has with juftice attributed it to the gas which is difen-
gaged. The folution of iron, by fixed alkali, is called
the martial alkaline tinSlure of Stahl , and ot a very beau¬
tiful red. This martial alkaline tin£ture lofes its colour
at the end of a certain time, and depofits the oxyd of
iron it contains ; it may be decompofed by the addition
of an acid. The nitric acid feparates from the tinSlure
an oxyd of a brick-duft colour, which is foiuble in acids,
and is called Stahl's aperitive faffron of Mars.
The muriatic acid, diluted with water, difl'olves iron
■with rapidity, and difengages a large quantity of hydro¬
gen gas, produced by the decompofition of the water, as
happens when this metal is dilfolved in fulphuric acid.
'The folution of iron by the muriatic acid is attended
with much heat, which continues with the lame force
till the acid isfaturated ; a proportion of the iron is pre¬
cipitated in a true jEthiops, as happens in all other folu-
tions. After filtration, this folution is of a green colour,
inclining to yellow ; when preferred in a well-ltopped
phial, it does not depofit oxyd of iron ; but if, on the
contrary, it be expoled to the air, almoft all the iron it
contains is precipitated in a few weeks, and this preci¬
pitate is of a lighter colour, in proportion as the accefs
of air is the eaiier. It is now proved that this precipi¬
tation, which takes place equally in all the other folu-
tions of iron, is produced by the oxygen of the atmof-
phere, abforbed by the metal, which becomes oxydated
more and more. This (alt is of a green colour, with an
aftringent tafte. The folution of iron by the muriatic
acid does does not cryftallize regularly by evaporation.
Monnet has obferved, that if it be fuffered to cool when
it has acquired the confiftence of fyrup, it forms a kind
of magma, in which may be feen needle-form flat cryl-
tals, which are very deliquefcent. This magma melts
by a very gentle heat; a greater heat decompofes it,
though lefs readily than the nitrat of iron, and it afiumes
the colour of reft when it is dry; the muriatic acid is
diiengaged from it, and may be obtained by diftillation ;
it carries up with it a fmall quantity of oxyd of iron, ac¬
cording to the oblervation of Brandt. The duke cl’Ayen,
in one of the four excellent memoirs he communicated to
the Royal Academy reipebting the combination of acids
with metals, has very minutely examined what paffes in
this decompofition of the muriat of iron. The operation
afforded very Angular produfts : a mild heat diiengaged
a phlegm (lightly acid ; the muriatic acid then became
concentrated, and its gas, which is much more volatile
than water, was- partly fixed by the iron: a much ftronger
heat railed a portion of this acid with a fmall quantity
of iron, and cryftals were formed in the receiver, which
were not deliquefcent ; very tranfparent cryftals in the
form of blades of razors, which decompofed the light in
the manner of the beft prifms, and exhibited very beau¬
tiful tinges of red, yellow, green, and blue, were at the fame
time fublimed to the upper part of the retort; at the bottom
there remained a ftyptic and deliquefcent fait, of a bril¬
liant colour, and foliated texture, which perfebtly re-
fembled that kind of talc, in large plates, which is im¬
properly called Mufcovy glafs. This laffc (ait, expofed
to a violent heat in a (tone-ware retort, was decompofed,
and afforded a fublimation (till more aftonifhing than the
former products ; it was an opake matter truly metallic,
which, when examined by the microfcope, exhibited re¬
gular cryftals, or fections of hexagonal prifms, which the
duke d’Ayen compares to the pieces inlaid in floors :
thefe cryftals were as brilliant as the molt highly poliihed
fteel, and were ftrongly attrafted by the loadllohe. They
confided therefore of iron reduced in part and fublimed.
Art appears here to imitate nature, which fublimes the
black oxyd of iron by volcanic fires, in the form of bril¬
liant and well-polifhed laminae, refembling fteel ; fuch at
leaft appears to be the origin of the fpecular iron ore,
and of that of Volvic, which, according to the valuable
s T R y. 303
obfervations of de l’Arbre, is always found in the clefts
of lavas. From thefe details we may perceive how rich
the fcience of cbemiftry is in curious phenomena, and
what a fund of difcovery is held forth to fuch as perform
experiments with all the accuracy the importance of the
fubjeft requires. We mull not forget to obferve, that
this reduction of iron favours the dobhine of gafes, and
that we may perhaps obtain fimilar refults from many
other metallic folutions treated in the lame way.
The muriatic folution of iron, like all other martial
folutions, is decompofed by lime and alkalis ; but the
precipitates are lefs altered, and may be eafily reduced,
especially fuch as are produced by the addition of cauftic
alkalis. Alkaline fulphures, fulphurated hydrogen gas,
and aftringents, decompofe it like the others. Pruftian
alkalis, or the alkaline Prufllats, precipitate a beautiful
blue powder.
Vauquelin, who analyzed pieces of iron continually
wetted with urine, found thefe to be a true phofphat of
iron. This iron is of a yellow brown without, dark
brown within, and may be broken by the hand. In its
internal frabture, its grain is lamellated, fhining, and,
as it were, fpathofe ; its external cavities are filled with
a quantity of fmall brilliant cryftals. Heated in a forge-
furnace in a crucible, lined with charcoal in powder, it
melts, readily, and gives a very homogeneous button,
fragile, of a very clofe brittle grain, of a bright metallic
grey colour, exhibiting with the blow-pipe and with
acids, all the properties of phofphure of iron. Its fur-
face is covered with a kind of rough enamel, of a green-
ilh grey colour, which Vauquelin difcovered to be phof¬
phat of lime. Iron altered and rufted by urine, is there¬
fore true phofphat of iron mingled with phofphat of
lime, and with fome other faline principles from the
urine. In this experiment, the charcoal, at a high tem¬
perature, converts the oxyd of iron into metal, and the
phcfphoric acid into phofphorus.
Liquid phofphoric acid difl’olves iron in the heat with
violence. During the folution an inflammable gas is dis¬
engaged , which burns, like pholphorus, with a blue flame.
If the acid be not fully faturated with iron, the folution
(hoots into cryftals, which remain unchanged, in. the' air,
but which melt in the fire into a garnet-coloured glafs.
When the acid is fully faturated with iron, a white pre¬
cipitate is inftantly formed, which is extremely infoluble
even in boiling water : this is the fyderit of Bergman and
other chemifts. The neutral phofphat of iron is infoluble,
but it may be difl’olved when it contains an excefs of its
own acid. This pnolpbat is decompofed by cauftic alka¬
lis, by muriatic acid, but not by fulphuric acid.
Water charged with carbonic acid eafily difl'olves iron:
to form this combination, nothing more need be done
than to add iron filings to the acid, and leave the mixture in
liquid digeftion for fometime; this fluid, when filtered, has
a penetrating and father ftyptic tafte. Bergman, who calls
this combination aerated iron , affirms, that when expof¬
ed to the air, it becomes covered wdth a pellicle of rain¬
bow* colours ; that it is dehompofed by the pure alkalis,
but that thefe falts, when faturated with the acid, do not
produce the fame eft'ebt. This folution converts the fy¬
rup of violets to green, and affords very brilliant Pruf-
(5 an blue with the calcareous Prufllats ; it precipitates
the brown oxyd of j.ron when left expofed to the air, or
when heated .- this combination is now named carbonat of
iron. Iron Iras a (Irong tendency to unite with the carbo¬
nic acid, arid nature very frequently prefents it in this
ftate. The muddy iron ores and lpathofe iron appear to
be in a great meafure formed by this combination ; fer¬
ruginous mineral waters often contain this metal in the
ftate of carbonat of iron. This fait, feparated from the
water and dried, is fcarcely foiuble in that fluid, but it
difl'olves in a large proportion in the liquid carbonic acid,
from which it is precipitated in proportion as the acid is
volatilized.
Fluoric acid attacks the metal as well as the oxyd of
iron.
CHEMISTRY.
3°4
iron. During its combination with the former hydrogen
gas is evolved. It appears from Rinman’s experiments
to be difficult to faturate the fluoric acid With iron. 'By
boiling the foiution, a copious precipitation of the oxyd
of iron is produced. Fiuat of iron does not cryftallize.
It is decompofed in the lire, and by alkalis am,! earths.
It is decompofed alfo by the fulphuric, nitric, and muri¬
atic, acids. The boracic acid, diluted with water, dif-
folves both the metal and the oxyd of iron by the aflii-
tance of heat. The foiution, which has the colour of
amber, depofites, by Handing, a yellow ochry precipitate,
and, by evaporation, fafciculated yellovviilr cryftals. If
a foiution of borax be mixed with a foiution of fulphat
of iron, a borat of iron is formed, which is very difficultly
folublein water. This, fait is decompoled by alkalis,
and by all the acids except the carbonic Oxalat of iron,
with an excefs of acid, is eaiily ibluble in water. If the
oxalic acid be faturated with the oxyd of iron, a whitifti
infoluble precipitate is formed This acid has the ftrong-
eft affinity of all the acids for iron. The citric acid. dif-
folves iron readily with the evolution of hydrogen gas.
The faturated foiution is of a dark colour. With time
it becomes muddy, black, and thick. This fait is but
little known. The malic acid difiblves iron, according
to Scheele, and forms with it a deliquefoent fait. The
benzoic acid aCts weakly on the metal, but more power¬
fully on the oxyd of iron. The foiution affords cryftals,
which have a fweetifh tafte, and efflorefce in the air. Ben-
zoat of iron is foluble in alcohol Succinic acid affords
a (lightly coloured foiution by digeftion with iron, and
.an ochry precipitate, the nature of which has not been
invefiigated. During the foiution of iron in liquid ar-
lenic acid, hydrogen gas is difongaged. Scheele remarks
that this foiution often forms into a jelly in open, but
never in ciofe, veftels. Alkalis precipitate the arfeniat of
iron of a greenifh white colour, which becomes reddilh
by expofure to a glow heat. If one part of iron filings
be diftilled with four of arfenic acid, a fpontaneous in
(Summation is produced, by which the acid is converted
into the oxyd and metal of arfenic Arlenic acid preci¬
pitates the acetat of iron of a dark green. The neutral
arfenical lalts decompole all the acid (oiutions of iron.
Arfeniat of iron is eaiily decompofed by calcining it with
charcoal. The arfenic acid has very little aCtion on the
oxyd of iron.
Iron confiderably increafes. the fufibility of earths, ef-
pecially the oxyds of iion ; for, in its metallic irate, it
does not unite with them. Common glafs owes its os-
lours to the iron which is accidentally mixed with the
materials it' is compofed of. Fixed alkalis and ammoniac
.have no aCticn upon iron, unlefs combined with water.
When digefted in this manner for a few days, the liquor
becomes thick, and precipitates a fmal! quantiry ofobiack
oxyd of iron. Hydrogen gas is di (engaged, which proves
tl c neceifity of water, fince that is decompofed. Mix
fulphat ofpotafh with half the quantity of filings of iron;
heat them in a crucible : when cool, the fulphat will be
found in the ftate of a fulphure. 1 his fuiphure, by iixi-
viation, furnifhes a liquor of a very dark green colour;
a few drops of nitric acid will make this colour difap-
pear. The greateft part of the iron oxydated by the
oxygen of the fulphuric acid, remains undiflolved in the
water of lixiviation ; and acids difengage from this oxyd
a large quantity of lulphurated hydrogen gas.
A fait is prepared for medical ufes, with ammoniacal
muriat and iron, which is called martial flowers of fal-am-
,mo)iiac , or ens martis. One pound of ammoniacal muriat
in powder, and one ounce of iron filings, are mixed to¬
gether. The mixture is expofed in an earthen veflel,
covered with a veflel of the lame kind, to a heat capable
of igniting the lower part of the apparatus : in five or fix
hours a yellow matter is fublimed in the upper veflel. In
this experiment the muriat is not decompofed ; for the
produff is fublimed muriat of ammoniac coloured by a
portion of oxyd of iron. To make a complete decom-
pofition, two parts of the filings mud be ufed witYorve
of the muriat; diftil in a retort with the pneumatic p.
paratus, and liquid ammoniac is obtained/ charged with
a little iron when that ammoniac is received in water.
The refidue is muriat of iron. The oxyd of iro . is much
better for the above operations. Iron, or the fulphure of
iron, martial pyrites, burns rapidly, but without noife,
when triturated in a metal mortar with fu.per-oxygenated
muriat of potafti ; this mixture in a heap (truck with fteel,
detonates ftrongly, and gives out a red flame.
Gold unites eaiily w th iron, and by this union becomes
harder and iefs malleable. In the proportion of fix parts
of gold to one of fteel, the metallic mixture may be beat
out into plates without cracking. Iron is only partially
feparated by combuftion in a glow heat. It has a ftrongec
attraction than gold for the oxygenated muriatic and nf-
tro-muriatic acids, and precipitates gold from thele acids
in its metallic (fate. Silver combines readily with iron.
A mixture of fourteen parts of fiiver, and two one-half
of iron, is more elaltic than (liver, attraCts the magnet,
and is not decompofet in a llrong fire. A (mall portion
of iron does not feem to injure the colour or malleability
of the fiiver. Iron precipitates fiiver from all its (oiutions
in acids: but this happens in the nitric only, when the
acid is not completely faturated, or when nitrous gas is
.added. Muriat of fiiver is decompofed in the dry way
by diftillauon with iron filings; Iron precipitates mer¬
cury in its metal. :c (Late from its foiution in acids. Dif¬
tilled with oxygenated muriat of mercury the muriat is
decompofed, and fluid mertuiy pioduced. Sulphat of
iron precipitates mercury from its iolution in nitric
acid in its metallic ftate. Lead is precipitated from its
(elutions in acids by. iron. It alfo precipitates bifmuth
from its acid folutions, and in the dry way takes from
it the (ulpbur which it contains. Nickel has the ftrongeft
affinity of all the metals for iron, and is (tparated from
it with the greateft difficulty The admixture of nickel
does not injure the malleability of the iron, but rather
Items to increafe it It renders the iron lels futible.
Nickel is precipitated only in a very impeded! manner
by iron frou its (oiutions in acids. Iron unites in dole
veliels with arfenic. 1 his combination renders the iron
more brittle, and diminifhes its attraction for tlie magnet.
It is feparated from the iron with difficulty,
The ules of iron are fo great and extenfive, and be-
fides fo well known, that it would be uieleis to attempt
to enumerate them: it is only nec.efTj.ry to obferve, that
no art can be carried on without it, and that it is the foul
of ail the arts. The different modifications it is fuiceptible
of, render it very proper for the multiplicity o'f purpofes
to which it is applied. Call-iron (erves to form utenfils
of various degrees of folidity as may be required. The
hardnefs and tenacity of the (everal kinds of forged iron
are no lefs applicable to other ules. The fame obfervation
is applicable to fteel : the finenels of the grain, and ex¬
cellence of the temper, conlhtute a great number of 1'pe-
cies, peculiarly adapted to an- ainsoft infinite number of
arts. The oxyds of iron lerve to give a red or brown
colour to porcelain, enamel, pottery, &c. they are like-
wife ufed in the preparation of artificial precious Hones,
and combined with oil for painters. Iron is the bafis of
an important medicine, which is frequently applied with
the greateft fuccefs. It is the only metal which is not
noxious, and whofe effeCts are not to be feared ; it has
fuch an analogy with organic matters, that it teems to
form part of them, and often owes its production to the
procefles of life or vegetation. The effeCts of iron on
the animal economy are numerous ; it ftimulates the
membranes of the vifoera, and appears to aCt more efpe-
cially on thole of the mufcles, which it braces ; it forti¬
fies the nerves, and gives a remarkable degree of force
and vigour to the animal fyftem ; it excites many fecre-
tions, efpecially the urinary and menftrual evacuations 5
it increafes the contractions of the heart, and confe-
quently renders the pulfe ftronger' and quicker. Its ac-
CHEMISTRY.
tion is not lefs effectual on the fluids; it pafles quickly
through the firft paffa°-es, and combines with the blood,
to which it gives denfity, confiftence, and colour, render¬
ing it more concrefcible, communicating at the fame time
fuch a degree of activity as enables it to pals eafily into
the fmalleft vefiels} which it ftimulates at the fune time,
and communicates force and life through every part.
The capital experiments of Menghini, publifhed in the
Memoirs of the Inftitution of Boulogne, have proved,
that the blood of perfons, who take martial medicines,
is highly coloured, and contains a larger quantity of iron
than it would naturally contain. Lorry, who exercifes
the art of medicine with that accuracy of obfervation
which chara&e rises the true philofopher .and phyfician,
obferved,- the urine of a patient to whom he had given
iron, in a very divided ftate, became munifeftly coloured
with nut-gall. This metal is therefore tonic, fortifying,
ifcotnachic, diuretic, alterative, incifive, and unites in its
action the properties of a great number of other medi-
dicines. Like aftringents it increafes the motion of the
parts, and has the advantage of being more conftant and
durable in its effedts than many other remedies which
poflefs the fame virtue, becaufe it combines with the or¬
gans tliemfelves, by means of the fluids which ferve for
their nutrition. It feems, therefore, that in every cafe
wherein the fibres of the vifcera, of the m.ufcles, or even
of the nerves, have only a very feeble adtion, in languors
of the ftomach, and fluggiflinefs of the inteftines, and in
weaknefles produced by thefe caufes ; in fine, in all the
cafes wherein the fluids are not fuiiiciently confident, or
too much diluted, as in palfies and propenlities to the
dropfy, &c. iron may be adminiftered with iuccefs. It is
tiled under many different forms, Inch as the levigated
filings, martial FEthiops, aftringent and aperitive faffron
of Mars, martial alkaline tincture of Stahl, the martial
flowers of fal-ammoniac, See. The fulphat of iron is ex¬
ternally ufed ia hemorrhages, &c. Iron, which poflefles
the magnetic property, or the artificial magnet, his been
reckoned among thole bodies which produce very Angu¬
lar effedts upon the animal economy. When applied to
the Ikin, according to feveral modern authors, it miti¬
gates pain, diminilhes convulfions, excites redaefs, fweat,
and often a linall eruption : it is likewife capable of ren¬
dering epileptic attacks lels frequent. It has even been
affirmed, that, when left in water for twelve hours, it
communicates a purgative property to that fluid. All
thefe affertions, which are faid to be founded on fadls,
iufficiently announce to enlightened phiiofophers the
great difficulty which attends phyfical rematches into the
animal lyltem.
Of COPPER.
Copper is a metal of a red brilliant colour, to which
chemifts have given the name of Venus, on account of
the facility with which it unites to, and becomes ctianged
by, a great number of bodies. It has a difagreeable
fmell, which is more fenhble tfhen it is rubbed of heat¬
ed ; its tafle is ftyptic and naufeous, though lefs percep¬
tible than that of iron ; it is hard, very elaltic, fonorous,
dudtile, and capable of being reduced into exceedingly
thin leaves, or fine wire ; by immerfion in water it lodes
between one-eighth and one-ninth of its weight ; its te¬
nacity is luch, that a copper wire of the tenth of an inch
in diameter, can fuftain a weight of 299 pounds one quar¬
ter before it breaks ; its fra&ure appears compofed of fmall
grains ; it is fufceptible of a regular form ; the abbe Mon-
gez deferibes its cryftals as quadrangular pyramids, fome- .
times folid, and fometimes compofed of other fimilar fmall
pyramids, laterally adhering.
Copper, when heated, becomes coloured on its furface,
nearly in the fame manner as fteel ; the colours are blue,
yellow, and, laftly, violet : when completely fufed tliele
colours pafs off, and it appears covered with a-green
flame, boils, and is volatilized, as may be obferved, in
the chimneys of founderies. If this metal be projedted
Vol. IV. No. 198,
3°5
through flame, in fmall filings, it produces a blue and
green colour, and from that property it is ufed in fire¬
works. If the melted metal be luffered to cool flowly,
and, after the furface is become congealed, the fluid por¬
tion be poured off, the remaining lolid part is found to
be cryftallized in pyramids ; which are more regular and
large, in proportion as the fufion has been more complete,
and the cooling more gradual ; its pyramids are quadran¬
gular, and appear to be formed of a great number of oc¬
tahedrons, inferted one in the other.
Copper heated with accefs of air, burns at its furface,
and is converted into an oxyd of a dark red, in propor¬
tion as it abforbs the bale of vital air : this oxyd may be
eafily obtained by heating a ball of copper to redneis,
which caufes the oxyd to fcale off. The lame effedt takes,
place when red-hot copper is quenched in cold water;
the fudden contraction of the parts of the metal, facili¬
tating tne feparation'of the portion of oxyd which covers
the furface: this oxyd falls to the bottom of the water,
and is called feales of copper. As it is not perfectly oxy-
dated, it may be burned afrefli in the muffel of the cu¬
pelling furnace ; after which lalt procels it is found to be
of a deep brown colour.
The air attacks copper with greater or lefs facility, ac¬
cordingly as the fluid is more or lefs loaded with moifture,
and converts it into a ruff, or green oxyd, called verde -
gris, which appears to have laline qualities, viz. tafte,
and folubility in water. From this circumftance the an¬
cient chemifts admitted the exiftence of fait of copper.
It is remarkable, that this ruft never attacks copper, ex¬
cept at the furface, and feems even to contribute to the
prefervation of the internal parts and mafles of this me¬
tal, as may be feen in antique medals and ftatues, which'
are preferved very well beneath a covering of ruft. The
antiquarians call this cruft patina, and let a high value
on it, becaufe it ftiews the antiquity of the pieces, which
are covered with it. Many artifts, and in particular the
Italians, know how to imitate this coating, and to coun¬
terfeit the antique bronzes. The oxydation of copper
by humid air, -appears to be produced by water in the
ftate of extreme divifion ; this fluid, however, does not
appear to attack copper,. nor decornpofe it like iron, at a
high temperature. This metal feems to be more oxycli-
fiable by cold water; it being a well-known fadf, that
more danger attends the fuffering of fluids to cool in
copper veffels, than in making them boil ; becaufe, as
long as the fluid is boiling, and the veflel hot, the aque¬
ous vapour does not adhere to its furface ; but when the
veflel is cold, the drops of water which adhere to its fides
feem to reduce it into green oxyd. It is to the air and
the carbonic acid diftributed therein we mufl attribute
this oxydation ; for, by diftilling this ruft of copper in the
pneumatic apparatus, Fourcroy obtained carbonic acid.
Chaptal has a memoir on a new mode of manufadhir-
ing verdegris. This procefs, pradbifed at Montpellier for
fome years paft, confifts in caufing the refidue of grapes
to ferment, and of putting it in layers between plates of
copper, to develop the metallic oxyd, called verdegris.
This method .is luperior to the old one, as it is much
eafier, and attended with lefs. expence, becaule it requires
no wine. Experiments of the fame chemilt prove alfo
that white lead may be made in the lame manner.
To reduce the oxyd of copper: mix feales, or. any
other oxyd of copper, with foft or black l'oap ; make it
into a ftiff pafte, and a little muriat of foda may be add¬
ed. Put the mixture into a crucible, and place it in a
melting furnace ; heat it gently at firft, till the loap
burns no longer; then increafe the fire rapidly, to give
a white heat. Let the crucible cool, break it, and the
button of copper will be found.
To produce phoi'phorated copper: mix equal parts of
thin pieces of copper and pholphoric glafs ; add one-
eighth part of powder of charcoal ; meif the whole in a
Heffian crucible. The refuit is a metallic button, whitiffi
to the eye, but fometimes exhibiting rainbow colours.
4 I This
C HEMISTRY.
3°6
This phofphure of copper detonates with nitre, and pro¬
duces, beiides the oxyd of copper, a phofphat of potafh.
Expofed to the air, it lofes its brightnefs, and becomes
black.
Copper unites very readily with fulphur ; the com¬
bination may be made in the humid way, that is to fay,
by mixing- flowers of lulphur and copper filings together,
with a fmall quantity of water; but it fucceeds much
better in the dry way. A . mixture of equal parts of ful¬
phur in powder and copper filings, are put into a cruci¬
ble, which is heated by degrees till it becomes red-hot ;
the refult is a tmafs of a blackifh grey, a fort of mat of
copper, which is brittle and mote fufible than the copper
itf'elf. This compound is prepared for dying and paint¬
ing on callicoes, by placing ftrataof plates of copper and
fulphur in powder in a crucible, and heating it gradu¬
ally. The kind of mat which is produced, is pulverized,
and called <zs ‘veneris , which mult not be confounded
with another preparation bearing the fame name, and
formed of copper and muriat of ammoniac.
Copper forms alloys with many metals. Melt in a
crucible fix parts of copper with four of arfenic and four
of potafli : it forms a metallic button white and brittle.
If the experiment be made with arfeniat of potafli, in the
proportion of eight parts of the fait to fix of the copper,
the copper 'oles its colour entirely; it is called ‘white
tombac. It may be carried to fuch a degree of whitenefs
as to vie with ■filver, if three or four parts of this copper
already whitened, be mixed with one part of arfeniat of
potafh.
Cronftedt fucceeded in uniting copper with nickel in
different proportions ; but the prefence of the copper
was always vifible, becaufe it always coloured the glafs
of borax of a green and of a brown red. By melting to¬
gether fix parts of red copper and nine of bifmuth, it
forms, according to Gellert, an alloy of a reddifh white,
with cubic facets. It unites very readily with antimony,
and affords a cupreous regulus, which is diflinguifhed by
a beautiful violet colour ; it likewife decompofes ful-
phure of antimony, and unites with the fulphur which
it takes from the antimony.
Copper unites difficultly with mercury ; though a fort
of amalgam may be produced, by triturating copper in
very thin leaves with mercury. A plate of this metal
plunged in a folution of mercury by an acid, becomes
eoated over with a beautiful colour of filver, owing to
the mercury which has been reduced and precipitated
by the copper, and which has a greater affinity with oxy¬
gen than mercury has. It alio combines readily with
zink. This combination may be made in two ways.
Firft by fufion ; a metal is produced whofe colour re-
fembles that of gold, and which is much lefs fufceptible
of ruff than copper, though lefs duftile than that metal:
the nearer its colour approaches to that of gold, the more
brittle it is; and it varies greatly according to the pro¬
portion of the mixture, and the precautions ufed in melt¬
ing it; its varieties are, fimilor, pinchbeck, princes-me-
tal, yellow tombac, and Manheim gold. Secondly, by
cementing plates of copper with native oxyd of zink, or
lapis calaminaris reduced to powder, and mixed with
charcoal ; in a red heat, the copper unites with the zink,
and forms brafs : this is lefs fufceptible of ruff than cop¬
per, and is likewife more fufible, and lefs malleable. But
a ftrong heat, continued for a fhort time, deprives it of
the zink with which it was united, and converts it into
copper again. The following is Vauquelin’s analyfis of
brafs : Diffolve a known quantity of brafs in the necef-
fary proportion of nitric acid ; put the folution into a
bottle, and pour in a folution of cauftic potafh, till the
excels is manifeff to the tafte ; {hake it up immediately ;
then filter the whole; the zink diffolved in the potafh
pafies through the paper, and the oxyd of copper remains.
Wafh the metal till the laft portions of water have no
tafte; dry the oxyd Of copper with a gentle heat; then
V»eigh it} and, fubtradting 0-35 from the amotint of the
oxyd, you have the weight of the metal, for one hundred
parts of oxyd of copper contain in that ftate thirty. five
parts of oxygen.
Melt in a crucible twelve parts of red copper and three
parts of zink ; cover the mixture with charcoal-duff, to
prevent the oxydation of the zink : this will produce a
tombac of a fine gold colour. Melt one part of yellow
copper and two parts of red copper; and you have a
very dudlile metal of a beautiful gold colour. By add¬
ing oxyd of arfenic, you have a metal almoft white, brit¬
tle} of a very fine clofe grain : the proportions are, fix
parts of red copper, four of zink, five of oxyd of arfenic,
and the fame quantity of potafli.
Tin combined with copper renders it fliflfer, harder,
more brittle, and fpecifically heavier, than the two me¬
tals employed. This alloy is whiter, more brittle,, and
more fonorous, in proportion as the quantity of tin is
greater. When it is very white, it is called bell-metal \
when it contains a large proportion of copper, it is yel¬
low, and is called bronze. This laft is ufed in calling
ftatues, and forming pieces of artillery, which require to
be fufficiently folid not to burft, and not fo duffile'as to
have their form deftroyed by the ftroke of bullets. The
alloy or mixture is made in different proportions, add¬
ing, according to the ufes for which the metal is del-
tined, either zink, or antimony, or both. Eight parts of
copper and one of tin, form a yellowifli white metal with
not much du&ility. Sixteen parts of red copper to one
of tin, produce a metal more dudtile than the foregoing,
with a colour approaching nearer to red copper. Eight
parts of red copper and two of tin, form a metal very
brittle and fragile, with a clofe fine grain, the colour of
the copper being confiderably changed.
There are feveral procefies for analyzing bell-metal in
the works of Fourcroy, Pelletier, and La Grange. 1. By
nitric acid, which feparates the copper. 2. By adding
oxyd of manganefe to oxydate the tin. 3. By calcining
a portion of the metal. 4. By throwing fifteen parts of
oxyd of copper into one hundred of bell-metal in fufion:
the tin fepayates the oxygen, and riles oxydated to the
furface; take this away; then the oxydated copper be¬
comes reduced, and mixed with the other.
Tinning of copper confifts in applying a plate or layer
of tin to the furface of the metal, and making it adhere.
There are feveral ways of preparing the copper to re¬
ceive the tin. Some ferape the copper, to render the
furface clean and brilliant ; others rub it with wine-
lees, a little very weak nitric acid, and land. Then there
are two modes of applying the tin : 1. Melt the tin, co¬
vering the furface with powdered refin, and plunge in the
pieces intended to be tinned ; but the copper, that it
may take the tin better, is generally dipped previoufly in
a folution of muriat of ammoniac, but it mtift be dried
before it is plunged into the melted tin. This mode is
when pieces of copper are to be tinned on both fides.
2. For tinning copper vefiels on the infide only, heat the
velfel over charcoal ; put in the infide a quantity of tin,
let it melt; put in a little muriat of ammoniac in pow¬
der, and rub it in with a handful of tow ; fpread about the
melted tin in the fame manner in all the places impreg¬
nated with the fait. The intent of the muriat of ammo- -
niac is to cleanfe the furface of the copper, and to pre¬
vent the oxydation of the tin. It is with jultice com¬
plained, that the tinning of copper vefiels is not fuffi-
cient to defend them from the adtion of air, moilture,
and {aline fubftances, becaufe thefe vefiels hre frequently
obferv^d to be covered with verdegris. It might be pof-
fible to remedy this inconvenience by a thick covering
of tin, if there were riot realon to fear, that a degree of
heat luperior to that of boiling water, to which thefe
vefiels are often expofed, would melt the tin, and leave
the furface of the copper uncovered. To prevent this
laft accident, the tin may be alloyed with iron, filver, or
platina, to diminifti its fufibility, and render it capable
of being applied in thicker ftrata on the copper. Alloys
C H £ M I
of this kind ate already u fed in feveral manufactures.
The very finall quantity of tin required to cover the fiir-
face of copper, is fufprifing ; Bayen and Charlard having
determined, that a veffel of nine inches in diameter, and
three inches three lines in depth, did not gain more than
twenty-one grains by tinning. This (mall quantity is,
neverthelefs, fufficient to prevent the dangers which might
arife from the ufe of copper veftels, provided care Ire taken
that fubftances capable of diffolving the tin be not fuf-
fered to remain too long a time in the veftels ; and more
efpecially that the tin be frequently renewed : as the fric¬
tion, heat, and action of fpoons, with which the included
fubftances are ftirred, deftroy it very quickly. There is
likewife another caul'e of apprehenfion relpefting the tin
ui'ed by braziers in tinning, &c. It is often alloyed with
one-fourth of its weight of lead ; and in this cafe the bad
effedts of the latter metal are much to be feared, as it is
knowm to be very foluble in acids and fat fubftances.
La Folie, of Rouen, well known by his chemical labours
refpefling the arts, and the ufeful difeoveries with which
lie has enriched the art of dying, of pottery, and a great
number of manufadtures, propofes, in order to avoid the
inconvenience and danger of tinning copper, thatfauce-
pans of forged iron covered with zink might be ufed,
which, as we have hlready feen, is not productive of any-
dangerous effects. Many perfons have already ufed thele
veffels, and have been fenlible of their advantages. It is
much to be defired that the ufe of thefe veftels may be¬
come more general.
Copper and lead unite very eafily by fufion, as the for¬
mation of the leaves of eliquation prove. But this com-
pofitionis not permanent; for the lead melts with a gentle
beat, and abandons the copper. The refpedtive affinities
of lead and copper for acids have not yet been accurately
determined.
Copper and iron are capable of uniting either by fufion,
or in the way of foldering ; yet this combination does
not eafily fucceed. When a mixture of the two metals
is melted in a crucible, the iron is found in pieces in the
copper, without being perfectly united. Copper decom-
pofes, according to Monnet, the mother water of fulphat
of iron, though iron has a ftronger affinity with acids
than copper.
The fulphuric acid does not ad on copper but when
concentrated and boiling; much fulphureous acid gas is
difengaged during the folution. A brown matter, of
the confidence of a thick fluid, containing oxyd of cop¬
per, and a portion of the oxyd combined with the ful¬
phuric acid, are fbund at the bottom; from which, by
the addition of water and filtration, a blue folution is
obtained : if this be evaporated to a certain point, and
fuffered to cool, rhomboidal long cryftals are afforded, of
a beautiful blue colour, called fulphat of copper, or blue
vitriol. If the folution, inftead of being evaporated,
be left expoled a long time to the air, it affords cryftals ;
but a green oxyd is precipitated. All the oxyds of cop¬
per when formed or dried in the air, are of this colour.
Sulphat of copper has a very ftrong ftyptic tafte, ap¬
proaching even to caullicity; it is a ftrong poifon. When
expoled to heat, it very loon melts, loles its water of
cryftallization, and becomes of a bluifli wffiite ; a ftrong
heat is required to feparate the fulphuric acid, which ad°
heres much more ftrongly to the oxyd of copper than to
that of iron, though the iron indeed decompoles the di¬
lutions of copper by a different attra&ion, that of the
iron for oxygen. Sulphat of copper is decompofed by
magnefia and by lime ; the precipitate formed by either
of thefe fubftances is of a bluilh white, but befcomes
green if dried by expolure to the air. A fimilar precipi¬
tate is obtained with alkalis. If the precipitate obtained
by potalh be heated with cauftic potalh, the precipitate
loles its colour, and becomes brown : in this operation,
the copper lofes a portion of its oxygen, for the brown
-precipitate contains lefs oxygen than the blue; but it is
not known whether this laft oxygen combines with the
i
S T R Y. 307-
alkali. The proportions of the conftituer.t principles of
fulphat of copper, are known by decompofing it with al¬
kalis. Soda and ammoniac produce the fame effedl ;rs
potalh ; but, if the latter be in excels, the ammoniac
has the property of re-dillblving the precipitate, and giv¬
ing it a blue colour. The hydro-fulphures decompofe
this fait, and the Pruffiats alfo. Several metals have the
fame property : if a plate of iron, zink, or tin, be plunged
into a folution of this fait, the copper will be precipitated.
Scheele's green is produced by the decompqlition of ful¬
phat of copper with arfenit of potalh. Melt potaffi in
water by the affiftance of heat ; add white oxyd of arfe-
nic, or arfenious acid, to the point of faturation. Or,
Take a hot folution of fulphat of copper, pour it into
arfenit of potaffi ; pour it by little and little, and ftir it
with a glafs tube. Then let it fettle, and a precipitate
is thrown down; decant the liquor, and on the refidue
pour a little hot water, and ftir it well ; then pour off
the liquor afrelli ; walh twice with warm water in the
fame manner; put the whole to filter, and then let it
dry ; a beautiful green colour is produced, not aftefted
by air, and therefore very convenient for painters. Ar¬
fenit of copper is formed in this experiment. But if, in¬
ftead of arfenit of potalh, the arfeniat be ufed, the pre¬
cipitate is ftill of a very beautiful colour, and arfeniat of
copper is formed.
The nitric acid diffolves copper with great rapidity in
the cold; a large quantity of very red nitrous gas' being
at the fame time difengaged. This is the method ufed by
Dr. Prieltley to obtain a very ftrong nitrous gas. A por¬
tion of the metal reduced to the ftate of oxyd is preci¬
pitated in the form of a brown powder, and is feparated
by the filter. The filtrated folution is of a much deeper
blue than the fulphuric iolution, which (hows that the
copper is more perfectly oxydated; by previous and care¬
ful evaporation, cryftals may be obtained in cooling,
refembling bundles of divergent needles. Nitrat of
copper is of a very bright blue, and is fo cauftic, that
it may be employed in corroding the excrefcences which
arife on the (kin ; it melts, according to Sage, at
the temperature of twenty degrees of the thermometer
of Reaumur, and detonates on burning coals, though
this phenomenon is fcarcely lenfible, on account of the
large quantity of water it contains. When melted in a
crucible, it emits large quantities of nitrous vapour,
which may be collected by diftillation ; when dried, its
colour is green ; an increafe of the heat converts it to a
brown,' in which ftate it is a pure oxyd of copper. Four-
croy diltilled this fait with the pneumatic apparatus, and
obtained much nitrous gas, a finall quantity of carbonic
acid, and a frnall quantity of vital air ; it was converted
into a brown oxyd by this operation. Ni'.rat of copper
attracts the moilture of the air, but it may be prelerved
a long time in dole veftels ; in a dry and hot air it be¬
comes covered with a green effioi eicence. It is very
foluble in water, and rather more fo in hot than in cold
water. The folution expoled to the air in (hallow veftels,
or quickly evajforated in hot and dry weather, leaves an
oxyd of the fame green colour as the cryftals of the fait
have in fimilar circumstances. But, not to lofe the nitrat
of copper which is obtained in coining, by precipitating
the lilver of the nitrat by means of copper, there is form¬
ed of it in England, what id called blue earth, or blue
ajhes , ufed for painting or ltaining paper. To a folution
of copper in nitric acid, they add powdered chalk ; ftir
the mixture to facilitate the decompolition of the nitrat
of copper; there ffiould be a finall excels of the nitrat
of copper, that all the lime may be abforbed ; and, that
the precipitate, which takes place the moment the mix¬
ture is made, may be ajprecipitate of copper only, let
this precipitate fettle ; then pour off the liquor, which is
nitrat of lime, and walh feveral times ; then put the whole
into a cloth, that it may drain at leifure. ^Vith this pre¬
cipitate, which is of a faint green colour, commonly
called mountain sreen, blue alhes are prepared : for which
purpofej,
CHEMISTRY.
3°8
purpofe, put a certain quantity on a ffone or in a large
mortar, and add a little quicklime in powder; the mix¬
ture, by trituration, affumes immediately a bright blue
colour: the quantity of lime fhould be feven or ten parts
to ioo of the precipitate. If the precipitate be too dry,
add a very little water, to give the mixture a proper con-
fiftence for trituration. Then dry the whole. This is
totally foluble in acids with effervefcence, and carbonic
acid gas is difengaged, which proves that a great quanr
tity is abforbed in its formation. Pelletier, to whom we
are indebted for this procefs, regards blue ajhes as a com¬
bination of carbonat of lime and carbonat of copper.
The nitrat of copper exhibits the fame phenomena as
the fulphat, when combined with alkalis; but in general
the precipitates are of a. finer blue. Ammoniac re-dif-
folves the precipitate, and produces a triple fait, nitro-
ammoniaco of copper. Tire hydro-fulpliures and Pruf-
fiats produce the fame effebrs as with the fulphat of cop¬
per. The fulphuric acid likewife diffolves nitrat of cop¬
per, and blue cryftals of fulphat of copper are obtained,
if the acid be ufed in a very concentrated Itate. Iron
has a ftronger affinity with mo.it acids than copper. When
a plate of iron is plunged in a folution of copper by acids,
and in particular by the nitric acid, the copper is preci¬
pitated in the metallic form, and covers the furface of
the iron ; this precipitation depends on the ftronger affi¬
nity of the iron than of the copper to oxygen. The ful¬
phat of copper exhibits the fame phenomenon, and this
procefs has been ufed by impoftors to make the credulous
believe they were able to convert iron into copper.
The muriatic* acid does not difl’olve copper, unlefs it
be concentrated and boiling. Only a final l quantity of
hydrogen gas is difengaged during this folution. The
combination forms a magma very foluble in water; if it
be lixiviated, the water becomes of a beautiful green co¬
lour, which diftinguifhes this folution from the two fore¬
going ; when flowly and cautioufly evaporated, and fuf-
fered to cool, it depofits prifmatic cryftals of a regular
form ; on the contrary, if the evaporation has been too
rapid, and the cooling too fudden, it prefents only very
finall (harp needles. The muriat of copper is of a very
agreeable gral's green colour, its taile is caultic, and very
aftringent, and it melts by a gentle beat, congealing
again into a inafs when fullered to cool. It ftrongly at-
. tradls the moifture of the air, and is decompofable by
the fame intermediums as the preceding lalts of copper.
The fulphuric and nitric acids do not decompofe this
muriat. The nitric foliations of mercury and filver de¬
compofe it by double affinity, a white precipitate being
formed by the tranfpofition of the muriatic acid to the
oxyd of mercury or of the filver, and by the union of
the oxyd of copper to the nitric acid. Evaporated to
drynefs, it aflumes a brown colour; and, if the experi¬
ment is made in clofe veffels, oxygenated muriatic acid
may be obtained ; which proves that the copper in this
ftate contains lefs oxygen.
Arfenical acid hasfome adtion with the oxyd of copper,
but none on the metal itfelf. Fluoric acid diffolves cop¬
per, and ftiil more readily its oxyd. The blue gelatinous
folution which it forms affords cryftals of a blue colour,
and cubical ihape. Boracic acid has little adtion diredtly
on copper in the moift way ; but, if a folution of borax
be added to a folution of fulphat of copper, a pale.green
coloured fait is precipitated, which is difficultly foluble
in water, but which, in the fire, melts into a grecnifh
glafs. Phoiphoric acid diffolves only a fmall portion of
copper, but it adts more powerfully on the oxyd. The
folution affords, by evaporation, a green tranfparent
gum-like mafs, which meks into a dark opake glafs in
the fire. The affinity of thefe acids for copper is ftiil
very undetermined. Copper will not combine with car¬
bonic acid but in the oxyd ftate : this combination is
called carbonat of copper, or malachite. This carbonat
may be decompofed by heat in the pneumatic apparatus:
carbonic acid gas paffes over, and a brown oxyd of cop¬
per remains in the . retort, if the heat has been ftrong
enough towards the end. Mod of thefe falts are foluble
in alcohol, efpecially the nitrat and muriat of copper.
The alcohol then burns with a green flame.
Copper decompoles muriat of ammoniac very readily.
Bucquet who examined this decompofition with great
care, obtained by the pneumatic apparatus over mercury,
from two drachms of copper filings, and one drachm of
ammoniacal muriat, fifty-eight inches of elaftic fluid,
of which twenty-fix inches confilted of very pure am¬
moniac gas, twenty-fix of detonating inflammable gas,
and fix of mephitical gas, which extinguifhest candles,
without being abforbed with water, and without preci¬
pitating lime water. A fmall quantity of liquid ammo¬
niac is difengaged, which fwims over the mercury. When
this decompofition was repeated in the dofe of four ounces
of copper with two ounces of ammoniacal muriat, in
the common apparatus, Bucquet obtained two drachms
eighteen grains of blue liquid ammoniac, which effer-
yefeed a little with acids, and contained about one cubic
inch of carbonic acid in the drachm. Fourcroy repeat¬
ed this experiment, with ammoniacal muriat purified by
fublimation, and obtained a very caufticammoniac, which
did not at all effervefee with acids. The oxyd of copper
likewife decompofes ammoniacal muriat, and affords a
portion of carbonat acid, together with the ammoniac
it difengages, which renders the latter effervefeent. This
alkali is always blue, becaufe it carries up with it a fmall
portion of the oxyd of copper, to which its colour is
owing. Acids do not however precipitate this metal.
Two medicines are prepared in pharmacy with ammoni¬
acal muriat and copper, of which the firft has received
the name of cupreous ammoniacal flo-jcers, or ens veneris,.
and is nothing more than ammoniacal muriat coloured
by a fmall portion of oxyd of copper. A mixture of
eight ounces of this fait, with one drachm of the oxyd
ot copper, is fublimed in two earthen veffels, theone
placed on the other: all the ammoniacal muriat is vola¬
tilized without being decompofed, and carries up a finall
quantity of oxyd of copper, which gives it a bluiffi co¬
lour. The fecond, which is called aqua celejlis, is pre¬
pared by fullering a pound of lime-water, and an ounce
of ammoniacal muriat, to remain in a copper vefiel with¬
out heat for ten or twelve hours ; the lime difengages the
ammoniac, which diffolves a fmall quantity of copper of
the bafon, and produces the blue colour. The celeftiai
water may be made in a glafs or earthen vefiel, if a finall
quantity of filings, or oxyd of copper, be added to ther
lime-water and ammoniacal muriat. In either cafe, the
liquor is' to be filtered ; and it may be oblerved, that
in this experiment calcareous muriat and ammoniacal
cupreat are formed. From the cupreatmay be obtained
cryftals by evaporation. It does not fulminate, like the
orat of ammoniac; but it is as foluble. By diftillation,
water, azotic gas, and oxyd of copper, are obtained.
Copper appears to decompofe fulphat of alumine ; for
if a folution of this fait be boiled in a copper vefiel, a
fmall quantity of alumine is depofited ; and, when the
alumine is precipitated by ammoniac, its earth affumes
a flight blue colour, denoting the prefence of copper.
This effedt may likewife be attributed to the finall excels
of acid which fulphat of alumine always contains.
The ufes of copper are numerous, and well known.
The alloy of copper and zink is moil commonly prefer¬
red, on account of its great dudtili.y and its beauty. As
copper is a very violent poifon, it ought never to be adrai-
niltered in medicine. The properelt remedies in cafe of'
poifonlng by copper reduced into oxyd or verdegris, are
emetics, abundance of water, alkaline fulphures, alka¬
lis, &c.
Of SILVER.
Silver called Luna or Diana by the alchemiffs, is of a
white coiour, and of the molt lively brilliancy; it has
neither talte nor fmell ; its Ipecific gravity is fuch, that it
lofes
C H E M I
lofes about the eleventh part of its weight by immerfion
in water, and a cubic foot of this metal weighs 720
pounds. Silver is fo duftile, that it may be beat into
exceedingly thin leaves, and drawn into wire much finer
than a hair. A grain of leaf filver meafures fomewhat
more than fifty-one fquare inches, and the filver wire,
ufed by aftronomers, about the 750th part of an inch in
diameter. This is about half the diameter of a fine hu¬
man hair. A grain of filver may be extended fo as to
form a veflel capable of containing an ounce of water.
Its tenacity is fo confiderable, that a filver wire of the
tenth of an inch in diameter, may fultain a weight of
270 pounds without breaking. Its hardnefs and elaiticity
are not equal to thofe of copper. It is the moll fonorous
of metals after thofe we have mentioned. It hardens
under the hammer, but very readily loles that hardnefs
by heating. 'Fillet and Mcngez have cryftallized this
metal, and obtained quadrangular pyramids, fometimes
infulated like thofe which are found on the edges of the
crucibles in which this metal has been melted, or group¬
ed and laterally placed one on the other.
The only way of obtaining pure filver, much finer than
that obtained by cupellation, is to extraft it frommuriat
of filver. Silver fuitains almoft a white heat previous to
fufion ; and, in a very violent fire, it will volatilize. It
oxydates with the greateft difficulty, by the combined
aflion of heat and air ; but the eleftxic lpark haftens the
oxydation.: Air feems to have no action upon this metal ;
yet the furface will be tarnifhed by long' expoiure.
To produce pholphorated filver, take one part of
pholphoric glafs, one half part of filings of filver, and
of charcoal in powder one half of the weight of the
filver. Put thefe together in a crucible, and expofe
them to the heat of a melting-furnace for half an
hour. When the fufion is complete, the filver is leen at
the bottom of ihe crucible, and little bubbles of phof-
pliorus are difengaged : take off the crucible immediate¬
ly, and let it in the air, that it may cool quickly. The
filver foon becomes folid, and fome fprigs of phofphorus
may be taken out of the metallic button. The weight
of the filver is increafed, its duftility diminiffied; it ap¬
pears grained and cryftallized, and breaks under the
hammer. Expofed on a cupel in a hot muffle, the phof-
phorus is diflipated, and the filver remains pure.
Sulphur combines readily with filver; this combination
is ufually made by ftratifying plates of the metal with
flowers of fuiphur in a covered crucible, and quickly
fuflng the mixture: a deep violet coloured mafs is pro¬
duced, much more foluble than filver, brittle, and dif-
pofed in needles ; in a word, a true artificial ore of filver,
or fulpliurated filver, is produced. The Germans call it
blanchmal, on account of its refembling certain ores of
filver which they call by that name. Some filver ores
may be imitated by adding a little arfenic ; this produces
a reddilh mafs, fomewhat like the native red ore of filver.
The artificial fulphure of filver is eafily decompoled by
the a£tion of fire, becaufe of the volatility of the fuiphur
and the fixity of filver ; the fuiphur is confumed and
diffipated, and the filver remains pure. Alkaline fulphure
difiolves this metal in the dry way. When one part of
filver is melted with three parts of fulphure of potafli,
the metal difappears, and becomes foluble in water, to¬
gether with the fulphure. If an acid be poured into this
iolution, a black fulphurated precipitate of filver is ob¬
tained. Silver left in a folution of fulphure of potafh,
quickly affumes a black colour, and the fuiphur appears
so quit the alkali to unite with and mineralize the metal,
as we have likewife obferved it does with mercury.
Silver unites with arfenic, which renders it brittle;
but the properties of this mixture are not yet known. It
does not combine with cobalt without difficulty. It
unites perfectly well with bifmuth, and forms a brittle
mixed metal, whofe fpecific gravity is greater than that
of the two metals feparately taken. According to Cron-
fledt, filver does not unite with nickel j but when theie
Vol. IV. No. 198.
S T R Y. 3©9
metals are melted together, they remain befide each other,
as if their fpecific gravity were piecifely the fame. It
mixes by fufion with antimony, and affords a very brittle
alloy. It feems capable of decompofing fulphure of an¬
timony, and of uniting with the fuiphur of that mineral,
with which it has a ftronger affinity than the antimony.
Silver combines readily with zink by fufion ; an alloy
is produced by this combination, granulated at its fur-
face, and very brittle. It difiolves completely, and even,
without heat, in mercury. To produce this folution,
filver leaf may be triturated with feven timers its weight
of the metallic fluid; an amalgam is produced, whofe
confidence varies according to the relative quantities of
the two fubftances. Or, fine filings of filver may be ufed,
in which cafe itfhould be powdered in a warm mortar with
the mercury. This amalgam is capable of alTuming a
regular form ; by fufion and flow cooling, it affords te¬
trahedral prifmatic cryftals, terminated by pyramids of
the fame form. The mercury aflumes a degree of fixity
in this combination ; for a much ftronger heat is necel-
fary to feparate it from the filver, than would be required'
to volatilize it alone. Silver is capable of decompofing
corrofive mercurial muriat, either by the dry or the hu¬
mid way. I.t unites perfedlly with tin, but lofes its duc¬
tility by the fmalleft addition of this metal. It readily
becomes alloyed with lead, which renders it very fufible,
and. deprives it of its elafticity and fonorous quality. It
unites with iron, and forms an alloy, which has been
,but little examined into, but may probably become of
the greateft utility in the arts. It melts and combines in
all proportions with copper ; and may be even combined
in equal quantities with filver, without fenfibly changing
the colour of that metal. Copper gives body, ftiffhefs,
and elafticity, to filver; but conliderably diminifhes its
du&ility. Copper is the alloy mixed with filver in mak¬
ing plate and money : without this, the filver would not
be hard enough to refill its wear and ufe. .
Almoft all combuftible matters have a certain aflion on
filver ; no metal is more quickly tarnifhed and coloured
by inflammable matters ; fulphurated hydrogen gas, from
whatever fubftance it may be difengaged, communicates
to it immediately upon contact, a blue or violet colour,
inclining to black, and greatly diminifhes its du&ility.
It is well known that fetid animal vapours, fuch as thole
of neceffary houfes, putrified urine, and hot eggs, pro¬
duce the fame efteft on this metal.
The aflay of filver ores varies according to their na¬
ture ; fuch as contain native filver ore, require nothing
more than feparating and waffling. Trituration with
running mercury may be ufed for the accurate feparating
of this metal from the marine fubftances, which change
it ; the fluid metal difiolves the filver, and may be after¬
wards driven off by fire. Sulphureous filver ores require
to be roafted, and afterwards melted with a greater or
lefs quantity of flux ; in this fufion, filver is obtained
commonly alloyed with lead, copper, iron, &c. For the
feparation and accurate afeertaining of the quantity of
pure metal contained in this alloy, a procefs entirely che¬
mical is ufed, which depends on the properties of the
other metals. Lead being capable of vitrifying, and of
carrying with it in its vitrification the iron and copper, ,
without acting on filver, this property is ufed to feparate
the filver from thofe with which it is alloyed ; the filver
is melted with a quantity of lend, which muft be fo much
the more confiderable, in proportion as the quantity of
bafe metal is fuppoled to be greater. This alloy is then
put in flat and porous vefiels, made of calcined bones and
water ; this kind of crucible, which is called a cuppel , is
well adapted to abforb the glafs of lead, ufually formed
in cuppellation. After this procefs, the filver remains
pure. In order to determine what quantity of bale metal
it contains, or its degree of fineneis, the mafs of filver is
ftippofed to be divided into twelve parts, called penny¬
weights, and each of thefe pennyweights into twenty-four
grains ; if the mafs of filver has loft a twelfth of its
4K. Weight, .
3io CHE M I
weight, it is called filver of eleven pennyweights fine'; if
it has loft only a twenty-fourth, it is called filverof eleven
pennyweights twelve grains fine, and io forth. The
cuppel, after this operation, is found to be much heavier,
and contains the oxyd of vitreous lead, and that of the
other metals, which were united with the filver, and have
been feparated by the lead. As the lead itfelf almoft
always contains a fmall quantity of filver, it is ne-
ceflary firft to cuppel it by itfelf, in order to determine
the quantity of the filver it contains, and a deduction
rauft be made from the button of fine filver obtained of
the fmall portion knowm to be contained in the lead made
ufe of, which is called the w itnefs. Cuppellation is at¬
tended with a phenomenon, by which the artift \s adver-
tifed of the Hate of the procefs as it goes forward. In
proportion as the filver becomes pure by the vitrification
and feparation of the lead, it appears much more bril¬
liant than the portion wdiich is not yet fine ; the brilliant
part increafes by degrees, and wdien all the furface of
the metal become pure and luminous, the inftant in
which it pafies to this ftate exhibits a flafh or fulguration,
w hich denotes that the operation is finifhed. Cupelled
filver is very pure with relpedt to the bafer metals it may
have contained, but it may contain gold ; and, as it al¬
ways contains a certain quantity, another operation muft
be made to leparate thefe two perfeft metals. As gold is
much lefs changeable than filver by moft folvents, the
filver is diflolved by the addition of the nitric or muri¬
atic acids, or by lulphur; and the gold, on which thefe
folvents have little or no adlion remains pure. This me¬
thod of feparating filver from gold is called parting .
The large works where filver is extradfed from its ores
and purified,' are fimilar to thole we have defcribed for
the affay of the ores of this metal. There are in general
three methods of treating filver in the large way ; the
firft confifts in triturating virgin filver wdth mercury ;
this amalgam is wafhed to leparate all the earth ; it is
then palled through the pores of bags of leather, and dif-
tilled in iron retopts ; after which the filver is melted and
call into ingots. This procefs cannot be ufed writh filver
ores that contain fulphur: thefe are roafted and mixed
with lead, to refine the lilver by cuppellation. Rich lil-
ver ores are treated in this manner, but the poorer ores
are melted without previous roafting, with a fmall quan¬
tity of pyrites. This fufion, which is called the crude
fujion , affords a mat of copper in combination with filver,
which is treated with lead in the way of eliquation ; the
latter, which carries down the filver during the fufion, is
afterwards fcorified on the cupel, and the filver remains
pure. Cuppellation in the large way differs from that
which is made in the fmall way, in this circumftance,
that in the firft, the fcorified lead is driven off by the
adtion of a bellows, whereas, in tlie latter, the oxyd of
vitreous lead is abiorbed by the cuppel.
The filver obtained by the procefies here defcribed is,
in general, much lefs liable to alteration than all the me¬
tals hitherto defcribed. The contaft of light does not
at all change this metal, however long it be expofed to
it ; heat melts it, caufes it to boil, and to become vola¬
tilized, but without alteration. It does not melt in lefs
than a white heat, but is more fufible than copper. When
it has been held in fufion for a certain time, it boils and
emits vapours, which confift of filver volatilized. This
fadt is proved by theexiftence of the metal in the funnels
of chimneys, under which large quantities are continu¬
ally melted. It is likewife confirmed by the capital ex¬
periment of the Academicians of Paris, who expofed
very pure filver to the focus of Trudaine's lens. Thefe
philolophers obferved, that the melted metal emitted a
thick fume, which completely filvered a piece of gold
held over it.
The following additional remarks on the fubjedt of
cuppellation, are extradfed from the new work of Vau-
quelin. With regard to the proportion of lead to be
ufed, if the lilver contains a twentieth part, or 0‘05, of
S T R Y.
copper, then four times and a half as much lead as of
filver will he required; hut, if it contains o’ao, at leaft
eleven times as much will be neceftary.' If- the filver k
fo alloyed with copper as to require fifteen or fixteen parts
of lead to feparate it, not more than eight grains can be
allayed at a time, unlefs you have a cuppel twice or thrice
as large as for filver containing but one twentieth of cop¬
per; for, the cuppels can hardly abforb more than their own
weight of the oxyd of lead; then the remainder would
lie at the furface of the water, which would be inconve¬
nient. It is proper to have the heat greateft at the begin¬
ning of the operation ; but a very great heat is improper
towards the end, as part of the filver might be volatiliz¬
ed, and the metallic button become too hard, which
are two great inconveniences, where perfedt exadtnefs is
required as to the finenefs of the lump ; therefore, when
the operation is about two-thirds over, draw the crucible
towards the front of the furnace, that it may have pre-
cifely the quantity of heat neceftary to bring on the ful¬
guration or corrufcation fpoken of before : for at the
moment the laft portions of lead evaporate, the fur¬
face is covered with ftreaks exhibiting all the colours of
the rainbow. It will be known that the affay has been
-well made, when the remaining button is round, of a
bright white colour, cryftallized above and below, and
laftly, if it is eafily looiened from the cuppel when cold.
It is very difficult, however, without much pradlice, to
adjuft a proper degree of heat to lilver of different fine¬
nefs ; but, in general, filver much alloyed requires a
ftronger beat, ef'pecially towards the beginning, than
fine filver; and that fine filver will require but one part
and half of lead, and lefs fire, particularly towards the
conclufion of the operation.
Mr. Keir has defcribed, in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions for 1790, a method of feparating thefe metals from
each other, which appears to be particularly ufeful in
the arts. It confifts in putting the mixture of filver and
copper, or copper plated with filver into an earthen glaz¬
ed pan, and pouring on them a mixture of fulphuric
acid andnitrat of potafli, in the proportion of from eight
to ten parts of the acid to one part of the nitrat. The
mixture is to be ftirred fo that the furface of the pieces
of metal may be frequently expofed to frefh portions of
the liquor. The folution is to be affifted by a gentle beat
of from 100 to 200 of Fahrenheit’s fcale. When the li¬
quor is nearly faturated, the filver is to be precipitated
from it by the addition of muriat of foda. A muriat of
filver is formed, eafily reducible in a crucible by melting
it with a lufficient quantity of potafli ; and laftly, by re¬
fining the melted filver, if neceftary, with a little nitrat
of potafli thrown on it. In this manner the filver will be
got fufficiently pure, while the copper remains unchanged.
Silver is diflolved by the fulphuric acid when very
concentrated .or boiling, and the metal is greatly divided.
Much fulphureous acid gas is difengaged during this
folution ; the filver is Converted into a white matter, on
which fulphuric acid muft be poured, in order to hold it
in folution : very fmall needles of fulphat of filver are
obtained by evaporating this liquor; Fourcroy obtained
this fait in plates, formed by the union of thefe needles
length-wife. This fait melts in the fire, and is decom-
poled : the acid is driven off by heat, then the oxygen,
and the filver is left in its metallic ftate. It is decom-
pofable by alkalis, iron, copper, zink, mercury, &c. All
the precipitates obtained by alkalis, are reducible with¬
out addition, and become converted into fine filver, in
clofed veffels. The hydro-fulphures precipitate the filver
from its fulphuric folution, of a fine black' colour ; the
muriatic acid, and all the muriats, decompofe this fait.
Nitric acid diffolves filver; but the proportion is not
eafy to be known, as it depends on the degree of con¬
centration of the acid : fometimes it requires one part
and a half, at other times two parts, to one of filver. For
a very clear and pure nitric folution of filver, it will be
neceftary to ufe the cuppelled filver, without which the
nitric
C H E M
■nitric acid will take a blue or red tinge, (hewing tliat it
contains copper. It is neceflary allb to examine the pu¬
rity of the nitric acid ; for, if it contains fulphuric or
muriatic acid, a white precipitate, tiioreorlef’s abundant,
will be formed. A large matrafs fhould be ufed, for the
adtion of the nitric acid upon the filver is very ftrcng
and rapid; and a large quantity of nitrous gas is difcii-
gaged, even without the afiiltance ol heat. This folution
is exceedingly caullic, tinges the epidermis of a black
colour, and entirely corrodes it. When highly charged
with the metal, it depofits fender brilliant cryitals, re-
fembling thofe of boracic acid; when half evaporated,
it affords, by cooling, fiat cryftals, which are either hex-
. agonal, or triangular, or. fquare, and appear to be form¬
ed of a great number of ffriall needles, placed one befide
the other. Thef'e are called the nltxal of fiver, or lunar
ayfals. The fait is quickly altered' by the contaft of
light, and blackened by combuftible vapours. It deto¬
nates on heated charcoal, and leaves a white powder,
which is pure (liver. It is very fufible : if it be expofed
to heat in a crucible, it firfl: fwells up and lofes the water
of cryftallization, after which it remains in fufibn ; and,
if fuffered to cool in this ftate, it appears to be a grey
mafs, and forms a preparation known in pharmacy and
furgery by the name of lapis infernalis. It is not necef-
fary in making this preparation to ufs the cryftallized ni¬
trat of filver, which is difficult and expenfive to obtain;
as it is fufficient to evaporate a folution of filver in the
nitric acid to drynefs, and to put this refidue in a cruci¬
ble or filver ladle, as Baume advifes, and to heat it flovt-
■ 3y tiil it is in an undifturbed fufion, in which ftate it mult
be poured into a mould, to give it the form of final) cy¬
linders. If the cylinders of lapis infernalis be broken,
they are found to be of a needle-formed texture, radiat¬
ing from the'axis of each cylinder. Nitrat of filvet mult
not be too long heated to make the lapis infernalis, as
by that means a part of the fait would be decompofed,
and a button of filver would be found at the bottom of
the crucible. To afcertain what pafles in this operation,
Fourcroy diftilled this fait in the pneumatic apparatus;
they afforded nitrous gas, and vital air, mixed with a
fmali quantity of azotic gas ; the filver was recovered in
the matrafs, entirely reduced. The glafs was opake like
enamel, and of a beautiful ma'rron brown colour. Nitrat
of lilver, expofed to the air, does not attract moifture ;
it is very foluble in water, and may be difl'olved by twice
its weight of cold water, but boiling water will diflolve
almoft its own weight.
Take filver of twelve carats fine, diflolve it in very
pure nitric acid, and then precipitate it by lime in the
oxyd ftate ; (train, and dry the precipitate with a gentle
heat, or in the fun. Pour ammoniac over this dried oxyd
of filver, and by fpontaneous evaporation you ha ve ful¬
minating fil-ver, or anunoniacal oxyd of fiver. Great care
mull be taken in the preparation of this oxyd, for it de¬
tonates with extreme facility, owing to the decompofition
of the ammoniac ahd the oxyd; for the hydrogen of the
ammoniac combines with the oxygen of the oxyd, and
the azot is di fen gaged. We are indebted to Berthollet
for this experiment.
Put a folution of filver in nitric acid into a gbfs; drop
in fome fulphuric acid, and a white pulverulent precipi¬
tate is produced immediately; this is fulphat of filver.
The fame decompofition takes place with any other ful-
phat. In this cale there are two decompofitions, and two
frefh combinations : the nitric acid, feparated from the
filver, unites with the bafe oft the fulphuric falts. The
muriatic acid, and its combinations, prefent the lame
phenomena. If a hydro-fulphure be poured into a folu¬
tion of nitrat of lilver, the lilver is precipitated black.
Moll metallic matters are capable of decompofing the
nitric folution of filver, becaule they have a (tronger affi¬
nity than that metal with oxygen. The arfeniat of pot-
alh, difl'olved in water, produces a reddilh precipitate in
the nitric folution, which confifts of filver united with
: S T R Y. 3 it
arfenic acid; this precipitate relembles the red ore of lil¬
ver; but, if the folution of filver is not perfectly faty-
rated, the precipitation does not take place. Silver.may
be precipitated in its metallic ftate by molt metals ; but
we {hall more particularly attend to the feparation of this
metal by mercury or by copper, becaufe of the pheno¬
mena the firll prefents, and the utility of the latter.
Silver feparated from the nitric acid by mercury is int
its metallic ftate, and the flowmefs of its precipitation
produces a peculiar fymmetrical arrangement, known by
the name of Arbor Diana, or the philofdphical tree. There
are many procefies for obtaining this cryftallization. Le-
mery diredls one ounce of fine filver to be difl'olved in
nitric acid of moderate ftrength : this folution is to be
diluted with about twenty ounces of diftilled water, and
two ounces of mercury are to be added : in forty days a
very beautiful vegetation is formed. Homberg has pre-
fcribed a much lhorter procefs : according to this chemift,
an amalgam of four drachms of leaf filver, with two
drachms of mercury, mull be made in the cold, this
amalgam is to be difl'olved in a fufficient quantity of ni¬
tric acid, and a pound and a half of diftilled water muft
be added to the folution. A little ball of the foft amal¬
gam of filver mull be put into an ounce of this liquid,
and the precipitation takes place almoft inftantly. The
precipitated filver, united to a portion of the mercury,
difpofes itfelf in fibres of a prifmatic appearance on the
furface of the amalgam : other fibres appear and infert
themfelves in the foregoing, fo as to exhibit a vegetation
in the form of a bufh. Lal'tly, Baume has defcribed a
method cf obtaining the arbor Dianoe, which differs in
fome refpedts from that of Homberg, and fucceeds with
greater certainty ; he directs fix drachms of the folution
of filver, and four of the folution of mercury, in the
nitric acid, both well faturated, to be mixed, and five
ounces of diftilled water to be added to thisriiquor. The
mixture muft be poured into an earthen veil'd, -upon fix
drachms of an amalgam of filver, made with feven parts
of mercury and one part of filver. Thef'e two methods
fucceed much more quickly than that of Lemery, by the
reciprocal adtion and affinity between the metallic fub-
ftances. In fad, the mercury contained in the folution
attracts that of the amalgam ; the filver contained in the
latter adts likewife on that which is held in folution, and
from thef'e attractions a quicker precipitation of the filver
takes place. The mercury, which compof’es a part of
the amalgam, being more abundant than is neceflary to
precipitate the filver from the folution, produces likewife
;a third eft'edt of confiderable importance ; it attradls the
filver by the affinity and tendency it has to combine with
that metal, and it eft'edtually combines with it; fince the
vegetations of the arbor Diante are a true bi ittle amalgam
of a cryftallized form. This cryftallization fucceeds'
much better in conical veffels, or glafles, than in round
or open veffels, fuch as the cucurbit recommended by
Baume. It may likewife be obferved, that it is neceflary
to place the veil'd in which the experiment is made, in
a fituarion where it may not be lhaken, or agitated, as
i'uch circuiriflances would effedhially prevent the fymetri-
cal arrangement of the cryftallization.
Copper plunged in the folution of filver, precipitates
this metal likewife in a brilliant and metallic form. This
procefs is ufually employed to feparate the filver from its
fol vent, after the procefs of parting. Plates of copper
are immerfed in the folution, or the folution itfelf is
oured into a vefftel of copper; the filver immediately
ecomes feparated in wbitifli grey flocks. When the li¬
quor becomes blue, and is deprived of all its filver, it
is decanted off; the filver, after being wafhed feveral
times in water, is melted in a crucible and cuppelled, in
order to feparate it from the portion of copper with which
it united during the feparation. The filver afforded by
this operation is the pureift of all; it is twelve penny¬
weights fine. From thef'e two precipitations of filver by
mercury and copper, we fee, that metals feparated from
their
their folvents by other metallic matters, are precipitated
■with all their properties.
The muriatic acid does not immediately diffolve (jlver,
but it perfe&ly diffolves its oxyd. Muriat of filver is
obtained by decompofing the nitrat with muriatic acid, or
muriat of foda : the very abundant precipitate which is
inftantly formed, is muriat of filver. If the oxygenated
muriatic acid be poured on leaves of filver, the filver
will become oxydated by l'eparating oxygen from the
oxygenated muriatic acid : the oxyd thus formed then
diifolves in muriatic acid.
The muriat of filver poffeffes many properties which
deferve to be known; it is fo fufible, that it melts when
expofed in an apothecary’s phial to a mild heat; even in
that of hot allies. By this fufion it is converted into a
grey and femi-tranfparent fubltance, refembling horn,
and for that reafon has been called luna cornea. If it be
poured on a done, it becomes fixed in the form of a fri¬
able matter, cryftallized as it were in fine filvery needles.
When heated for a long time with contadl of air, it is
decompofed ; it pafies eafily through the crucibles : part
is volatilized, and part is reduced into metal, affording
globules of filver, interfperfed among the portions of the
muriat of' filver which is not yet decompofed. This
fait, expofed to light, lofes its white colour, ,andbecomes
brown in a fhort time. It diifolves in water in but a ve¬
ry fmall quantity ; a pound of dillilled boiling water
taking up only three or four grains, according to the ex¬
periment of Monnet. Alkalis are capable of decompo¬
sing muriat of filver, difl'olved in water, or in the dry
way by heat; this method affords the pureft and fined
filver known. A mixture of three partsof foda, with one
part of muriat of filver,, is melted in a crucible : when it
is in drong fufion it is taken from the fire, fuffered to
cool, and lyoken ; the filver is found beneath the muriat
of foda, formed in the operation, and the fuperabun-
dant portion of alkali employed. Baume, the inventor
of this procefs, affirms, that the quantity of alkali he
direits prevents the muriat of filver from palling through
the crucible, by ailing on all its parts, which it decom-
pofes at once. Margraaf has given another procefs
for reducing this fait, and obtaining perfectly pure fil¬
ver: Five drachms fixteen grains of muriat of lilver are
triturated in a mortar, with one ounce and a half of am-
moniacal carbonat, a fufficient quantity of didilled wa¬
ter being added to form apade ; this mixture is agitated
t 11 the dwelling and effervefcence, which are excited,
have fubfided. Three ouncesof purified merdury are then
added, and triturated, till a perfect amalgam of filver is
obtained: this is walhed with a large quantity of water,
the trituration ftill being continued, and the wafhing re¬
newed, till the water pafies off very clear, and the amal¬
gam is very bright. The amalgam being then dried
and didilled in a retort, till the vefiel has acquired a
white heat, the mercury pafies into the receiver, and the
filver is found pure at the bottom of the retort. In this
way the metal is obtained in the mod' perfedt date of pu¬
rity, and without any fenfible lofs. This is the filver
which ought to be ufed in the nicer chemical experiments.
The water employed in waflring the mixture carries off
two fubftances; a certain quantity of ammoniacal muri¬
at, which it holds in folution, and a white infoluble
powder. When the latter is fublimed, a fmall quantity
of filver is found at the bottom of the fublimatory vefiel.
This experiment Ihews, that muriat of filver is not com¬
pletely decompofed unlefs by the double affinity. In
fait, in the procefs of Margraaf, the ammoniac does not
unite with the muriatic acid, but becaufe the filver com¬
bines on its part with the mercury, which attrails and
tends tofeparate it from the acid, which the alkali alone
could notdo. It is eafily feen, that this long and expen-
five operation can only be ufed in the fmall works of a
chemical laboratory. If muriat of filver in large quanti¬
ties be required to be reduced, either fixed alkalis, or
Ibme metallic fubdance, mud be ufed, which have a
S T R Y.
dronger affinity than filver with the muriatic acid; fuels
among others, are antimony, lead, tin, iron. See. If
one part of muriat of filver be melted in a crucible with
three parts of one of thefe metals, the filver will be
found reduced at the bottom of the crucible, and the
metal united to the muriatic acid. Silver precipitated in
this manner is very impure, and always contains a por¬
tion of the metal ufed for the reduction ; and as lead is
mod commonly employed, according to the advice of
Kunckel, the filver obtained requires to be cupelled ; it
cannot confequently be brought to the fame date of pu¬
rity with the filver reduced direilly by alkalis, or by the
procels of Margraaf.
The nitro-muriatic acid aits drongly on filver, and
precipitates it in proportion as it is dilfolved : this efteit
may eafily be underdood ; the nitric acid fird diifolves
the metal, and the muriatic acid feizes it, forming mu¬
riat of filver, which falls down on account of its fmall
degree of folubility. This procels may be ufed to fepa-
rate filver contained in gold.
This metal does not appear to be altered by neutral
falts ; it is certain that it does not detonate with nitre,
nor decompofe ammoniacal muriat. This unchangea-
blenefs of filver with nitre, affords a good method of fe-
parating it by detonation from the metals with which it
may be united, fuch as copper, lead, & c. The alloyed
metal mud be melted with the addition of nitre ; the fait
detonates and burns the portion of foreign metal, and
the filver remains at the bottom of the crucible, in a date
of much greater purity than before.
The oxyd of filver precipitated by cau'dic alkali, from
its folution in nitric acid, is foluble in ammoniac. Ber-
thollet difcovered that this combination poffeffes the pro¬
perty of fulminating in a degree fuperior to that of oxyd
of gold. He remarks, that this fubdance fulminates
with violence while diil humid, if it be preffed with a
hard body. In this experiment the filver was found con-
dantly reduced. In the dry date, the flighted touch, or
friition of any kind, is fufficient to make it fulminate.
If a fmall retort be filled with a folution of the oxyd of
filver in ammoniac, and expofed to a boiling heat, bub¬
bles of azotic gas are difengaged, and fmall crydals are
formed, which are opake, and have a metallic appear¬
ance. Thefe crydals detonate by the flighted touch,
even when covered by the liquor, and, in large quanti¬
ties, produce dangerous^ explofioas. The detonation of
the oxyd obtained by lime was much more powerful than,
that by the .fixed alkalis.
Silver is a metal highly ufeful, on account of its dua¬
lity, and its indedruitibity by fire and by air. Its bril¬
liancy renders it capable of ferving the purpofes of or¬
nament. It is applied on the fiijr'face of different bo¬
dies, and even on copper; and likewife enters into
the texture of rich filks; but its mod confiderable ufe
is that of affording a matter, proper, by its hardnefs
and duitility, to form veffels of all forts. Silver
plate is ufually alloyed with one twenty-fourth of cop¬
per, which gives it a greater degree of hardnefs and co¬
herence, and does not render it at all noxious, becaufe
the twenty-three parts of filver cover the copper, and
entirely, prevent its noxious effeits. It is univerlally em¬
ployed as a medium of exchange, in the form of money;
in this cafe it is alloyed with one twelfth part of copper,
and is confequently eleven penny-weights fine.
Of GOLD.
This metal, called Sol by the alchemids, is the mod
perfeitand the lead changeable metal known; it is of a
yellow brilliant colour; no other fubdance in nature isfo
heavy, platina excepted, for it loles only between one
nineteenth and one twentieth of its weight in water.
Neither its hardnefs nor its eladicity are very confi¬
derable. Its- adonilhing duitility, which are well as¬
certained by the fmaiinefs- of gold wire, and the thin-
nefs of gold leaf, is fuch, that an ounce of this metal is
fufficient
C H E M I
Tufficient to gild a filver wire of 4.44 leagues in length, -
and it is reduced into plates lufficiently thin tq be blown
away by the leaft breath of wind. A grain of gold, ac¬
cording to the calculation of Lewis, is capable of co¬
vering the furface of more than 1400 fquare inches. It
is the molt tenacious of all the metals ; a gold wire ot
one tenth of an inch in diameter, being capable of ful-
taining a weight of 500 pounds without breaking. Gold
loon becomes hard under the hammer, but immediately
recovers its duftility by ignition. The colour of gold is
fulceptible of coniiderable variety ; it is more oriels yel¬
low, and fome fpecimens are almoft white ; theie differ¬
ences however feem to depend on fome alloy. Gold has
neither fmell nor talle ; it is capable of cryftallizing by
cooling, in Ihort quadrangular pyramids, as Tillet and
Mongez have obferved.
Gold is almoft always found in a native or virgin ftate :
it is fometimes met with in fmall infulated malfes, dil-
poled on a matrix of quartz; fometimes it is in fmall
fpangles, intermixed with fand at the bottom of \vaters;
and laftly, it is obtained from many ores into the com-
pofition of which it enters, fuch as galena, blend, red
filver ore, and virgin filver. It is almoft always united
with a certain quantity of filver and other metals, form¬
ing natural alloys.
Gold expoied to the fire becomes red before it
melts. In a ftrong heat it appears of a brilliant fea-
green colour; but it does not melt completely till heated
to whitenefs, and cryftallizes by flow cooling. The
ftrongeft heat of a furnace continued for an indefinite
time does not produce any change in this metal;
Kunckel and Bo)de made this experiment, by expofing
gold for feveral months to the fire of a glal's-houfe. This
inalterability, however, is merely relative to the fires we
are able to make with combuftible fubftances ; for it ap¬
pears certain that a ftronger heat, fuch as that of the fun
concentrated by glafs lenfes, is capable of depriving it
of its metallic properties. Homberg obferved that this
metal, when expoied to the focus of the lens of Tfchirn-
haufen, fumed, was volatilized, and even vitrified.
Macquer found, that gold expoied to the focus of the
lens of Trudaine, melted and exhaled a fume which
gilded filver, and was therefore gold in a volatile ftate ;
that the globule of melted gold was agitated with a ra¬
pid circular motion, and became covered with a dull,
and, as it were, earthy, pellicle; and, laftly, that a vio¬
let vitrification was formed on the middle of the globule.
This vitrification gradually extended, and produced a
kind of button, flatter, or of a larger curvature, than
that of the globule of gold, which ltuck on the globule
itfelf, as the tranfparent cornea appears on the fclerotica -
of the eye. This glafs increaled in fize, while the gold
itfelf continually diminifhed; the fupport always ap¬
peared tinged with a purple colour, apparently pro¬
duced by the abforption of part of the glafs. Time did
not permit Macquer to vitrify entirely a certain quantity
of gold. This celebrated chemift obferves, that it is a
neceffary condition, that the violet glafs fhould be re¬
duced with combuftible matters, in order to juftify the
alfertion, that it is the oxycl of that perfe£t metal, which
would evidently appear to be the cafe, if it became re¬
vived into. gold. However this may be, we think itmay
be confidered as a true vitrified oxyd of gold, with lo
much the greater probability, as, in many operations
with this metal, the purple colour is conftantiy produced,
and many preparations of gold are employed to give that
colour to enamel and porcelain. Gold is therefore oxy-
difiable like the other metals, and only requires, as like-
wife does liiver, a ftronger heat, and a longer time, to
unite with the bale or" ail;, than other metallic fub¬
ftances. Thefe circurnftances, no doubt, bear relation
to its denfity, and its fmall tendency to unite with oxy¬
gen. Gold may be converted into the ftate of purple
oxyd by the ad'tion of a ftrong electric fpark. Gold is
not changed by expofure to air ; its furface becomes tar-
Vol. IV. No. 199.
S T R Y. 313
nifhed merely by the depofition of foreign bodies which
continually float in the atmofphere. Water does not at
all change it, though, according to the experiments of
Lagaraye, it feems capable of dividing it.
To prepare phofphorated gold, mix one half part of
parted gold in powder, ( with one part of phofphoric glafs,
and about one-eighth of charcoal: put the whole into a
crucible, covering the mixture with a little powdered
charcoal : then urge a violent, heat, ftrong enough to
melt the gold: much phofphoric vapour flies off during
the operation', but a little of the phofphorus remains
combined with the gold. The gold is collected at the
bottom of the crucible, but not in its natural ftate ; it
is whiter, breaks under the hammer, and has a cryftal-
line form. Care mult be taken not to continue the fire
too long, as in that cafe the gold will be found unchang¬
ed at the bottom of the crucible ; for Pelletier fays, the
combination may be decompofed, by roalting it in an
open fire.
Sulphur and gold, when both very pure, will not com¬
bine; but an addition of iron makes them unite: this
explains the prefence of gold in pyrites. Sulphur is ad-
vantageoufly ufed to. feparate metals, with which gold
may be alloyed, more elpecially filver: this alloy is melt¬
ed in a crucible, and flowers of fulphur, or fulphur in
powder, is thrown on its furface : the latter fubftance,
melting and combining with the filver, floats above the
gold in the form of a blackifh fcoria. It mull be ob-
lerved, that this operation, called dry parting, never le-
parates the two metals accurately from each other, and
that it is not ufed, except when the mafs of filver does
not contain a fuflicient quantity of gold to repay the
expence of the operation of parting by aquafortis.
Alkaline lulphures completely diffolve gold. Stahl
even thinks that this procefs was ufed by Moles, to ren¬
der the calf of gold adored by the Ifraelites foluble in wa¬
ter : to form this combination, a mixture of equal parts
of fulphur and potalh mull be quickly fufed with one-
eighth part of the whole weight of leaf gold ; this mat¬
ter being poured out, and levigated on a ftone, forms,
with hot diftilled water, a yellowilh green folution, con¬
taining an auriferous lirlphure of potalh ; the metal may
be precipitated by means of acids, and fcparated from
the Iulphur, which falls down at the lame time, by heat¬
ing it in an open veflel.
Gold combines with mod metallic fubftances, and ex¬
hibits many important phenomena in its combinations.
It unites with arlenic, and forms a brittle pale com-'
pound ; the laft portions of arfenic are very difficultly,
ieparated from this alloy by the aflion of heat ; the gold
feems to communicate fixity to it. The alloy of cobalt
and manganefe with gold has not been lufficiently exa¬
mined. It unites with bifmuth, which renders it white
and brittle, as do likewife nickel and antimony ; as thefe
metals are very oxydifiable, and, for the molt part, fu-
fible, they are ealily Ieparated from gold by the combined
aftion of lire and air.
Sulphure of antimony has been greatly extolled by the
alchemifts for the purification of gold; when this fub¬
ftance is melted with half its weight of gold, alloyed
with other metallic fubftances, as copper, iron, or filver,
the fulphur of the antimony unites to the alloy, and fe-
parates them from the gold, which is found at the bottom of
the veflel ; this gold is contaminated with antimony, and
mult be purified, by a white beat ; the antimony by this
treatment is volatilized, but the laft portions require a
very ftrong heat to drive them off. It is likewife obferv¬
ed, that this metal carries up certain portions of gold in
its volatilization. This procefs, fo celebrated by the al¬
chemifts, has not, therefore, any advantage over that in
which fulphur is employed alone.
Gold readily unites with zink ; the produft is a mixed
metal, more brittle and white in proportion as. the 'quan¬
tity of metal is greater- This alloy, made with equal
parts of each metal, is of a very fine grain, and takes i»
4L beau-
3 T4 C H E M
beautiful a polifh, that it has been recommended by
Hellpt to make mirrors of telefcopes, not being iubjeitt
to tarnifli-. When the zink is feparated from the gold
by calcination, the oxyd which this metal affords is red-
difli, and carries up a finall quantity of gold with it.
Or the mixed metal may be put into nitric acid, which
diffoi vcs the zink without affecting the gold.
Gold has a ftronger affinity with mercury than with
other metallic fubftances, and is capable cf decbmpofing
their amalgams ; it unites with mercury in every propor¬
tion ; but La Grange recommends to form amalgam of
one part of leaf-gold with feven parts and a half of
mercury ; put thefe into a marble mortar, and triturate
with a glafs peftle till the amalgam is properly formed.
The gold may be feparated again from the mercury by
heat, which occafions the mercury to volatilize. This
amalgam is employed in water-gilding.
Though gold is not capable of oxydationby the action
of the fire of our furnaces with accefs of air, it never-
thelefs becomes fo when heated together with mercury :
if mercury, with one forty-eighth of its weight of gold,
be heated in a flat-bottomed matrafs, whofe neck is
drawn out into a capillary tube, the two metallic fub-
ffances become oxydated at the lame time, and are. con¬
verted into a deep red powder. This compound oxyd,
according to Baume, is obtained in much lefs time than
that of mercury alone. We here fee a metal, which,
though very difficult to oxydate alone, afllfts and facili¬
tates the.oxy'dation of another metallic matter, which is
likewife very difficultly oxydated.
Gold is ealily alloyed with tin and lead; thefe two me¬
tals deprive it of all its ductility, rendering it brittle and
fragile. Gold unites with iron by fufion : equal parts
of gold and iron or flee] form a grey mixture ; but three
or four parts of iron to one of gold produce a metal al-
rnoft as white as filver. This alloy with iron is very hard,
and may be ufed to form cutting inftruraents, much Su¬
perior to thofe made with pure fieel. Lewis propofes
gold as a very proper and firm folder for (mail pieces of
fteel. Gold alfo .combines with copper, which gives it a
red colour, and greater firmnefs, at the flame time that it
renders it more fufibie : this alloy is mixed in different
proportions for money, plate, and toys; it is called red
alloy, and is ufed as a folder for gold.
Gold and filver unite in all proportions. The metals,
when mixed, feem to lofe very little of their ductility ;
but they acquire firmnefs and elafticity. A twentieth
part of filver renders gold confiderably paler ; but filver
may be mixed with a fourth, or even a third, part of
gold, without any apparent change of colour. This al¬
loy,. is not, however, made without a certain degree of
difficulty, on account of the different ipecific gravities
of thefe two metals, as Homberg obferves, who flaw them
feparate during their fufion. The alloy of gold with fil¬
ver forms the green gold of the jewellers and gold-beaters.
As gold is of the mofl extenfive ufe, and, by the con¬
vention of mankind, is become, together with filver, the
price of all the other produdtions of nature and of art, it
is of importance to afoertain the degree of purity of this
precious metal,' in order to prevent the deceptions which
covetoufnefs might produce, and to caufe the value of
all the maffes or pieces of gold difperfed in commerce to
be the fame, equal weights being fuppoled. Severe la ws,
founded in juftice, have therefore been made, effablifhing
the quantity of alloy neceffary to be ufed, in order to give
the due degree of hardnefs and rigidity to gold intended
to form utenfils in which thefe properties are neceffary.
Ch&miftry affords methods of afcertaining the quantity
of imperfect metals mixed with gold: the operation by
which this knowledge is obtained, is called the ajfay of
gold. Twenty-four grains of the gold intended to be af-
fay-ed is cupelled with forty-eight grains of filver and
four drachms of pure lead ; the latter, in its vitrification,
carries along with it the bafer metals, fuch as copper,
&c. and the gold remains combined with the filver after
5.
S T R Y.
the cupellation is finiflted. Thefe two metals are fepa-.
rated by an operation called parting ; the parting of gold
and filver confifts in the feparating of the two metals by
a folvent, which afts on filver without affetling gold :
aqua-fortis is commonly ufed.' Silver is added to the
geld, becaufe experience has fhown that it is neceffary
the gold fliouid be mixed with at leaft double its weight
oi filver, in order that the nitric acid may perfectly dif-
folve the latter metal. As three parts of filver are ulually
added to one of gold, this procefs is called quartation,
the gold being one-fourth of the weight of the alloy.
This proportion, however, as Vauquelin remarks in his
late accurate experiments, is proper only when the gold
is very fine, as 997, 998, 01-999, parts fine in 1000; for,
fhould it contain 200, 250, or 300, parts of copper, two
parts of fine filver will fuflice •, but, as it is neceffary for
the quantity of filver to diminifh in an inverfle ratio to
the purity of the gold, the lead, on the contrary, mult
increafe in a direft proportion. It is ea-fy to conceive,
indeed, that, when the gold is fine, or almoft fine, the
lead is more neceffary for favouring the fufion of the fil¬
ver and the gold, than for refining the gold ; but, when
the gold contains much copper, the cafe is otherwife;
if, for example, the gold is only 0-75 fine, then twenty-
four times its weight of lead would be requifite for it»
purification, and fio in proportion. The fame remarks;
relative to the quantity to be allayed at a time, will hold
good here, that were made on the cupelling of filver.
A greater heat is neceffary for allaying gold than for fil¬
ver ; but there is no danger of its f'ubliming like that
metal, nor are the precautions there directed neceffary here.
When the aflay is complete, and the matter has cooled,
the metallic button is to be hammered flat, and then
roafted again, either by placing it on a piece of charcoal
heated from underneath, or upon burning coals, or by
putting it into the muffle of a cupelling furnace, taking-
care it does not melt. Then it is to be paffed through
an inflrument, to form it into a plate, not more than one
fourth of .a line' thick ; this metallic plate is to be roaft-
ed again, and then rolled up fpirally. The plating, and
the re-roofing, are' two operations neceffary to the liiccefs
of the procefs, and which require iorae precautions. 1.
The plate muff be neither too thick nor too thin ; if too
thin, it anight break during the agitation caufle'd by the
boiling in aqua-fortis, which it is to undergo ; if too thick,
the aqua-fortis would not perhaps penetrate to its centre,
fb as to feparate the very latft particles of filver. 2. The
re-roafting of the plate, while it gives it more pliability,
and promotes its folding up, without breaking or crack¬
ing, opens the pores of it, which the prefl'ure of thetnffru-
rnent had elofe'd, and favours theadtion of the aqua-fortis.
Now put the rolled plate into a pear-fhaped matrafs,
that is, one whofe neck diminifhes from the belly to the
top ; pour in pure aqua-fortis of 220 tiil the matrafs,
which ufually holds about three ounces, be half or three
parts full. Then place it on burning coals, covered with
a flight layer of allies, left the veil'd fhould break by the
fudden heat ; from the inffant the liquor boils, till the
end of the operation, fliouid be about fifteen or twenty
minutes. This is called humid parting : at this time a red
vapour is di (engaged, proceeding from the folution of
the filver by the nitric acid : the rolled plate changes co¬
lour; it becomes brown ifh, lofes its fblidity and confif-
tence, as is eafy to conceive. ' When the aqua-fortis has
thus boiled for twenty minutes upon the gold, the folu¬
tion is to be carefully decanted off, taking care the gold
does not fall ; then pour on the fame quantity as at firff
of aqua-fortis at 320, to feparate the laft portions of filver
that might adhere to the gold. This fecond operation
is called the repetition. Let it boil this time for about
feven or eight minutes; decant this aqua-fortis like the
firff, and then fill the matrafs with difti lied water, or very
pure river-water. Invert a flmall crucible upon the aper¬
ture of the matrafs ; turn the matrafs very carefully bot¬
tom upwards ; the fpiral gold finks in the crucible through
the
C H £ M I
the water, which fupports part of its weight, and hin¬
ders it from breaking} then turn up the mat rats quickly
and dextroufly, that the water may not efcape in 1'uffi-
cient quantity to fill the crucible and run over the brim.
Pour the water out of the crucible ; and road the fphal
piece .of gold once more in the crucible, covered, amidft
burning coals, or under the muffle of a cupelling furnace.
The gold, which, on coming out of the aqua-forris,
was of the brown hue of oxyd of copper, extremely fra¬
gile, and diminifhed in volume, becomes duftile, and re¬
covers its colour and metallic brilliancy by this opera¬
tion. By the weight of the gold, the quantity of alloy
it originally contained is known. To aieer-tain with pre-
cilion the quantity of bafer metal which the gold may con¬
tain, a given mais of gold is fuppofed to contain twenty-
four parts, called carats-, and, for great exaflnefs, each
carat is divided into thirty-two parts, called thirty-ie-
co-nds of a carat : if the gold after the afflay has loft: one
■grain out of twenty-four, it is gold of twenty-three ca¬
rats ; if it has loft one grain and a half, it is gold of twen¬
ty carats fixteen thirty-feconds, and fo fbrth. The weight
ufed in the allay of gold is called the affay ‘weight , and
ufuafly confifts of twenty-four grains ; it is divided into
twenty-four carats, which are likewife fubdivided into
thirty-two parts : an allay weight, which weighs twelve
grains, is likewile ufed, but divided into twenty-four
carats, and the carat into thirty-two thirty-feconds. '
Hitherto -we have principally confined ourfelv.es to the
alloy of copper with gold and filver; but there are other
mixtures which require Tome Consideration. It Icrae-
times happens that a large quantity of filver contains but
a 1’mail quantity of gold: this is called -gilding, and the
allay is called an affay of gilding. And Sometimes it hap¬
pens, alfo, that a large quantity of gold contains a. fmall
quantity of filver. If -thole two metals alone were mix¬
ed, the procefs would be very Ample : it would only be
neceffliry to diffolve the firft in pure aqua-fortis ; and to
add lilver to the fecond, and then cupel it with lead.
But there is ahnoft always a certain quantity of copper
in both mixtures, which muff be feparated by cupella-
tion. If it be gilding, which is to be allayed, it will not
be neceflary to add lilver, fince the greater part of the
mafs is lilver already ; but, having determined the quan¬
tity of lead neceflary to be added, by the ufual methods,
■proceed to cupellation, as di-refted in the affay of filver,
but not with fuch a heat as directed in the . afflay of gold.
The firft part of the allay being finiftied, weigh the but¬
ton, which will lliew the quantity of alloy it contained.
Then flatten it under the hammer, and re-roaft and boil
with aqua-fortis, as direfled before in the affay of gold,
taking care to let the liquor fettle after each boiling,
otherwise the gold, being in fmall quantity, will be pre¬
cipitated in a powder; and, the lair time, give the cru¬
cible twro or three flight knocks, to forward 7the precipi¬
tation, and detach any fmall particles that might adhere
in the inequalities of the veffel. Then pour off the water
very gently and carefully ; and road the gold again as
before direfted. The weight of gold makes known that
of the filver, fince you have only to fubtraft that from
the weight of the original mafs. In the fecond cafe, of
a large quantity of gold containing a fmall quantity of
filver, firft try the mafs by the touchltone, and add as
much filver as is neceflary to complete the inquartation ;
then cupel with the proper quantity of lead, according
to the foregoing calculations : weigh the metallic but¬
ton, and proceed in the ufual way of affaying gold, hav¬
ing regard, in weighing the refults, always to deduft the
quantity of filver added at the beginning of the operation.
Gold is not altered by the molt concentrated fulphuric
acid, even though heated. The nitric acid appears ca¬
pable of diflldving a fmall portion of this metal ; feyeral
chemilts think that this folution is produced rather me¬
chanically, than by a true combination. Deyeux, mem¬
ber of the College of Pharmacy in Paris, has obferved,
that the nitric acid diflblves gold only when it is iinoking,
S T R Y. ' 315
and charged with nitrous gas; he thinks that the acid
in this ftate is not pure, and affirms that it is loaded
with gas, 'and by that means converted into a kind of
aqu.t regia. The muriatic acid alone, and in a ftate of
purity, does not fenfibly acf on gold. Scheele and Berg¬
man have difcoyf red, that this acid, when oxygenated,
difl'olves gold abfolutel-v in the fame manner as aqua re¬
gia, and forms with this metal the fame fait which is
ufually obtained with the mixed acid employed to dif-
lolve it. The folution appears to take place in conic -
quence of the excefis of oxygen united to the muriatic
acid ; it is made without feniible eftervefcence, a circu.m-
ftance common to all metallic iblutions in the oxygenated
muriatic acid. If gold leaf be (hut up in dole veffcls
with oxygenated muriatic acid gas, the gold foon dilap-
pears, and is converted into ayeilow fluid. On opening
the veffel, it will be found that the gas has been abforbed.
Scherer obferved, that concentrated oxygenated muriatic
acid occafioned an immediate inflammation, on coming
into contaft with gold leaf.
Aqua regia, or nitro-muriatic acid, has been confidered
as the true fol-vent of gold ; it does not, however, diffolve
it better than the oxygenated muriatic acid. As foon as
the nitro-muriatic acid comes in con tad with the metal,
it attacks it with an eff-.rvefcence which is fo much the
ftronger, as the acid is more concentrated, the tempera¬
ture higher, and the gold more minutely divided. The
operation may be baldened by a .gentle 'heat, or at Jeaft its
commencement may be forwarded.; the. bubbles fuc-
ceed each other without intenpiiffion till a portion of the
metal is diffo.lved, after which this appearance gradually
ceafes, and cannot be renewed but by agitation or heat ;
nitrous -gas is difengaged during this folution. The ni¬
tre-muriatic .acid,' when Iht-u rated. with as much gold as
it is capable of taking up, is, of a yeliow colour, more or
let’s deep, confiderabiy caullic, corrodes animal matters,
and tinges them of a deep purple colour. By cautious
evaporation it. affords cryftals of a beautiful gold colour,
refejnbl.ing topazes, and appearing to confift of truncated
odfahedrons, and fometimes tetrahedral prifims. This
cryftallization is not eatily effe&ed. Bergman confiders
this fait as -a true muriat of gold : if the cryftals be heat¬
ed, they melt and affume a red colour. This f.ilt ftrongly
attradds the moifture of the air. When a folution of gold
is diftilled, a beautiful red liquor is obtained, which is
found to confild of the muriatic acid, charged with a fmall
portion of gold. The alchemifts, whole labours with gold
were immenfely great, gave the name of the red lien to
this liquor. Some cryftals of gold, of a reddilh yellow
colour, are likewile lublimed In this procels ; but the
greateil part of the metal remains at the bottom of the
retort, and requires only to be fufed, in order to regain
all its properties. According to Vauquelin, the chromo-
muriatic acid has the property of dillolving gold.
The folution of gold is decompofed by a great number
of intermediums. Lime and magnefia precipitate gold
in the form of a yellowilh powder, which becomes darker
by expofure to the air. Alkalis decompole the muriat of
gold, forming triple falts. Fixed alkalis exhibit the fame
phenomenon; but it muft be obferved, that the precipi¬
tate is afforded very llowly, and that the folution affumes
a reddilh colour, if more alkali be added than is necel-
fary ; becaufe the excels of this lalt re-diffolves the pre¬
cipitated gold. The precipitate of gold may be reduced
by heat alone, in doled velfels, this oxyd readily fuller¬
ing the oxygen to become difengaged in the form of vital
air. It is, neverthelefs, capable of being fufed with vi¬
treous matters, and communicating a purple colour to
them; for the precipitate of gold, formed by the mix¬
ture of a folution of gold and the liquor of Hints, is ufed
in enamels and porcelain. Gold precipitated by fixed
alkalis has likewife a property very different from that
of gold in its. metallic ftate; it is foiuble in the pure ful¬
phuric, nitric, and muriatic, acids ; all thefe acids, heat¬
ed on the yellowilh precipitate of gold, readily diffolve
CHEMISTRY.
316
it, but do not become fufliciently faturated to afford
cryftals.
Ammoniac precipitates the folution of gold in much
greater abundance. This precipitate, which is of a brown
yellow, and fometimes of an orange colour, has the pro¬
perty of detonating with a considerable. noife when gently
heated: it is called fulminating gold. The ammoniac is
abfolutely necelfary in the produftion of fulminating
gold ; this preparation may be formed either by precipi¬
tating a folution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, made
with ammoniacal muriat, by the addition of fixed alkali,
or by precipitating with ammoniac a folution of gold,
made in aqua regia, compofed of pure nitric and muri¬
atic acids. The fulminating gold always weighs one-
fourth more than the gold dilfolved in aqua regia. Tiie
terrible elfefts of fulminating gold render it neceffary, to.
aft with great caution in the management of this fubjeft ;
it mull be carefully dried in the open air, without being
brought near the fire, as a ftrong heat is not neceffary to
produce the fulmination, and friftion alone is fufficient
for this purpofe : the veffels which contain it ought net
to be clofed with glafs Hoppers, but with cork; the moft
dreadful accident's have fhewn, that glafs Hoppers, by the
friftion they produce in the necks of the veffels, expofe
the operator to great danger, from the fulmination of
fuch particles of gold as may remain between the Hopper
and the neck. If a very fmall quantity of this fulmi¬
nating gold be put on the blade of a knife, and gently
heated, it catches fire, and gives a violent explofion.
The oxygen of the oxyd of gold feizes on the hydrogen,
and forms water, which, driven up fuddenly in vapour, occa-
fions the explofion ; the azot is difengaged, and the gold
remains prrre ; it is found incruHed on the blade of the
knife. Berthollet has proved, that, by dilciiling this fait
in metal tubes, azot is produced, and the gold was re¬
duced to its metallic Hate. To deprive it of its fulmi¬
nating property, Darcet put fome to foak in oil, and
then heated it in a crucible. It is foluble in an excefs
of alkali.
Gold is precipitated from its folutions by all bodies
which have more affinities with oxygen than gold has.
With fulphureous acid, fulphuric acid is formed, and
the gold is precipitated. We mufi here obferve, that
gold, precipitated from its folution by any intermedium
whatfoever, is perfectly pure, even more fo than gold
purified by the procefs of parting ; becaufe it is feparated
from the filver it may contain in this lafi procefs, which
may fall down in the form of a muriat, and takes place
even during the folution of gold, as we have before re¬
marked.
A plate of tin, plunged in a folution of gold, fepa-
rates the gold in the form of a deep violet powder, called
purple precipitate of Cajfms. This precipitate, wh cli is
ufed in painting in enamel and on porcelain, is prepared
by diluting a folution of tin in nitro-muriatic acid, with
a. large quantity of uiftilled water, and pouring in a few
drops of the folution of gokl ; when the folutions are
well faturated, a red or crimfon precipitate is imme¬
diately formed, which at the end of a few days becomes
purple: this precipitate is light, land, as it were, mucila¬
ginous; it is 'feparated from the liquor by filtration,
waflied, and afterwards dried. The experiments of Pel¬
letier have proved why the precipitation of gold does
not take place with the oxygenated muriat of tin.
Lead, iron, copper, and filver, have likewife the pro¬
perty of feparating gold from its folvent ; lead and filver
precipitate it of a deep and dirty purple ; copper and iron
leparate it with its metallic brilliancy. Alcohol, acetit
of copper, and green fulphat of iron, precipitate the fo¬
lution of gold, becaufe thofe fubfiances are fufceptible of
uniting to a greater quantity of oxygen, and they feize
on that whicli was united to the gold, and by means of
which it was held in folution. But the iuper-oxygenated
oxyd of iron cauies no precipitate, the reafon of which
mufi be apparent from what has been faid above.
Sulphuric ether is another means of recovering gold
from its nitro-murihtic folution; thus general Lamotte
prepared his drops. A -folution of gold applied to bones,
ivory, feathers, and vegetable matters, as linen, &c.
leaves a purple-red fpot not to be effaced ; on the fkin it
will leave purple fpots, which lafi feveral days ; they
turn, by degrees, brown, and almofi black.
The name of gold in rags, is given to the following
preparation: Very fine clean rags are fleeped in a folu-
tion of gold, and afterwards dried and burnt in a cruci¬
ble : the afiies, which are of a dark purple colour, are
ufed to gild fmall pieces of copper and filver ; it is gene¬
rally rubbed on with a bit of cork, and the gold, being
fo minutely divided, eafily adheres.
Gold is applied to a great number of ufes ; its fcarcity
and price in a great meafure prevent its being made into
utenfils or veflels; but, as its brilliancy and colour are
very agreeable, methods have been found of applying it
to the fur face of a great number of bodies, wlfi-ch it at
the fame time defends from the impreffions of the air.
This art, in general called gilding, is performed in a va¬
riety of methods. , Leaves of gold are often applied on
wood by means of fome glutinous fubfiance. A powder
of gold is prepared by triturating the clippings of gold
leaf with honey, walking the pafie with water, and dry¬
ing the particles of gold which precipitate. Shell-gold
is an oxyd of gold, mixed with a mucilaginous water, or
folution of gum. Water-gilding is done by previoufly
cleaning a piece of copper, intended to be gilt, with fand
and weak aqua-fortis, called aqua fecunda, after which
the piece is plunged in a diluted folution of mercury ;
the mercury which precipitates caul'es the amalgam of
gold to adhere, which is fpread on the piece, after hav¬
ing w.ifhed it with water to carry off the acid ; when the
amalgam is uniformly fpread, the piece is heated on
charcoal, to volatilize the mercury, and the work is
finilhed by covering it with gilder’s wax, compofed of red-
bole, verdegris, alum, or martial vitriol, incorporated
with yellow wax, and heated once more to burn oft’ the
wax. The other ules of gold, for toys, laces, See. are
fufliciently known without enumeration. As to the me¬
dicinal virtues attributed to gold, it is admitted, by all
phyficians of reputation, that they are imaginary, and
that the effefts of the different kinds of potable gold pro-
pofed by the alchemifts, arile from the fubfiances in which
the metal has been mixed or dilfolved.
Of PLATINA.
Platina, which has not been known as a peculiar metal
above half a century, has been hitherto found only in
the gold mines of America, more efpecially in thofe of
Santa Fe near Carthagena, and in the bailiwick of Choco
in Peru. The Spaniards give it this name from the word
plata, which fignifies filver in their language, by way of
companion to that metal, whofe colour it imitates. The
name of white gold, however, appears to agree better with
its properties than that of little filver, becaule it in Lift
refembles gold much more than liiver in moft of its. pro¬
perties. Some toys made of platina were in exiftence
before the time we have cited ; but, as this metal cannot
be melted and wrought alone, it is probabie that the
fnuft-boxes, heads of canes, and other uteniiis of this
kind, which were fold under the name of platina, were
ailoys of this metal, with certain metallic fubfiances,
which might give it fufibiiity. The platina, in minera-
logical collections, has the form of fmall grains, its plates
of a bluifh black, whofe colour is intermediate between
thofe of filver and iron. Thefe grains are mixed with
many foreign fubfiances ; they contain 1 until particles of
gold, blackilh ferruginous fandy grains, which by the
magnifier appear fcorified, and certain particles ot mer¬
cury. If the grains of platina be examined under the
magnifier, Tome appear angular, others round and flat,
like a kind of button. When beat on the anvil, moft of
them are flattened, and appear duftile; fome break into
feveral
CHEMISTRY.
feveral pieces ; the latter, examined more narrowly, ap¬
pear to be hollow, and particles of iron and a white pow¬
der has been found within them. The property of being
attracted by the magnet, which thefe grains pofiefs, though
accurately leparated from the ferruginous fand they con¬
tain, mull doubtlefs be attributed to a portion of iron con¬
tained within them. The liardnefs of this metal nearly ap¬
proaches to that of iron ; the fpecific gravity of platina,
mixed with all the foreign matters we have fpoken. of,
nearly approaches to that, of gold; it lofes in water be¬
tween one-fixteenth and one-eighth of its weight. Buf-
fon and Tillet compared together an equal volume of
platina, and of gold reduced into particles fitnilar to thofe
of the platina, and found that the fpecific gravity of the
former was about one-twelfth lefs than the gold. Late
experiments have (hewn, that platina exceeds gold in
weight, when it has been purified by a long fufion.
It is not probable that platina exifts in its ores in the
fame form as is comes to us, but that its granular or
plated figure is produced by the motion of the waters by
which it is carried from the mountains to the plains :
that found in the largeft grains, or lumps, is molt valu¬
able. It has been fometimes found in mafles of confider-
able magnitude ; the fociety of Bil’cay pofiefs one of the
fize of a pigeon’s egg. As it is found in the neighbour¬
hood of gold mines, it is always mixed with a quantity
of this metal. The mercury it contains is part of that
ufed in extracting the gold. The firft perfon who paid
any particular attention to platina, was a Spanifh mathe¬
matician, Don Antonio Ulloa, who accompanied the
French academicians in the celebrated expedition to Pe¬
ru, for determining the figure of the earth. This phi -
lofopher gives a curfory account of it in the relation of
his voyage, publifhed at Madrid in 174-8. Charles Wood,
an Erigl lfh metallurgifl, brought a quantity of this me¬
tal from Jamaica in 1741, which he afterwards examin¬
ed, and gave an account of his experiments in the Phi-
lolbphic.il Tranladtions for 1749 and 1750: at this era,
the greateft chemifts in Europe appeared emulous in their
inquiries refpeiting this new metal, which promifed, by
its lingular properties, fuch confiderable advantages.
Scheffer, a Swedilh cheniilt, publifhed his experiments
on platina in the Memoirs of the Academy of Stock¬
holm, in 1752. Dr. Lewis made a connected and almolt
complete feries of experiments on this metal, which may
be found’ in the Philofophical TranfaCtions for 1754.
Margraaf has inferted in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Berlin for 1757, an account of his experiments on this
new metal. Moll of thefe memoirs were collected by
Morin, in a work entitled La Platina, I'or blanc, ou le hui-
tictne Metal, Paris, 1758. At the fame time Macquer and
Beanme made, in conjunction, a great number of impor¬
tant experiments on platina, which were publilhed in the
Memoirs of the Academy for 1758. The fcarcity of pla¬
tina, and the difficulties attending the experiments made
on it, Hopped for a time the progrefs of inquiries, but
within the lalt few years they have been relumed with
new fpirit. Bergman, bAchard, and Morveau, have ex¬
erted thcmfelves in the examination of the properties of
this metal., Guyton has lately publilhed remarks on the
gangue of this metal 5 he found fome grains adhering to
feld-fpar, which makes it to be prefumed, that the pla¬
tina had been loofened by a flood, and warned down as
an auriferous land.
Platina may be obtained in plates and in wire, and
may be worked like gold and fiiver. There are feveral
ways of purifying this metal : r. By the magnet, which
ieparates the iron. 2. By walhing, which carries off the
land. 3. By acids. 1 he methods molt ufually employed
to make it pure and malleable, are as follow : i.Take
equal parts of crude platina, oxyd of arfenic, and acidu¬
lated tartrit of potalh, or potalh only. Put the mixture
into a well-luted crucible, and expoi’e it for an- hour to
a violent heat ; the platina melts ; but it. is brittle, fra¬
gile, and whiter than ordinary ; expofe it to a ftrong
Vol. IV. No. 199,
3 *7
heat under the~mufiie, by which means all the arfenic is
driven oil', and the platina remains pure. 2. Take three
parts of platina, fix of oxyd of arfenic, and two of pure
potalh : throw the mixture into a crucible in feveral
parcels, or by degrees, to promote the oxydation of the
iron. Then melt in crucibles with very flat bottoms,
that the button may be very thin: thus you have the
arfenical alloy. Put the button under the cupel, and
heat for thirty hours, to volatilize the arfenic. The ope¬
ration muff be performed with great care and addrefs £
if the fire be .too ftrong, it is often neceffary to begin
afrefli : the degree of heat fliould be juft fufficient to vo¬
latilize the arfenic without meiting the metals ; a begin¬
ning of fufion makes the arfenic adhere, fo that it can¬
not be driven off. The refult of this operation is platina
in the fpongeous form. To render it malleable, give it
a red heat, put it on an anvil, and give it one good ftrolce
with a hammer; one fteady ftroke will be fufficient, as a
fecond might make it fly. Then give it a white heat,
after -which about fourfeore ftrokes with a heavy ham¬
mer will make it malleable. Veflels are advantageoufiy
formed of platina, by pouring a mixture of arfenic and
platina into moulds of clay, and expofing the moulds to
a heat fufficient to diffipate the arfenic.
. Guyton f'ubftituted the arfeniat of potafh to the oxyd
of arfenic. The fame chemift likewife fucceeded in melt¬
ing platina in the wind-furnace deferibed by Macquer,
by means of bis own reducing flux, compol'ed of eight
parts of pounded glafs, one part of calcined borax, and
half a part of charcoal in powder. Small portions alone,
and without addition, are now very eafily melted, by
heating them on a lighted charcoal, with a ftream of vi¬
tal air; but thefe fmall ductile globules cannot be applied
to any ufe, on account of their inconfiderable fize. The
platina, when pure, is nearly of the colour of fiiver. lir
refifts a very ftrong heat, but is oxydified by the electric
Ipark.
Phofphorus combines eafily with platina : Mix equal
parts of platina and phofphoric glafs with one-eighth of
charcoal; put them into a crucible, and fprinkle over a
little charcoal -duft ; give a heat nearly fufficient to melt
gold, and continue it for an hour; break the crucible,
and underneath a blackifh glafs will be found a little
white filvery button, the lower furface of which prefents
cubic cryftals. The platina thus alloyed with phofpho¬
rus is very brittle, and pretty, ftriking fire with flint, and
has no magnetic property ; when expofed to a fire ftrong
enough to hold it in fufion, the phofphorus quits it, and
burns at the furface. Thefimple acids have no aftion upon
this phofphuie; but the nitro-muriatic acid decompofes
it, forming a phofphat of platina. A mixture of phof-
phorated platina, and fuper-oxygenated muriat of pot¬
afh, thrown into a red-hot crucible, produce a ftrong de¬
tonation ; the platina remains in the crucible. The fame
effedl takes place when phofphorated platina is thrown
upon melted nitre. Another way of obtaining phofphure,
of platina, is by giving it a ftrong red heat; then throw¬
ing in a piece of phofphorus, and ftirring it with an iron
rod, -the combination takes place. Sulphur combines
all'o with platina. This metal is foiuble in the alkaline
fulphures, though only in fmall quantities.
Platina does not unite with all metallic fiihftances.
This metal unites very well with bifmuth, which renders
it fo much the more fufible, as the quantity of the latter
is greater; the alloy is brittle, and becomes yellow, pur¬
ple, and blackifh in the air. This mixed metal cannot
be cupelled without the greateft difficulty, and never
forms a mafs of any confiderable duitility. It fufes rea¬
dily with twenty parts of antimony, and produces a
brittle metal of a plated texture, from which the anti¬
mony may be leparated by the action of fire, though not
io completely, but that the platina always retains a fuf¬
ficient quantity to render it defective in weight and duc¬
tility. Zink renders platina very fufible, and combines
readily with it, aififted by a little borax; this alloy is
4 M brittle.
3 1 B C H E M I
brittle, and difficult to file ; its colour is bluiffi. When
the platina is molt abundant, thefe two metallic fub¬
ftances are feparated by the aftion of fire, which vblati-
lizes the zink, though the platina always retains a fmall
portion.
Platina docs not unite with mercury, though triturated
for'' federal hours with that metallic fluid. It is likewi'fe
known, that platina refifts the mercury ufed in America
td feparate the gold. Mdny intermediums, fuch as wa¬
ter, ufed by Lewis and Beau me, and nitro-muriatic acid
by Scheffer, have not been found to facilitate the union
Of thefe two metals. In this refpeft platina appears to
refemble iron, to wbofe colour and hardnefs it likewife
in fome refpefts approaches.
Platina mixes very ealily with tin, and forms a very
fufible and fluid alloy. It is brittle, fo as even to break
by a fall, when the two metals are united in equal por¬
tions. When the tin is in the proportion of twelve or
more to one of platina, the mixture is confiderably duc¬
tile, but its grain is coarfe, and it becomes yellow in the
air. Platina remarkably diminifhes the duftiiity of tin,
and the alloy does not promile to be of any ufe ; yet,
when it is well polilhed, it may remain long expofed to
the air without alteration. It feems that Lewis, to whom
we are indebted for moft of the knowledge we poffefs re-
fpefting the alloys of platina, fucceeded in oxydating this
metal, and dilTolving it in the muriatic acid by means
of tin.
Lead and platina unite very well by fufion; but they
require a llronger heat than the laft- mentioned alloy.
Platina deprives lead of its duftiiity; the combination
of thefe two metals ds of a purplifh colour, and brittle,
according to the proportion of platina, ftriated and gra¬
nulated in its fracture, and quickly changes by expofure
to air. Cupellation with lead was one of the firft and
raoft important experiments attempted to be made with
platina, becaufe this operation was expefted to deprive
it of the foreign metallic fubftances it might contain.
Lewis, and feveral other chemifts, have in vain attempt¬
ed to cupel platina in the ordinary cupelling furnaces,
though they applied a moft violent heat. The. vitrifica¬
tion and abforption of the lead takes place as ufual at the
commencement of the procefs, on account of the. excels
of that metal ; but the platina foon becomes fixed, and
the operation is at an end . The metal remains united
with a portion of the lead, and is not at all duftile.
Macquer and. Baume fucceeded in the perfect cupellation
of platina, by expofing an ounce of the metal, and two
ouncesof lead, in the hottest part of the porcelain furnace
at Seves. The wood-fire lefts for fifty hours fucceffively ;
at the end of this time the platina was found flattened on
the cupel ; its upper furface was dull and rough, and
eafily l'eparated ; its under furface was brilliant, and,
what is the moft valuable, it was eafily extended under
the hammer. Thefe chemifts were convinced, by every
p'oflible method, that the platina did not contain lead,
but was very pure. Morveau likewife fucceeded in cu¬
pelling a mixture of one drachm of platina, and two
drachms of lead, in the wind- furnace of Macquer: this'
operation, made at four fuccefiive times, lafted eleven or
twelve hours. Morveau obtained a button of platina,
not adhering to the cupel, uniform, of a colour refetn-
bling tin, but rather rough, which weighed exaftly one
drachm, and was found to be not at all afted on by the
magnet. This procefs appears to be excellently adapted
for obtaining platina in plates or laminae, which may be
forged, and confe’quently may be employed in making
various utenfils of great value, with refpeft to hardnefs
and unchangeablenels. Baume has likewife obferved an¬
other very ufefu-1 property, viz. that of wielding and
forging together, like iron, without the afliftance of any
other metal. After having.' heated two pieces of platina
to whitenefs, which had been cupelled in the furnace of
Seves, he placed them one on the other, and linking
them biilkly with the hammer, they welded together as
a
S T R Y.
quickly and firmly as two pieces of iron would have done..
The great importance of this experiment, with refpeft to«
the arts, need not to be infilled on.
Macquer could not obtain an alloy wilh forged iron
and platina : this mixed metal would polfefs the great
advantage of uniting the hardnefs of fteel wi'h a eoniider--
able dudrility, or at leaft it would not be brittle like fteel.
Dr. Lewis melted a mixture of call iron and platina; the
alloy was fo hard as not to be touched by the file ; it had
a High t degree of duftiiity, but broke fliort when ignited.
Platina communicates hardnefs to copper, with which-
it melts with1 confiderable facility : this alloy is dudlile,
when the dofe of copper is three or four times greater
than that of platina ; it is capable of taking the meft
beautiful polifh, and was not tarniflred in the air during
the fpace' of ten years. Platina partly deftroys the duc¬
tility of (liver, augments its hardnefs, and impairs its co¬
lour. This mixture is very difficult to fufe ; by fufion
and reft the two metals are feparated. Lewis obferved,
that filver melted with platina was thrown up againft the
fides of a crucible with a kind of exploiion ; a property
which appears to belong to filver alone ; for Darcet has
obferved that this metal breaks balls of porcelain, in
which it is enclofed, and is thrown out by the aftion of
the fire.
Platina does not readily combine with gold, but
by the help of a very llrong fire. It greatly alters the
colour of platina, unlefs its quantity be very fmall ; thus,
for example, a forty-feventli part of platina, and all the
proportions below that, do not greatly change the colour
of gold. Platina does not much impair the duftiiity of
gold, which is lels affefted than any other metal by
the admixture. The fpecific gravity of platina being fu-
perior to that of gold, might give rile'tb frauds ; and for
this reafon the Spanifli miniftry have prohibited its ex¬
portation : however, flnce chemifti-y has difeovered me¬
thods for diftinguifhing the alloy of gold with- platina,
and even of platina alloyed with gold,' thefe fears ought
no longer to be attended to ; and it is much to be defired
that platina may no longer be prohibited, but that this
new metal, which promiles fuch confiderable advantages
to fociety, may become an article of commerce. The
folution of ammoniacal muriat, as we have obferved, has
the property of precipitating platina,; if, therefore, gold
be f'ufpefted to be alloyed with platina, its folution in
aqua regia may be afi'ayed with a folution of ammoniacal
muriat. The fmall quantity of platina. it contains will
occafion an orange or reddifh precipitate ; if no precipi¬
tate is thrown down, the gold does not contain platina.
If it fhouid happen that the valuable properties of platina
Ihould at Icme future time render it more fcarce and va¬
luable than gold, it will not be in the power of avarice
to deceive us in alloying it with gold, fince a folution of
fulphat of iron, which has the property of precipitating
the folution of gold without producing any change in
that of platina, would immediately expefe the deception.
A piece of tin, plunged in a folution of plgtina alloyed
with gold, would likewife fhew the prefence of the latter,
by becoming covered with a purple precipitate ; whereas
platina gives only a dirty brown precipitate, of a reddifti
colour : this laft precipitate likewife does not colour glafs,
whereas the precipitate of gold gives it a purple colour.
This metal is not altered by water, earthy matters, the
faiino-terreftrial fubftances, or by alkalis. The moft con¬
centrated fulphuric acid, and the ftrongeft and moft
fuming nitric and muriatic acids, do not aft on platina,
even when boiling; neither is diltiliation, which is known
to be fo efficacious in promoting the aftion of acids on
metallic fubftances, of any advantage in the prefent cafe.
The fulphuric acid, (imply tarnifhes the grains of platina,
according to Lewis and Baume ; the nitric acid, on the
contrary, renders them brittle. Margraaf affirms, that
towards the end of the diftillation of tuis acid from pla¬
tina, he obtained a fmall quantity of arfenic, a pheno¬
menon not obferved by other chemifts. The muriatic
acid
C H ET M ]
^t'ld produced no change ryhatfoever in grains of platina.
Margraaf likfevvife obtained from this acid, diltilled from
the metal, a white fublimate, which appeared to him to
be arfcnic, and a reddilh fublimate, whole properties he
could not examine on account of its.tjeing in lo lrnall a
quantity. All thefe appear, however, to be foreign to
the platina itlelf : this metal, therefore, refembles gold by
the flight adlion of the Ample acids upon it ; but the ana¬
logy is ftill more evident by its folubility in the oxyge¬
nated muriatic acid, and in nitro-muriatic acid. The
hilt of thefe acids difl’olves platina with facility, and
without the a Alliance of a llrong heat; feventy or eighty
degree's of heat in the atmofphere being lufficient to fa¬
cilitate this folution, which takes place without any fen-
Jlbfe feftervefcence, and in other relptdls does not differ
from the fallowing.
The nitro-muriatic acid, bell; adapted to diflolve pla¬
tina, is compoled of equal parts of the muriatic and ni¬
tric acids. To effodl this folution, which in general is-
lefs eafily performed than that of gold, one ounce of pla¬
tina muff be put into a retort, on which a pound of ni-
tro-muriatic acid, in the proportions here mentioned,
muff be poured; the retort is then to be placed on a
land- bath, with a receiver applied ; as Toon as the acid is
hot, a few bubbles of nitrous gas are extricated, and the
adtion of the mixed acid proceeds without violence or
rapidity. The colour of the fluid becomes at firff yellow,
afterwards orange, and at laff of a very deep brown.
When the folution is finilhed, reddilh and black particles
of land are found at the bottom of the retort, from which
the faturated liquor is to be leper a ted by decantation :
final! irregular cryftals of a dulky colour are gradually
depofued, which confilt of a combination of the acid and
platina. The folution of platina is of a deeper colour
than that of any other metal. Though it appears of a
dark brown, yet, if it be diluted with water, it aflumes
firff an orange colour, which loon becomes yellow, and
refembles the folution of gold : it tinges animal matters
of a blackilh brown, not at all inclining to purple. Baume
affirms, that platina fufed in the focus of a burning mir¬
ror, and diflolved in aqua regia, does not aflume a brown
colour, like that of platina in grains, but that the folu¬
tion is of a deep orange-yellpw colour. Macquer affirms,
that, by evaporating and cooling the folution of platina,
much larger and more regular cryftals ate obtained, than
thofefpcntaneoufly depofited by the faturated fluid. Lewis,
having left this folution to evaporate in the open air,
obtained cryftals of a deep red, of a moderate (ize, irre¬
gularly formed, and refembling the acid of benzoin,
though thicker : Bergman deferibes it as being of an oc¬
tahedral form. This fait is (harp, but fcarcely cauftic ;
it melts in the fire, the acid being diflipated, and a refi-
due is left in the form of an obfeure grey oxyd. Con¬
centrated fulphuric acid occafions a precipitate of a deep
colour, which, doubtlefs, is a fulphat of platina.; the mu¬
riatic acid, in a certain time, produces a yellowilh depo-
fition. Alkalis and the, falino-terreftvial fubftances de-
compofe this folution of platina : the carbonat of potafli
produces an orange-coloured precipitate in' the folution
of platina, which is not a pure oxyd. Macquer and
Baume have observed that its colour is owing to a cer¬
tain quantity of acid it contains. It mull therefore be
conlidered as a mixture of a portion of the oxyd of pla¬
tina with muriat of potafli, or as a kind of triple lb It.
The cauftic ammoniac precipitates platina of an orange
yellow : this precipitate is a triple fait, like the foregoing.
The property of thefe two alkalis in forming -triple
falts, is very ufeful, when the objedt is to feparate gold
from platina. Diflolve the whole, pour on fome potafli,
and a triple fait will be formed with the platina, while
the gold remains in iblution. Or it may be feparated by
means of a fuipliat of iron, which precipitates the gold,
and not the platina. Soda, however, forms no triple nit
with muriat of platina ; but the platina is converted into
S T R Y. 319
an oxyd; and precipitated litne and barytes have the fame
effedt. The platina thus converted into an oxyd may
then be diflolved on the other, and form falts ; but thefe
ffilts have not been examined.
To obtain a very pure folution of platina, it fliould firff
be digefted in muiiatic acid, which diflolves the iron, if
there be any. The prefence of iron in a Iblution of pot¬
afli, may be afeertained by means of Pruiliat of potafh ;
for platina is not precipitated by that fait,; but iron is.
The galiic.acid precipitates' the folution of platina in a
dark coloured glafs, which grows paler by degrees.
Mol of the neutral falts have no adlion on platina.
Margraaf heated platina by a ftrong fire, with fulphat of
potafh and foda ; thefe falts melted, and the platina re¬
mained in grains without alteration : it only communi¬
cated a flight reddilh colour to the inline fubftances,
doubtlefs on account of the iron communicated by the
metal to them.
Nitre produces a lingular alteration in platina, accord¬
ing to the experiments of Lewis and Margraaf. Though
no detonation is produced when a mixture of both fub¬
ftances is thrown into a red-hot crucible ; yet, by a
ftrong heat long continued, inch as Lewis applied for
three fuccelfive days and nights to a mixture of one pa.rt
of platina and two of nitre, the metal becomes of a nifty
colour. If the mixture be boiled in water, the fluid dif-
lol ves the alkali, which takes up the brown ifiiqiowder,
and the pldtina feparated from the liquid is found dimi-
nifhed more than one-third or its weight. The brown
powder taken up by the alkali may be lepar.ited by fil¬
tration. It appears to be a kind of oxyd of platina) mixed
with a finall quantity of oxyd of iron. Lewis converted
this oxyd to a whitifh grey colour, by diftiiling it a great
number of times with ammoniacal muriat. Margraaf,
who repeated this experiment, adds two important fadts ;
the firff is, that platina, combined with the alkali of ni¬
tre, and diluted in a certain quantity of water, forms a
jelly ; and the other, that, by heating the por tion of me¬
tal feparated from the jelly, diluted with water and fil¬
trated, it becomes of a black pitchy colour. This expe¬
riment certainly thews a great alteration of the platina,
and requires to be continued, in order to decide whether,
by virtue of repeated oxydations with nitre, it be poflible
to reduce the whole of the metal into a brown powder,
and efpecially to determine the ftate of the platina thus
oxy dated.
All the properties of platina which we have examined,
appear to prove that this Yubftance is a peculiar metal:
its want of dudlility and fufibility, which have been ccn-
fidered by fome writers as llrong objedlions to this opi¬
nion, are not capable of overthrowing it, fince there is,
perhaps, a lei's difference between the fufibility of platina
and forged iron, than between that of forged iron and
lead, and fince its want of dudlility arifes from its not
having undergone complete fufion. As to the opinion of
tliofe philofophers who coniider platina as a natural alloy
of iron and of gold, however ingenious and fatisfadlory it
may appear, it is impoffible to admit it, until the metal
lias been feparated into the two others by an accurate
abalyfis, and until platina can be better imitated by the
artificial alloy of gold and of iron. Macquer has made a
very ftrong objection againft this laft opinion, by observ¬
ing, that the more platina is deprived of the iron it con¬
tains, the greater is the difference between its external
appearances and thole of gold.
The important ufes to which this metal may be applied
will be eafily conceived, when it is conlidered that it unites
the indeltrudtibiiity of gold to a degree of hardnefs almoft
equal to that of iron ; that it refills the adlion of the molt
violent fire, and alio of the inch concentrated acids. It
cannot be doubted but that chemiftry and the arts would
be in the higheft degree benefited by its being applied to
ufeful purpoles, Crucibles have been made with platina,
and fpoons or ladles for allays by the blow-pipe. Conte
availed
320 C H E M I
ayailed himfeff of its oxyd as an improvement in enamel
painting ; and leaves of platina are advantageoufly ufed
for plating China-ware, or porcelain.
Two parts of platina, accurately mixed with one of
arfenic and tartar, when expofed to a glow heat in a luted
crucible, melt into a brittle fubilance, ftill whiter than
platina. This lubltance is eafily foftened by the fire, or,
by a ffror.ger heat, completely melted. In this date, if
expofed for a fufficient length of time to the fire, the
arienic is difiipated, and the platina, which again be¬
comes folid, alone remains. Achard has recently taken
advantage of this property, to form vefiels of all forts
from platina, a liibllance lo infufible by itfelf ; a circum-
itance which feems to lead to further improvements, of
infinite importance to fociety.
OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES.
In our enquiries into vegetable fubftances, we have to
confider, firlt, the living vegetable, its functions, its pro¬
ducts; next, the dead vegetable, and the alterations it
undergoes. Next to thefe, we are to examine the gene¬
ral principles and organization of vegetables, and then
pafs to the fubltances that contribute to their develope-
ment, their nourifhment ; and the circumftances that
may forward or retard their growth ; all of which natu¬
rally leads to obfervations on the manuring and fertilis¬
ing different foils ; the theory of compofts, watering,
marling, and ploughing land ; and improving hence the
fcience of Husbandry.
Nature prefents us with three claffes or orders of being,
very different and diftinct from each other ; namely, mine-
als, vegetables, and animals. The grand charaCteriftic of
organized fubftances, is their perpetual change of form,
of nature, of place, & c. The diftinguilhing character
of vegetables and minerals, is, that by the aid of heat
the firft yield carbon, which the latter do not ; another
diltinCtion is, that the' firft are homogeneous, the others
compofed of various fubftances.
Vegetables are formed of fix parts, or organs, deftined
to perform peculiar functions, the products of which are
made known by vegetable analyfis. Thefe parts are the
root, the Item, the leaf, the flower, the fruit, and the
feed. Thefe differ in form, texture, magnitude, number,
colour, duration, tafte, &c. for particulars of all which
fee Botany, vol. iii. p. 234-, and leq.
Vegetable analyfis is very different now, from what it
was fame years ago. The ancient chemifts laboured
continuadly in the diftillation of vegetable matters, which
always gave nearly the fame refults. But this method is
now almoft laid alide, to bring forward the analyfis by
menftrua, or folvents. Boulduc, Geoffrey, and others,
worked largely in this way, and hence diftinguifhed the
mucus of refins, and threw conuderable light on this part
of chemiftry. But the dilcovery of elaftic fluids, about
the years 1770 and 1772, railed vegetable enquiry to a
much higher degree of perfection. We are indebted to
Fourcroy for a clear methodical work upon thisfubjeCt.
Ke delcribes eight fpecies of analyfis, very diftinCt from
each other. 1. Natural analyfis; as when the vefiels are
choaked up, and burft ; and there is a flowing out of
lap, gum, fugar, or refin. The flip runs commonly in
the fpring ; and, befides thefe fubftances, vegetables alfo
furnilh eroma, and water. 2. Artificial immediate ana¬
lyfis : In this we aflift nature ; as, when a plant feems
ready to let fome matter efcape, the ftjiflars are applied
to make it run freely: this is done to obtain refins,
manna, faccharine liquors, &c. 3. Immediate artificial
analyfis upon dead vagetables ; as by expreflion, to pro¬
cure linfeed oil, fixed oils, &rc. 4. By fire: Vegetable
matters fometimes require a gentle heat ; vegetables
tranlported from the north to the fouth dry up, and
change their colour, and even their fpecific weight : this
is called defecation ; it is however a beginning of decom-
-S T R Y,
pofition, Vegetables may be expofed to a heat of 450; m
that cafe, the defecation is quicker, and the decompo-
tion is already apparent ; with a ftrongerheat the vege¬
table matters are entirely decompofed : then they give
out phlegm, black oils of different weights, carbonic
acid, carbonated hydrogen, pyromucous acid, and often
a pyromucite of ammoniac and carbon remain in the
retort. This manner of analyfing gives all that was con¬
tained in the vegetable, but the conftituent matters are
combined in a different order, and in general the products
are more fimple : thus, by analyfing a quaternary com¬
bination, we often have ternary and binary ones ; and
the produdls are generally mineral matters, as water,
carbonic acid, hydrogen gas, and carbon. 5. By wa¬
ter : If by cold water, it is maceration ; if warm wa¬
ter, infuflon ; if boiling water, decodlion ; but water
at different degrees of heat gives very different re-
lults. There is a fourth way of ufing water; which is to
leave the vegetable a long time in foak, as when wood is
carbonated by water: this is called analyfis by the flow and
long-continued aft ion of water. 6. Analyfis by acids, and
by falts in general. It is not to be wondered at that ana¬
lyfis fliould be now better underftood, fince we know fo
well the cornpofiticn of the folvents we ule. There are
acids which will only diffolve vegetable matters, as vine¬
gar; while others are decompofed over them, and reduce
them entirely to water and to carbonic acid. The adtion
of acids upon vegetables is fuciv, that the chemift, by
varying their proportions, can produce, at his pleafure,
either tartarous acid, malic acid, oxalic acid, or acet¬
ous acid : this arifes from the bafe of all the vegetable
acids being at leaft binary; carbon and hydrogen, the
bafe, combined with different proportions of oxygen,
produce the acids we have mentioned. Neutral falts are
principally the prefervers of vegetables ; but alkalis
often deftroy them entirely. 7. By fermentation. Thus
infipid matters become fweet, then fpirituous : fuch is
the art of the brewer, and maker of wine. There are
three kinds of fermentation, the fpirituous , the acetous ,
and the putrid. 8. Analyfis of vegetables, by the pro-
dudts of vegetables ; as iA decompoling a vegetable fub-
ftance by vegetable acids, oils, alcohol, or ether. This
laft analyfis is the molt complicated and difficult'.
In the analyiis of vegetables, the moll fimple mode
here laid down fhould be firft ufed. Then treat the pro¬
ducts obtained from this firft analyfis by all the other
modes ; and the analyfis is complete. The firft and fe-
cond mode of analyfis procure immediately, and without
alteration, the fap, juices. See.
Of the SAP.
It is now generally underftood that the fap is the pri¬
mary fource of the various nutritive juices, which adt
in the growth of vegetables, and the formation of their
parts. Deyeux has a Memoir on this fubjedt in the Jour¬
nal de Pharmacie. He concludes from his own refearches
and analyfis, 1. That the fap which appears at the be-
gining of the vegetation, and which flows, whether fpon
taneoufly or by incifion from the yoke-elm and the vine,
is a compound liquor. 2. That it contains calcareous
earth united with acetous acid. 3. That it holds in
folution, by means of the fame acid, a vegeto-animal
fubltance or matter. Vauquelin has alfo lately examined
different kinds of ftp, as, of the common elm, the beech,
the birch, and the yoke-elm. In all thefe, he ccnftant-
ly found acetit of potafii and acetit of lime; in the elm,
the acetit of potafh was almoll pure, forming very near
•9 of the refidue by evaporation ; he found carbonat of
lime alfo. The fap of the birch contains, befides the
acetits of potafii and lime, an excefs of acetous acid,
and fucli a plenty of faccharine matter, as to be fufcep-
tible of the vinous fermentation, and to afford alcohol.
In the fap of the beach Vauquelin found a pretty large
quantity
CHEMISTRY.
•quantity of tannin, of gallic acid, and a coloured ex¬
tra# of a fine maroon red, which gives a red tinge to
wool, cotton, and thread.
Of the JUICES of VEGETABLES.
The fucculent vegetables give out their juice by fim-
ple exprelfion ; fuch as have it vifcous, or in fmall quan¬
tity, require water to increafe and dilute it. Juices differ
in taffe, fmell, colour, and confidence. In general, the
juice of young plants is very watery, with little taffe,
and hardly any fmell. Evaporated to drynefs, it yields
but little extra#, and very little faline matter. As the
plant advances in age, the fap has a fenfible fmell and
taffe ; the colour is alfo more evident ; and the quantity
of -its produ#s is in every refpe# more confiderable.
To extra# the juices of plants: Firft clean and wadi
the plant well ; then beat it in a (lone or marble mortar,
and afterwards put the pulp in a hair-cloth, and fqueefe
it in a prefs as much as may be neceflary. This fluid is
found to contain a green colouring matter, and a portion
of the folids of the vegetables beaten fmall by the peftle,
and confequently requires depuration ; which may be ef-
fe#ed either, iff, By fubfidence, or filtration, when they
are very fluid, as is the cafe with the juice of purflain,
boufeleek, See. ad. By white of egg, which colle#s the
fecula, by coagulation, as is requilite with the juice of
borage, nettle, &c. 3d, By Ample heat, which coagu¬
lates and precipitates the parenchyma, as Baume advifes
with refpe# to juices that contain volatile principles, fuch
as thofe of cochlearia, creffes, &c. The phial which
contains the juice, being covered w ith a perforated pa¬
per, muff be plunged in boiling water, and taken out as
loon as the juice is clarified. Immerfion in cold water
brings it to a proper temperature for filtration. 4th, By
l'pirit of wine, which coagulates the fecula. 5th, By ve¬
getable acids, as the London Pharmacopoeia preferibes
for the juices of cruciform plants. 6. By filtration cold,
which is the method preferred by La Grange on every
account; the procefs, he fays, is indeed long, but this
inconvenience is more than counterbalanced by the ad¬
vantage of preferving the juices in .their natural ftate,
and confequently without altering any of their proper¬
ties, Yet there are fome juices fo thick and vifcous, that
it would be impoffible to depurate them by cold filtra¬
tion ; fuch, e. g. as thofe of dogs tooth, nettles, borage,
buglofs, &c. but this may be remedied, fays the fame
author, by mixing them with other more aqueous juices,
or adding fome fluid, which, by leflening the vifeofity,
enables them to pafs through the filtre, without the ne-
ceflity of recurring to heat, or the whites of eggs.
Some kind of juices require a different treatment.
Thele are called acid juices. We fhall fpeak only of the
acid juices of the gool’eberry and the lemon, as- the fame
procefs will ferve tor all others of the fame kind. Moll
of the juices are furnilhed by the fruit. To extra# the
juice of lemon, firft take off the outer fkin, then the
white (kin very carefully, fo as to leave the fruit entirely
bare, and take out the feeds ; afterwards cut the lemon
into thin flices, and fqueefe them with the hand. Leave
the fruit in this ftate for fome days in a temperature of
15 or 1 6°. A flight fermentation takes place, fufficient
to leparate the mucous and parenchymetous matters,
which made the juice vifcous. By degrees it floats on the
furface, and fometimes is fo clear as not to require filtra¬
tion. This firft juice being drawn off, the remaining
matter. is put into the prefs, by which means more juice
is obtained, not fo clear indeed as the firft, but which
eafily depurates itfelf, if it be immediately put into bot¬
tles, and left to ferment a few days. Laftiy, draw it oft',
either by decantation, or with a iyphon, or by filtration;
and it will loon receive all the tranlparency of which it
is fufceptible.
Goofeberries, ftrawberries, &c. will not afford a tranf-
parent juice but by fermentation; yet it is to be obferv-
ed, that thefe fruits have a principle not found in the
Vol. IV, No. 199.
321
lemon, namely, the mucous faccharine principle ; fo
that their juice undergoes the fpirituous fermentation,
and might be converted into wine, not very ftrong in¬
deed, but from which alcohol might be extra#ed by dil-
tillation. The period at which the acid fermentation
fucceeds to the vinous, is the time wherein the depura¬
tion of the juice is performed quickeft ; then it may be
feparated with much facility, and obtained very clear,
by means of filtration.
Of EXTRACTS.
That which is obtained from the juices of plants by
thickening, or rather by feparation from the aqueous
vehicle, is called an extra#. All clarified juices are ei¬
ther red or yellow, never green. We may diftinguilh
two kinds of extra#, the foft, and the dry. The extra#
never has a pleafant tafte, but a tafte more or lefs dis¬
agreeable, which may be called njedicamentous. In ge¬
neral, it has three kinds of tafte : agreeable, or nutritive,
difagreeable.or medicamentous; and bitter, orpoifonous.
A n extra# is a matter of a reddifh-brown colour, which
flightiy attra#s the humidity of the air, gives out am¬
moniac by diftillation, and is fometimes tranfparent. All
extra#s, when expofed to the air, precipitate an infoluble.
matter, which is only matter already diffolved, and which
has imbibed a quantity of oxygen which renders it infolu-
ble : this evidently proves the continual change which vege¬
tables undergo. Vauquelin, by evaporating the juice
of the elm in a copper veffe), covered with verdigris,
oblerved, that in. the midft of the ebullition, the juice
was of a beautiful red colour, which changed to brown,
like the brown oxyd of copper, as foon as the liquor had
acquired the confidence of an extra# ; which proves the
great affinity of the extra# for oxygen, fince it takes it
even from copper.
Extra#s are prepared, either from the juice of the
plant, in which cafe it is clarified with white of egg, and
brought to the required confidence with a gentle heat;
or from dry and ligneous plants, in which cafe mace¬
ration, infufion, or deco#ion, are employed, according
to the nature and ftate of the matter to be wrought upon :
maceration is often fufficient. Odoriferous plants lhould
be only infufed; decodion exhaufts them too much, by
feparating the refinous parts ; it forms a very thick over¬
charged fluid, which grows turbid in cooling. By means
of water, extra#s of different natures are produced, as,
of juniper, bark, fenna, rhubarb, &c.
We fhall borrow from Vauquelin, fome general obler-
vations on the extra#ive principles of vegetables ; and
here we may remark, that all extra#s have an acid tafte.
If into thelolution of an extra#, prepared from the juice
of plants, fome drops of ammoniac be poured, a brown
precipitate is formed, confiding of lime and a portion
of the extra# now become infoluble. If fulphuric acid,
even a little concentrated, be poured over any extra#,
a very penetrating acid vapour is prefently diiengaged :
this is acetous acid. If quicklime be mixed with an ex¬
tra#, ammoniac will be diiengaged. If into a folution
of any extra#, be poured a lolution of fulphat of alu-
mine, fatu rated with an excels of acid, by boiling, there
will be formed a precipitate in flocks, compofed of alu-
mine and vegetable matter, not foluble in water. Moll
metallic folutions, mixed with folutions of extra#s, pro¬
duce the lame effe# : thus, with muriat of tin, we have
a brown precipitate perfe#ly infoluble, compofed of a
portion of oxyd of tin, and fome vegetable matter. By
pouring oxygenated muriatic acid into a lolution of an
extra#, there is immediately a plentiful yellow precipi¬
tate ; and the liquor retains oftentimes only a faint le¬
mon-colour commonly holding muriatic acid in folution.
If wool, cotton, or thread, firft fteeped in alum-water,
be boiled in an extra#ive folution, theie lubftances will
imbibe a great quantity of the extra#ive matter ; they
are dyed of a fawn-colour, and the folution lofes much
of its colour. Nearly the fame effe# will be produced,
4 N If
322 ' C H E M
if the matters to he dyed are foaked in a folution of mu-
riatoftin, inftead of alum- water. But the heft precau-
tion for fixing the extractive colour upon ftuffs, is to
let them foak for fome time in oxygenated muriatic acid,
and then to plunge them into a folution of extraCf. Ex¬
tracts diftilled with a naked fire give an acid produCl ;
but it contains much more ammoniac than when they
are- diftilled in the humid way, with lime or an alkali.
Extracts diffolved in water, and left to themfelves with
an accefs of air, walte away entirely: nothing is found
remaining in the water but carbonats of potafti, of am¬
moniac, of lime, and fome other mineral falts, which
exifted in the extraCl before, and cannot be deftroyed
by putrid fermentation. Several extracts are prepared
in commerce by means of water, as liquorice,’ caout-
chou'k, &c. Extracts are ufed in medicine as aperitive,
folvent, diuretic, ftomachic, remedies, and are daily ad-
miniftered with great fuccefs.
Of GUMS and MUCILAGES.
The mucilaginous parts of the juice of plants, when
dried, are called gums. There are three kinds, x. Gum
Arabic, which flows from the acacia-tree in Egypt and
Arabia. 2. The gum of our own country, which flows
from the apricot, pear, and plum, trees, &c. 3. Gum
tragacanth, which flows from the adragant of Crete,
ciJlrUgalus tragacanth a.
Gum is foluble in water, to which it gives a vifcous
confiflence. This folution is called mucilage ; and by eva¬
poration becomes dry, tra-nfparent, and friable. The
roots of mallows, the greater comfrey, the bark of elm,
linfeed, the feed of quinces, &c. afford vifcous fluids,
by maceration in water, which, by evaporation, leave
true gums. The decoCtion of tbefe plants is fubftituted,
in medicine, inftead of gums. The mucilages are infipid,
foluble in water, but not in alcohol ; coagulate with the
addition of weak acids ; are carbonated by fire without
yielding any fenfible flame ; exhale a confiderable quan¬
tity of carbonic acid by combuftion 5 and take the acid
fermentation when weakened with water.
Gum, by diftillation, affords piuch water and pyro-
rmicous acid, a fmall quantity of thick and brown oil,
And carbonic acid gas, mixed with hydrogen gas. Its
coal is very bulky, and contains a fmall quantity of the
carbonaj: of potalh. Treated with the nitric acid, the
product is mucous or faccho-laftic acid, acetous acid,
and laftly oxalic acid. Take any one of the gums men¬
tioned before : reduce it to powder, which put into a
glafs retort ; pour over it fix times its weight of acid at
350, adapt a receiver, and diftil with a gentle he?it. It is
eafy to diftinguifh the different acids which are obtained.
The acetous acid is known by its fmell ; but care muft
be taken to obferve the moment of its formation ; the
mucous acid is precipitated in powder; and the oxalic
acid always cryltallizes in cooling.
Of SUGAR.
Sugar has fome refemblance to gum. The faccharine
quality is abundant in many vegetables, and generally
accompanies gums. We cannot here enter into detail
upon the extracting and refining of fugar. Sugar is dif-
tinguifhed into raw fugar, mufcovado, brown fugar,
white fugar, See. That part of the fugar which is inca¬
pable of becoming concrete, is called either coarfe fyrup,
fine fyrup, or molaffes.
Sugar is a lubftance holding in fome refpeCfs an inter¬
mediate place between effential falts and mucilages. It
poffefl'es the property of cryltallizing. It cryltallizes in
hexahedral truncated prifms, and in this ftate is called
fugar-candy. By diftillation it affords water, pyro-mu-
cous acid, and fome drops of empyreumatic oil ; at the
fame time that a great quantity of carbonic acid gas, and
hydrogen gas, holding charcoal in folution, are difen-
gaged. The refidue is a fpongy light coal, which con-
I S T R Y.
tains a fmall quantity of carbonat of potalh. Sugar is
inflammable. On hot coals it melts, and. fwells up very
much, emits a penetrating vapour, and becomes convert¬
ed into a brown yellow matter, called caramel. It flight-
ly attraCls the moifture of the air, and is very foluble
in water, to which it gives much confidence, and confti-
tutes a kind of faccharine mucilage, called fyrup. Syrup,
diluted with water, is capable of fermentation, and affords
ardent fpirit.
Sugar is very extenfively ufeful. It is a food which,
taken in too large a quantity, is capable of heating the
animal fyftem. It is very much ufed in pharmacy, where
it is the bafe of lyrups, conferves, and other preparations.
It is. very ufeful, as a medium to favour the folution or
fufpenfion of refins, oils, &c. in water. It preferves the
juices of fruits, after they are reduced into a jelly. It may
even be confidered as a medicine, fince it is incilive, ape¬
rient, flightly tonic, and ftimulant ; and there are, ac¬
cordingly, inftances of diforders, ariling from obltruc-
tions, wliich have been cured by the habitual ufe of fugar.
Of VEGETABLE ACIDS.
The fourth immediate principle of vegetables, is what
the firft chemifts called, in general, effential falts of ve¬
getables ; but we now give that name only to fucli as are
fufeeptible of cryftallizatiom Chemifts formerly pre¬
tended that all effential lalts were the fame, being nothing
but tartar or vinegar. Such was the ftate of the fcience,
when Scheele difcovered that the citric, malic, and gallic,
acids, were very different from the tartarous and acetous
acids. It has been already remarked, that the juices of
fome vegetables afforded the principles of mineral falts :
the falts moft commonly prefent are, the fulphat and ni-
trat of potalh, the muriat of foda, See.'
The ancient chemifts held, that nitre was formed in
the vegetables during their vegetation ; the moderns, on
the contrary, believe that it is formed in the earth, and
communicated to the plant through the medium of its
vefftfts. However this may be, the lalts are formed during
the procels of vegetation ; for, by planting fun-flowers
in earth well lixiviated, by analyiis of their juices nitrat
of potalh will be found.
Vegetable acids are all compofed of radicals, which
are themfelves combined and united with oxygen : thefe
radical fubftances are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
One grand mark of diftindtion between vegetable acids
and mineral acids, is, that the firft are all reduced, by
complete analyiis. All vegetable acids are convertible
one into the other, which arifes from the different pro¬
portions of the conftituent principles ; but it muft be re¬
marked, that neither nature nor the chemifts can work
retrograde; for, having produced oxalic acid, the citric
or malic acids cannot be formed from this.
There are five kinds of vegetable acids: 1. Vegetable
acids, formed in the fame vegetables, and pure. a. Acids
partly fatu rated with a bafe in vegetables. 3. Thole ob¬
tained by fire. 4. By fermentation. 5. By mineral acids.
Of the acids completely formed in vegetables, and which
are extrafted in a ftate of purity by very Ample proceffes,
we may diftinguifli four Ipecies, the citric, gallic, ben¬
zoic, and malic ; to which Fourcroy thinks we may add
the fuccinic, as that acid, he fays, poffeffes all the pro¬
perties of the reft.
SUCCINIC ACID. '
To obtain this acid, reduce amber to grofs powder §
put it into a retort with a receiver adapted ; place the
apparatus in a fand-bath, and proceed to diftillation
with a gentle graduabfire. A little winter is firft obtain¬
ed, wduch foon acquires acidity; and a concrete lub¬
ftance adheres to the neck of the retort ; this is the fuc¬
cinic acid : laftly a thick brown oil paffes ever.
The acid obtained by this firft diftillation is never
pure, but always contains tome oil. The following is a
very
C H E M I S T R Y.
323
very (Imple and fuccefsful mode of purifying it. Mix
lip the impure acid with white fand 5 put the whole into
a cucurbit with a head adapted to it, and place it on a
fand-bath ; by the help of a gyntle heat, the fuccinic acid
volatilizes and (licks to the fides of the veifel ; in this (late
the acid is very pure and very white. To obtain it in
cryllals, it mud be diffolved in water ; evaporate about
two-thirds of the liquor in a gentle heat, and by cooling,
it produces cryllals. Guyton diddled this acid with ni¬
tric acid ; and thus obtained very pure and beautiful
cryllals. The fuccinic acid is bitter ; it reddens tin£lure_
of turnfole ; is foluble in twenty-four parts of cold, and
two of boiling, water. It crydallizes in triangular prifms
with truncated angles. Its combinations with different
bafes form Juccinats.
CITRIC ACID.
Scheele fil'd fucceeded in obtaining this pure acid cry-
ftallized, and’feparated from the mucilage which accom¬
panies it in. the juice of lemons. According to this che-
miit, the lemons are to be fqueezed, and the juice is to
be left at red for four-and- twenty hours, to promote the
reparation of the mucilage; filter the juice through pa¬
per, then faturate it with carbonat of iirne. The calca¬
reous citrat which arifes from this combination, being
infoluble, falls to the bottom of the liquor; when this
has well fettled, draw off the fupernatant water; wa(h
the precipitate till it becomes tadelefs and very white;
decompofe this fait with half its weight of fulphuric
acid, in fix parts of water, with a gentle heat; the ful¬
phuric acid feparates _the lime from the citric acid, the
i'ulphat of lime which is formed is for the mod part pre¬
cipitated, and the citric acid remains free in the water.
By buffering it to evaporate to the confidence of a fyrup,
by cooling, the acid is obtained in a crydalline form.
Dize, who made leveral experiments upon this fubjeCl,
found that an excefs of fulphuric acid was neceffary to
dedroy the portion of mucilage, which the acid obfti-
nately retains in its combination with lime, and which
prevents the citric acid from cryllallizing, or at lead re¬
tards it. He obferved alfo, that, to obtain the citric
acid quite pure, the diffolution and crydaliization (hould
be feveral times repeated. The cryllals he obtained
were rhomboidal prilms, with inclined planes of 60 or
1200, and terminating with four-faced fummits, inter¬
cepting the folid angles. One part of diddled water, at
the temperature of ic°, will diffolve, according to this
author, rjj of crydallized citric acid, producing 130
degrees of cold during the folution. Water, at its boil¬
ing point, diffolves double of its weight of this acid, 100
parts of citric acid, diffolved in a fuflicient quantity of
boiling water, diffolves 50 parts of calcareous citrat.
The citric acid thus prepared is very pure and con¬
centrated ; its tade is ftrongly acid, and it reddens all
the blue vegetable., colours which are capable of that
change. Fire decompoles and converts it into an acidu¬
lous phlegm, gafeous carbonic acid, and carbonated hy¬
drogenous gas ; a fmall portion of charcoal remains in
the retort : its cryllals efflorefce in the air; it is very fo¬
luble in water, and its folution is decompofed by a true
putrefaction, which is very flow.
The ufes of the citric acid are fufficiently numerous.
With water and fugar it forms a very agreeable drink,
knownyunder the name of lemonade. It is employed in
medicine as refrelhing, cooling, antifeptic, antifcorbutic,
diuretic; more particularly it correfts acrid bile, 'it is
fometimes ufed as a flight efcharotic in fcorbutic ulcers,
dartrous eruptions, and fpots on the (kin.
Of Citrats. — Vauquelin has lately examined the
combinations of this acid. The following is his account
of the falts hereby formed : 1. Alkaline citrats are de¬
compofed by a folution of barytes, and the pi ecipitate
is foluble in a large quantity of water. 2. They decom¬
pofe the calcareous falts, forming a precipitate which is
foluble in 500 parts of water. 3. They are decompofed
by mineral acids ; but make no precipitates as in the
tartrits and oxalats, becauie they do not make acidulous
citrats like thefe falts. 4.. They are decompofed by the
oxalic and tartarous acids, which form cryltallized or
pulverulent precipitates infoluble in water. 5. Thefe fa'lts,
efpecially the metallic citrats, give marks of acetous acid
by dillillation. 6. Thrown upon burning coals, the ci¬
trats melt, boil up, exhale an empyreumatic fmell of
acetous acid, and leave behind a fmall portion of char¬
coal. The affinities of the citric acid for alkaline and
earthy- bafes, according to different authors, are as
follows.
Bergman.
Lime,
Bury tes,
Magnefia,
Potalh,
Soda,
Ammoniac.
Brejfey,
Barytes,
Lime,
Magnefia,
Potalh,
Soda,
Ammoniac.
La Grange.
Barytes,
Lime,
Potalh,
Soda,
Magnefia,
Ammoniac,
Aiumine.
GALLIC ACID.
We give the name of gallic acid to that extraQed from
the nut-gall, which grows on the oak by the pundlure of
ail infedt. This acid exills in general in greater or lefs
quantities, in all aullere vegetable, or allringent fub-
llances : fuch are the woods of the oak, the afh, the wil¬
low, the barks of the fame trees, the quinquina, fima-
rouba, pomegranate, fumach, tormentilla ; the nuts of
cyprels ; the hulks of nuts ; the Hem and leaves of the
marlh iris, the llrawberry plant, the nenuphar, &c. Che-
inills were formerly acquainted in this fubltance, which
they diftinguilhed by the name of ajlringent principle, with
no other property than that of precipitating the lolutions
of iron in acids of a black colour,' or of forming ink,
which, indeed, is an exclufive and very charadleriilic pro¬
perty. Macquer, Monnet, Lewis, Cartheufer, and Gio-
anetti, made experimental inquiries into the mode of ac¬
tion of this principle upon iron. Monnet had more par¬
ticularly remarked, that the nut-gall, and allringent ve¬
getable juices, adled immediately on iron, and gave.it
a black colour. Gioanetti had obferved, that the preci¬
pitate, or ntramenfary fecula, was not attracted by the
magnet, and that the iron was not in the metallic Hate,
as had been fuppofed before his time. Thefe obferva-
tions ought to have led to the notion that the allringent
principle of the nut-gall was an acid ; or at lead that it
adled as an acid in chemical operations. Sequin firlt dif-
covered, in the infufio'ns and decoftions of aftringent
barks, the new principle, which, from the elfefts it pro¬
duces on animal matters, is called tannin.
Scheele has not only (hewn, that all aullere and allrin¬
gent plants exhibit ligns of acidity, but he has likewife
difeovered and delcribed a procefs to obtain this vegeta¬
ble, pure and cryllallized. Six pounds of diltdled water
are poured upon one pound of nut-galls in powder;
this is left to macerate during fifteen days, at the tem¬
perature of between 16 and 20 degrees of Reaumur ; it
is then filtrated, and the fluid is left in a tureen of Hone
ware, or a large glafs capfule. It is fuffered to evaporate
flowly by expofure to the air. A mouldinefs and thick
pellicle is formed, which appears as if glutinous ; very
abundant’ mucilaginous flocks fall down ; the folution
then no longer poffelfes a very aftringent tafte, but is
ftrongly acid-; and after two or three months expofure to
the air, a brown cruft is obferved adhering to the fides
of the veffels, and covered with granulated, brilliant,
yellowiffi, grey cryllals ; the fame cryllals likewife exilt
in large quantities beneath the thick pellicle which co¬
vers the liquor : the fluid is then decanted, and alcohol
is poured on the depofit of pellicle and of cryftalline
cruft, and heated. This lolvent takes up the whole of
the crydallized fait, but dees not touch the mucilage.
324- C H £ M I
By evaporation of this fpiritous folution, the pure gallic
acid is obtained in fmall granulated cryltals, of a bril¬
liant appearance, and (lightly yellowilh grey colour.
Deyeux has pointed out, in the Journal de Phifique
for June 1793, the two following modes of procuring
this acid. 1. Diftil extraCt of nut-galls in a glafs : it
liquefies with the firft degree of heat, then tumefies ; by
increafing the fire, a great quantity of carbonic acid is
difengaged ; at the fame time a fait is fublimed, which
flicks to the neck of the retort, fometimes in the form of
very fmall thin needles, fometimes in fmall fcales. If
the fire be continued, the (alt is foon difi'olved by a
fluid which condenfes and falls down in the receiver
The fluid contained in the receiver is extremely
acid, as is the fait which is fublimed in the neck
of the retort. 2. Putthe nut-galls into aretort to which
a receiver is adapted ; for obtaining the gafeous fluid,
the pneumatic apparatus muft.be ufed. Place the. retort
on a fand-bath, or on a naked fire, and increale the heat
by little and little, till the temperature exceeds boiling
water. A tranfparent liquor comes over, colourlefs,
acid, and affording by fpontaneous evaporation needled
cryftals eroding each other in every direction. This is
pure gallic acid. For a fecond product, there is a con¬
crete lalt fublimed in the neck of the retort in the form
of fmall needles, extremely white; and towards the end
of the operation, a pretty large quantity of oil.
The acid obtained by this procels is always coloured,
and Clogged with oil, efpecially that which is formed
near the conclufion of the experiment. Deyeux employ¬
ed fublimation to purify it. For this purpofe, two cap-
fules of glafs are inverted one over the other, in fuch a
manner, that only the lower capfule containing the matter
to be purified can receive the heat. When the apparatus
is well luted, heat the lower capfule ; and by degrees the
upper one will . be filled with the fublimed acid cryltallized
in white filvery needles. When the operation is finiflted,
there will -be found at the bottom of the lower capfule a
black magma, as it were carbonated. If the heat em¬
ployed (hould be too great, the fublimate, after it is
• formed, will liquefy, andaffumea brown colour in cooling.
This acid reddens the blue vegetable tin&ures. Placed
on burning.charcoal, it inflames and emits an aromatic
■jfmell. Placed on a hot metallic plate, it melts, boils,
becomes black, and is converted into charcoal. Diltilled
.in a retort, it gives out a yellow acid liquor. Come of
the fait fublimes into the neck of the retort, and a car¬
bonaceous matter is left behind. During the diftillation,
an aeriform fluid efcapes, which appears to be purer than
atmofpheric air. The gallic fait is completely decompof-
ed by repeated diftillations, but this may be effected
more eaiily by diltilling the folution of this fait in water.
Heated with the contaft of air, it fwells up, and takes
fire, emitting a. fomewhat agreeable fmell, and leaves a
charcoal of difficult incineration. When diltilled by a
gentle heat, part riles, diffolved in the water of cryltal-
iization ; another part rifes in fmall fil’ky cryftals, with¬
out decompofition ; a ftrong fire feparates fome drops of
oil, carbonic acid gas, and carbonated hydrogen. The
nut-gall, diltilled in fubftance, affords a fmall quantity. _
of concrete fait, analogous to the fublimed gallic acid.
The gallic acid requires twenty-four parts of cold water,
but no more than three of boiling water, to diflolve it:
repeated folutions and cryftallizations do not render it
lepfibly whiter. Alcohol diffolves it much more efteft-
ually ; four parts of this liquid are fufficient when cold,
but when boiling it is foluble in an equal weight of that
fluid. This acid difongages the carbonic acid from
earthy and alkaline bales, when its a&ion is aflifted by
heat. With barytes, magnelia, and lime, it forms falts,
foluble in water, more efpecially by the afliftance of an
excels of thefe bafes. Potafh, foda, and ammoniac,
unite very readily with it, and form gallats, whofe pro¬
perties are not yet- known. The nitric acid converts the
gallic acid into the oxalic acid.
S T R Y.
The gallic acid precipitates gold its folvent in the form
of a brown powder, and part of the metal appears at the
furface in a brilliant and metallic pellicle. Silver is pre-
cipitated.of a brown colour, and a film of this metal re¬
duced, Toon covers the furface of the liquor. Mercury
is precipitated of an orange yellow ; copper of a brown
colour ; iron of a beautiful bright black ; and bifmuth
of a yellow lemon colour. The folutions of platina,
zink, tin, cobalt and manganefe, are not altered by this
acid.
The folution of fulphat of iron is the only one upon
which this acid a6ls in an uniform manner. The preci¬
pitate is conftantly of a fine (hining black ; and, accord¬
ing to Deyeux, is a combination of carbonated oxyd of
iron and gallat of iron. If a very weak acid, efpecially
the fulphuric acid, be poured into a folution of fulphat of
iron precipitated by the gallic acid, the liquor prefently
becomes tranfparent; but, by faturating the excefs of
acid, and then adding gallic acid, the precipitate appear*
again.
The gallic acid effervefees with earthy and alkaline
matters, efpecially with the afliftance of heat. This is
the method ufed in preparing of gallats, falts as yet but
little known. It is only known, that thofe with potafli
and foda are irregular cryftals, brown, and of a difagree-
able tafte; and that they are decompofed in a temperature
fomewhat beyond boiling water, in which cafe the alkali
remains in the retort. The ufes of the nut-gall for dying
black are fufficiently known. We (hall only add, that,
by employing the purified gallic acid for the preparation
of ink, this fluid is very beautiful, very black, and may
be kept a long time without alteration.
Of TANNIN.
The fubftance now' called tannin, was long confound¬
ed with the gallic acid or aftringent fubftances. Seguin
gave much attention to this fubjedl, and made fome im¬
portant difeoveries in the application of this matter, in
Amplifying and improving the art of tanning. The me¬
moirs of Pelletier, Darcet, Chauflier, Vauquelin, and
La Grange, on this fubftance, are alfo worthy of atten¬
tion. Tannin exifts not only in the oak, nut-gall, and
fliumach, but alfo in the role-bu(h, larch-tree, feveral
kinds of pines, of acacias, and lote-trees ; and in
fome fpecies of onion, the roots of biftort, rhubarb, pa¬
tience, &c.
Water poured upon tar, after feveral hours infufion,
only at the temperature of the atmofphere, becomes co¬
loured, four, and takes up the mod foluble parts of the
tan ; by pouring on frefli water feveral times, and by re¬
peated infuiions, all the foluble parts of the tan are ta¬
ken up, the water is void of colour; and there remains
nothing but a fibrous mafs, acid and fpongy infoluble
In water, and entirely improper for the purpofes of
tanning.
This liquor contains two fubftances very different in
their properties : the one gives a black precipitate of
iron ; this is the acid or gallic principle. The other,
which precipitates the animal gelatin, or glue, is defig-
nated by the name of tannin, becaufeofits aCtion in the
tanning of hides. To preferve in laboratories a folution
of this glue, a twentieth part of alcohol (hould be added :
this prevents the putrefaction to which animal fubftances
are fo much inclined.
It will appear by experiment, that the liquor of the
laft lixiviations makes no precipitate with the glue ; which
feems to indicate, that the gallic acid contained in tan
is not fo foluble as tannin. ; that the liquor of the firft
lixiviatinm, after having been faturated with glue, or
animal gelatin, and having made a plentiful precipi¬
tate wdth it, is entirely deprived of tannin ; that, as
tannin has ahvays a great affinity with animal gelatin, as
it forms an infoluble precipitate therewith, this mode
will furnifti a very convenient re -agent to deteCl imme¬
diately the pretence, and to determine the quantity, of
gelatin
C H E M
gfetatm in any liquor ; thus the infufu/n of tin, poured
into milk, whey, ferum of blood, beef-broth, &c. will
form a precipitate fromthefe liquids, which will be more
or lei's plentiful, according to the quantity of gelatin they
contain. Thus, every fubltance whole infufum can pre¬
cipitate animal glue’, poffeffes the tanning principle;
every fubltance which has the tanning principle precipi¬
tates the fulphat of iron black ; any fubltance which pre¬
cipitates fulphat of iron, but does not precipitate the
folutum of glue, has not the tanning principle.
The effential point in the art of tanning, is to know,
and to regulate invariably, the circumftances which de¬
termine the paflage of the fibre to the Hate of gelatin ;
and to feizethe pi oper time,'as well as’the proper method,
of combining the tanliin ; for, according to Seguin,
the fibre is oxygenated glue, which, in the fibrous lfate,
cannot combine with tannin ; but it acquires the pro¬
perty of forming that combination in palling to the lfate
of gelatin, by which it lofes part of its oxygen.
MALIC ACID.
This acid exilfs not only in the apple, (whence its
name,) but alfo in ftrawberry, ralpberry, and moll of
the fummer fruits. Commonly, however, to obtain
this acid, the juice of lour apples is exprefled, and fatu-
rated with vegetable alkali : to this liquor a folution of
acetit of lead, or fugar of Saturn, is added ; a double
decompofition takes place, the acetous acid combines
with the potalh, and the malic acid with the oxyd of
lead ; the metallic fait, or malat of lead, falls down ;
this precipitate is walhed and treated with the l'ulphuric
acid, diluted with water ; fulphat of lead is formed,
and the malic acid remains in the liquor. It is necel-
fary to add a fufficient quantity of fulphuric acid to de-
compofe the whole of the malat of lead, which is .known
by thefrelh acid tafteof the liquor.
This acid poffeffes the following properties : It cannot
be obtained in the concrete form. With the three alka¬
lis, it forms deiiquefeent neutral falts. With lime it
forms a lalt which affords fmall irregular cryllals, folu-
ble in boiling water, in vinegar, and in the malic acid it-
felf. With clay it forms a fait of very difficult lolubility,
With magnefia, a deiiquefeent fait. It diffolves iron ;
and this folution is brown, and does not afford cryftals.
With zink, which it diffolves well, it affords a lalt in
very fine cryftals. The nitric acid changes it into the
oxalic acid. It precipitates the nitrats of mercury, of
lead, of filver,and of gold, in the metallic ftate. The calca¬
reous malat decompofes the ammoniacal citrat, and cal¬
careous citrat is formed, which is infoluble in boiling
water and in the vegetable acids. The folution of cal¬
careous malat in water is precipitated by alcohol. Laft-
ly, the malic acid is readily deltroyed by fire, which
changes it into the carbonic acid : this lalt partly fatu-
rates the bales of the malats, which are decompoled by
heat. Thefe are the properties which eftablilh the pe¬
culiar characters of this acid.
Scheele found it almoft pure, or mixed with a fmall
quantity of citric acid, in the juice of apples, barberries,
elderberries, does, the fruit of the lervice-tree, and
damfons. He found it in combination with half its
weight of citric acid in gool'eberries, cherries, Itraw-
berries, rafpberries, and blackberries. He alfo obtained
5t from fugar by the nitric acid ; and Morveau remarks,
that the malic acid appears before the oxalic acid. To
obtain this acid from iugar, and to feparate, at the fame
time, the oxalic from the malic acid, and to obtain the lat¬
ter in a ftate of purity, weak nitric acid is to be poured
over fugar, and di {filled , till the mixture begins to af*
fiime a brown colour ; precipitate the oxalic acid by
means of lime-water; and another acid remains which
lime does not affect. To obtain this acid pure, the li¬
quor is to be faturated with chalk ; filtre, and add al¬
cohol, which occafions a mucilage ; this mucilage, well
Vol. IV. No. zoo.
: S t r y. 325
waflied with alcohol, is to be difTolved again in diftilled
water : decompofe the malat of lime with acetit of lead ;
and then difengage the malic acid by means of the ful-
pliuric acid.
Gum-arabic, manna, fugar of milk, gum-tragacanth,
ftarch, the fecula of potatoes, and many animal fub-
ftances, fuch as ifinglafs, white of egg, yolk of egg,
and blood, treated as above, will fumiffi malic and
oxalic- acid,
BENZOIC ACID.
This acid exifts in benjamin, balfam of Peru and
Tolu, liquid ftyrax, ftorax, cinnamon, vanilla, the
urine of horfes, cows, and children; in general urine
which does not contain phofphoric acid, turnifties tire
benzoic, though fometimes mixed with lime. This acid
was formerly obtained by diftillation and fublimation,
and was called flowers of benjamin. But, as this method,
affords it only in fmall quantity, Scheele, after feveral
lefs-fuccefsful experiments, propofed the following pro-
cefs : Four ounces of quick-lime are extinguifhed in
twelve ounces of water, and eight pounds of water are
added when the ebullition has ceafed ; fix ounces of this
lime-water are poured over one pound of benzoin in pow¬
der, with fufficient agitation to mix thefe two fubltance*,;
the whole of the lime-water is added by degrees. This
mixture by parts prevents the benzoin from unitng into
a mafs. The liquor is heated over a gentle fire for
half an hour, with continual agitation ; it is then
taken from the fire, and buffered to fettle for feveral
hours; the clear liquor is then decanted, and eight
pounds of water thrown on the refidue, which, after
being boiled for half an hour, is buffered to fubfide, and,
when clear, is added to the preceding fluid. This vvafn-
ing and ebullition is repeated twice more, and the waft¬
ing is ended by pouring hot water through the refidue
upon a filtre : all thefe waters are afterwards reduced to
two pounds by evaporation : a fmall quantity of refin fepa-
rates ; the evaporated liquor being cooled, muriatic acid
is added drop by drop, until no more precipitate falls
down, and the liquid exhibits a tafte fenfibly acid ; the
fait of benzoin is the precipitate in the form of a
powder; it is edulcorated on the filtre. If cryftals be
defired, it may be diffolved in five or fix times its weight
of boiling water, which being filtered through a cloth,
and luffered to cool (lowly, the fait is depofited in flat and
very long prifms.
In this procefs, the lime abforbs the benzeic acid, and
forms with it calcareous benzoat, which is very foluble :
the refin fepa rates from this fait, which has but a fmall
affinity with it; the muriatic acid, whofe attraction for
lime is ftronger than that of the benzoic acid, feizes the
earth, and leparates the vegetable acid. The liquor re¬
duced to two pounds by evaporation, is not fufficient to
hold the acid in folution, and almoft the whole is depo¬
fited. The calcareous benzoat has not the fmell of ben¬
zoin ; but, as Icon as the benzoic acid is feparated by the
muriatic acid, it refumes the lively fmell which is pecu¬
liar to that ball’amic fubltance. By this procefs Scheele
obtained twelve or fourteen drams of benzoic acid from
one pound of benzoin ; whereas fublimation affords no
more than nine or ten. He informs us, likewife, that
the purification of this fait by hot water and by cryftal-
lization, caufes the lofs of a great quantity, and that this
purification is not neceffary for pharmaceutic ufes. In
fa£t, this fait, well cryftallized, is very difficult to reduce
to powder, and the purification has no other objeft than to
feparate about twograins of refininthe poundofbenzoin.
Laltly, he remarks that the filtration of this acid dif¬
folved in water cannot be made but through a cloth, as
it feparates quickly, and, in proportion as the liquor
cools, the fait doles the pores of the paper, and the fil¬
tration cannot proceed.
Cbaptal propoles to diftil the benjamin, and to let all
4 O the
326 C II E M
the products run together into a large receiver; then
boil 'them in water, by which means a large quantity of
the acid is obtained.
Deyeux has another procefs, as follows : Into a veffel
of giazed earth, prof done, put four parts of benjamin
in grots powder, and add eight parts of water: boil the
mixture gently for a quarter of an hour, din ing it from
time to time with a wooden fpatula ; drain the liquor,
boiling as it is, into another earthen veil’d placed on a
fand-bath. The liquor paffes over very clear, and pre-
ferves its.tranfparency while hot; but as it cools it grows
turbid,' and depofits’ regular crydals white and lhining.
Draw' off the nntant liquor, and evaporate with a gentle
heat ; more crydals are obtained by cooling. The boil¬
ing. may be repeated feveral times, fo as to exhaud the
benjamin entirely of its acid.
Fourcroy advifes the benzoic acid, for the ufe of per¬
fumers, to be drawn from the urine of horfes and cows ;
nothing more is necellary than to pour fulphuric acid
over the water preffed from the litter and dung of thefe
animals; fince much calcareous benzoat is contained
therein, benzoic acid will be thus obtained.
The pure benzoic acid has a (lightly lour, penetrating,
hot, and acrid, tade ; its fmell is but dightly aromatic,
and it reddens the colour of turnfole very well.
Heat volatilizes it,, and at the lame time Angularly in-
creafes its odour. If it be expofed to the aftion of the
blow-pipe in a filver fpoon, it liquifies, according to the
obfervation of Lichtendein, and evaporates without in¬
flaming. If it be differed to cool, it forms a folid crud,
whole lurface prefents traces of cryftallization in diver¬
gent rays : it does not burn with flame, unlefs it be in
coil t aft with bodies which are themfeives drongiy in¬
flamed; the contadt of a burning coal only caules it to
fublime rapidly. Air does not appear to have any ac¬
tion upon ‘this acid ; for, after having been preferred
twenty \ ears in a glafs veffel, it was very pure, and had
lod nothing of its weight : its fmell is dillipated, but it
recovers it again by heat. The benzoic acid is but fpa-
ringly foluble in cold water: from the experiments of
Wenzel and Lichtendein, it appears that 400 grains of
cold water diffolve no more than one grain, and that the
fame quantity of boiling water can diffolve twenty grains,
of which nineteen feparate by cooling.
The benzoic acid unites to all the earthy and alkaline
bafes, and forms with them the benzoats ofalumine, of
barytes, of magnefia, of lime, of potalh, of foda, and of
ammoniac ; the charafleridic properties of thefe feveral
combinations are not known, nor the various attractions
of this acid for the bafes. Lichtenffein affirms that it
prefers the fixed alkalis, and even ammoniac, to the
aluminous, magnefian, and calcareous, earths : but more
numerous experiments are required to determine exaftly
the order of thefe attractions, more efpecially as Berg¬
man arranges them differently : according to him, lime
leparates the alkaline bafes, and barytes leparates lime :
it difengages the carbonic acid from all thefe bafes.
The concentrated fulphuric acid readily diifolves it
without heat, and without noile, according to the fame
chemift ; neverthelefs it paffes to the Hate of fulphu-
reous acid. The benzoic acid may be feparated with¬
out alteration by water.
The nitric acid diifolves it in the fame manner, and
water eoually difengages this fait unaltered. Morveau
augmented the aCtion of thefe two bodies by heat; the
nitrous gas was not difengaged but towards the end :
and the benzoic acid was fublimed entire and without al¬
teration. How'ever, Hermftadt affirms, that, by employ¬
ing the concentrated nitrous acid, the benzoic acid be¬
comes fluid, more fixed, and aflumes the characters of
the tartareous or oxalic acid; but this refult, which is
irfelfvery uncertain, requires additional-refearches. That
which appears to be the moft certain refpeCting this
acid is, that it differs by its nature and properties from
2
S T R Y.
all the other vegetable -acids, and that it retains an effen-
. tial oil, which gives it fmell, volatility, combuffibility,
and folubiiity in alcohol.
With muriatic acid, the benzoic acid may be feparated
from the calcareous benzoat. Alcohol diffolves it en¬
tirely, and it may be precipitated from that l’olution b'y
diffiiled water.
TARTAREOUS ACIDULE, or TARTAR.
Acids of the fecond genus are likewife found in vege¬
tables in the acid ffate ; but they are partly faturated
with potalh ; and hence they are called acidules , or acids
combined with a bafe.
There are two fpecies. The firft is the tartareous aci-
dule, or tartar; the fecond, the oxalic-acidule of pot alii,
or acid of forrel. Tartar is either white or red ; both
are found on the fides of wine-calks : it is certain that
this tartar muff have been held in folution by the wine.
Tartar contains many foreign matters, fuch as the ni-
trat and fulphat of potalh, colouring- parts, &c. fo that
we are not to regard tartar as pure acidulous tartrit, or
cream of tartar ; for this is produced by purification. At
Venice they purify it by folution in water, and then cla¬
rifying the liquor with allies and whites of eggs. At
Montpellier, they employ for the fame purpofe a white
argillaceous earth dug at Murviel, two leagues off. Few
vegetables contain this acidule : grapes contain more of
it when ripe than while green ; for at that time they
contain citric acid ; which fully proves the converfion of
one acid into another, as daily practised by chemilts,
Very pure tartareous acidule is cryftallized, though
irregularly ; it has an acid talie, lefs vinous than that of
crude tartar. On hot coals, it emits much fmoke, of a
penetrating empyreumatic fmell, and itfelf becomes black
and carbonaceous. If this fubffance be diltilied in an
earthen retort, with a receiver, connefted with an in¬
verted vellel of water, by means of a tube, and the fire
be gradually raifed, a phlegm, almoft colourlefs, and
fcarcely acid, firft comes over ; next a ftronger acid, of
a deeper colour ; and afterwards an oil, which becomes
more and more coloured, confident, and empyreumatic ;
and Lift of all, the concrete ammoniacal carbonat, and a
large quantity of carbonic-acid. A very abundant coal
remains in the retort, which, lixiviated without incinera¬
tion, affords a large quantity of carbonat of potalh.
The diffiiled produfts may be rectified by a gentle heat.
In this reiStification, the phlegm paffes over nearly co¬
lourlefs, the oil becomes very white and volatile, the
ammoniac partly combines with the acid, and is not ob¬
tained feparate and pure, but by diltilling the laft por¬
tions of phlegm with the addition of potalh. The pdt-
afli contained in the coal is not produced in the opera¬
tion, as many chemilts have thought, who were not fuf-
ficiently acquainted with the nature of cream of tartar,
but is all contained originally in this fubffance. The
re-a<5tion of the fixed alkali on the oil produces the am¬
moniac ; and the quantity of this volatile lalt may be
increafed, by diltilling the oil obtained from the tarta¬
reous acidule a lecond time with the coal it leaves in
the retort. It appears that this formation of ammoniac
is owing to the azot of the potalh, which unites to the
difengaged hydrogen of the oil.
Tartareous acidule is not altered by expofure to
air. It diifolves in fixty parts of cold and twenty-eight
parts of boiling water, and cryftallizes confuledly by
cooling, as we have obferved. A certain quantity of
earth leparates from the folution of this fait, which
is doubtlels that which was ulcd in its purification :
the folution reddens tincture of turnlole, and has an
acid talte. If it be left expofed to the air, it be¬
comes turbid, and after lome time depofites mucila¬
ginous flocks. The acid is decompofed, and the fluid
is found to contain nothing but carbonat of potalh.
C H E M
Mr. Demachy.fir.ft obferved this decompofiticn. MefTrs.
Spielman and Corvinus have likewife bufied themfelves
on this fubjeft ; but Berthollet has made experiments
which are frill more accurate than thofe which preceded
him. He has obferved, that two ounces of the tartare-
ous acidule required eighteen months for their entire
decompoiition ; that it afforded fix and a half drachms
of carbonat of potafli, itill oily, and mixed with a fmall
quantity of carbon ; that this quantity of alkali answer¬
ed with fufiicient exaftnefs to that which was afforded
by the acidule by combuftion and calcination. The al¬
kaline refidue of the diftillation, and this fpontaneous
decompofition, prove, therefore, that the tartareous aci-
dule contains nearly one fourth of its weight of p'otafli.
None of the combuftible bodies have any aftion upon
tartareous acidule. Some metals, in the oxyd Hate,
unite to it with excefs of acid, forming triple falts.
The combination of tartareous acidule and antimony,
is called Jlibiated, or emetic , or antimoniated, tartar : it is
the tartarit of antimony and of potafli. As it is one of
the moft important remedies afforded by chemiftry, it is
neceffary to examine its properties with thegreateft care.
Since the time of Adrian de Mynficht, who fil'd defended
this compofition, in the year 1631, the procefs for making
it has been greatly varied. The Pharmacopoeia, and the
writings of chemifts, all differ in the antimonial fub-
ftances directed to be employed, as well as in the tarta¬
reous acidule and water, either with refpect to quantity,
or the method of applying them to each other. The
fublimated white, the brown vitreous, or orange, oxyds,
have been fucceflively preferibed : fome direil thefe Jub¬
ilances to be boiled with tartareous acidule, and a greater
or lefs quantity of water, for ten or twelve hours ; others
dire ft the ebullition to be continued no longer than half
an hour j others again require the filtered lixivium to
be evaporated to drynefs ; and laftly, there are others
who direft it to be cryftallized, and the cryltals only to
be ufed in medicine. Hence it happens, that tartarit of
antimony is never the fame fubftance, but pofiefies vari¬
ous degrees of force, fo that its effefts cannot be clearly
afeertained. Vitreous oxyd of antimony has been chofen
in preference to other antimonial fubftances, becaufe it
is one of the moft foluble by the acidule of tartar ; but
this metallic glai's may be more 01 lefs oxydated, and
the different degrees of oxydation muft affeft its emetic
power. However, if very tranfparent vitreous oxyd of
antimony, previoufly well levigated, be boiled in water,
with an equal weight of tartareous acidule, till the lat¬
ter is faturated, and this folution be filtered and evapo¬
rated by a gentle heat, cryftals of antimonial tartarit are
obtained, by Handing, wliofe emetic power appears to
be lufficiently conftant. The liquor being decanted and
evaporated, affords new cryftals for feveral fucceffive
times. The mother water contains fulphur, tartarit of
potafli, and a certain quantity of antimoniated alkaline
fulpliure. When the mixture of tartareous acidule, vi¬
treous oxyd of antimony, and water, has been boiled for
the preparation of antimoniated tartarit, and paffed
through the filtre, a yellow or brown gelatinous fub¬
ftance remains behind, which Rouelie has examined.
According to Prouft, this jelly affords, by diftillation, a
very inflammable pyrophorus.
Macquer propofes to fubftitute the white oxyd, preci¬
pitated from muriat of antimony by water, in the place
of vitreous oxyd of antimony, in the preparation of
emetic tartar. This oxyd is itfelf a violent emetic,
which Macquer confidered as always the fame. Berg¬
man has adopted the opinion of Macquer ; and nee that
time, a tartarit of antimony has been prepared in the la¬
boratory of the academy of Dijon according to the me¬
thod of Bergman and De Laffone. This medicine has
been ufed with the greateft fuccefs : it operates, in a
dofe of three grains, without fatiguing the ftomach and
jnteftines.
Lartigue, an apothecary at Bourdeaux, has lately pro-
[ S T R Y. 327
pofed another method : Mix twelve parts of the white
oxyd of antimony with fifteen of the acidulated tartarit
of potafli reduced to powder and drained through fiik.
Throw the mixture by degrees into hot water, and boil
it till the acidule is faturated, or till the acid tafte of tbs
liquor changes to fweet, which will be in about a quar¬
ter of an hour; filtre the liquor, and by reft and cooling
it will furnifh very white cryftals, compofed of trihedral
pyramids.
The antimoniated tartarit of potafli is decompofable
by heat, which converts it to a coaly fubftance. It efflo-
refees in the air, and becomes a white farinaceous pow¬
der; it is foluble in fixly parts of cold water, or in a
much lefs quantity of hot water. It cryftallizes by cool-
ling; and is decompofed by lime and alkalis. Calcare¬
ous earth, bark, and pure water, in a large dofe, are ca¬
pable of decompofing it; whence it follows, that it
ought to be adminiftered only in diftilled water. Al¬
kaline fulphures, and fulphurated hydrogen gas, preci¬
pitate from it a red powder, or kind of fulphurated oxyd
of antimony, which may ferve as a teft for the pre¬
fence of this fait in all liquors containing it. Iron
feizes the acid of tartar, and feparates the oxyd of an¬
timony ; antimoniated tartar ought not, therefore, to
be prepared in veflels of this metal. Durande, phyiician
and profefTor at Dijon, propoies that this medicine be
made publicly, and by one uniform- procefs,’ eftablifhed
by law, as the theriaca is made ; and we are convinced,
that the greateft advantages would arife to the praftice
of phyfic from fucli a regulation being adopted.
Tartareous acidule has a fenfible aftion on the oxyds
of lead. Rouelie the younger has afeertained, that the
tartarit of, lead, produced in this operation, does not
remain difi'olved, but that the liquor, by evaporation,
affords pure tartarit of potafli, which was1 ready formed
in the tartareous acidule. This is one of the proceffes
he has made ufe of to prove, that potafli exiils in tartar.
Copper, and its oxyds, are readily attacked by the tar¬
tareous acidule: the refult is a felt, of a beautiful green,
capable of cryftailization, but hitherto little examined.
Iron is very Itrongly afted on by tartareous acidule ;
and its different combinations form feveral compofi-
tions much ufed in medicine. The firfi, called chaiy-
beated tartar , is prepared, by boiling four ounces of le¬
vigated iron filings with one pound of white tartar, in
twelve pounds of water. When the tartar is diflolyed,
the liquor is filtered, and depolites cryftals, more of
which may be obtained by fubfequent evaporation.
To prepare the tartarized tindiure of Mars, a pafte is
made, with fix ounces of iron filings, one pound of white
tartar in powder, and a fufiicient quantity of water. This
mixture is left at reft for twenty-four hours ; after which
twelve pounds of water are added, and the whole boil¬
ed for two hours ; frefli water being added in propor¬
tion as the evaporation goes forward. The liquor is
then decanted, filtered, and thickened, by boiling to
the confillence of fyrup; after which one ounce of ipirit
of wine is added. Rouelie afeertained, that potafhexifts
at liberty in this tinfture, and that by treating it with
acids, neutral felts, with bafe of this alkali, are obtained.
Ludovicus’s tinfture of Mars, according to Baume, is
a mixture in water of equal parts of fulphat of iron and
of acidulous tartarit of potafli ; the mixture is to Hand
till a dry pulverulent matter remains; then digeft al¬
cohol over it with a gentle heat till it has acquired a
yellow colour; draw off the liquor, filtre, and dry the
refidue ; pour on frefli alcohol, and digeft as before.
Peres has given another procefs in the Journal de
Pharmacie, p. 154. Take two parts of iron-filings, over
which place in digeftion, in a gentle heat, one part of
pure tartareous acid, diftblved in the lead poffible quan¬
tity of water : when the acid is very red and much i ad-
ed with iron, add as much alcohol as may be judgeci
neceffary.
There are likewife two other medical preparations,
formed
3^8 C H E M 1
formed by the combination of the tartareous acid and
iron. The one is foluble martial tartar, confiding of one
pound of the tartarized tindfure of Priars, and four
ounces of -tartarit of potafh, evaporated to drynefs. The
other is known by the name of martial balls. They are
made by mixing, in a glafs veffei, one part of fteel filings,
and two parts of white tartar in powder, with a certain
quantity of brandy -; when the brandy is evaporated, the
mafs is pulverized, and more brandy added, which is
buffered to evaporate as before. This procefs is re¬
peated till the mafs becomes tenaceous, when it is formed
into balls.
Pott and Margraaf treated tartareous acidule with the
mineral acids, and the latter obtained neutral falts, fimi-
lar to thole afforded by each of thefe acids with potafli ;
whence he concluded, that this alkali exifts, ready form¬
ed, in this acidule. Rouelle the younger made a num¬
ber of accurate experiments, which afforded the fame
refults. A pound of tartareous acidule, in very fine
powder, was added to a pound of concentrated fulphn-
ric acid: the mixture became hot, and the mutual ac¬
tion of the two fubftances on each other was affifled by
the heat of a water-bath, and by frequent ftirring with a
glafs inftrument. This heat being continued ten or
twelve hours, the mixture became of the thicknefs of
cream, at which time two or three ounces of boiling di-
ftilled water were added, which rendered the whole fluid.
Two hours after, the mixture was taken from the fire,
and three pints of boiling diftilled water were added.
This folution was coloured, and opake, and contained
difengaged fulpliuric acid, a portion of tartareous aci¬
dule not decompofed, and fulphat of potafli. The excels
of fulpliuric acid was then faturated with chalk ; and
fulphat of lime, with a fmall quantity of tartareous aci¬
dule, was precipitated. The mixture was then filtered
and evaporated, till it became reduced to eighteen or
twenty ounces; during which, a fmall quantity of tar¬
tareous acidule and of fulphat of lime fell down. The
fluid was decanted off, evaporated a fecond time, and,
by Handing, afforded cryftals of fulphat of potafli ; more
of which was obtained in the like manner by fucceflive
operations. This fait is always mixed with a fmall
quantity of tartareous acidule, and burns on a hot iron.
But, if a due quantity of diftilled water be added, it will
be taken up, and the tartareous acidule will remain un-
diflfolved. The foregoing procefs is defcribed by Ber-
niard, who repeated it with fuccefs after Rouelle. The
nitric and muriatic acids, treated in the fame manner
with tartareous acidule, afford nitratand muriat of pot¬
afh ; which incontrovertibly proves the exiftence of pot¬
afh in this fubftance.
Tartareous acidule acquires folubility, by uniting
with borax and boracic acid, affording a preparation
called foluble cream of tartar. Various receipts are in
exiftence for making this ; we (hall give two, which feem
to anl'wer the purpofe belt.
i. Tancoigne, of Paris, formerly prepared his foluble
cream of tartar with one part of cream of tartar, and the
fifth part of its weight of borax in powder ; but this pro¬
cefs gave a cream of tartar which attradled the moilture
of the air. To avoid that inconvenience, he fubftituted,
with advantage, the boracic acid ; but, inftead of one-
fifth of borax, he employed half the weight of acid. Dif-
folve the whole in a glazed pot, with about three times
its weight of water; filtre the liquor cold, and then eva¬
porate to drynefs. As the evaporation goes forward, the
fait takes a glutinous tenaceous confiftence. When the
matter is dry and brittle, pulverize it, and (hut it clofe
in a vuTel.
z. Procefs of Lartigue, ofBourdeaux. Take one part
of cryftallized boracic acid in powder; put it in twice
its weight of pure water over a gentle fire, in a velfel
which will not be injured by vegetable acids. When
hot, put in by degrees, and ftirring it continually, eight
parts of tartareous acidule in fine powder ; this will form
S T U Y.
a very ftiff pafte. Keep the pGt on the fire, and ftir it till
it becomes dry, breaking the clots, and taking care 'that
the matter does not burn to the fides and bottom of the
vefiel. Then reduce it to powder, and flit it through a
fine fieve.
The combinations of the tartareous acidule with earths,
have not been yet fufficientiy examined. Lime decom-
pofes it; and it unites very well with the different alka¬
lis. If it be added to a folution of carbonat of potafli, a
ftrong effervefcence is immediately produced, by the dif-
engagement of the carbonic acid. The acidule tnuft be
added to faturation, and the liquor filtered, after having
boiled for half an hour; after which, the evaporation
being continued till a pellicle is formed, the folution, by
flowly cooling, affords long quadrangular prifms, ter¬
minated by two facets, placed flantwifer This fait is
known by the names of vegetable fait, foluble tartar, tar¬
tarized tartar, and ought to be called tartarit of potafh.
It has a bitter tafte ; is converted into a coal by a ftrong
heat ; and is decompofed by diftillation, affording an
acid phlegm, oil, a large quantity of carbonic acid, and
a fmall quantity of ammoniacal carbonat. Itflightly at-
tradfs the humidity of the air, and is completely difloived
in four parts of water, at the heat of uo degrees of
Fahrenheit. This folution is decompofed during the
courfe of fome months, and leaves the fixed alkali com¬
bined witii the carbonic acid. The mineral acids de-
compofe it, and precipitate tartareous acidule ; it is alfo
decompofed by raoft metallic folutions. Lime-water de-
compofes it, forming an infoluble tartarit of lime.
Tartareous acidule, combined with foda, forms fait of
Seignette, fo called from the name of an apothecary of
Rochelle, whofirft compofed it. Vauquelin had lately dis¬
covered that this is a triple fait, and we now give it the
name of tartarit of potafb and foda. It is prepared by
dilfolving twenty ounces of acidule of tartar in four
pounds of water, and gradually adding very pure cry-
ftallized carbonat of foda to faturation, which point is
known by an effervefcence not being excited by the ad¬
dition of more alkali. In this combination the tartare¬
ous acidule is rendered loluble. The fluid being evapo¬
rated till it has nearly the confiftence of fyrup, affords,
by cooling, very beautiful regular cryftals, often of a
confiderable magnitude. They are prifms of fix, eight,
or ten, unequal faces, truncated at right angles at their
extremities. Thefe prifms are moft commonly bifected
length wife: and the large face, or bafe, on which they
reft, is marked by two diagonal lines, interfering each
other, and dividing the bafe into four triangles.
To he affured that this was a triple fait, Vauquelia
made the following experiments, i. He evaporated the
combination of pure tartareous acid and foda ; and he
obtained a faltmuch lei's foluble than the fait of Seignette,
which cryftallizes in very fmall needles, or in thin irre-
gular plates, and never like tartarit of foda. z. Hemixed
together a very concentrated folution of neutral tartarit
of loda, and of vegetable fait equally concentrated, which
did not cryftallize feparately ; but, as foon as the li¬
quors were mixed, he obtained eight-fided prifms exarily
fimilar to the fait of Seignette. Here then is an acidule
formed by tiie addition of tartareous acid. From the
enquiries of Vauqueiin it appears, that ioo parts of the
cream of tartar of commerce contain feven parts of tar~
tarit of lime, and that ioo parts of crude tartar contain
about o'i6. And it appears, that the fame refults as
above would be produced with the neutral tartarits of
lime, antimony, and iron.
This fait has a buter tafte; is decompofed by the fire,
like the tartarit of potafli ; efflorefces in the air, becaufe
it contains much water of cryitailization, and is nearly
as foluble as tartarit of potafli, and, like that fait, is de-
compoled by air, mineral acids, and metallic folutions.
The mother water of this lalt contains the portion of
tartarit of potafli, which compofes part of the tartareous
acidule.
Ammoniac
C H E M I
Ammoniac forms with acidule of tartar an ammonia-
cal tartarit, which cryftallizes very well by evaporation
and cooling. Bucquet affirms that its cryftals are rhom-
boidal pyramids. Macquer obferved fome in thick prifms
of four, five, or fix, tides ; others tlrickeft in the middle,
and terminated by very acute points. The academicians
of Dijon obtained them in oblique-angled parallelopi-
pedons. Ammoniacal tartarit has a cool tafte, and is
decompofed by heat : in the air it efflorefces : hot water
dillolves it more readily than cold ; and it cryftallizes by
cooling. Lime and fixed alkalies difengage the ammo¬
niac ; the contact of air, mineral acids, and metallic fo-
lutions, decompofe it,
TARTARF.OUS ACID.
M. Retzius publifhed, in the Memoirs of Stockholm
for J770, a procefs, invented by S cheele, for the extrac¬
tion and purification of this acid. Waflied chalk is
thrown into a folution of two pounds of cream of tartar
in boiling water, until there is no longer any effervefcence
nor acid at liberty; fomewhat more than 1.4th of the
weight of the cream of tartar is required : the precipitate
of calcareous fait or tartarit of lime, which is formed mult
be then collefted on the filtre, and wafhed with warm
water; it commonly amounts to thirty-two or thirty-
three ounces, on account of the water it retains. The
liquor decanted from this precipitate affords, by evapo¬
ration, nearly the half of the weight of the tartarit of
potafh, which has. not been decompofed : 9^ ounces of
denfe fulphuric acid, diluted with five pounds five ounces
of water, is poured on the calcareous fait of tartar, and
the mixture is kft to digeft for twelve hours, being agi¬
tated from time to time, The liquor is then decanted
from the fulphat of lime; and the water is evaporated,
after having ascertained that it does not contain fulphuric
acid. For this purpofe, a few drops of the acetit of lead,
or fugar of lead, are added ; if the precipitate which
is formed be entirely foluble in vinegar, the lixivium
does not contain fulphuric acid ; if it is not foluble in
this fermented acid, it contains the fulphuric acid, of
which it may be cleared by digefting the liquor on a cer¬
tain quantity of calcareous tartarit. Lime may be ufed
inftead of chalk, to obtain the tartareous acid : but, as
this alkaline earth decompofes the tartarit of potafh con¬
tained in the tartareous acidule, the lixivium contains
only alkali inftead of the tartarit of potafli, as in the
former procefs. The ufe of quicklime in this decompo-
fition affords a great quantity of acid, becaufe this earth
decompofes twice its weight of tartareous acidule or
cream of tartar.
The pure tartareous acid obtained in the liquid ftate
by either of the above deferibed proceffes, mult be eva¬
porated. to drynefs ; afterwards re-diffolved and cryftal-
lized, either by gentle evaporation, or by cooling the
liquor evaporated to the confidence of a fyrup, according
to Bergman. It is obtained in the form of fmall needles
acutely pointed, or fine prifms, whofe form is difficult
to be determined. Bergman deferibes them as fmall di¬
verging leaves ; Retzius compares them to hairs entwin¬
ed together. They are at fir ft: very white, but thofe
wnich are obtained towards the end are yellow.
The cryftallized tartareous acid melts, fumes, blackens,
and even takes fire by the contact of ignited bodies. By
diftillation it affords, like the tartareous acidule itfelf,
an acid phlegm, a fmall quantity of oil, and much gafe-
ous carbonic acid, mixed with carbonated hydrogen gas.
The charcoal which remains, contains neither acid nor
alkali ; which proves that this laft is not formed by the
decompofition of. the tartareous acid by fire. This acid,
though purified, is always oily. It is for this reafon that
we dillinguifli it, in the new nomenclature, by the name
of tartareous acid, and its falts by that of tartarits. It
Is unalterable in the air, is much more foluble than tar¬
tareous acidule ; its tafte is very penetrating ; it reddens
the tindlure of violets, and likewife that of turnfole ; it
Vox., IV. No. z co. 8
S T R Y. 329
perfectly diffolves a him in e, and forms with it an alumi¬
nous tartarit, which affumes a gummy or mucilaginous
appearance by evaporation. In combinations with mag-
nefia, the pure tartareous acid likewife forms a kind of
gelatinous matter inftead of cryftallizing. With lime it
forms a fait which is fcarcely foluble.
If a final! quantity of potafli be poured into its folu¬
tion, cryftals of the tartareous acidule, or cream of tartar-
fall down. This difeovery of Scheele and Bergman
throws the greateft light on the nature of this vegetable
fait : there no longer remain, as Morveau obferved, any
inquiries to be made concerning the compofition of tar¬
tareous acidule, it is known to be the tartarit of potafli
with excefs of acid. If the proportion of potafli be in-
creafed, a neutral fait is formed, which is perfeftly fatu-
rated and foluble ; it is the tartarit of potafh or njegeta-
table fait.
The tartareous acid has no adftion upon platina, gold,
and fiver; it diffolves their oxyds or calces ; it afts only
infenfibly upon copper, lead, and tin ; it diffolves their
oxyds, and deprives that of lead of its red colour. It
diffolves iron with a very flow effervefcence. It produces
no alteration whatever in antimony in the metallic ftate,
but it diffolves the vitreous oxyds of that metal very well.
It takes lime from the nitric, muriatic, acetous, formic,
and phofphoric, acids. It precipitates the nitric folutions
of mercury, the muriatic folutions of lead, &c. Its at¬
tractions, pointed out by Bergman, are in the following
order : Lime, barytes, magnefia, potafh, foda, ammoniac,
alumine, the oxyds of zink, iron, manganefe, cobalt,
nickel, lead, tin, copper, bifinuth, antimony, arfenic,
fiver, mercury, gold, platina, water, and alcohol.
OXALIC ACIDULE.
This is called fait of for rel of commerce. — The acidulous
oxalat, or oxalic acidule, exifts in all kinds of forrel,
efpecially in that fpecies called by Linnseus oxalis acetofella.
It is obtained by prefling the juice from the forrel, which
is then to be filtered, diluted with water, and evaporat¬
ed till it becomes of the confidence of bream ; then it is
to be covered with oil to prevent fermentation, and left
in a cellar for fix months. In this ftate it is partly fatu-
rated by potafh ; it is therefore a triple fait. It differs
from the tartareous acidule, becaufe it gives out a great
deal of water, and by diftillation a little undecompofed
acid ; it affords lefsgas, no oil, and its coal is lefs bulky;
but it contains potafh, in the fame manner as the coal
of the tartareous acidule.
The oxalic acidule, unites to barytes, magnefia, foda,
and ammoniac, and forms with them triple l'alts. Lime
decompofes it, by feizing its whole acid, as well that
which is at liberty, as that which is combined with pot¬
afh : 100 grains of chalk decompofe 137 grains of the.
oxalic acidule. The precipitate of calcareous oxalat
which is depofited, weighs 175' grains; the fupernatant
liquor affords thirty-two grains of carbonat of potafh by-
evaporation. This procefs cannot be ufed to prepare the
pure oxalic acid in the fame manner as the tartareous
acid is obtained in a ftate of purity, becaufe the calcare¬
ous oxalat cannot be decompofed by the fulphuric acid,
as the calcareous tartarit is : on the contrary, the attrac¬
tion of the oxalic acid for lime is fo ftrong, that it takes
it from all other acids ; and a lure means of afeertaining
the purity of the oxalic acidule, or fait of forrel of com¬
merce, confifts in pouring its folution into water, charged
with a folution of calcareous fulphat. If this acidule
be truly extradited from forrel, an abundant precipitate
is afforded. Potafli remains in folution.
OXALIC ACID.
To prepare the oxalic acid, and deprive it of the por¬
tion of potafh which renders it acidulous, the following
procefs is recommended by Scheele. The oxalic acidule,
or fait of forrel, is faturated with ammoniac. Into the
folution of this triple oxalat, compofed of the acid with
4 P ammoniac
3 jo C H £ M
ammoniac and potafh, the nitrat of barytes is poured.
A precipitate is formed of oxalat of barytes, and the
nitric acid retains the alkalis. The barytic oxalat, when
well wafhed, is decompofed by the addition of fulplniric
acid, which combines with 'the barytes, and remains in-
i'oluble at the bottom. The fluid being decanted, is to
be afl'ayed by the addition of a fmall quantity of barytic
oxalat, dilfolved in Toiling water, to feparate the por¬
tion of fulphuric acid which may be contained in it; and,
when no more precipitate is affoi-ded, the liquid, which
contains the pure oxalic acid, may be decanted. This
being duly evaporated, affords, by cooling, the cryftal-
lized fait in quadilateral prifins, whole faces are alternate¬
ly broad and narrow', and are terminated by dihedral
fummits. Thefe cryffals often have the form of fquare
or rhomboidal plates.
To procure this acid in laboratories, it is extrafted
-■from fugar, by combining the oxygen of nitric acid with
one of its conllituent principles. For this purpofe, pour
eight parts of nitric acid over one part of fugar ; put the
whole into a retort, which place on a fand-bath ; adapt
a receiver, and give a gentle heat to help the aftion of
the acid. Some nitrous gas is difengaged ; and, when
the decompoftion is finifhed, continue the diftillation
in a find-heat till the refidue be fufficiently concentrated;
then, by cooling, cryffals will be formed in the liquor,
which are to be feparated by decantation; fpread them
on blotting paper to dry ; after which diflblve them afrefli
in diftiiled water, and evaporate for more cryffals.
This acid is always concrete; it has a very penetrating
four tafte ; feven grains give to two pounds of w’ater a
fenflble degree of acidity; it reddens all blue colours :
one grain of the fait gives to 3600 grains of water the
property of reddening paper tinged with turnfole. The
concrete oxalic acid, expofed to a mild heat, becomes
dry, and covered with a white crult ; foon afterwards it
is reduced to powder, with the lofs of three tenths of its
weight. By diffillation in a retort with a ftronger heat,
though ftili moderate, it liquefies, becomes brown, boils
tip, affords an acidulous phlegm, fublimes in part with¬
out alteration, at the fame time that a mixed gas, con¬
fiding of carbonic acid ami hydrogen gas, is difengaged.
If a very ffrong heat be applied, more gas, lefs of con¬
crete fubiimed acid, and more acidulous phlegm which
is not cryltallizable, are afforded : there remains at the
bottom of the retort, a grey or brown mafs, forming -J5
cf the acid employed. If laid upon ignited charcoal in
the air, it exhales in a very acrid white fume, which
Irrongiy irritates the lungs, and leaves only a white refidue
without any coaly matter. Such is the refult of the de-
compofition of the oxalic acid by heat, as obferved by
Bergman.
The concrete oxalic acid, expofed to a moiff air, re¬
mains deliquefcent, but it rather becomes dry in a dry
atmoiphere : cold water difl'olves half its weight. When
the cryffals of this acid are thrown into cold water, they
produce a flight noife, which indicates a fudden breaking
of the particles. The fpecific gravity of this cold folution
is 1-0593, according to Morveau. If the water of folu¬
tion be evaporated, no acid vapour aril'es, even by ebul¬
lition. Boiling water difl'olves its own weight of this
concrete acid fait. One half is precipitated in cryffals
by cooling. This acid combines with all the faline bales,
forming oxalat s.
The affinity of this acid for lime is fuch, thaj it takes
it from every other ; and Bergman propofes it as a teft
to dilcover the prefence and quantity of lime in mineral
waters. At any rate, this peculiar property is fufficient
to diftinguifh it from all other acids.
The third genus of the vegetable clafs, confiffs of acids
by the aftion of fire. Pyro , from the Greek Trup, fire,
is prefixed to the name of each. There are only three at
prefent well known, the pyro-tartarous, pyro-mucous,
and pyro-lignous, acids.
I S T R Y.
PYRO-TARTAROUS acid.
Fill a glafs retort about half way with the pulverifed
acidule of potafh 5 adapt a tubulated receiver, commu¬
nicating by a tube with a jar in the pneumatic apparatus.
By graduating the fire, an empyreumatic acid liquor,
mixed with oil, is obtained; fepai'ate the two produfts
by means of a funnel, and the acid liquor is what we
call pyro-tartarous acid. This acid is not quite pure ;
it always contains fome oil, which it were to be wifhed
could be feparated ; but the rectification, or fecond dif¬
tillation, of this acid, which has been recommended by
a great number of authors, exhibits a very great difficul¬
ty, according to the academicians of Dijon, namely, that
the rapid elevation of the liquid always burft the veffels,
in fpite of every care they took to moderate the heat,
and leave room for the vapours. They attribute this ele¬
vation to the gas produced by the decompofition of the
acid, and comprefl'ed by the oil, againft the preffure of
which it-prevails at laft by its great dilatation. However,
this rectification may be difpenfed with ; and the acid,
feparated from the oil by means of the funnel, is fuffici¬
ently pure to exhibit all its diltinftive characters.
The pyro-tartarous acid has an empyreumatic fmell
and tafte; it does not redden violets, but it does turnfole
and blue pap'er; it difengages the carbonic acid from its
bafis, with a ffrong effervefcence. With earths and alkalis
it forms falts, which are very different from thofe con-
llituted by the tartarous acid. Chemiits, before they
arrived at the knowledge that hydrogen, carbon, and
oxygen, appear to be the true principles of all the vege¬
table acids, which differ from each other only in the pro¬
portions, had adopted opinions very remote from truth,
concerning the acid obtained by diffillation from tartar.
Vennelaffinnedjthatitwastheacidof nitre. Monnet.upon
more politive experiments, imagined this acid to be the
muriatic acid, difguifed by oil and mucilage. But though
Scheele found a fmall portion of muriatic acid in tartar,
yet the cubic form of the neutral lklt, produced by ad¬
ding the pyro-tartarous acid to foda, and the precipitation:
of the nitrat of mercury, are not at prefent fufficient for
chemifts to afeertain the identity.
PYRO-MUCOUS ACID.
All faccharine, gummy, and farinaceous, matters, pro¬
duce this acid by diftillation. Put the fugar into a retort,
(it fhould be a very large one, becaufe the matter fwells
up,) and adapt a receiver large enough to condenfe the
vapours. When the heat firft begins to aft, a large quan¬
tity of carbonic acid and hydrogen gas are difengaged.'
A brown liquor is found in the receiver, of which the
greater part is a weak acid, reddening blue paper, and
coloured with a portion of oil, a fpongeous coal remain¬
ing in the retort. Guyton obtained the acid lefs coloured
by a fecond diffillation.
Schrickel obtained, from fixteen ounces of fugar, fix
drachms of phlegm, paifing in white vapours, and con-
denfed in oily ffreams, of a penetrating fmell of horfe-
raddifh, or roafted bitter almonds, of an acid and bitter
tafte, and of a yellowifh-red colour. He reftified it from
clay; the acid pafled clear with a mild fmell and a fourer
tafte. The acid, thus purified, did 110c cryftalbze; but,
when expofed to cold, the aqueous part froze, and the
portion which remained liquid was much more concen¬
trated. Morveau obferved, in preparing the pyro-mucous
acid by the diftillation. of fugar, that the bottom of the
retort was corroded. He does not attribute this corrofion
to the acid, which exhibits not that property when rec¬
tified, or when left a long time in the glafs, but to the
aftion and adherence of the carbure of iron, which exifts
in the relidual charcoal left by the fugar, and which he
had heated very ftrongiy. Tnis acid cannot be concen¬
trated by the volatilization of the water which is united
to it, becaute it is itielf as volatile as that fluid. It is
this acid which exifts in melalfes, and according to Mor-
veau.
C H E M I
veau, renders them deliquefcent, and prevents their crys¬
tallization.
The pyro-mucous acid, when eoncentrated by freez¬
ing, is very penetrating, and ftrongly reddens blue ve¬
getable colours. It fpots the fki n of a reddilh yellow
colour; and this fpot does not difappear but with the epi¬
dermis. It rifes totally by the fire, and leaves only .a
brown trace ; it.is changed, for the molt part, into gafe-
ous carbonic acid and hydrogen gas, by cautious diftil-
lation in well-cloled veflels ; it then affords a coaly refi-
due, more abundant than when it is heated in open vef-
fels : part rifes without alteration. Combined with ba¬
rytes, magnefia, lime, potafh, foda, and ammoniac, it
forms neutral falts, which we call pyro-mucits, whofe pro¬
perties have hitherto been little examined, but which
differ from all the known falts. It difengages the car¬
bonic acid from all thefe alkaline bafes with a ftrong ef¬
fervescence.
Though the property of diffolving gold was formerly
attributed to the fpirit of honey, it appears certain that
the pyromucous acid does not touch this metal, nor pla-
tina, nor filver, nor even mercury ; but it may, perhaps,
dilfolve their oxyds. This acid corrodes lead* and be¬
comes opake in confequence of the oxyd of this metal
which is formed; the pyro-mucit of lead has the form
of long cryfials : it likewife attacks copper, and becomes
green; it diffolves tin, and attacks iron, with which it
forms a cryftallizable fait.
Its chemical attractions have been determined by Mor-
veau in the following order : Potafh, l'oda, byrytes, lime,
magnefia, ammoniac, alumine, metallic oxyds, water,
alcohol.
This empyreumatic ar id has not yet been much appli¬
ed to ule. The fpirit of honey, of manna, &c. was for¬
merly ufed in pharmacy, but this ul'age has long fince
been abandoned The acid obtained by the diftillation of
melafles is ufed in l'ome manufactories.
Of the LIGNOUS MATTER.
This name is given to a fubftance whofe properties
agree not with any of the matters hitherto examined.
From this definition, it will appear to be the fkeleton or
laft remains of vegetable fublrances. By diltiiiing wood,
we find diftinCt products, as, a particular acid, an oil, and
fome carbonated hydrogen gas. The coal which remains
in the retort is very confiderable ; io that it may be faid
that wood owes its hardnefs and other properties to the
confiderable portion of carbon it contains.
If lignous bodies treated with acids, which difunite
their principles, they will be changed into vegetable
acids which differ from each other only by the proportion
of thofe principles.
PYRO-LIGNOUS ACID.
For obtaining this acid, Guyton direCts to diftil in an
Iron retort, in the reverberatory furnace, little bits of
very dry beech ; to change the receiver when the oil has
rifen ; and to reCtify the prcduCt by afecond diftillation.
The chemifts of Dijon found that fifty-five ounces of this
wood in dry chips afforded feventeen ounces of rectified
acid, of an amber colour, without mixture of oil, and
whofe weight, compared with that of diftilled water, was
in the proportion of forty-nine to forty-eight: 23A ounces
of lime water were required to faturate one ounce of this
acid. When gently heated, it rifes in vapour. A ltrong
heat decompoles it, as well as all the other vegetable
acids. It cannot be obtained in the concrete form, it is
always liquid.
It combines with earthy and alkaline bales, and forms
peculiar falts, which we call the pyro-lignit s of alumine, of
barytes, of magnefia. of lime, of potafh, of foda, and of
ammoniac. Thefe falts have not been yet examined with
fufficient attention to enable us to give a fketch of their
hiftory. Calcareous earths and barytes adhere more
ftrongly to it than the alkalis 5 lime more ftrongly than
S T R Y. 331
barytes ; and magnefia mere flrongly than ammoniac :
fo that the order of thefe attractions alone might ferveto
diftinguifh it from rhoft'of the other vegetable acids. It
aCts on feveral metals, and dilfolves molt of their oxyds.
It feems as if all woods would afford the fame acid by
diftillation, fince box, birch, and beach, have already
afforded a fimilar one. We perceive, however, that a
number of experiments remain to be made to complete
cur knowledge of the properties and diftinCtive characters
of this acid.
The fourth genus of vegetable acids, contains fuch as
are obtained by fermentation, as the acetous acid, &c.
which we fhall examine in fpeaking of the products of
fermentation.
The fifth, comprehends vegetable acids formed by the
nitric acid. There are four lpecies: 1. The oxalic acid,
which is obtained from fugar by nitric acid, for the man¬
ner of operating, fee Oxalic Acid, p.32.9. a. Camphoric
acid, of which we fhall ipeak under Camphor. 3. Suberic
acid, which fee under the feCtion on Cork. 4. Saccho-
laCtic acid, which we fhall make known when we come
to treat of Milk.
Of CORK, and the SUBERIC ACID,
Before Brugnatelli, no accurate experiment had been
made upon cork. Several modern chemifts fuppofed that
the acid he obtained from it was oxalic acid. But La
Grange has fet the matter in a new light, by his experi¬
ments and obf'ervations printed in the twenty-third vol.
of the Annales de Chimie, from which this account is
abridged.
For obtaining the acid of cork, which he calls fuberic
acid, from fiber, coik, fix parts of nitric acid at 30° are
to be diftilled by a gentle fire, with one part of the rafp-
ings of cork; nitrous vapours are dil'engaged, the cork
fwells and affumes a yellow colour ; and, in proportion
as the diftillation advances, it finks. When the froth,
which is formed, ceafes to appear n the lurface of the
liquor, the acid which had paffed over into the receiver
is to be returned into the retort, and the diftillation re¬
peated till no more red vapours are produced. The retort
is then to be taken from the fand-bath, and, while it is
Hill warm, its contents are to be poured into a glafs or
porcelain cup, which is placed on a fand-bath, and ex-
pofed to a very gentle heat. The mixture, which is to be
conftantly ltirred with a glafs rod, gradually thickens ;
and, as foon as white vapours are obferved to be difengag-
ed, the mixture is to be removed from the fand-bath, and
ftirred carefully till it cools. During the diftillation of
one drachm of cork with fix of nitric acid, 1 13-63 inches
of gas were difengaged ; of this forty cubic inches were
carbonic acid, and the reft: nitrous gas. The yellow fa-
line mafs is now to be mixed with twice its weight of
water, melted with a gentle heat and filtered. The liquor
which pafles through the filtre, is of a clear amber colour,
and has a peculiar fmell fomewliat fimilar to that of
Prufiic acid. It becomes muddy by cooling, is covered
with a faline pellicle, and depofits a pulverulent fediment.
The precipitate is to be collefted and dried with a
gentle heat, (not more than 300 of Reaumur,) and the
liquor evaporated till the acid which it contains be all
depolited. This acid is obtained by precipitation in a
pulverulent form, and by evaporation in thin irregular
pellicles. Difiolved in a fmall quantity of boiling water,
it llimulates the throafand excites coughing. The acid
obtained by this procefs is always coloured; hut it may
be purified, 1. By faturating the fuberic acid with potafh,
bringing the combination to the confidence of a fyrup,
and then precipitating by an acid. 2. Boiling the acid
with charcoal. The part not foiuble in water is a fub¬
ftance fimilar to wax.
The fuberic acid is in a folid form, not cryftallizable j
it is obtained in powder by precipitation, and by evapo¬
ration in thin irregular pellicles. Its tafte is fome what
bitter, and acid. It reddens blue vegetable colours, and
attracts
332 C H E M
attra&s humidity from the air, particularly when impure.
It becomes brown by expofure to light. Heat volatilizes
it. By expoflng it to the blow-pipe, this acid emits the
fmell of the febacic acid. When very pure, an ounce of
water dill'olves only four grains of fuberic acid. Boiling
water diflolves nearly half its own weight, which it de-
polites again by cooling. The other acids have little
aftion on this acid. A kind of ether may be obtained
from it by diddling it with alcohol. It decompofes the
acetit and nitrat of lead, and gives a green colour to the
nitrat of copper. It decompofes alfo the nitrats of mer¬
cury and filver, together with the lulphats of copper,
iron, and zink. A few' drops of fuberic acid poured into
a folution of indigo by fulphuric acid, gives a green co¬
lour. The fuberic acid unites very well with earths and
alkalis, and feveral metallic oxyds. Thefe combinations
are called fuberats.
Suberat of Potash. — For this preparation it is ne-
ceffary to ufe carbonat of potafli in cryftals ; for, with
the potafli of commerce, or caultic potafh, the refuits
would not be the fame, becaufe the one is not pure, and
the other afts upon the acid, and begets a very dark co¬
lour. In the fame manner, for the fuberats of foda and
ammoniac, it will be necefiary to ufe the cryftallized car-
bonats. When at the point of faturation-, evaporate the
liquor, in a gentle heat, to the confidence of a clear fy-
rup; and by cooling it forms prifms w'ith four unequal
fides. It has a bitter faltifli tade, and reddens blue ve¬
getable colours a little. It fwells with heat, and parts
readily with its acid. It is very foluble in w'ater. Su-
berat of potafli is decompofed by barytes, and by the
mineral acids. All the metallic dilutions are decompofed
by this fait. It decompofes alfo the fulphat of alumine,
the muriatsof alumine and lime, the nitrats of lime and
of alumine, and the pholphat of alumine.
Suberat of Soda is not obtained in a crydallized
date : it has a flightly bitter tade, reddens tindture of
turnfole, and attradls humidity from the air. It is folu¬
ble in alcohol, and is decompofed by the fire, by barytes,
and by potalh. Mineral acids precipitate the fuberic
acid. Suberat of foda decompofes calcareous, magnefian,
and aluminous falts.
Suberat of Ammoniac has a faltilh tade, w'hich at
lad becomes bitter. It attracts humidity from the air,
and reddens blue vegetable colours. It is volatilized
without any remainder by an intenfe heat; water diflolves
it readily. Barytes, the fixed alkalis, and lime, decom-
pofe it, as do alfo the mineral and oxalic acids. It de¬
compofes the aluminous and magnefian falts.
Suberat ofBarytes is not crydallizable. It fwells
and melts by the adlion of heat, and is foluble in water,
with an excefs of acid. It is not decompofed by alkalis,
but the mineral and oxalic acids take from it its bafis.
It decompofes all the falts, except the fluat oT lime and
barytic falts.
Suberat of Lime does not cryftallize. It has a white
colour, a flightly faltifli tafte, and does not redden the
tinfture of turnfole. It fwells on burning charcoal,
while its acid is difengaged. Suberat of lime is more
foluble in warm than in cold water. Barytes, potafli, and
foda, precipitate the lime. It is decompofed by the mi¬
neral and by the oxalic acids. It decompofes the carbo¬
nat of potafli and foda, the fluat of magnefia, the pliof-
phat of alumine and foda, together with the borat of
potafli.
Suberat of Magnesia reddens tindlure of turnfole,
has a bitter talle, is foluble in water, and attracts humi¬
dity from the air. It exilts in a pulverulent form. It
fwells and melts by heat. Its acid is decompofed by the
blow-pipe. Barytes, alkalis, and lime, decompofe this
fait, as do alfo the mineral and oxalic acid. It decom¬
pofes the muriat of alumine, the nitrats oflime and alu¬
mine, the borat of potafli, the fluat of foda, the borat
of ioda, and the phofpliat of alumine.
Suberat of Alumine reddens tindlure of turnfole.
z
I S T R Y.
It attracts humidity .from the air, and is decompofed by
an intenfe heat. The other earths, the alkalis, and mi¬
neral acids, decompofe it. It decompofes the fulphat and
muriat of iron, the nitrats of filver, mercury, and lead.
The fuberic acid has no adtion on platina, gold, and
nickel, but it forms metallic fuberats with oxyds of fil¬
ver, mercury, lead, copper, tin, iron, bifinuth, arfenic,
cobalt, antimony, manganefe, and molybdena. In ge¬
neral, thefe falts do not cryftallize, and have all an excefs
of acid.
CICERIC ACID.
Prouft firft mentioned the exiftence of an acid liquor
on the ltalks; leaves, and pods, of the pea vetch, or the
cicer arietinum of Linnseus. When wafhed and bruifed,
this plant did not exhibit any mark of acidity. Prouft
conceived that it was merely an acidifiable bafe which
exuded from the plant, and which was afterwards con¬
verted into an acid by combining with the oxygen of the
atmofphere. Deyeux, who colledted this acid liquor,
feems inclined to think that the hairs which cover this
plant aretheexcretcry organs, in which this acid is formed.
From fome experiments which he made with a view to dif-
cover the nature of the acid, he concludes it to be the
fame with the oxalic, and confiders this plant as the only
inftance in which pure uncombined oxalic acid is pro¬
duced. Dif’pan, however, who had made a great variety
of experiments on this acid, is of opinion, that it differs
not only from the oxalic, but from every known acid.
He colledled the acid liquor by wiping the plant with a
clean linen cloth, and by wafhing the cloth in diftilled
water, to which it imparts the acid. When the water
has acquired a tafte fufliciently acidulous, it is to be fil¬
tered, and evaporated with a gentle heat to the degree of
concentration required. This liquor, according to Dif-
pan, acquires by evaporation a colour which pafles gra¬
dually from a citron yellow to the colour of Malaga wine.
The following are the properties which this chemift
afcribes to the ciceric acid. i. It has a fliarp and pene¬
trating tafte. 2. It reddens the blue vegetable colours
which are fenfible to acids. 3. It effervefces with akaiine
and calcareous carbonats. 4. It does not form any de-
pofite or mouldinefs by age. 5. It preferves its colour
and tranfparency, but lofes fomewhat of its ftrength and
acidity. 6. It gives a beautiful red carmine colour.
7. It is precipitated by the gallic acid, and gives a beau¬
tiful green colour. 8. It forms a kind of fyrup by eva¬
poration, and does not cryftallize. 9. It becomes brown
and brittle like a gum by drying.
Ciceric acid forms with potafh a fait which cryftallizes
in bundles of Alining needles, turned fpirally and parallel
to each other. The tafte of this fait is cooling, like that
of nitrat of potafh ; but it leaves behind it a laline fliarp
tafte. It dill’olves readily in water. It melts on burning
charcoal ; boils and fwells up confiderably. The carbo¬
naceous matter which it forms, leaves behind it fpongy
afhes, of a grey colour. With foda this acid forms a fait
which does not cryftallize, and which has an auftere tafte.
Its combination with ammoniac affords, by fpontaneous
evaporation, tranfparent filming cryftals, of which the
form has not yet been determined. A gentle heat de¬
compofes this fait by volatilizing the ammoniac. Lime
produces with this acid a foluble fait, which by a cauti-
oufly conduced evaporation, cryftallizes in very large
folid polyhedrons that have fome analogy with thofe of
fugar. At firlt this lalt feems to have little tafte, but at
the end of fome time it produces a faline tafte. It is re¬
duced to a dry and friable mafs by the heat of lighted char¬
coal. Carbonat of potafli and the oxalic acid decompofe it.
Magnefia f orms with this acid a fait, which cryftallizes in
white grains, the figure of which has not been determined.
It has a laline tafte, burns readily, and leaves behind it
a greyifh refidue.
The ciceric acid diflolves iron filings with effervefcence.
This combination, which has a ftyptic tafte, does not
cryftallize.
C H E M I
cryftalHzc, but it affords a cruft by evaporation that is
deliquescent. Lime and alkalis decorapofe this fait, and
precipitate the iron of a green i(h blue colour, which foon
becomes yellow. From thefe experiments Difpan con¬
cludes that the'ciceric acid is of a peculiar nature, diffe¬
rent from all other vegetable acids ; but it teems to be
(till undetermined whether the acid liquor exuding from
the pea vetches contains two different acids, or if the ci-
ceric is a modification of the oxalic acid.
Of FIXED OILS.
Oil was long regarded as a fimple fubftance ; but it is
now demonftrated, by the ufeful experiments of Lavoilier,
tharit is a fubftance effentially compofed of carbon and
hydrogen, differing only from the firft products of vege¬
tation by a greater proportion of hydrogen, and a more
intimate combination. Oil in vegetables is an inflam¬
mable body, which is fufficient to diftinguifh it from the
preceding fubftances. It is infoluble in water, which
is a fecond diitindiioh. Oil gives out much water in
burning, and fome carbonic acid; more water is formed
than there was originally of oil : this exhibits a third
diitinguifhing mark. Thus it is manifeft that oil is com-
pofed of carbon, hydrogen, and a fmall quantity of
oxygen.
Oils are diftinguiflied in general into two cla'fles : The
firft are called fat oils, fweet oils, J expreffed oils, and by
chemifts fixed oils. The fecond were formerly called ef-
fential oils, and are now named volatile oils. Ail the fixed
oils have a mild infipid tafte ; they ftick to the tides of
veffels, which has occafioned them to be called fat oils.
They are not emitted from the furface oi vegetables, but
are contained in the kernels, the pippins, and emulfive
feeds. They are extracted by breaking the cellules in
which they are enclofed; th.it is to fay, by pounding and
preffure. It is obfervable, that feeds with a Angle cotyle¬
don or lobe, do not contain oil, but much fecula ; but
the two-lobed, &c. contain oil ; and in general ail feeds
which make an emuHion with water.
There are three genera of fixed oils. i. Pure fixed oils,
fat, congealing, which do not take fire with nitric acid.
Such are the oil of olives, of fweet almonds, and of a
kind of cabbage called cole, (generally named rape-oil,)
and of the ben-nut from Egypt and Arabia.' The mode
of extracting oil of almonds, may ferve as an example
for the reft. Take the fweet almonds, new and well
dried in the air ; rub them in a' clean rough cloth, to
carry off that reddifh-yellow powder which lies on their
furface; bruife them in a marble mortar, or crulh them
between millftones, to reduce them to a pulp ; fliape this
pulp into a flattened ball or cake, which wrap as tight
as poftible in a piece of ticking ; then put it in the prefs.
Fourcroy direfts it to be preffed in lacks piade of ruffes.
The oil paffes through the iriterfticesof the cloth, by ex-
preffion, into a veflfel beneath. The parenchyma remains
on the cloth ; this is called the mace, and is fometimes
rnoiftened with water, and preffed again p but this pro¬
duces an oil lefs pure, which depofits a fediment: the firft
is called -virgin oil. 2. Drying oils, which do not congeal,
'are afted upon by nitric acid, and become dry by expo-
fiure to the air. Such are, the oil of linfeed, of nuts, of
pinks, &c. 3. Concrete oils and vegetable butters. The
diftinflive character of thefe is to become folid as foon
as extradfed, Lefs oxygen is required for the combuftion
of concrete oils than others, becaufe they have more in
their compofition. This Berthollet has proved very
clearly. He boiled fome oil of the firft and fecond kind
upon copper, and compared it wfith the third fort. The
copper in the iaft operation was oxydated green, but no
oxyd was formed with the two firft genera of oiis.
Oils of this nature are, butter of cocoa, of the croton
febiferum, wax of Louifiana, and of the gall in China.
For an example, we (hall give the mode of extracting the
butter of cocoa. Several methods are in uie for this pur-
pofe ; but the two following are moil deferving of at-
Vol. IV. No. 200.
S T R y. 333
tention. 1. Machy’s procefs, from the Journal de Phnr-
macie, p. 56. Four fpeciesof cocoaare diftinguiflied, the
large and fmall Caracca, the Berbice, and that of the
iflands. The latter is ufed in this procefs : let it be as
frefh as poftible; rub it in a rough cloth to cleanfe the
furface; bruife it, both bark and leeds, ar.d put it into
a hair- cloth; fpread the powder or dull upon another
hair-cloth fomewhat finer. Place it over the fire in an open
vefiel containinga little water; over the hair-cloth lay the
ticking which is to be ufed in exprefling the butter, and
fome linen rags, to confine the vapours of the water
when it begins to boil : thele vapours uniformly pene¬
trate the powdered cocoa; then put the plates of the
prefs into boiling water; makeup the cakes in the ticking;
then take out the prefling -plates and dry them; put the
cakes of cocoa between the plates, and let the prefs to
work; the butter runs immediately. Sixteen parts of
cocoa yield five or fix parts of butter.
2. Jofle’s method, as defciibed by La Grange. Dry
the cocoa (lightly by the fire, and pick it very clean ;
pound it in a mill, and afterwards on a ilone. When,
brought to a pafte, heat it gently, and mix three
parts of boiling water with fixteen of the pafte. Tire
mixture then takes a firmer confidence; wrap it , in
ticking, and put it in the p,refs between two vyarin
plates of iron. The product, this way, is (even or
eight parts in fixteen, if the preffure has been even
and ftrong. But, as this mode of expreflion draws out
fome of the colouring matter, it requires purifying.
For this purpofe, Jofle provided a tin funnel, lbldered into
a copper vefiel forming a fand-bath ; this vefiel, has a hole
in the bottom to let through the tube of the funnel,
which is lengthened fo as to go into the neck of a bottle.
Place this apparatus in a furnace, put a filtreof blotting-
paper into the funnel, and pour on the butter of cocoa
which is to be purified ; then put water into the copper
vefiel, and keep it hot enough to prefefive the butter in a
fluid (late, lb as to pats eafily through the (litre. Twelve
or thirteen pounds of butter of cocoa may thus be puri¬
fied in about three hours time.
In examining the chemical qualities of fixed oils, we
(hall choofp,, as an example, the oil of olives, for the pro¬
perties of all the others are nearly the fame. By dilfillation
in a retort, with the pneumatic apparatus, it affords an
acid phlegm of a penetrating fined, a light oil, a denfer
oil, and a large quantity of hydrogen gas mixed with
carbonic acid. The quantity of refidual coal is not
abundant, and contains no alkali. By re-diftilling thefe,
(ebacic acid, and an oil which becomes lighter each time,
are obtained. This. is. known by the name of pbilofopbical
oil ; the alchemifts prepared it by diltilling, for feveral
fucceffive times, a fixed oil, with which they had impreg¬
nated a brick. It is not exa&iy known bow far this de-
compofition may be. carried, though it is faid that fixed
oil may tins way be reduced into the difengaged inflam¬
mable principle, water, acid, air, and earth. It may
be deprived of its colouring matter by diftillation over
fand or clay. Expofed to the air, it eafily combines with
oxygen ; it is changed, becomes thicker, and rancid.
To prove this, by way of experiment, put water in a
veffcl, and cover the furface with oil. If oii be put into
a bottle, and oxygen gas be introduced, the effeCl is
quicker ; the oxygen is prefently ablorbed.
When the combination of pure air is favoured by the
volatilizing of the oil, then there is an inflammation or
combuftion. To make this combination a6t, the oil
mult be volatilized by the application of fome hot lub-
ftance; the flame thus produced is capable of fuftaining
"the degree of volatility and of maintaining combuftion;
and, if a current of air be kept up in the middle of the
wick and the flame, the great quantity of oxygen occa-
fions a more rapid combuftion, and a (Longer heat j
lienee the light is brighter, and there is no longer any
fmoke, for the finoke is burnt and deftroyed by the great
heat. This is the principle of Argand's lamp.
Oils
234 C H E M I
Oils which contain mucilage, extractive bodies, &c.
are generally coloured: they may be purified by water
only, which feizes on the mucilage, &c. The water (hould
be ftrongly agitated.; or it may even be (lightly heated.
If water be thrown on burning oil, it caufes it to give a
ftronger flame, and a fudden detonation takes place, pro¬
ceeding from the decomposition ot the water, which af-
fords oxygen to the oil, and allows much hydrogen gas
to efcape ; tome carbonic acid is formed alfo.
Sulphur unites with oil, forming fulphure of oil, or
rubies of fulphur, or balfam of fulpbur. Boil fublimed
fulphur with four times its weight of oil of olives,, till
the folution has acquired a dark-red colour. When the
oil is well (aturated, the fulphur will be obtained in a
regular form, and is precipitated in cryltals by cooling.
By diftilling this combination, fulphurated hydrogen gas
•will be obtained.
Oil diflblves phofphorus; by this means Pelletier ob¬
tained it in cryltals. It is fuppofed that fulphurated
and carbonated hydrogen a6t upon oils alio. Charcoal
has the property of clarifying or whitening oil ; boil the
•oil over charcoal; after a flight ebullition, pafs the oil
through a cloth, or. filter it ; the oil thus obtained is very
clear, and makes no depofit.
Fixed oils do not appear capable of uniting with pure
metallic fubllances, excepting copper and iron, on which
they have a conliderable action. But they combine with
metallic oxyds., and form thick concrete combinations,
of afoapy appearance, as may be obferved in the prepara¬
tion of unguents and plaifters. In docimaftic operations,
fixed oils are ufed to reduce metallic oxyds. Berthollet
defcribes an ingenious and Ample proceis for immediate¬
ly combining a fixed oil with any metallic oxyd, in the
iaponaceous form. It conlifts in pouring a folution of
foap into a metallic folution ; the acid of the latter feizes
the fixed alkali of the foap, and the metallic oxyd is pre¬
cipitated in combination with the oil, to which it com¬
municates its colour. In this manner a beautiful green
foap is formed with fulphat of copper, and a brown foap
with fulphat of iron ; thefe compounds may perhaps be
ufeful in painting. Scheele has difcovered, that by
•combining oil of fweet almonds, of olives, of rape, or
of linfeed, with half the quantity of the oxyd of lead,
and adding a fmall quantity of water to the mixture, a
fubftance is feparated, which he calls the fiveet principle.
By evaporating the water, this principle is obtained, of
the confidence of fyrup. By a ftrong heat it takes fire ;
part is volatilized in the diflillation without burning ;
the refidual coal is very light. The fweet principle does
not cryftallize, nor does it appear fulceptible of fermen¬
tation ; nitric acid, diddled four times from it, produces
oxalic acid. This principle appears to be a kind of
mucilage. Scheele imagined that it might be decompo-
ed by repeated diflillation. When the oil or fat is frefli,
thefulphuric acid finds no appearance of the oxyd of lead,
and the liquor does not grow thick. If the oil be dale and
rancid, oxyd of lead is difcovered, which is precipitated by
the fulphuricacid. Its diflillation requires the fame heat as
, for the fulphuric acid ; part of the lweet principle pafiesover
undecompofed, in form of a thick fyrup, preserving
its tafle ; it then becomes empyreumatic ; then a brown
oil rites.; and a light friable coal remains in the retort,
which contains no lead. The fweet principle mixes with
.alcohol, and is precipitated with it in the gelatinous form.
The preparations called oinlinents or plaijfers, may be
made by combining fixed oils with metallic oxyds.
Take three parts of the l'emi-vitreous oxyd of lead, fix
parts of oil of olives, and fix parts of water ; put thefe
into a copper vefiel, over a fire which will keep up a mo¬
derate ebullition ; ftirthe mixture without ceafing, with
a wooden fpatula, till the mafs becomes of a white colour,
and has acquired the confidence of a foftilh ointment.
Take care to add warm water from time to time, as that
in the vefiel evaporates, that the ointment may never be
dry. When the ointment is of a proper confidence, take
S T R Y.
the vefiel off the fire, let it cool, then pour the matter into
cold water to form it. into a mafs.
Acids a£t more readily upon fixed oils than do the me¬
tallic oxyds. Achard, Cornette, and Macquer, have
made experiments refpefiting thefe compounds. Achard
added concentrated fulphuric acid, by fmall portions, to
fixed oil. This mixture, being continually triturated, be¬
comes at length converted into a brown mafs, foluble in
water and alcohol. The concentrated fulphuric acid ren¬
ders fixed oils black, and caufes them to refemble bitu¬
mens. This phenomenon appears to arife from the re¬
action of the hydrogen of the oil on the oxygen of this-
acid.
Weak nitric acid a£ts upon oil by yielding a portion
of its oxygen ; in which cafe the oil thickens, and takes
the form of fat. But if the acid be concentrated, and
aflifted by heat, then there is inflammation, particularly
with the drying oils. The muriatic and carbonic acids
aCt but weakly on fixed oils ; the former, however, in a
concentrated flate, combines with them to a certain de¬
gree, according to Cornette. The oxygenated muriatic
acid thickens them much and appears, by the abforption
of its oxygen, to convert them into a lubflance nearly re-
fembling wax. This affinity of oil for oxygen occafions
the aftion of oils in the revivification of metals.
Barytes, lime, ftrontian, magneiia, and alkalis in ge¬
neral, unite with oils, and form what is called foap. The
earthy foaps are eafily produced by the aftion of double
affinity. For this purpofe, pour into a folution of foap a
nitric folution of bar :es, lime, or ftrontian ; the acid
unites with the alkali or the foap, and the earthy lubflance
is precipitated with the oil.
Soaps prepared with alkalis are more or lefs folid or
hard; with potalh they are generally foft; thofe with
foda are therefore preferred. To make the amygdaline
foap, firft prepare lbme cauftic loda : Boil one part of
good Alicant ioda.and two parts of quicklime,1 in a fuf-
ficient quantity of water, filtre the liquor through a
cloth, and then evaporate, till a phial which would con¬
tain eight parts of clear water may contain eleven parts
of this liquid, which is now called foap-lye. Mix in a
glazed pan one part of this foap-lye with two parts of the
oil of fweet almonds ; let this digeft in a heat that will
juft keep it fimmering ; continue the coftion, ftirrjng it
gently with a piece of wood, till, by dropping fome of
the mixture on a fmoctli (tone, it appears that the foap
coagulates, and that the water runs from it. Takeout
the foap before it get's cold, and run it into moulds.
This l'oap may be prepared alfo without heat, by mix¬
ing the oil and the foap-lye in the proportions belt fuited
to the purpofe, which proportions cannot be exactly let
down unlefs the alkali could be always at the fame point
of concentration ; it mu ft therefore be added by degrees,
till the matter becomes of a folid confidence, or rather till
the combination is complete ; finiffi the operation by
ftirring the mixture well, and then leave it to fettle in a
cool place. In the arts, they ufe oil of olives, of nuts,
of rape-ieed, fat, fifh-oil, and even animal fubllances, as
wool, cuttings of cloth, &c. Chaptal prepared foap with
fuch matters ; we fliall lpeak of them when we come to
treat of animal fubllances.
Coloured foaps are made alfo; in which cafe the ma¬
terials are foda, fulphat of copper, cinnabar, &c. accord¬
ing to the colour required. In the union of oil with al¬
kali in the cold, there is a difengagement of caloric. In
general the drying oils, or thofe of the fecond genus, do
•not make fuch good foaps as thofe of the firft and third.
What caufes the thickening of the foaps, is, firft the tem-
peratuie; and fecondly becaule the alkalis have more af¬
finity with oil than they have with water; befid.es; this,
there is an abforption of oxygen during ikponification,
that is, the oil beqomes concrete by ablorbing oxygen.
Soaps Ihould have a lweet or infipid talte. Soaps, if pro¬
perly made, are all foluble in water; the folution Is always
thick and opaque, even when filtered. Diftilled in a re¬
torts
C H E M
tort, with the pneumatic apparatus, the produdts are
water, oil, and ammoniac; the coal contains a good
deal of fixed alkali. Lime-water, and all the earthy
and metallic falts, decompofe foap. Alcohol difiblves it
alio with the afiiltance of a little heat, and forms ejjence of
foap, which is to be fweetened with a volatile oil.
A foap is prepared with ammoniac, known by the name
of volatile liniment, or animal foap. Mix oil of fweet al¬
monds with one-fourth of its weight of ammoniac, in a
wide-necked bottle, (haking it till the iubllances are per¬
fectly united.
Oil combines with fugar, forming a kind of foap, mix¬
ing eafily with water, and kept in ful'penfion. The tri¬
turation of almonds with fugar and water makes almotid-
milk, orgeat, and other emullions.
VOLATILE OILS.
Volatile or eflential oils differ from fixed oils by the
following characters : Their fmell is llrong and aromatic;
their volatility is fuch, that they rife with the heat of
boiling water ; and their tafte is very acrid. They are
-likewile much more combuftible than the fixed oils. Thefe
oils thicken into refills by contadl with oxygen, congeal
in a great degree of cold, and furnifli little laline cryltals
of a camphorated fmell ; they combine more difficultly
with alkalis.
Thefe oils are the lefs plentiful, not being fo generally
diftributed through the vegetable fyltem ; they exift only
in the fweet-fmelling plants, fometimes in the leaves, at
other times in the roots, the flowers, or the outer rind of
the fruit, and fometimes, though rarely* in the whole
fubftance of the plant. Some are concrete, others always
liquid ; they vary alfo in colour.
The following are the parts of vegetables in which vo¬
latile oils are contained : In iris, difitamnum, kidney-
wort, See. the root. Sandal, faflafras, rhodium, &c. the
ftem. Cinnamon, caflia lignea, winteranus, &c. the bark.
Peppermint, rofemary, thyme, balm, wormwood, & c.
the leaves. Rofes, lavender, cloves, &c. the calyces of
the flowers. Camomile and orange-flowers, the petals.
Pepper, cubebs, juniper-berries, See. th e fruits. Nutmeg,
anife, fennel, and molt umbelliferous plants, in the feeds.
The concrete oils are thofe from rofes, parfley, elecam¬
pane, kidney-wort, and ftar-wort.
The following are the diltinCtions of volatile oils with
refpeCt to colour, r. Yellow, as from lavender. 2. Brown,
from cinnamon and cloves. 3. Blue, from camomile.
4. Sea-green, from St. John’s wort. 5. Green, as from
parfley. Heavy oils, finking in water, are thole of iafla-
firas and cloves.
The volatile oils, which are drawn out by expreffion,
are thole contained in viiible cells, as in lemons, oranges,
cedra, and bergamot ; by merely prefling the rind o'f the
fruit, the oii runs out. Or they may be grated, by which
means, the rind being torn, the oil drops into the veil'd
beneath. Having thus rai'ped a certain quantity of fruit,
colled the rind, which will be like a pulp ; prefs this be¬
tween two plates of glafs to extract the volatile oil. This
oil depolits the impurities it carried along with it, and
clarifies, if left to itfelf at relt.
By diftiilation, the molt ufual and the belt method is
to take the plant in the time of its greatell Itrength, and
when its odour is the ltrongeft, and to choofe luch part
of the plant as exhales the llrongell fmell. Put it into
the cucurbit of an alembic without a balnaeum marise 5
add water enough to l'oak the plant fufficiently, and to
keep it from touching the bottom of the cucurbit. A
peculiar kind of receiver is to be adapted, called the Flo¬
rentine receiver. This vefiel lets out the excels of water
by an opening on its belly lomewhat below the neck, by
which means the oil is collected in the neck, and cannot
efcape. Urge the fire fuddenly to the heat necelfary to
make the water boil. The water in this dillillation rifes
much loaded with the fmell of the plant, and carries with
it all its volatile oil. This water, when at the tempera-
I S T R Y. 335
ture of 8o°, is clear and tranfparenf j but, at a few de¬
grees below, the diifolved volatile oil begins to leparate,
rendering it turbid and fomewhat milky ; the water then
retains no more than is neceflary to give it the aromatic
odour which conftitutes diftilled venter, water charged vuith
refiifedfpirit ; the reft of theoiifloats on the furfape of the
water, or finks to the bottom, according to the fpecific
gravity of the oil. Continue the diftiilation till the water
begins to lock clear, oblerving to add water from time to
time, that the plant may always be covered.
There is ftill another mode of extracting volatile oils,
which is called diftiilation per defeenfum, and was per¬
formed by applying the fire over the plant 5 it was more
particularly uled in extracting oil of cloves; but this
kind of diftiilation, as wre have already remarked, in
p. 192, is now entirely difufed.
Volatile oils lofe their fmell by heat; as they are very
volatile, fire alone does not decompofe them. When
heated in dole veflels, a large quantity of hydrogen is
dilengaged. When heated with contact of air, they quick¬
ly take fire, and emit a very thick fume, which becomes
condenfed into a fine and light coaly matter : they leave
very little fixed coal after their inflammation ; becaufe
they are fo volatile, that the coaly matter is formed in
the part which is volatilized. By expofure to the air
they become thick, and in procefs of time aflame the
character of refin. Needle-formed cryftals aredepofited j
but thefe have not, as fome have pretended, properties an¬
alogous to camphor ; thefe concretions feem to approach
to the nature of refins, and to contain an acid fait fimilar
in its properties to the flowers of benzoin. Deyeux and
Vauquelin difeovered the properties of the benzoin acid,
in the concretions depofited in the water of canella, fo
early as the year 1792.
Volatile oil, by being long kept in a bottle, will be
partly decompofed ; water will be collected at the bottom
of the bottle ; large cryftals alfo are formed, which ap¬
pear to be oxalic acid ; laftly, a part of the oil remains
undecompofed. Prouft feems to have been among the
firft who examined accurately the cryftalline ramifica¬
tions which fometimes form in eflential oils. By evapo¬
rating thefe oils in the open air, at a temperature vary¬
ing from — 6° to +10 of Reaumur, he obtained cryftals,
which he conceived to be camphor.
In every eflential oil, according to Prouft, there are
two fubftances which have a tendency to combine with
oxygen ; one, the radical of a refill, the other the radical
of an acid. The relinous radical feems to have the
ftrongeft affinity ; the acid bafe operates only through
along period of time. Thefe oils cannot be often ex-
pofed to the air, nor diftilled repeatedly, without'exhi-
biting fome mark of acidity. Prouft attributes the con-
verfion of thele fubftances into refins to the abforption
of atmofpherical oxgen. An. de Chem. tom. iv. p. 179.
Margueron remarks, that fome of the volatile oils af-
fume the concrete ftate in a temperature about 8° above
the freezing point of water; while others, again, retain
their fluidity far below that point. This chenuft oblerved
carefully the phenomena which take place, by expofing
thefe oils in (mall flalks to a temperature ol n° below
freezing. In the upper and internal part of the flalks,
ramifications were to be perceived, fimilar to thofe which
are formed on the glafs panes of windows during an in-
tenfe froft. The oil of bergamotte, during its expofure
to this cold, exhibited in its fubftance a quantity of linall
elliptic laminae ; that of citrons had depolited linall cryf¬
tals ; the oil of oranges was the leaft fluid ; and that of
canella alba was partly congealed. By expofing thefe
oils for two hours to an artificial cold of — 21°, iome of
the corks were driven out of the flalks by the formation
and fudden expanfion of an elaftic fluid, and the upper-
part of the flalks were at the fame time covered with nu¬
merous faline, cryftallized, dendritual, ramifications.
The inferior furface of the flalk, containing the volatile
oil of peppermint, was covered with fmall needles, which
were
336 CHE M I
were white, and melted readily between the fingers. Ap¬
plied to the tongue, they produced the frefii and pene¬
trating tafte of the oil. Their folution in alcohol became
white by the addition of water. The oil in the flalk had
acquired a kind of fluggiih fluidity ; its fmeil was lefs
lively, and its colour deeper than formerly. It was fth
luble in alcohol, and had loft a portion of its weight.
Ramifications were formed in the upper part of the
fiafk, containing the oil of oranges. In uncorking the
flalk, a portion of an elaftic fluid efcaped; and this oil
exhibited the fame appearances with that of peppermint,
except that it was more deeply coloured, and had loll
its fluidity fo as to adhere to the flalk like oil of turpen¬
tine. Some particles were leparated from it by mixing it
with water, which remained conliantly at the bottom of
this fluid. Expofure to the artificial cold produced no
other effeft except giving rile to fqme cryftalline laminae
of an elliptic form. At 4.° belowzero it refumed its fluidity.
Volatile oil of lemons loft its fluidity by expofure to
cold, at the fame time that an amber-coloured liquor and
feveral {mail cryftals were feparated from it. The colour
and tafte of the oil had become lefs lively. The amber-
coloured liquor had an empyreumatic fmcll, a bitter and
{lightly acid tafte ; it was mifcib.le with, water, reddened
tincture of turnfole, and did not precipitate lime-water;
but it effervefced with carbonat of potalh. This liquor
was in the proportion of one 10th of the oil. The cryftals
had no very regular fliape ; they were inl'oluble in cold,
but melted in warm, water, and formed a pellicle on its
furface during refrigeration. They melted by heat, and
cryftallized again in the form oflmall needles by cooling;
they did not burn in a flame of a, candle. Diflblved in
alcohol, they gave a red tinge to tincture of turnfole.
Margueron varied thefe experiments, by putting lome
diftilled water into the flalk containing the oils, and
fubjeCting the mixtures to the temperature of n° below
freezing. During the moment the water palled to the
ftate of ice, feveral of the corks were forced out, and an
aromatic principle dilengaged. The flalk containing the
oil of peppermint was covered with a kind of capillary
vegetation ; the other oils exhibited nothing worthy of
being remarked. The a&ion of the cold on the oil of
peppermint, had heightened the colour of the oil, and
had weakened its fmeil ; the cryftalline needles feparated
from it were of a white colour, iiiky and brittle. They
bad the fmeil of peppermint applied to the tongue; they
bad a frefh and penetrating tafte. They did not take
fire with the flame of a candle, but melted, and aflumed
by cooling tranfparency and a f’ohd form. The folu-
tion of thele cryftals in water, gave, a red tinge to tinCtnre
of turnfole. The tranfparency of the alcoholic iblution
was not difturbed by the addition of water. From thele
.experiments Margueron concludes, that cold di fen gages
from volatile oils a part of their aroma, heightens their
colours, renders them of a thicker confidence, and fe-
parates from them concretions, home of which appear to
be of a faline nature.
Volatile or elfential oils unite with fulphur. Thefe
fompolitions are called balfams ; as, terebinthinuted balfam
of fulphur, and ani/ated baljam of fulphur. 1. For the tere-
binthinated balfam of fulphur, take two parts of.lhblimed
fulphur, commonlycalled flowers of fulphur, and-lix of oil
of turpentine ; mix them, andleave them in digeltion till
the oil is faturated with the fulphur. 2. For the anifated
balfam, the only difference is to add to the above ingre¬
dients, four parts of volatile oil of anileed ; let them tligeft
as before.
Volatile oils diflolve phofphorus. When the oil is
well faturated, cryftallized phofphorus is produced ; by
adding alcohol to the iblution, a precipitate is made,
which, feen through a magnifier, is an octahedron trun¬
cated at top and bottom, and fometimes lengthened out
at the fides fo as to appear an hexangular prifm. Vola¬
tile oils have alio the property of diflolving fulphurated
hydrogen gas. j.
S T R Y.
Water diflolves thefe oils, which produces -the aromatic
diJUlled waters. The modV of proceeding we have already
deferibed, in the diftillation of a plant for obtaining its
volatile oil. Fourcroy has proposed a very Ample and
cheap procefs : he directs to pcJur a few. drops of volatile
oil into a large quantity of water, to agitate the mixture,
and then let it fettle, to clarify the liquor, and feparate
the undifioived oil ; by this fimple operation, the water ,
is very aromatic, fometimes even more fo than what is
diftilled in large quantities from vegetables too much ex-
lvaufted of pil ; and the prccefs requires neither diftilla- .
tory apparatus, nor fire, nor lofes any time ; it may be
performed in any place and in all feafons ; large bottles,
or common calks, wilLanfwer the purpofe.
Waters called inodorous, are produced by diftilling
certain plants in balneum rnariae, without any other wa¬
ter ; they are weak, herbaceous, and of fmall duration.
The water which holds the extraCV, or odorant mucilage,
in Iblution, grows thick, is filled with mucous flocks, and
gives out a multy or mouldy fmeil : inch, are the eflen-
tial waters of borrage, lettuce, plantain, & c.
The acids have not all the lame ettefts upon volatile
oils. 1. The concentrated fulphuric acid thickens and
converts them into a kind of coal or bitumen ; if weak,
forms a kind of foap, crfa'vonule. 2. The nitric acid, if
concentrated, caufes them to burft into a flame; but, if
weak, it converts them by degrees into refins. 3. The mu¬
riatic acid makes them faponaceous ; the oxygenated
muriatic acid thickens them, and makes them refinous.
Volatile oils do not unite without difficulty with earth)f
fubftances and alkalis. The only combination of this kind
which is well known, is that of potafh with a volatile oil,
which is called favonulc , or Starkey's foap, from the name
of the perfon who firft tried it ; but his procefs is tedious
and imperfeCt. Other modes have been propofed by
Stahl, Roueile, Baume, Geoffrey, A chard, &c. but Pelle¬
tier’s lbcceeds the bell: Take equal parts of turpentine
and alkali of tartar ; triturate them together, and add by
degrees about one-fourth of the weight of the whole' of
carbonat of ammoniac.
Volatile oil unites with fugar. — If a bit of fugar be
rubbed againft the peel of a lemon, or an orange, it im¬
bibes volatile oil, and forms an oleo-faccharum, foluble
in water, and very proper for aromatizing certain liquors.
Thefe oils are uled as cordial, ftimulant, antilpafmodic.
See. remedies. Externally applied, they are powerfully
antifeptic, and ftop the progrefs of caries in the bones.
Of CAMPHOR.
Camphor is a volatile oil, rendered concrete by carbon.
This fubftance is obtained from a fpecies of laurel which
grows in China, Japan, and in the tilands of Borneo, Su¬
matra, Ceylon, Sec. The tree which produces it, fome¬
times contains fo large a quantity, that it need only be
cleft, in order to obtain very pure tears of camphor, of
confiderable fize. It is obtained alfo by diftillation. The
roots, or other-parts of the tree, are put into an alembic
with water, which is covered with a capital, containing
ropes of rice ftraw. On the application of a fufticient
heat, the camphor is 1'ublimed in fmall greyifh grains,
which are afterwards united into larger malTes. This
crude camphor is impure ; the Dutch purify it by fub-
limation, after previoufly adding an ounce oflime to each
pound of the camphor.
Camphor is much more volatile than the other eflentifil
oils, and fublimes with the molt gentle heat; it cryftal-
lizes in hexagonal laminae, attached to a middle ftenv
By a fudden heat it melts before it rifes. Its fmeil is
ftrong, and infupportable to lome peri'ons ; it takes fire
readily, burns rapidly with much l'moke, and leaves no
carbonaceous refidue. The camphorate principle exhi¬
bits iome very curious and interefting phenomena. Be¬
nedict Prevolt difeovered thefe in his experiments made
for the purpofe of exhibiting to the fight the emanations
of odorous bodies.
If
C H E M
If a bit of camphor be laid on glafs, or in a very clean
faucer, and j u it covered with pure water, the water will
immediately recede, and leave a dry circle round the
camphor. If a bit <?f camphor be put upon very pure
water, it will move about with great rapidity. If a fmall
drop of any liquid odorous body, or oil, be thrown on
the furface of the water, the motion ceafes immediately.
If drops be drawn from the furface of a glafs of water,
and dropped into the glafs where the bit of camphor is in
motion, at the 50th or 60th drop the motion ceafes; but
it continues, if the water be only touched with a bit of
metal well polifhed. If the bit of camphor be now put
into the water which has been touched by the wax, the
rotatory motion of the camphor begins as ufual, but in a
few feconds it ceafes of itl'elf. The camphor, thus placed
upon water, diffolves falter than in moiftair; and in dif-
folving it acquires a round form, and becomes tranfpa-
rent. This folution takes place only at the point of con¬
tain of the air and water, as Venturi proved by the fol¬
lowing experiment: If a cylindrical piece of camphor be
put in water, and loaded I'o that about one half fliall. be
under the furface, it will corrode a little above the fur¬
face of the water, fo that by degrees it feparates into two
pieces.
Argil, or pure alumine, has the property of decom-
pofing camphor. Take one part of camphor and fix of
argil; dry the clay, and reduce it to powder, then pafs
it through filk; reduce the camphor to powder by means
of alcohol ; and mix the whole together in a mortar.
When well mixed, add a little w’ater, not too much, but
juft enough to form a pafte, and make it up into balls
about as big as an olive ; place thefe on a hair-cloth, and
leave them to dfy in the (hade. When perfeftly dry, put
them into a retort, which place on a fand-bath ; fix on a
receiver, which is previoufiy to contain fome diftilled
water, and then lute the joinings clofe. When the ap¬
paratus is thus difpofed, heat the retort gradually, keep¬
ing it for fome hours at a low heat; then increafe the
fire. If the fire has not been (kilfully managed, it may
happen that part of the camphor is fublimed in the neck
of the retort ; continue the operation however till no
more oil is leen to run ; then flop the fire ; and, when the
apparatus is cool, unlute, and take the fublimed cam¬
phor out of the neck of the retort, as well as what re¬
mains at the bottom. Beat the whole in a mortar, and
repeat the operation as before, until, with a ftrong heat,
there is neither fublimation nor oil.
Alumine may alfo be ufedto advantage in thisdecom-
pofition. This alumin is to be prepared by means of
ammoniac; walh it with diftilled water to make it as
pure as poflible; then dry it (lightly. Take two parts
of alumine, or three if wet, tojme part of camphor ; and
proceed as above direfted. In either cafe, there will be
found in the receiver a volatile oil of a gold-yellow co¬
lour, floating on the furface of the water. This oil is of
a lliarp biting tafte, but leaves a fenfe of coolnefs on the
tongue ; its fmell is aromatic, like thyme or rofemary.
It entirely evaporates by free expofure to the air. With
alkalis it forms favonules ; it is l’oluble in alcohol. The
diftilled water contained in the receiver, is very aromatic,
pungent, reddening- tincture of turnfole, and effervefcing
with alkaline carbonats, which proves that fome acids is
formed during the operation. What remains in the re¬
tort is of a fine black colour, and weighs more than the
clay or alumine ufedin the operation: this matter is car¬
bon intimately mixed with the alumine. To feparate the
carbon from the alumine, and have it pure, the alumine
muft be faturated with an acid.
Acids dilfolve camphor. Sulphuric acid, alfifted by
heat, diffolves it, and becomes red. The nitric acid dil-
folves it without any inteftine motion, and forms a yellow
liquid, which, becaule itfloats on theacid, has been called
improperly oil of camphor ; but this preparation is very
imperfect ; for, it cannot be mixed with any other fub-
ftance without the camphor being revived. The mu¬
riatic acid, in the ftate of gas, difiolves camphor; as do
VOL. IV. No. 20i.
[ S T R Y. 337
likewife the fulphureous and fluoric acid gales. If water
be added to thefe folutions, they become turbid, and the
camphor is feparated in flocks, which float on the furface
of the liquid, and does not appear to have fuftained any
change in its properties. If oxygenated muriatic gas be
put into oil of camphor prepared with nitric acid, it im¬
mediately changes to a role- colour, and becomes yel¬
low a moment afterwards, which laft colour remains to
the end of the operation.
CAMPHORIC ACID.
The nitric acid a£ls upon camphor in a manner dif¬
ferent from what we have hitherto noticed. Kofegarton
found, that, by diftilling over camphor eight times the
quantity of nitric acid, an acid was produced which had
different qualities from the oxalic acid. But the nature
and habitudes of the camphoric acid have been more re¬
cently inveftigated by Bouillon la Grange. This che-
mift prepares the camphoric acid, by diftilling four ounces
of camphor in a fand-bath with one pound of nitric acid,
at 36°. During the diftillation, a confiderable quantity
of nitrous gas and carbonic acid gas are difengaged. One
portion of the camphor is volatilized, while the other
l'eizes on the oxygen of the nitric acid. When vapours
ceafe to be difengaged, the veffelsare to be unluted, and
the camphor which has been fublimed returned into the
retort, and a frelh portion of acid added to it. The pro-
cefs of diftillation is to be repeated in this manner, till
the whole of the camphor is converted into an acid ;
four pounds fourteen ounces of nitric acid are required
to acidify four ounces of camphor. The moft certain
mark of complete 'acidification, is the cryftallization of
the liquor which remains in the retort. This acid is pu¬
rified, by diffolving it in warm water, filtering the folu¬
tion, and evaporating it till a thin pellicle forms on the
furface ; the camphoric acid then cryftallizes by cool¬
ing. The camphoric acid may be formed more fpeedily,
by ufing a ftronger nitric acid. But in this cafe a
portion of the camphor is loft, by being diflipated a-
long with the gas. La Grange has all'o a method of
extracting it by means of oxygen gas. ExtraCt the oxy¬
gen gas from fuper-oxygenated muriat of potafli ; fiil
a jar with it, which place in the mercurial pneumatic
ciftern, and introduce a little water into it. Then
put a bit of camphor, and a morfel of phofphorus,.
in a cupel ; have a bent tube, one extremity of which
muft be in the jar, and the other in the pneumatic cif¬
tern, under a jar filled with water. Things thus dif¬
pofed, light the phofphorus with a red-hot iron wire : the
phofphorus flames, and then the camphor. The flame
produced by the camphor is very bright ; much caloric
is difengaged ; the jar is covered with black matter,
which by degrees comes off, and covers the water placed
over the mercury in the jar : this is carbon ; a gas is col¬
lected at the fame time, which has all the propet ties of
carbonic acid gas. The water contained in the jar is
very odorous, and contains camphoric acid in folution.
Camphoric acid has a (lightly acid bitter tafte, and
reddens the tinClure of turnfole. It cryftallizes; audits
cryltals refemble thofe of muriat of ammoniac. It efflo.
refees xin the air, and diffolves difficultly in cold water.
An ounce of this fluid, in the ordinary temperature of
the atmofphere, is required to dilfolve fix grains of cam¬
phoric acid; but the fame quantity of boiling water dif¬
folves forty-eight grains. This acid is wholly diflipated
on burning charcoal, emitting a thick aromatic finoke In
a more gentle heat it melts, and is fublimed. When dif¬
tilled alone, it firft melts, and then fublimes. Mineral
acids dilfolve it entirely. It decompofes fulphat and mu¬
riat of iron. Fixed and volatile oils diffdlve it ; it is I'o-
luble alfo in alcohol, and is rot precipitated by water;
in which it differs from the benzoic acid, which is pre¬
cipitated by water from its alcoholic folution. It unites
readily with earths and alkalis ; thefe combinations are
called camphorats .
Of Camphorats. — The camphorats of lime, magne-
4. R fia.
fia, and alumnae, are prepared by (baking tliefe earths in
water, and adding the camphoric acid in cryftals; boil,
filter the liquor hot, and concentrate. That of barytes
fliould be made with the pure earth ; difTolve it in water,
and add the camphoric acid eryftallized. The campho-
rats of potafti, 1'oda, and ammoniac, ftiould be prepared
with the car'oonats diffolved in water; faturate the folu-
fion with cryftahized camphoric acid; heat, drain, and the
camphorats are obtained by evaporation and cooling.,
If the camphoric acid which is ufed be very pure, the
camphorats have no odour ; if otherwife, they will pre-
fcrve a finell of camphor. The camphorats of alumine
and barytes leave a fenfe of acidity on the tongue ; the
.others are rather bitter. They are all decompofed by
caloric; the acid flies off, and is fublimed ; the bafe re¬
mains pure, except that of ammoniac, which evaporates
entirely. If urged with the Blow-pipe, the acid burns
with a blue flame, which, in the camphorat of ammo¬
niac, changes at laft to red. They are moftly foluble ;
thofe of lime and magnefia are the leaft fo. -Mineral acids
difl'olve them all. Alkalis and earths a£t according to
their affinities for the camphoric acid : the order of affi¬
nities is, lime, potaflt, foda, barytes, ammoniac, alumine,
and magnefia. Many metallic folutions, and feveral of
the neutral falts, decompofe the camphorats, as the nitrat
of barytes, molt of the calcareous falts, &c. Thofe of
lime, magnefia, and barytes, yield their acid to the a&ion
of alcohol.
■Fixed and volatile oils difl’olve camphor by the aflift-
ance of heat. Tliefe folutions, by cooling, gradually de-
pofit cryftals iu a vegetation fimilar to that which is
formed in folutions of ammoniacal muriat ; namely, a
middle Item, in which very fine horizontal threads are
inferted. This kind of feathers, examined by the mag¬
nifier, is very beautiful and regular.
Camphor is one of the moll powerful remedies the art
of medicine poflefl'es. It diffipates inflammatory tumors
in a fhort time, by external application. It is ufed as an
antifpafmodic, and as an antileptic remedy in contagious
diforders, putrid fevers, and, in general, in all diforders
which are attended with nervous affeftions, or putridity.
It is of importance to be known, that camphor often
mitigates heat and pain in the urinary paflages. It is
given, triturated with yolk of eggs, fugar, gums, or in
the ftate of oil of camphor ; and is lbmetimes ufed in the
-compoiition of diet drinks.
Of RESINS.
Volatile oils, expofed to the air, grow thick fooner or
; later ; what remains, after this fpontaneous evaporation,
is called re/m. The ancients believed, that, in the con-
verfion of oils into refins, nothing but water was evapo¬
rated ; but it is now known, that there is no refiniftca-
tion, if the vefl'els which contain them are entirely full,
or if deprived of the contact of air. The procefs is as
follows.: The oil abforbs a pretty confiderable quantity
of oxygen, and lofes a part of its carbon, which, uniting
..with the oxygen of the atmolphere, furni flies carbonic
a< id ; a proof that a refin is only a volatile oil with a
greater quantity of oxygen, and a fmaller quantity of
carbon.
But refills may be made artificially, by means of nitric
acid with a volatile oil. Take a glafs tubulated alembic,
with a receiver proper to preferve liquid and gafeous
produfls ; in the cucurbit of the alembic put fix penny¬
weights of volatile oil of turpentine, and dole the aper¬
ture with a cork, in which is fixed a fuunel-ftiaped tube
of glafs ; through this introduce, by flow degrees, and
drop by drop, twelve penny-weights of pure concen¬
trated nitric acid: then carbonic acid gas, azotic gas,
and nitrous gas, will be difengaged. By rectifying the
produft in the receiver, Pruflic acid is obtained ; and, in
the retort employed in the rectification, an acid mixture
will be found, one part ,Qf which cryftallizes in cooling;
this is oxalic acidj_ the relt is a mixture of nitric and
S T R Y.
malic acid. The matter remaining in the cucurbit ufed
in the firit experiment, is a brownilh mafs of a peculiar
fmell, of a tenaceous vifcous confidence, analogous to
reuns. The black colour of this fubftance ariles from
the fudden precipitation of the carbon ; whereas, in na¬
tural refinification, the carbon gradually unites with
oxygen, and forms carbonic acid, which volatilizes.
There is ltill a fourth operation in refinification; for
part of the hydrogen of the oil combines with the oxy¬
gen of the atmolphere, forming water which volatilizes
alfo.
Refins are inflammable, foluble in alcohol and oils, but
not in water. Several trees produce them ; they are
fometimes- liquid, lbmetimes hard. They are obtained
fometimes by incifion ; lbmetimes it is neceffary to diftil
a part of the tree. The principal fpecies are the follow¬
ing: Balfam of Mecca and of Copahu, or Copaiba ; Chio
turpentine, afforded by the turpentine-tree which yields
piftachio nuts ; Venice turpentine, from the larch-tree ;
and Stralburg turpentine, from the fir.
In the arts, the turpentine of Chio is diftilled in a
water-bath, and furnilhes a volatile oil, very white, lim¬
pid, and odorous, called ejfence of turpentine. In medi¬
cine, a remedy is prepared with turpentine, known by
the name of boiled turpentine. Put turpentine in a glazed
pipkin, with three or four times its weight of water;
boil it till the turpentine has acquired a proper confid¬
ence to form a mals, which may be known by throwing
a little of it from time to time in cold water. Turpen¬
tine is alfo uled in the combination called Starkey's foap,
before defcribed.
Balfam of Canada differs from the fir-turpentine only
in its fweeter fmell.
Pitch. — This is a refinous juice, proceeding from a
kind of fir called picea , or epicea. There are feveral forts.
That which is melted and ltrained through lacks is the
pureft; it is received in barrels, and is then called white
pitch, or Burgundy pitch. White pitch, mixed with lamp¬
black, conftitutes black pitch. White pitch, long kept
in fufion with vinegar, dries, becomes brown, and forms
colophony. The dregs of pitch are burned in a fire¬
place whole chimney leads into a fmall chamber, termi¬
nated by a cone made of cloth : in this halt, the fmoke
condenles, and forms the fine foot, called lamp-black.
Galipot, or refin of the pine, affords the loft pine¬
apples. Holes are bored in the lower part of this tree,
through which the refm flows into troughs. Other in-
cifions are made higher up, when the former afford no
more. When emitted in the fluid ftate, it is called gali¬
pot ; the portion which dries on the tree, in yellowifli
mafles, is called barras. Tliefe juices are meited, and,
when thickened by heat, are filtered through ftraw-mats,
and poured into moulds in fand. They then form malfies,
called ar cannon, or bray -fee. If water be added, the matter
becomes white, and forms refm, or pitch refin. Galipot
is diftilled in the large way in many parts of France, and
affords an oil, called huile-de-ra&e, or caulking-pitch. The
tar, which is the empyreumatic oil of this fubicanGe, is
prepared with the branches and roots of the pine. Till?
wood of this tree is laid in heaps, covered with turf, and
fet on fire. The oil, difengaged by beat, not being ca¬
pable of efcaping through the turf, is precipitated into a
fiiallow tub, by means of a channel, and is collefted for
fale by the name of tar.
The other refinous fubftances are maftic, from the len-
tifk or maftic-tree; fandarac, from the juniper; labda-
num, from the ciftus of Candia ; dragon’s blood, from
the dracaena-draco ; refin anime, from the American jetai-
ba ; copal, from New Spain ; relin elemi, from America.
The combination of feveral refins, coloured with cin¬
nabar and minium, conftitutes what is called Spanijh
’wax. To make this wax, take two parts of turpentine,
two of colophony, one of cinnabar, one of minium, and
four parts of gum-lac ; melt the lac and the colophony,
then add the turpentine, and mix in the colouring matters.
CHEMISTRY. 339
Of BALSAMS.
Authors differ as to what conffrtutes a balfam. La
Grange defines it, a refin United by the aft of vegetation
with the benzoic acid. There are f'everal fpecies. i. Ben-
soin ; this is diftinguifhed into two kinds : the benzoin
amygdaloides, formed of white tears, refembling almonds,
united by a brown matter ; and common benzoin, which
is brown, and without tears; it emits a very agreeable
fmell, when fufed or touched with a hot needle. The
benzoin comes from the kingdom of Siam, and the ifland
of Sumatra. It affords very little volatile oil on account
of its folidity. Boiling water extrafts an acid fait, in the
form of needles, of a ltrong fmell, which cryftallizes by
cooling. It is likewife obtained by fublimation, and is
then called flowers of benzoin. This operation is made
in two glazed earthen pots, placed one above the other,
and ciofed at the place of junftion with paper. The fub¬
limation muff be performed with a gentle heat, other-
wife the fait, will be brown. The paper cone, formerly
ufed as a fubliming chimney, inffead of the upper pot,
caufes the lofs of a great part of the concrete acid. We
bave explained the properties of tins acid in p. 325. Ben¬
zoin, diftilled in a retort, affords a very acid phlegm, a
concrete and brown fait of the fame nature, with a brown
and thick oil. The refidual coal contains fixed alkali.
Benzoin difl'olves in alcohol ; and its tinfture, precipi¬
tated by water, affords the lac ‘virginale. The fait of
benzoin, or benzoic acid, is ufed as a good incifive re¬
medy in pituitous diforders of the lungs and veins.
Its oil is difcuflive, and is externally applied in paraly¬
tic diforders.
2. Balfam of Tolu, Peru, or Carthagena. It is im¬
ported either in cocoa-nut (hells, or in yellowifh tears,
or in a fluid ftate. It flows from the toluifera, placed
by Linnaeus among the decandria monogynia. It may
be extrafted from the (hells, by fteeping them in boiling-
water, which renders it fluid. It comes from South Ame¬
rica, in the track between Carthagena and Hombre de
Dios, called by the iflanders Tolu, and by the Spaniards
Honduras. By analyzing, it affords the fame produfts
as benzoin, and more particularly the concrete acid. It
is made into a fyrup, and is ufed in diforders of the
lungs. Some naturalifts diftinguifh balfam of Peru from
that of Tolu. The acid of thefe two ball'ams does effen-,
tially differ from benzoic acid.
3. Storax calamita is in tears, either red and clean, or
brown and unftuous. Its fmell is very ltrong. It flows
from the oriental liquid amber, a plant very little known.
Duhamel obferved a juice of a (imilar odour flow from
the aliboufier. Newman analyzed the (lorax calamita,
and obtained a very fmall quantity of effential oil, a con¬
crete acid fait, and a thick oil. This balfam is applied
to the fame ufes as benzoin, and is more particularly
confumed by perfumers. It was formerly imported en-
clofed in reeds or canes ; we now receive it in the form
of loaves, or irregular maffes, of a reddifh brown co-
lour,,mixed with fome tears of a lighter colour, and of
a very agreeable fmell.
4. Liquid (lorax, or common ftorax. Bouillon La
Grange, who has analyzed this fubltance, fays, that
it is almoft entirely volatile in the fire, and emits an
odour (imilar to mat of benzoic acid. Heated in a
pneumatic apparatus, it affords, 1. An acid phlegm hav¬
ing the agreeable odour of benzoic acid. 2. A white,
light, ccrid, and penetrating, oil. 3. A more deeply co¬
loured, concrete, (lightly acid, -oil. 4. A faline fubltance
fublimed into the neck of the retort. 5. A mixture of
carbonic acid and carbonated hydrogen gales. 6. A very
light charcoal. If (torax be expoled to atmofpheric air,
a pellicle is foon formed on its fur face which gradually
acquires a folid confidence. The ltorax becomes granu¬
lar, very bitter, and lets odorous. It appeal s to abfiorb
oxygen from the atmol'pliere, which converts it more
completely into the ftate of a refin. Thefe changes take
1
place more fpeedily, if oxygen gas be employed inftead
of atmofpherical air. Very beautiful cryitals may be ob¬
tained by diffolving it in water and evaporating the fo-
lution (lowly. Alkalis, and the mineral acids, produce a
very marked aftion on ltorax. The alkalis unite wdth
the benzoic acid and form benzoats, while the acids dif-
folve the lime that is found in it, and give to it a red co¬
lour. Water precipitates this fubltance from its folution
in alcohol. If the precipitate be left expoled to atmof¬
pherical air, it becomes firft brown, and afterwards of a
deep red colour. The refidue burns on lighted coals,
and emits a (lightly aromatic odour. A white earthy
fubltance is left behind. Water has no aftion on this
matter; alkalis give it a deep colour ; the fulphuiic, ni¬
tric, and muriatic, acids diffolve the earthy matter ; am¬
moniac forms in it a precipitate which has all the charac¬
ters of magnefia. Oxalic acid Ihews in it the prefence
of lime.
5. Artifi.ini balfam of vanilla. This is the filique of
a plant, which climbs and fallens round trees like ivy.
It comes from America ; and is found in Peru, Mexico,
and St. Domingo. It furnilhes benzoic acid.
Of GUM RESINS.
Gum refills are juices mixed with refin, and an extrac¬
tive matter, which has been taken for a gummy fubltance.
They never flow naturally from plants, but are extrafted
by incifion, in the form ofemullive white, yellow, or red,
fluids, which dry more or lefs quickly. Water, alcohol,
wine, or vinegar, diffolve them only in part. They differ
in the proportion of refin and extraft, and their analyfis
affords various refults.
Gum refins may be divided into two genera: 1. Such
as are foluble and fetid ; as, gum ammoniac, affafetida,
&c. 2. Such as are purgative; as, fcammony, euphor-
bium, gum guttae, See. The gum refins are very nume¬
rous 5 the principal fpecies are,
1. Olibanum confilts of yellow tranfparent tears, of a
very difagreeable fmell. The tree which affords it is
fuppofed to be the cedar with cyprefs leaves. By diftilla-
tion, a fmall quantity of volatile oil, together wdth an
acid fpirit, are obtained, and the coally refidue, arifing
from the extractive part, is very conliderable. It is ufed
in medicine for fumigations.
2. Galbanum is a fat juice, of a brown yellow colour,
and naufeous fmell, brought to us from the Levant. In
Syria, Arabia, and at the Cape of Good Hope, it flows
from incifions made in a ferulaceous plant, named bubon
galbanum by Linnaeus. Diftilled with a naked fire, it
affords a blue effential oil, which afterwards becomes
red ; and alio an acid fpirit, with a ponderous empyreu-
matic oil. It is a very good difcuflive remedy, and is
powerfully antifpafmodic.
3. Scammony is of a biackifti grey colour, a ftrong and
difagreeable fmell, a bitter and very acrid talle. The
Aleppo fcammony is diftinguifhed by its greater purity
from that of Smyrna; which is ponderous, black, and
mixed with foreign fubftances. It is extrafted from the
convolvulus fcammonia of Linnaeus. The root of this
plant, cut in pieces, and preffed, affords a white juice,
which is black when dried. Tha different fpecimens of
fcammony contain various proportions of extraft and
refin, and its medical eftefts differ accordingly. It is
preferibed as a purge, in the dofe of from four to twelve
grains. Mixed with a fweet extraft, fuch as that of li¬
quorice, it forms the common diagridium ; the juice of
quinces is likewile ufed for this purpofe. The common
mode of adminiftering it, is after previous trituration
with fugar and lweet almonds.
4. Gum guttae is yellow, reddiffi, without fmell,
and of a very acrid and corrofive tafte. It comes from
Siam, China, and the ifland of Ceylon. It is extrafted
from a large tree, not much known, called by the natives
coddam pulli. It contains much refin, which renders it
ltrongly purgative, in a dofe of from four to fix grains.
340 CHE M I
It ought not to be internally ufcd, but with the greateft
caution.
5. Euphorbium is in yellow tears, which have the ap¬
pearance of being worm-eaten s it has no fmell. It flows
front insifions made in the euphorbium , which grows in
Ethiopia, Lybia, and Mauritania. It contains a very
acrid refin, and is fo drongly purgative, that it is reckoned
among poifons. It is not ufed, unlefs externally in
caries.
6. Affafetida is fometimes in yellowifii tears, but mod
commonly in loaves, formed of a number of pieces, ag¬
glutinated together. It has a very fetid fmell of garlic,
with a bitter and naufeous tafte. It is extracted from
the root of a fpecies of ferula, which glow's in the pro¬
vince of Chorafan in Perfia, and is called affafetida by
Linnaeus. The root of this plant is fleftiy and fucculent.
By expreffion, it affords a white juice, of an abominable
fmell, which the Indians ufe as feafoning for food, under
the name of * food of the gods’. It is internally ufed as
a powerful antifpafmodic, and is applied externally as a
difeutient remedy.
7. Aloes is a juice of a deep red or brown colour, and
very bitter. It is didinguifhed into three fpecies : fuc-
cotrine aloes, hepatic aloes, and caballine aloes : thefe
differ only in their refpeftive degrees of purity, the firit
being the bed. A. De Juffieu faw the preparation of the
different kinds of aloes at Morviedro, in Spain, from the
leaf of the common aloe plant. Deep incifions are made,
from which the juice flows; this is decanted from its
fecula, and thickened by the fun’s heat, in which date
it is packed in leather bags, under the denomination of
fuccotrine aloes. The juice obtained by preffure from
the leaves, after it is purified by repofe, and dried, is
the hepatic aloes. The fame leaves, by dronger preffure,
afford a portion of juice, which, mixed with the dregs
of the two foregoing, conditutes the caballine aloes.
The fird fort contains a much lefs quantity of refin than
the two lad, which are more drongiy .purgative. It is
ufed in medicine asadradic purge, and is acknowledged
fo poflefs the property of exciting the mendrual flux in
women, or the hemorrhoids in men. It is much edeemed
as a good hydragogue.
8. Myrrh is brought to us in the form of reddifli bril¬
liant tears, of a drong and rather agreeable fmell, bitter
tade, and exhibiting white lines, of the form of a nail,
in their fra#ure. Some of thefe tears are entirely gummy
and infipid. Myrrh comes from Ethiopia, Egypt, and efpe-
cially from Arabia, in the country of the Troglodites.
The plant from which it is extracted does not appear to
be known. It contains much more extra# than refin.
It is ufed as an excellent domachic, antifpafmodic, and
cordial, remedy. Cartheufer advifes literary men, whole
ftomachs are delicate, to chew this, and fwallow it with
the faliva. It is ufed in furgery, either in powder, or
diffolved in ‘'alcohol, to cleanfe foul ulcers, and to dop
the progrefs of caries.
9. Gum ammoniac fometimes has the form of tears,
white within, and yellow without, and is fometimes in
mafles refembling benzoin. They are eafily didinguifhed
by their white colour and fetid fmell. It is fuljre#ed,
from the admixture of feed it contains, that this gum
refin, which comes from Africa, is extracted from an um¬
belliferous plant. The folubility of this fubdance in
water and in alcohol, and more particularly its inflam¬
mability, are properties in which it refembles the refino-
extraftive matters of Rouelle. Gum ammoniac is me - '
dicinally ufed as a difeuffive remedy in obdmate obdruc-
tions ; it is given in dofes of a few grains, in pills or
emulfions, and likewife enters into the compofition of
many difeuffive and refolvent pladers.
10. Sarcocolla. This is brought from Perfia or Arabia,
in tears, or in little friable mafles.
11. Sagapenum. The plant from which this flows is
not known ; it is brought to us from Perfia, and force
other parts of the Lm/ant.
S T R Y.
is. Bdellium. The tree producing this is not known.
It is in pieces or tears of different lizes, of a golden yel¬
low, or fomewhat red, colour.
13. Opoponax. This is in tears of various fizes, of
a fatty confidence, though friable, reddifli without, whit-
i(h within.
Caoutchouc, or Elastic Gum. — This has been
hitherto improperly claifed among gum refins. The tree
which furnifhes it is called firinga, by the Indians of
Peru ; in the province of Efmeraldas, in Quito, they call
it bevca\ and, in the province of Mainas, caoutchouc:
M. Richard has proved, that the tree is of the family of
the euphorbia. Horizontal incifions are made quitethrough
the bark, awhile and fluid juice iflues forth, which is
applied, in fucceffive coats, on clay moulds, and dried
by the fun’s heat. Various (ketches of defigns are made
on the furface with an iron tool. It is then expofed to
the linoke ; and, when perfectly dried, the clay is cruffied
and taken out. The bottles, and various utenfils of
eladic gum, which are imported into Europe, are made
in this manner, and are vulgarly called Indian rubber.
The dry caoutchouc, fuch as it is brought to Europe, ex¬
pofed to the heat of a fire, foftens, fwells, emits a fetid
odour, and burns at the fame time that it (brinks.
Eladic gum is not foluble in water; but water foftens
it ; and, if boiled in a folution of alum, it becomes fo
loft, that, feveral pieces may be eafily joined together.
Alcohol has no efte# upon it. Nitric ether is the true
folvent of caoutchouc. Sulphuric ether, according to
Berniard, does not diffolve it completely. Weak nitric
acid a£ts in the fame manner on this fubdance as on cork,
changing its colour to a yellow. Concentrated nitric
acid very quickly dedroys it ; but the muriatic acid does
not aft’e# it in the lead. The volatile oil of lavender,
and likewife thofe of afpic and of turpentine, didolve it
by the help of a dight heat ; it may be then fpread upon
paper, or ufed as a varnifh for duffs. A mixture of vo¬
latile oil and alcohol forms a better folvent than pureoil,
and the varnifh dries fooner. This fubdance may be dif¬
folved alfo in yellow wax melted and boiling; it (hould
be put in by degrees till the wax is faturated : this folu¬
tion, laid upon duffs with a-brufh, makes an elaltic var-
nilh, not very glutinous, nor apt to fcale off'.
Thefe various dilutions are rather an alteration of
caoutchouc than an analyfis ; for after evaporation they
always remain glutinous. It differs from other vegetable
fubdances becaufe ammoniac is obtained by didiiling it.
It is ufed in making probes and fyringes, as a varnifh for
the duff of which aerodatic machines are made, for rub¬
bing out pencil marks, cleaning prints. Sec.
Birdlime. — This has been generally placed among
refinous fubdances, but it has never been corre#ly ana-
lyfed. It is known merely that it is found in the inner
barks and berries of many plants ; that it is inlolubie in
water, gives by analyfis the fame products as refins, is
not completely foluble in alcohol, but entirely fo in ether,
and that water makes the folution turbid.
Of FECULA.
All the vegetable matters contained in the juices of
plants, and not held in folution in them, are in general
called by this name. There are two fpecies of fecula :
1. Green fecula, drawn from the juices of plants ; the
green colour is very uncertain, and not lading, 2. Amy¬
laceous fecula, drawn principally from corn and grain.
There are alfo two kinds of feeds, very different in then-
nature. 1. Thofe which make emulfions with water;
they are commonly oily, two-lobed, and furnifh no fe¬
cula. 2, Such as make no emulfion ; thefe feeds are one-
lobed or fingle, and abound in fecula. All parts of plants
may contain fecula. The following contain it in the
root ; orchis, briony, arum, corn-flag, &c.
The fecula are fometimes found along with the mod
potent poifon, as in the root of a very acrid plant called
manioc, whence is drawn, by the Americans, a mild
nouriftiing
C H E. M 1
nourifhjng fecula, which they call cajfa-va. They ftrip
the root, rafp it, and put it into a lack of ruflies, made
in the form of a cone, and of a very open- texture, which
they -lufpend to a ftaft", placed acrofs two upright pods.
At the lower extremity of this fack, they hang a heavy
veffel, which by its weight prelfes the root, and receives
the juice which flows out, and is a moll acrid and danger¬
ous poifon. When the fecula is well preffed, and de¬
prived of its juice, it is dried in the fmoke, flfted, and
then forms caflava. This farina is fpread on a hot plate
of iron, and turned till both its furfaces acquire a red-
difh yellow colour, which denotes that it is fufficiently
baked. In this ftate it is called caffa-va-bread. When
the farina is heated in a veffel, and agitated from time
to time, it takes the form of grains, called couac. A very
line and mild fecula, called moufache, falls to the bottom
of the exprefled juice, and is ufed for paltry.
To prepare the fecula of bryony, the frefh roots are
deprived of their bark, rafped in .pieces, and fubmitted
to the prefs. The juice is white, and depolits a very fine
fecula, from which, at the end of twenty-four hours,
the liquid is decanted, and it is dried. As this fecula
contains a certain quantity of extradt, left by the juice,
it is very acrid, and purges violently : by walking, it
becomes finer, and whiter, but at the fame time lofes its
purgative virtue. This method of preparing the fecula
of bryony affords but a very fmall quantity, but a much
greater may be obtained, by moiftening, with water, the'
mafs remaining in the prefs, {training this water through
a hair fieve, to feparate the groffer fibres, and leaving it
at reft, and to depofit its fecula, at which time the water
is to be decanted off, and the powder dried. This laft
fecula is not purgative, like the former, becaufe it has
been deprived of its extradtive matter by the water.
Baume has obferved, that the fecula of bryony is abfo-
lutely the fame as ftarch, and might be made into hair-
powder, to the great faving of corn. The fecula of the
roots of arum, and corn-flag, are prepared in the fame
way for medical ufes.
Salep, falop, faiab, See. is the root of a fpecies of orchis,
prepared by the orientals. They feledt the fineft bulbs of
this plant, which they peel andboil,afterprevioufly foaking
them in cold water. They are then ftrung, and dried in the
air. M. Jean Moult deferibes another procefs for pre¬
paring falop, which may be ufed with every kind of or¬
chis. The roots, either dry or under water, are rubbed
with a brufh, to take off the external pellicle ; after
which, by drying in an oven, they become very hard and
tranfparent. Thefe are very eafily reduced into powder,
which, with hot water, forms a nourilhing jelly, much
praifed by Geoffroy, in all diforders arifing from an acrid
ftate of the lymph, and elpecially in confumptions; and
the bilious dyfentery.
The Item or trunk of fome trees contain fecula ; fuch
are the palm-trees, a numerous family, which grow under
the equator. Sago is a dry fecula, reduced into grains
by the adtion of fire, and comes to us from the iflands
of Molucca, Java, and the Philippines. It is obtained
from a kind of palm, called lanaan , in the Moluccas.
The trunk of this tree contains a lweet pith, which the
inhabitants take out after having fplit the wood: they
then bruife it, and put it into a kind of cone, or funnel,
made of bark, and pour on a large quantity of water.
This fluid carries with it, through the fieve, the fineft
and whiteft part of the pith, the fibrous part remaining
behind. The water is received into pots, and gradually
depofits the fecula. The clear water is then decanted,
and the depofited matter is paffed through perforated
plates, which give it the form of fmall grains. The red
colour on their furface arifes from the adtion of fire,
ufed in the drying. Thefe grains, or fago, become foft
and tranfparent in boiling water, and form, with milk
or foup, a light and nutritive liquid, ftrongly recom¬
mended in phthifical diforders.
Vol; IV, No. aoj.
S T R Y. - 34*
The lichen Iflandicus, furnilhes a fort of fecula from-
the leaves ; the Icelanders make a very delicate drink of it.
But it is principally from the Angle feeds, that the
greateft quantity of fecula are produced. No plant, con¬
sidered in whatever light, has the lead, fimilarity 'with
wheat : it has not only botanical diftindtions from all
others, but in chemical analyfis alfo. For inllance, no
meal but that of wheat will form with water, what is pro¬
perly called dough ; for that of rye is very different, and,
other grain ftill more fo.
Of FLOUR.
The fubftance called flour, is in generally dry, friable,,
infipid, capable of acquiring tafte and digeftibility, by
the adtion of fire, and compofed of feveral lubftances ea-
fily leparable from each other. It exifts in the feeds of
gramineous plants, but more efpecially in wheat, rye,
barley, oats, rice, buckwheat, &c. Leguminous plants
likewife appear to contain a compound analagous to
flour; but the flour of wheat, as above obferved, can
only be faid to poffefs the requifite properties, becaufe
it is the only farina in which the different lubftances are
duly proportioned to each other. Though the economical
ule of the flour of wheat, as the principal article of nou-
rifhment, has been eftablifhed from time immemorial, it
is but lately that chemifts have begun to examine it,-
Meffrs. Beccari an Italian phyfician, and Kefl'el Meyer,
in Germany, are the firft chemifts who endeavoured to f&-
parate the different fubftances contained in flour. Meffrs.
Rouelle, Spielman, Malouin, Parmentier, Poulletier,
and Macquer, continued and carried the experiments of
thefe philofophers much farther. Parmentier, efpecially,
has profecuted this inquiry with uncommon zeal and
a&ivity. His refearches into the nature of alimentary
fubftances, the component parts of flour, the different
fpecies of fecula, and on all nutritive vegetables, are, with¬
out doubt, the moft complete and exadt of any that have
been made in this way.
Water is an agent of the greateft utility, and leaft ca¬
pable of altering the feveral matters it takes up, or fe-
parates, in the order of their fclubility. This fluid is
ufed, with the greateft fuccefs, to obtain the diffeYent fub¬
ftances of which wheat flour is compofed. To perform
this true analyfis, a pafte is made with flour and water,
and kneaded in a veffel of water, underneath a ftreara
from a cock; the water carries off a very fine white pow¬
der, and the kneading muft be continued till this fluid
pafles off clear. The flour is then found to be feparated
into three fubftances ; a greyifh and elaftic matter remain¬
ing in the hand, which has been called- the gluten, or <ve-
geto-animalipa.i t, on account of its properties ; and a white
powder, depofited by the water, which is the fecula, or
flarch. The fubftances are held in folution by the water,
one of which, called albumen, appears after evaporation
in the form of concrete flocks; if the evaporation be car¬
ried to ficcity, another fubftance is difcovered, called the
mucofo-faccharine matter. Wheat-meal, then, contains
four diftinft parts : the fecula, the gluten, the albumen,
and the mucofo-faccharine fubftance : hence it differs
from all other vegetables.
Of Starch. — The ftarch obtained by analyfing flour,
is not that which is ufed in the arts. When prepared in
the large way, two forts are ufually made, flue and com-
mon ftarch. The fine fort is made with 'bran, and the
juice of four cherries. The common- is made with da¬
maged corn ground on purpofe ; it ferves to. make pafte.
This fubftance is’ very fine, and foft to the touch; its
tafte is fcarcely fenfible. Its colour is of a grey and dirty
white, when extracted by the procefs we have deferibed;
but the ftarch-makers render it extremely white, by fuf-
fering it to remain in an acid water for a time, which
they call the four water. It appears from the experiment
of Poulletier, that the fermentation which takes place in
this fluid, whitens and purifies the ftarch by attenuating,
4 S and
342 G H £ M
and even deftroying the extractive mucous fub fiance with
which it -is vitiated at firft. Starch, chemically confi¬
dered, is a mucilage of a peculiar nature. This mucilage,
which has been improperly confidered as an earth by
fome chemilts, differs greatly from the glutinous part.
It burns without emitting an empyreumatic fmell. By
dillillation with a naked fire, it affords an acid phlegm,
of a brown colour, and a very thick empyreumatic oil
towards the end. Its coal is eafily reduced to allies,
which contain fixed alkali. By dillillation, it gives the
fame products as gUm and fugar.
Starch is not foluble in cold water, but when boiled
in water, it forms a kind of glue, called fiarch by the
.laundreffes, and ufed, with a mixture of blue, for ftiffen-
ing linen. This llarch, when dried, prefents a folid
tranfparent mafs, fimilar to gum in fome refpefts, but
dilfering from it by not being foluble in cold water.
Starch, when heated with fix times its weight of nitric
acid, the acid becomes decompofed, and the ltarch paffes
to the ftate of oxalic acid. Chaptal remarks, that if di¬
luted nitric acid be digelled on ltarch, the acid is decom¬
pofed, and the ltarch paffes to a Hate refembling that of
the ligneous fibre. Jamiefon of Leith, in a paper which
he read to the medical fociety of that place, gave an ac¬
count of fome very fingular refults which he obtained,
by digelting ltarch in muriatic acid. This acid, which
concentrated and colourlefs, diffolved ltarch in a tempe¬
rature equal to 900 of Fahrenheit. By increafmg the tem¬
perature, the folution acquired a browniff colour, and
at length a brownilh black precipitate was formed, which
leemed to poffels all the properties of charcoal. On add¬
ing cauftic foda to the liquor, and fubjeCting it to eva¬
poration, a linall quantity of acetit of foda was obtained.
By diltilling the muriatic acid from llarch, a carbonace¬
ous refidue was obtained, which inflamed readily with
nitric acid, and which in fome cafes was fo inflammable,
as to take fire by Ample expofure to the air.
Of Gluten. — The glutinous part, is a tenacious,
duftile, elaltic, matter, of awhitilh grey colour. When
drawn out, it extends about twenty times its length be¬
fore it breaks, and appears as if compoled of fibres, or
filaments, placed befide each other, according to the di¬
rection in which it has been drawn. If the force ceafes,
.it relumes its original form by its elafticity. By drawing
it out, in different directions, it may be made fo thin,
.that its polifhed furface refembles the texture of animal
membranes. In this Hate it adheres Itrongly to dry bo¬
dies, and forms a very tenacious glue, which was ufed
by fome perfons to join broken china, long before che-
. milts found the means of obtaining it in large quantities.
Beccari has obferved, that the proportion of glutinous
matter is from a fifth, to a third, and more, in flour of
the belt quality ; he has likewife obferved, that this
.quantity varies in different feafons, and according to the
jaature of the corn.
The fmell of the glutinous matter is faint, and refem¬
bles that of mucilage ; expofed to a fire capable of fud-
,-denly drying it, it lwells up prodigioully. In a dry air,
or mild heat, it dries very well. It is then femi-tranf-
parent, and hard, like glue, and fnaps fhort like that
fubltance, its elallicity being gone. If in this Hate it be
placed on burning coals, or applied to the flame of a
candle, it exhibits all the characters of an animal fub-
Itance ; it decrepitates, fwells, liquefies, curls up, and
burns like a feather, or a piece of horn, emitting, at the
fame time, a Itrong and fetid fmell. By dillillation, it
affords, like animal fubltances, water, impregnated with
ammoniac, ammoniacal carbonat, and an empyreumatic
oil. Its coal is very difficultly incinerated, and dees not
contain fixed alkali.
Frelh gluten, expoled to a hot and moift air, becomes
changed, and putrifies abfoluteiy in the fame manner as
animal fubltances. When it retains a linall quantity of
ltarch, this lait palling to the acid fermentation retards
S T R Y.
and modifies the putrid fermentation, and converts the
fubltanceint.oaftatenearly fimilarto thatofeheefe. Rouelle
theyoungerprepared acheefe with thegluten, which fingu-
larly refembled in its fmell and fade, that of Gruyere,
or of Holland. Water does not at all diflblve this gluti-
nous matter. By boiling in this fluid it becomes folid,
lofes its extenfibility and adhefive quality, but does not
acquire either tafte or lolubility in the faliva. Neverthe-
lefs, we mult obferve, that the gluten owes its elallicitjc
and folidity to the water which formed the palle. In fa ft,
this vegeto-animal portion, though capable of becoming
folid and elaltic, is pulverulent,' and, without cohefion in
the flour ; but, as foon as water is added, its particles
abforb the fluid, and adhere together, forming the elaltic
fubltance called gluten. Water, therefore, contributes
greatly to the formation of this fubltance, and it may
perhaps be confidered as a compound, faturated with,
and incapable of ablbrbing a larger quantity of water.
This is fo true, that it ablbluteiy lofes its adhelion and
elaltic properties by drying.
Moll faline fubltances act more or lei’s efficacioully on
the gluten. The caultic fixed alkalis in the fluid Hate
dilfolve it by boiling. This folution is turbid, and de-
pofits, by the addition of acids, a gluten which is not
elaltic. The mineral acids diflblve the gluten. The
nitric acid diflblves ft with great aCiivity, and Berthollet
has. obferved, that this acid dilengages the azotic gas, as
it does from animal fubltances. When this elaltic fluid has
been emitted, the folution affords a large quantity of ni¬
trous gas, and becomes of a yellow colour. By evapo¬
ration it affords cryftals of the oxalic acid. The fulphu-
ric and muriatic acids form brown or violet l’olutions of
this fubltance, from which a kind of oily matter feparates ;
thegluten being truly decompofed. Poulletier, who has
made many experiments on this fubltance, has aifeovered,
that ammoniacal lalts may be obtained from thefe com¬
binations, diffoived in water, or fpirit of wine, and eva¬
porated in the open air. Vauquelin and Alexander
Brongniart found that gluten triturated in acetous acid
diffolved with great facility. This folution is not tranf¬
parent ; it may be kept a long time. By How evaporation
and adding a few drops of alkali, the gluten is revived
with all its properties. Here then we have a good method
of preferving gluten unchanged.
Other experiments have fliewn, 1. That the alhes of
flour contain eighty-four grains of calcareous phofphat
in the pound ; fo that a perfon who eats a pound of
flour a-day, will take in little more than three pounds fix
ounces of calcareous phofphat in the year. 2. That the
flour of wheat gives no carbonat of lime by incineration,
while the ftraw furnillies a coufiderable quantity, with
fcarcely any fenfible appearance of phofphat of lime.
The Vegetable Albumen. — Fourcroy, obferving that a
matter coagulable by heat was feparated from juice of
cochlearia, crefles, See. along with the colouring matter,
took two pounds of the juice of the young crefles, and
filtered it in the cold. The coarfer part of the fecula was
feparated in this way. The liquor was of a clear green
colour. ’Expofed to the air in a flat veffel, in two hours
the liquor became muddy, and a finer green fecula than
the firft was dilengaged, which was feparated by filtering
it. The ley was now of a pale green colour. When
poured in boiling water, a coagulation took place of a
great number of fmall whit iff flocks ; fimilar flocks ap¬
peared in another portion of this juice, which had been
left expofed fo the atmolphere ; and fulph uric acid fepa¬
rated a fimilar matter from a third portion. The fub-
Itance obtained in thefe three different ways, waffed in
water, exhibited all the properties of annual albumen.
It diffolved in alkalis, was rendered more folid by boiling
water, gave a green tinge to blue vegetable colours, and
afforded ammoniac in dillillation ; with moifture in a
warm atmofphere, it exhaled a fetid ammoniacal fmell,
and exhibited every fymptom of putrefa&ion. This
enables
C H E M I
enables us to underftand why the cruciform plants are fo
readily decompofed. Dried in the air, this fubftance
affirmed the duftility and tranlparency of glue.
If the water ufed tofeparate the farina from the gluten
of wheat be filtered, and afterwards expofed to heat,
white flocks of a concrete matter will be feparated, which
po fiefs all the properties of albumen. So that wheat con¬
tains a gluten fimilarto the fibrous part of animals, and
another fimilar to the albumen. In diftillation, vegeta¬
ble albumen affords ammoniacal carbonat, a red fetid
oil, and carbonated hydrogen gas.
The Mucous Extradite Par: of Flour. — This fubftance,
denominated by its difeoverer the viucofo-faccharine mat¬
ter, exhibits all the phenomena of fugar in its combuflion
and diftillation. It is this which excites the acid fermen¬
tation in the water that floats above the ftarch ; for, as
Macquer well obferves, the latter is not at all l'oluble in
cold water. It cannot be doubted, notwithstanding the
final l quantity of this fubftance contained in the farina
of wheat, but that it is materially concerned in the fer¬
mentation by which pafte is leavened and made to rife.
This inteftine motion, fonecelfary in the making of good
bread, is not yet well underffood. It may perhaps con-
lift in the commencement of fermentation, which is pu¬
trid in the gluten, acid in the ftarch, and perhaps vinous
in the mucofo-faccharine matter: and from tliefe- three
incipient fermentations mutually impeding each other,
the lighter compound, which by baking forms bread,
may probably arife. At all events, it is certain, that
the three fubltances we 'ipeak of are fo combined and al¬
tered in bread, that they can no longer be feparated.
The ablion of heat is fufficient, without fermentation,
to produce this intimate combination ; for unleavened
bread, according to Malouin and Pouiletier, does not
afford the glutinous matter. From the foregoing fabts
we fee, how greatly other kinds of flour differ from that
of wdieat, and ftill more thole leguminous and farinace¬
ous feeds, fuch as beans, peafe, chefnuts, &c. are far from
poffeffing the qualities neceflary to make good bread.
Of VEGETABLE COLOURING MATTERS.
The colouring parts of vegetables have hitherto been
examined by philosophers, with reference to the dobtrine
of colours, as a part of optics ; but the dyers, who con-
fider only the manner of extracting and fixing them for
commercial purpofes, have followed a different route.
Hellot, Macquer, and Berthollet, have been fucceflively
employed in making chemical obfervations on the art of
dying, and on the colouring principle ; and they have
proved; that a number of the phenomena of dying, were
eafily explained upon chemical principles.
Macquer diftinguifhed two kinds of colours, the ex¬
tradite, and the extrado-refmous. The firft are obtained
from vegetables by decoblion, and are tranfparent. The
Second are obtained alfo from plants ; but they are preci¬
pitated in' cooling. The fame chemilt fpeaks of two
other forts of colours, the oily, and the refmo-oily. But
Berthollet, from a feries of experiments and oblervations,
has demonftrated, that the colouring principles are not
fuch as are indicated by Macquer; that the greateft part
of colouring matters have a great affinity with earths ;
that moll colours have alfo a great affinity for the white
metallic oxyds; and that the colouring principles have a
ltrong affinity for oxygen. The art of bleaching is
founded upon this property, becaufe, after this abforp-
tion of oxygen, the colouring matters are foluble in al¬
kalis; the different (hades, for inftance, which the leaves
•take in the courfe of the Summer, are occafioned merely
by the abforption of oxygen, which changes their colour
to yellow or brown. Laftly, the colouring matters have
a ftrong affinity with animal fibrous matters.
Fourcroy, in his leblures at the Polytechnical School,
has divided colours in a manner more exadtly agreeing
with vegetable analyfis than Macquer. He divides co¬
lours into extrablive, extractive oxygenated, carbonated,
S T R Y. 343
and oily. Yet Berthollet’s divifion is more ufeful for
praClice. But we cannot here be expeCted to enter into
details of the procelies ufed in dying ; we are not, under
Chemistry, to teach the art, but the principles of the
art; and thefe we (hall divide into three parts: i. Of
mordants, a. The fubltances ufeful in dying. 3. Exam¬
ples, by which ftudents may be enabled to make experi¬
ments themfeives.
Of Mordants. — The name of mordant, is given to
the intermedium between the colouring matter and the
ftuff to be dyed, whether to facilitate their combination,
or to modify it. By the ufe of mordants, the colours
are occafionally changed, receive brightnefs, are fixed,
and made lading. The mordant is not always a fimple
agent; but, in the mixture whereof it is compofed, it
fometimes forms frelh combinations ; fo that the fubltances
employed do not aft immediately of themfeives, but by
the combinations which refult from them.
The chemical agents ufed in dying are, the fulphuric,
nitric, and muriatic, acids; the muriats of tin, lime,
magriefia, foda, ammoniac, and the oxygenated muriat
of mercury: the muriatic falts in general have the pro¬
perty of rendering colours darker, and of increafmg
their ftrength.
The oxygenated muriatic acid, is ufed where feveral
colours are required, and to have them clear. It is em¬
ployed alio to prove the ftrength of colours, and to com¬
pare the ftrength of colouring matters of the lame kind.
It is ufeful in whitening the ground work of painted
cloths ; and in difeharging the colours of pieces which
have met with lome accident in dying, or winch are faded
through age.
The ilitro-muriatic acid is much ufed in metallic folu,-
tions, as of tin, bifmuth, See. The folution of tin is
very ufeful in the art of dying. The oxyd of tin is
much difpofed to abandon its folvent, to combine either
with the ftuff or with the colouring matters ; it gives to
colours a white bafe, not fiibjebl to change ; it produces
no combuflion in the colouring matters 1110ft difpofed to
change their colour from that caufe, fuch as flnimach and
nut-galls. Purified tartar, and vinegar, are of ufe
alfo in dying. The acidulous oxalat of potafli produces
very good effects in certain fituations.
Alum is of very extenfive ule in dying. The appli¬
cation of alum mull beconfidered as a general and indif-
penfible operation of filk-dying, as without it the greateft
part of the colours will have neither beauty nor ftrength.
The proportion of alum to colouring matter fhould be as
four to Sixteen, or one fourth. Diffolve the alum in a
kettle of warm water, ftirring it to prevent the alum
from cryftallizing ; add a lolution of foda in the propor¬
tion of a fixteen th part of foda to one whole part of
alum; IbmS add befides a very fmall quantity of tartar
and arfenic. The raw material mull be well impregnated
with this folution; take each time about one pound of
the filken thread, pour the remainder of the liquor over
the whole of the filk collebled in another veffel ; let it
foak four-aild-twenty hours ; then expofe it to a running
ftream for an hour and a half or two hours, and wafh it.
Soaking in a decoblion of nut-galls is as neceflary an
operation for cotton or flax.
Sulphatof iron is greatly ufed in dying, efpecially for
black colours, and grey, and other (hades which are
darkened by it means. Solutions of iron by the acetous
acid, and by fome other vegetable acids, are employed
alfo in dying; but thefe preparations are generally made
on the fpot where they are uled.
Sulphatof copper is employed occafionally, but not often.
The oxydof copper combineswith moll colouring matters,
which precipitate it from acids ; it often communicates
an agreeable colour; but, as its own natural colour,
which influences' that of its combination, is foon chang¬
ed by the air, it can only produce colours variable and
not lafting. It has been remarked alfo that the fuiphat
of copper corrodes the fluffs more than that of iron ;
344 C H E M
this arifes partly from there being a more aftive add in one
than in the other. -
Sulphat of zink has hitherto been little ufed in dying.
It makes the colours darker, but this arifes principally
from the iron it contains. In general, the precipitates
produced by fulphat of zink grow fomewhat darker by
time, which proves that the oxyd of zink produces fonie
combultion in colouring matters ; yet it combines with
them but in fmall quantities. Hence it appears why it
gives deeper colours than the oxyd of tin, though both
are white. The aftion of verdigris in dying black arifes
principally, perhaps entirely, from the uncombined
oxydf which ferves to precipitate the iron not combined
with the aftringent principle, by itfelf combining with
fulphuric acid. Acetit of lead forms a plentiful precipi¬
tate with the folutions of colouring fubftances; it darkens
the colours, and makes them ftrong, but dull. Its
greateft ufe is informing the principal mordant for painted
cloths, in which it forms a combination of the bale of
alum with the acetous acid.
Fixed Alkalis. — Potafli is of extenfive ufe in dying 5
it facilitates the diffolution of the colouring matters,
and deepens the colours. As fixed alkali has a ftrong
aftion upon fubftances of an animal nature, and diifolves
them when caultic, much precaution is neceffary, both
with regard to the proportion of this fait made ufe
of in any procefs, and alfo to its more or lefs cauftic
Hate.
When the fait of foda is made ufe of, regard mull be
had to the ftate it is in ; for, if in cryftals, it contains
more than half its weight of water of cryftallization ;
io that, when it comes to eftervel'ce, one part produces
as much eft'eft as two parts of the cryftals. Soap is ufed
in dying, principally indeed for cleaning the filk ; white
hardfoap, prepared with olive-oil, is the beft.
Sulphur is ufed in dying, for an operation called fou-
frage , or fulphuring. This operation is deftined to com¬
municate to filks which are intended to be white, and
alfo to woollen fluffs, the greateft degree of wliitenefs
they can receive. It communicates alfo an elafticity which
produces the noife called rujlling. Butfulphured filk does
not ealily take the dye ; previous to dying,- it mull be
unfulphured, by foaking and drawing leveral times
through the hand in warm water.
The oxyd of arfenic was formerly much ufed in dying,
particularly in painted cloths ; but its inutility is now
acknowledged, and this poifonous fubftance is very little
ufed. The arfenite of potafli is ufed alfo. Orpiment is
alfo employed in fome of the precedes of dying, efpeci-
ally with indigo. The quality of the water is an effential
matter in the art of dying. Waters aft upon the colour¬
ing matters principally by the halts with an earthy bafe
which they contain. Thefe falts are, the nitrats, mu-
riats, and carbonats, of lime and magnefia, and the ful¬
phat of lime.
Substances used in Dying. — Thefe are aftringents
in general, and nut-galls in particular. The nut-gall is
an excrefcence found on the young branches of the oak.
There are different fpecies of gall-nuts, fome inclining
to white, yellow, green, brown, red, afti-coloured, or
black. They differ much in ftze ; and they are round
or irregular, light or heavy, fmooth or rough, as it hap¬
pens. Thofe which are fmall, blackilh, granulated,
and heavy, are the beft; they are called nut-galls of
Aleppo, and are brought to us from Aleppo,' Tripoli,
and Smyrna. The aftringents which referable nut-galls
are, oak faw-duft, the nut-galls of our own country, and
the myrobolans citrinus.
The macerationof a fluff in a decoftion of nut-galls,
is called by the French chemills engallage. This gives it
a degree of weight of which it cannot afterwards be de¬
prived, and which cannot even be diminilhed beyond a
certain degree by repeated waftiings.
Stuff thus prepared may be combined with any other
colouring matters, and the colours thereby acquire fix-
S T R Y.
ity, if they have it not of themfelves, jo that the aftrin-
.gent principle communicates its ftrength to the triple
combination, or whatever combination may be formed 5
but the colour ufually becomes darker by the combina¬
tion. If fluff's already dyed are to undergo this opera¬
tion, it ipuft be done, cold, or the colour will fuifer a
change.
The maceration is made with different proportions of the
nut-galls, or other aftringents, according to the quality
of the aftringents, and the effefts required. The fol¬
lowing are general direftions for the procefs.: Boil the
bruiled nut-galls for two hours in a quantity of water
proportioned to that of the material to be macerated ; let it
cool till you can juft bear your hand in it. Divide it in¬
to equal parts,, as near as may be, to macerate the fluffs
in portions of about a pound each ; and pour the re¬
mainder upon the whole. Leave it thus for four-and-
twenty hours, if intended to be dyed with madder, or
of a black colour; for other colours, ten or twelve
hours are enough. Then prefs the cotton or wool, and
dry it.
Op Indigo. — This is a colouring matter refembling.
fecula. There are two fpecies of the indigo-plant, the
true, and the bafe. When the indigo-plant is nearly
ripe, it is cut and put into ftone troughs, with water to
ferment, which it loon begins to do. When left to be
quite ripe before it is cut, it gives a more beautiful co¬
lour, but it yields lels ; if over-ripe, it yields ftill lefs,
and the indigo is of a bad quality.
Berthollet, in his work upon dying, has defcribed the
procefs ufed in Ameiica and in Africa for extrafting it.
During the operation, there is a vegetable fermentation,
and a difengagement of ammoniac and carbonic acid
gas : this latt faft is certain, fince by putting extinguilh-
ed lime diluted with water, or milk of lime, into the
troughs, the precipitation will be haftened. Bergman,
who has a good dilfertation upon indigo, ftates, that
it owes its colour to iron : but this cannot be correft,
fince, if it were lo, indigo would befoluble in alkalis.
If to an alkali be added any lubftance greedy of oxy¬
gen, efpecially fulphure of arfenic, and the whole be
poured over indigo, it is eafily dilfoived by lofing its
oxygen. This faft, which was difcovered by a manu-
fafturer, has thrown great light upon the hiltory of in¬
digo. This is now the praftice of dyers who ufe indigo :
they deprive the colouring matter of its oxygen, which
they reftore afterwards by expofing the fluffs to the air.
Berthollet eftablilhed this after a great quantity of ex¬
periments. He knew that indigo contained much car¬
bon and hydrogen ; fo that, if any concentrated acid,
except the fulphuric, be poured upon indigo, it caufes
it to pafs through feveral colours in fucceffion, and at
laft to become black, becaufe its hydrogen combines
with the oxygen of the acid, and the carbon remains
predominant.
Befides hydrogen and carbon, indigo contains a pretty-
large quantity of oxygen, a little azot, and a fmall por¬
tion of iron ; but its proportion of carbon is greater
than that of any vegetable lubftance ; which caufed Ber¬
thollet to remark, that thofe colouring matters which,
contained molt carbon in their compofition, are alfo
richer in colour, and give the molt halting tints.
Hence we deduce, 1. That indigo in its natural ftate
contains oxygen. 2. That, till deprived of oxygen, it
cannot, combine with lime or alkalis. 3. That thel’e fub-
ltances which can deprive it of this portion of oxygen,
render it foluble in alkalis and lime. 4. That this folu-
tion is decompofed, and the indigo returns to its natu¬
ral ftate, by contaft with the atmofpheric air, from
which it attrafts the oxygen it had been deprived of.
Powdered indigo, digefted in alcohol, gives firft a yel¬
low colour, then red, and laftly brown. Water feparates
from this dye a brownilh refinous matter. Ether afts
upon indigo nearly in the fame manner; but oils, either
fixed or volatile, have very little effect upon it.
The
C H E M ]
The concentrated fulphuric acid attacks indigo brifkly,
and the mixture becomes opaque and black ; it water be
added, it clears, palling fucceflively through all the (hades
of blue, according to the quantity of water. Ifthelul-
phuric acid be weakened with water, it only attacks the
earthy principle, which in indigo is confounded with fome
of the mucilaginous parts.
Concentrated nitric acid attacks indigo with fuch vio¬
lence, that it burfts into flame ; if weakened to a proper
degree, it a£fs lefs brifkly ; the indigo becomes ferrugi-
ginous ; the refidue, after the operation, has the appear¬
ance of umber, making only a third part of the indigo.
Fixed alkali precipitates from the nitric acid, which has
added upon indigo, a little oxyd of iron mixed with calca¬
reous earth, &c.but, if too much alkali be added, part of the
precipitate will be diffolved again, and the colour of the
liquor becomes darker than before.
Muriatic acid, digefted or boiled with indigo, takes to
itfelf the earthy part of the iron, and a little of the ex-
traftive matter, which gives it a yellowilh-brown colour,
but does not affeft the blue colour of the indigo at all.
If the indigo is precipitated from fulphuric acid, then the
muriatic acid will diffolve a certain portion of it, and
make a liquor of a dark-blue colour. The other acids,
as the tartareous, acetous, and phofphoric, have the fome
effedfl upon indigo as the muriatic acid ; they diffolve it
very well when precipitated. The oxygenated muriatic
acid has little a<5iion on the indigo in fubftance ; but it de-
ftroys its colour when infolution. Indigo detonates ftrong-
ly with nitre.
Of Woad. — This is a plant of the family of the cruci-
feres. The colour is extradled by fermentation from the
bruifed leaves of the plant ; the fermentation is promoted
by wetting them with the mod tainted or flunking water
that can be procured. The (Iron geft kind of woad is cal¬
led pafleli the weaker fort mouede.
Of Madder. — This is the'rootof a plant of which
there are two kinds. Madder, as prepared for the dyers,
has different qualities. That which is prepared from the
main root, is called clafie red. madder ; the other fort, or
not clujlered, comes from thefe twigs or runners which
ereep underground, and have there become roots.
, The red colour of madder is foluble in alcohol, which,
by evaporation, leaves a refiduum of a deep red. Fixed
alkali makes a violet precipitate from this folution, ful¬
phuric acid a fawn-colour, fulphat of potafh a beautiful
red; and precipitates of different colours are obtained
with alum, nitre, chalk, acetit of lead, muriat of tin, See.
Of Cochineal. — Cochineal is an infe6l brought from
America. They collect two forts of cochineal at. Mexico ;
the wild or wood infect, called in Spanifn grana fyl-vejlra ;
the other is called grana fina. On the word grana it is
neceffary to obferve, that cochineal was long conlidered
as a,vegetable grain ; father Plunder was among the firfi
who detefted this error.
The decoftion of cochineal produces a crimfon colour
inclining to violet. A fmall quantity of fulphuric acid
gives the liquor a red colour inclining to yellow ; and a
flight precipitate is formed of a beautiful red colour.
The muriatic acid produces nearly the fame change of
colour, but without any precipitate. A folution of tar¬
tar changes the liquor to yellowifli red ; a fmall precipi¬
tate of a pale yellow is gradually formed; but thefuper-
natant liquor remains yellow. By pouring in a little al¬
kali it becomes purple ; the alkali quickly diffolves the
precipitate, and the folution is purple. A folution of
tin gives a role-coloured precipitate, and makes the liquor
yellow. The folution of alum brightens the colour of
the infufion, and makes it redder : a crimfon precipitate
falls down, and the liquor preferves a crimfon colour in¬
clining to red. Various other phenomena are produced
by different folutions, as detailed by Berthollet.
Carmine. — Is the lake obtained from cochineal by means
of alum; but the cochineal is mixed with a certain quantity
Vol. IV. No. aoi.
s T R Y. " 345
of the bark of a tree from the Levant, called aulour by the
French ch'emifts, of a colour fomewhat paler than cinna¬
mon ; and alfo with chouan, a leed quite unknown to us,
but brought likewife from the Levant, and of a yellow-
ifli-green colour. It appears that thefe two lubftances
form with the alum a yt liow precipitate, which ferves to
brighten the colour of the lake; and part of the yellow
colouring matter communicates a flame colour to the
1'carlet. Carmine was formerly prepared from kermes ,
whence the name.
Of Kermes. — This is an infeft alfo, though formerly
conlidered as a tubercle, or excrelcence of plants ; it is
found in feveral parts of Alia, and the fouth of Europe.
If the living infedl be crulhed, it yields a red colour; its
fmell is not di (agreeable ; the tafte is bitter, acrid, and
pungent. When dried, it communicates the fome odour
and tafte to water and alcohol, with a dark red colour ;
the extra£l obtained by thefe infufions retains the fame
colour.
Of Lac. — This is a fubftance of a red colour,
brought from India in different lhapes. It is formed
in cells like a bee-hive, being the work of a kind of flying
ants, who fix it on the fmall branches of a fpecies of
croton, hence called croton laciferum. There are feveral
fpecies of lac; the principal kinds are, i. Stick-lac;
which is what the infefts build round fmall (ticks or
branches which the inhabitants place on purpofe to fup-
port their work : this is the richeft in colour. 2. Seed-
lac ; this is not fo high coloured. 3. Shell-lac; this is
brought over in pieces of various fizes, more or lefs
tranlparent; it is thought that the Indians have previoufly
extradited the colouring matter.
Of Archil. — The archil ufed in’dying is a pafte of a
violet red colour. There are two forts, prepared from two
fpecies of lichen. The molt efteemed is made from the
lichen roccella, growing on rocks near the fea at Cape Verd
and the Canaries ; the other, from the lichen parellus,
growing on the rocks of Auvergne in France.
Prepared archil gives its colour very quickly to water,
ammoniac, and alcohol. Its folution by alcohol is ufed
for thermometers ; and, if the air be clofely (hut out, the :
liquor lofes its colour in a few years ; air reftores the co¬
lour, which is again deftroyed by time. The aqueous
infufion lofes its colour in a few days if deprived of air.
The infufion of archil is of a crimfon inclining to vio¬
let ; acids give it a red ; as it contains ammoniac, which,
has already modified its natural colour, fixed alkalis pro¬
duce but little alteration; they make it lomewhat darker,
and more inclined to the blue tinge. Alum makes a pre¬
cipitate of a brown red ; the liquor remains of a yellowilh
red. The folution of tin gives a reddifti precipitate which
falls down very (lowly.
Of Carthamus. — Carthamus, or bafe laffron, cartha -
tnus tinBorius, of which the flower only is ufed in dying, .
is an annual plant cultivated in Spain, Egypt, and the
Levant. Carthamus contains two colouring parts : one
yellow, the other red ; the firlt only is foluble in water ;
its folution is always thick; acids render it clear; alkalis
make it of a deep orange-colour; both produce a fawn-
coloured precipitate, by which the liquor becomes clear.
Alum makes a (light precipitate of a deep yellow colour.
I11 order, to obtain the red colour, the foluble part of
the carthamus muft firlt be carefully waffled away. The
remainder is mixed with the cendres gravelees, or fait of
(oua; and the mixture, being lixiviated, forms a bath.
But as the alkali alters the colour, and renders it dull, the
dyed (tuff is plunged in water rendered acid by lemon
juice : the acid leizes the alkaii, and ieaves the colouring
matter, which it enlivens, and caules to become red. A
coloured fecula is obtained by a fimiliar procefs, which,
mixed with Brianeon chaik in powder, compofes the rouge
uled by the ladies.
Of BrazilWood. — This wood, which is of great ufe
in dying, takes its name from that part of America
4 T whence
.346 C H E M
whence- it was firft brought to us; it is called alftq/or-
ttambucca, St. Martha's voood, Japan, and Sapan wood,
from the different places which produce it. A frefli de¬
coftion of Brazil wood gives a flight reddifh precipitate,
with fulphuric acid; the liquor is tranfparent, and of a
yellow colour. Nitric acid makes the liquor yellow alfo ;
but, if a large quantity be added, it produces a deep
-orange-colour, and becomes tranfparent after depoliting
a precipitate nearly fimilar to the above, but more plen¬
tiful. The muriatic acid aft's in the fame manner as the
fulphuric.
Of Log-wood.— This has different names according to
the places where it grows molt plentifully; it is 'Very com-
unon in Jamaica, and on the eaft coaft of the bay of Cam-
peachy. It gives its colour both to aqueous and fpirituous
menftrua ; alcohol extracts it eafier and more abundantly
than water. Its dye is a beautiful red, inclining to vio¬
let and purple, which is principally obferved in the wa¬
tery decoftion, which, if left to itfelf, becomes yellowifh,
and at laft black ; acids bring it to a yellow ; alkalis fix
.the colour, and bring it to purple or violet. The ful-
phuric, nitrjc, and muriatic acids, occafion a flight pre¬
cipitate, flow in forming. Sulphat of iron turns it im¬
mediately of a blue colour, like ink: and makes a pretty
.coniiderable precipitate of the fame colour.
Of Dyer’s Weed. — This is the refsda luteola ofLin-
jiseus ; it is very common, being found in almoft all parts
of Europe. Tlie decoftion is of a yellow colour inclining
to brown ; if much water be added, the yellow inclines to
green. Alkalis darken the colour ; acids make it paler.
Of Yellow Wood. — This is a large tree, ?mrus tinc-
•toria, growing in the Antilles, chiefly at Tobago. This
wood is very full of colouring matter; when the decoc¬
tion is well impregnated, it is of a deep red yellow ; weak-
ended with water, it becomes orange-coloured. Acids
.make it turbid ; alkalis make it ftronger, and almoft red.
Of Arnotto. — This is a dry hard palte, brownifh on
the outlide, and of a fine red within. It is brought over
in lumps wrapped up in leaves, from America, w’here it
is prepared from the feeds of a tree, bixa orellana, by ma¬
ceration in water, and leaving them to fervent. It dil-
foives much eafier in alcohol than in water; hence it is
an ingredient in yellow varnifli, where an orange tint
is defirable. Arnotto is generally mixed with an alkali,
■which promotes its folution, and gives it a colour lefs in¬
clined to red.
There are fevera! other ingredients proper for produ¬
cing a yellow dye ; as, broom, camomile, fenugreek, cur¬
cuma, terra merita, fuftic, plant-feed of Avignon, the
leaves of the willow, the bark and young branches of the
Italian poplar and of fome other fpecies of poplars, the
feed of red clover, the ’golden rod of Canada, the flowers
of the Indian pink, the bark of the quercitron, or yel¬
low oak of New England, See. The green (hell of wal¬
nuts turns brown in very weak oxygenated muriatic
acid. It is very ufeful in dying, as its colours are very
agreeable and very halting.
OJ Sumach, and ether matters which give a fawn-
colour. — Common fumach is a flirub which grows natu¬
rally in Syria, Paleftine, Spain, and Portugal. An infu-
fion of fumach, which is of a fawn-colour fomewhat in¬
clining to green, quickly grows brown in the air. The
bark of the elder makes a decoftion of the fame colour,
which grows turbid and brown in the air ; with a foiu-
.fion of alum, it depofits a confiderable yellow precipitate.
The decoftion of moft vegetables, particularly the
barks, as of quinquina, &c. the herb patience, fandal-
wood, &c. give a colour which differs only in certain
fhades, and with re-agents their charafters differ very lit¬
tle from each other. Some colouring matters ar,e folu-
ble in oils. Orcanet, or the red root of a fpecies of bu-
glofs, communicates its colour to oil. Alcohol diffolves
feveral of them ; the green fecula are foluble therein, as
•well as in oil.
We may conclude, from what has been faid, i. That
I S T R Y.
the colouring parts of plants have an attraftion, in varii
ous degrees, for oxygen, and are all changed more or
lefs by that principle. Another proof of this is, that, if
pieces of apple be expofed under jars, they foon becoma
black; cuttings of green-wood, the Spanifh tbiftle, arti¬
chokes, &c. prefent the fame phenomena. 2. That
muriatic oxygenated acid changes, and turns them either
yellow or white.
Directions for ufing Vegetable Dyes. — To apply
colours to a ftutf with effeft, it muft firft be prepared and
difpofed to receive the principal' colour. For this pur-
pofe it muft be wallied, bleached, and deprived of that
glutinous matter which protefted it from the deftruftive
action of the air, while connefted with the animal from
which it is taken ; and it muft be impregnated with the
mordant or corrofive, which fixes the colour, and com¬
municates fome particular properties.
For bleaching of cotton, and difpofing it to receive
the dye, a liquid foap made of oil and foda is uled, by
which the fluff is- deprived of that glofs or varnifli, which
would not permit the dye to adhere in a proper manner;
and its pores are opened, fo that it may the better re¬
ceive and imbibe the colouring principle. When the fluff
is thus prepared, the next thing is to impregnate it with
the mordant, or that principle which is to fix the colour,
and which muft fo far alter its nature, that no water,
foap, nor boiling, can extraft it again.
When the cotton has undergone thefe _previous opera¬
tions, plunge it into a folution of alum, or ol muriat of
tin, and afterwards put them into the dying-vat. By
the decompofition which takes place between the mor¬
dant and the principle which holds the colour in folu¬
tion, the colour is driven upon the bafe of the mordant,
and adheres to it. To thofe whofe ftudies direft them
particularly to the art or dying, we would recommend a
perufal of 'Barthollet’s work on the fubject, and feveral
memoirs of Chaptal, lately printed in the Annales de
Chimie. See alfo the article Dying, in this Ency¬
clopaedia.
Of FERMENTATION.
Vegetables differ from minerals principally in this, that
the latter remain always in their natural ftate, unlefs a
powerful force breaks their equilibrium ; but the vege¬
table may deftroy itfelf by fermentation, which proves
that the principles of vegetables do not always remain
in the fame ftate. Three forts of fermentation are dif-
tinguifhed, the vinous, the acid, and the putrid. Fer¬
mentation is a fpontaneous motion in vegetables, tending
continually to diforganife their parts.
Vinous Fermentation. — Experience has (hewn, that
all vegetable matters are not capable of pafling to the
vinotis fermentation, but that the union of feveral pecu¬
liar circumftances is neceffary for this purpofe. Thefe
conditions are, 1. A faccharine mucilage, This fubftance
only is capable of pafling' to the vinous fermentation,
and of forming wine. 2. A degree of fluidity, (lightly
vifeid. If the vegetable fluid be either too thick, or too
thin, it will not ferment. 3. A degree of heat, front
twelve to fifteen degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer, or
between fifty-five and fixty-five of Fahrenheit. 4. A
large mafs, in which a rapid commotion may be excited.
When thefe four conditions are united, the vinous fer¬
mentation takes place, and is known by the following
charafteriftic phenomena. 1. An inteftine motion is
excited in the liquor, which increafes till the fermenta¬
tion is well eftablifhed. 2. The bulk of the mixture is
quickly augmented, and this augmentation follows the
progrefs of the inteftine motion. 3. The tranfparency
of the fluid is diminiihed by opake filaments, which are
agitated, and carried to every part of the fluid. 4. A
degree of heat is produced, equal to eighteen degrees,
(feventy-two and a half Fahrenheit,) according to the
AbbeRozier. 5. The folid parts, mixed with the liquor,
rife and float, in confequence of the difengagement oi:
C H E M
ah elaftic fluid. 5. A large quantity of carbonic acid
gas is difengaged, This gas forms a ftratum in the upper
part of the fermenting vats, which may be eafily diitin-
guiflved from air. In this ftratum it was, that Dr. Prieft-
\gy and Due de Chaulnes made their valuable experi¬
ments. Candies, plunged in this ftratum, are extinguilh-
rd, and animals die therein ; lime-water is precipitated,
and cauftic alkalis cryftallize perfectly. This acid, con¬
tained in the fermenting vats of brewhoufes, frequently
produces the moft fatal effeCts on the workmen. 7. The
difengagement of this gas is accompanied with the for¬
mation of a great number of bubbles in the vifeid liquor,
through which the carbonic acid muft pals. All thefe
phenomena gradually ceafp, in proportion as the liquor
lofes its 1'weet and mild tafte, and becomes brilk, pene¬
trating, and capable of producing intoxication.
If the fermentation be flopped or hindered, then the
gafeous principles are retained ; this is what occafions
wine to be mufty. Mufty wines are imperfeCt wines,
■flint up before the fermentation was completed; if the
carbonic acid be difengaged from mufty wine, the re¬
maining liquor will have but little flrength, and contains
fcarcely any alcohol.
The juice of grapes is not exclufively. ffufceptible of
the vinous fermentation. Apples and pears afford cyder
and perry. This fpe.cies of wine is .often excellent, and
affords good brandy. Cherries afford a tolerable wine,
from which a kind of brandy is diftilled, cailed kirchen -
rwaffer by the Germans. Apricots, peaches, and plums,
afford a wine of inferior quality. Impure fugar, diifolv-
ed in water, ferments readily : from this kind of wine,
a fpirit, called rum, taffia, guildive, &c. is made. The
■feeds of gramineous plants, and efpecially barley, afford
3 fpecies of wine, called beer. See the article Brewing,
vol. iii. p. 131.
The above faffs prove, that the faccharine matter is the
only principle of vegetables capable of palling to the
vinous fermentation, and that water is neceifary for the
production of this inteftine motion. Modern chemifts
think, that the vinous fermentation confifts only in a
change in the proportion of the principles of the fugar.
A great part of its oxygen feizes the carbonaceous matter
of the fugar, and forms carbonic acid, which is difen¬
gaged during this fermentation ; while the hydrogen,
united with a Tm all portion of the carbon, conftitutes
wine, and is capable of forming a very light combuftible
fubtle body, containing much lefs caybon than the fugar,
and much more inflammable : this is alcohol. The pro-
dud of all thefe fermenting fubftances, is a liquor more
oriels coloured, of an aromatic fmell, a penetrating and
hot tafte, which, in fmall dofes, aftifts the aCtion of weak
fibres, but produces intoxication when taken too largely.
It is univerfally known by the name of wine. The wine
of grapes, for example, is compofed of a large quantity
of water, an aroma peculiar to each wine, of a principle
approaching to alcohol, an effential £dt called tartar, and
an extraClo-refinous colouring matter, which produces
the .colour in red wines.
As foon as wine is put into the tub or vat, a kind of
analyiis begins, which is Ihewn by the feparation of fome
of its conftituent principles, as the tartar, which fticks
to the lides of the veflel, and the lees, which fall to the
bottom. The precipitation called lees confifts of the feeds
and fldfis of grapes, impure tartar, andfulphatof potafli.
By diftiliation with a naked fire, it affords brandy: treat¬
ed in a retort, it affords acid phlegm, oil, ammoniac ;
and its coal contains carbonat and fulphat of potalh.
The incineration of the lees of wine in the open air af¬
fords a cauftic pot aft), mixed with carbonat and fulphat
of potafli, and known in commerce by the name of cen .
dres grave lees.
Wine diffolves many fubftances, by virtue of the wa¬
ter, the- alcohol, and the effential acid fait, of which it
is formed. It unites with extrails, refins, certain metals.
I S T R Y. 347
&C. On thefe properties depend the preparations of me¬
dicinal wines, luch as, 1. Emetic wine, prepared by ma¬
cerating four ounces of crocus metallorum in two pounds
of good white wine ; the liquid is filtered, or is uled
without filtration, in paralytic or apopleCtic caffes.
2. Chalybeat wine, made by digefting one ounce of
fteel filings with two pounds of white wine : it is an ex¬
cellent tonic and aperitive medicine. 3. The wines of
vegetables, prepared either with red wine, in which allrin-
gent or aromatic plants are macerated ; or with white
wine, which is ufuailyemployed with antifcorbuticplants ;
or with Spanilh wine : the wine of fquills, and all'o the
liquid laudanum of Sydenham, are prepared with this
wine. The latter is made by digefting for feveral days
two ounces of diced opium, one ounce of faffron, a
drachm of powdered cinamon and cloves, in a pound of
Spanilh jvine. This medicine is a very good fedative,
taken in the dofe of a few drops, efpecially in cafes in
which it is feared that opium may weaken the patient, or
flop fome ufeful evacuation.
The aCtion of fire is commonly ufed to decompofe
wine and feparate it into its feveral principles. The
firft produCl, by the diftiliation of wine is called brandy.
Chaptal fays, that, to obtain brandy of good quality, the
fliape of the veffels is not a matter of indifference ; his
apparatus therefore it will be neceifary to deferibe. A
kettle is to be made, wider than it is high, with the bot¬
tom hollowed in, that the fire may be at an equal diftance
from every part of the bottom; the fides are raifed per¬
pendicularly, I'o that the kettle exhibits a portion of a
cylinder, and is covered with a very large top or head,
with its refrigerant, this head has a grove about four
inches deep at the lower run within ; the fides have an
inclination of 750, at which degree the drop of brandy
will run without falling back into the cucurbit of the
alembic ; the rollrum or beak of the head is to be high
and as wide as the head itfelf ; it diminilhes gradually,
and terminates in a pipe or worm ; the refrigerant ac¬
companies the beak, and has a cock at its extremity
to let out the water, which is continually dropping
from above.
Wine produces by diftiliation, 1. Brandy. 2. An acid
liquor. 3. An extract of a red colour, containing tartar ;
the colouring part may be feparated by the addition of
alcohol, which aCts on the tartar.
Of BRANDY. ■
This fluid is naturally colourlefs ; when it has any co¬
lour, It is owing to the extractive matter it has taken up
from the wood of the calk. Its tafte is biting and hot;
its ftrength depends on its lightnefs in comparifon with
water. Brandy is of very extenfive ufe, in the arts and
in lociety. Ratafia is made of it j it lerves to preferve
fruits. It dilfolves camphor; this is called camphorated
fpirit of wine. Brandy from corn is obtained by diftill-
ingthe liquor drawn from meal by fermentation ; in Hol¬
land they let it become acid firft. It is extracted alfo from
the lees of wine, or the Ikins of the grapes. They muft
be left in tubs to undergo a dry fermentation at firft;
then let them be moiftened; but, as theheat’of fermentation
will have occafioned a beginning of putrefaction, ammo¬
niac riles, and it will be necefiary to throw back the firft
produCl.
Of ALCOHOL.
Brandy, by diftiliation in clofe veffels, produces a li-
•jquor more volatile, called alcohol, or fpirit of wine. Put
brandy into a water-bath of tin ; place this in the cucur¬
bit of an alembic, and fix on the head and worm-tub.
Diftil with a moderate heat ; leparate the firft produCl,
which is about one fourth of the quantity employed^ a
lecond produCl is obtained, which Ihould be eqyal in
quantity to the firft: mix thefe together: this is the
pureft and ftrongelt alcohol. Continue the diftiliation
348 C H E M
till all the alcohol is extracted ; the laft produfft is the
fveakeft of cotirfe. By diftiilin'g this alcohol over again,
and reducing it to about two-thirds of the quantity, it
becomes very pure, and then is called r edified alcohol.
.Lowitz fucceeded in depriving alcohol of all the water
not neceflary to its compofition, by diddling it with a
large quantity of alkali. To leparate this water, hr ft
fhake the alcohol in a bottle together with dry potafh ;
then pour as much of this alcohol over potafti ftrongly
calcined, and ftill warm, as the fait will abforb ; it will
take in general half its own weight. Adapt a receiver
to the retort, and after twenty-four hours proceed to
diftillation with fo gentle a heat, that the drops may fall
only at an interval of two feconds. When the diftilla¬
tion ftackens, unlute the apparatus, and preferve the al¬
cohol which has pafled over ; it is generally about two-
thirds of the original quantity; that which comes over
afterwards is Weaker, and at laft a pure phelgm. The
fpecific weight of the alcohol thus obtained, is leflened
from 815 to 791, at a temperature of 160 of Reaumur.
The refiduum in the retort may ferve for frelh experi¬
ments, as long as any freftv portions of alcohol can be ab-
forbed. There remains in the alembic a thick fluid,
Which precipitates brown flocks, ariflng from fome drops
of oil feparated in. the diftillation.
Hence it may be obferved, that the purity and ftrength
of alcohol muft differ according to the procefles ufed in
obtaining it. A method of difcovering its parity has
long been fought after. — It was formerly fuppofed that
alcohol, which readily catches fire, and leaves no refidue,
is very pure ; but it is at prefent well known, that the
heat excited by its combuftion is fufliciently ftrong to dif-
fipate all the phlegm it might contain. — Another proof
has been propofed, by means of gunpowder : when al¬
cohol, fet on fire in a fpoon-upon gunpowder, does not
inflame it, it is confidered as bad ; if, on the contrary, it
fets it on fire, it is judged to be excellent. But this proof
is very fallacious ; for, when a large quantity of the beft
alcohol is burned on a fmall quantity of gunpowder, the
water it affords during its combuftion moiftens the pow¬
der, and prevents its taking fire ; whereas it may be in¬
flamed by burning a very lmall quantity of phlegmatic
alcohol on its furface. This method is therefore no more
to be depended on than the former. — Boerhaave has de¬
ferred a very good procefs for afcertaining the purity of
this fluid : it conflfts in throwing the very dry powder of
carbonat of potafh into alcohol ; this unites with the fu-
perfluous water of the alcohol, and forms a more ponder¬
ous and coloured fluid than the alcohol, with which it
does not mix, but falls to the bottom. Baume, on the
consideration that alcohol is lighter the purer it is, has
contrived an aerometer, by which the degree of purity
of this fluid, and of all volatile liquors, may be accurately
afeertained. When the inftrument is plunged in alcohol,
it links deeper, in proportion as the fluid is purer. The
method of conftru&ing this inftrument, as well as the
refults afforded by different quantities of alcohol, may be
feen in his Elements of Pharmacy, and may be applied
to determine the ftrength of alcohol by the hydrometer.
Rories’s aerometer is reckoned by Chaptal to be more
correct than that of Baume, becaufe a thermometer is
adapted to it. Perfectly rectified alcohol, according to
Baume, fhould weigh butfixteen pennyweights ten grains
in a bottle containing one ounce of water ; the tempe¬
rature is ro° above freezing. La Grange fays, that, when
rubbed in the hands, it fhould evaporate quickly, leaving
neither moifture nor fmell ; if otherwife, it is badly rec¬
tified, and not pure.
Having given the proceffes for obtaining it, we are now
to examine the fubftance itfelf.
Alcohol is a perfectly tranfparent fluid, much (harper
and hotter than brandy, and much lighter ; the ftrongeft
is from 38 to 400. Its principal chemical property is it
extreme volatility : it boils at 64°, and rifes in vapourss
Heated with the contact of air, it boon takes fire, an
3
: S T R Y.
exhibits a light flame, white m the 'middle, and blue at
the fides ; it completely burns away, when pure. Many
chemifts have attempted to difcov.erthe produft afforded
by alcohol in burning. They found tluft its flame is ac¬
companied with neither foot nor fmoke ; and that the
volatilized matters when condenfed, are pure water, with¬
out tafte or fmell, abfolutely in the ftate of diftilied wa¬
ter. Boerhaave, from this phenomenon, fuppofed that
the flame is produced by the water; and this opinion is
confirmed by the knowledge we at prefent poffefs, re-
fpefting hydrogen gas obtained by the de'compofition of
water, and the water obtained by burning hydrogen gas
with oxygen gas. Lavoifier dilcovered, that, when al¬
cohol is burned in a chimney adapted to receive the va¬
pours, a larger quantity of water is obtained than the
whole of the fpirit made ufe of amounts to ; whence it
follows, that this liquor contains a large quantity of hy¬
drogen.
If alcohol be pafled through a very hot porcelain tube,
water is precipitated in the bottle adapted to the tube,
and a very fmall quantity of carbonic acid is difengaged,
and a little carbonated hydrogen gas ; a little naked car¬
bon remains in the tube. To perform this experiment,
lay the porcelain tube through a furnace; to the upper
extremity adapt a fyphon-tube, ending in a funnel ; the
lower extremity is to receive a recurved tube, which goes
into a doubly-tubulated bottle, whence goes another tube
which runs under a bell-glafs in the pneumatic-chemical
apparatus. Make the porcelain tube red-hot, and pour
in the alcohol by little and little through the funnel.
This experiment proves that alcohol confifts of hydro¬
gen, carbon, and a fmall quantity of oxygen.
Alcohol, expofed to the air, evaporates at a tempera¬
ture of io° above frezing. If water be poured over rec¬
tified alcohol, there is an increafe of heat, which arifes
from the reciprocal adlion of the two fubftances upon each
other. Thisfolution produces fpirits, whofe ftrengths are
greater in proportion as the quantity of alcohol is greater.
If fnow or ice be ufed inftead of water, its mixture with
alcohol makes the thermometer fall 170 which, accord¬
ing to Baume, arifes from the great tendency of that
fluid to evaporate.
Alcohol combines in general with Ample combuftible
bodies, but with different degrees of facility.
Sulphur readily unites with alcohol. Phofphorus
digefted with alcohol, changes into a kind of white
tranfparent oil, remaining at the bottom of the vef-
fel undiflblved. This oil does not congeal but in a
great degree of cold ; but, by frequent wafhings, the
phofphorus recovers its confiftence ; after which it takes
fire more readily by heat, but no longer fhines in the
dark, and lofes its yellow colour; though the liquor
drawn off from this oil fmells ftrongly of phofphorus, it
has but a flight luminous power, which it ftievvs the mo¬
ment it is mixed with water. If the combination of
phofphorus and alcohol be diftilied in a gentle heat, and
the diftillation be flopped in time, phofphorus in cryftals
may be obtained by cooling. This combination, with the
addition of water, precipitates phofphorus. The ftrong
acids and alcohol adl very ftrongly upon each other ; and
by this reciprocal adtion ether is produced. From the
mixture of an acid with alcohol in certain proportions,
arife the preparations called dulcified adds.
Three parts of alcohol mixed with one part of fulphu-
ric acid, produce a liquor which retains the name of Ra¬
id's water, though the inventor’s procefs was very dif¬
ferent and very complicated, like molt of the receipts
of the old chemifts. Dulcified fpirit of nitre, now called
nitric alcohol , is made alfo with great facility. Put two
parts of alcohol over one of nitric acid, 'and leave them
to digeft in the cold for twelve days : the acid will be
confiderably foftened ; it is now only an aperitive, or
diuretic.
Two parts of alcohol and one of muriatic acid digefted
together, yield what is called fweet ffirit of fait. This
is-
CHEMISTRY.
5s a bad preparation, as the combination is not com¬
plete. All the dulcified acids are decompofed by alka¬
lis. It feems that, in the preparation of dulcified acids,
>a little ether it formed ; but the quantity of water and
acid, hinder this from being exactly known.
Alcohol readily unites with the boracic acid; this li¬
quor flames, and burns with a red colour. Its adtion
with the other acids has been little examined. It readily
difiolves potafli ; this is the method ufed for purifying
potafh, and procuring it in cryftals, as detailed in p. 2.2.4.
By the digeftion of the alkali obtained from tartar in
alcohol, two remedies are compounded, called acrid tinc¬
ture of tartar, and jnetallic tinfture, or lilium of Paracelfus,
which laft only differs from the firft in that the alkali
ufed in preparing it has been rendered cauflic by heat.
Alcohol unites with all the deliquefcent falts, and
keeps them from being precipitated by water. If, for
inftance, a folution of muriat of lime be taken with al¬
cohol, and let on fire, it will give a red colour; with
muriat of ftrontian and alcohol, a purple red. Some of
the metallic falts are alfo foluble in alcohol ; as, the fu-
per-oxygenated fulphat of iron, the nitrat of copper, the
muriats of iron and copper, and the oxygenated muriat
of mercuiy : all the falts of copper burn with a beautiful
green flame. Guyton has given a table, in the Jour¬
nal de Phyfique, of the degrees of folubility of falts in
alcohol.
Soap is very foluble in alcohol, efpecially if a little
potafh be added : this folution, when perfumed, is called
ejjbice of foap. Some of the immediate produfts of plants
are foluble in alcohol, others are not; fome are foluble
in alcohol and in water, others only in one of the two,
others again in neither, as the ligneous fubftance.
Among the fubftarices foluble by alcohol, are extra&s,
fugar, and fome vegetable acids, as tartareous acidule,
oxalic, camphoric, and benzoic, acids. If diftilled water
be added to a folution of camphoric acid, there is no
precipitation; but a precipitate is obtained by pouring
water into an alcoholic folution of benkoic acid ; which
exhibits a marked difference between thefe acids. If al¬
cohol be diftilled in a water-bath with odoriferous plants,
the fpirit feizes the principle of fmell, and rifes with it,
carrying up at the fame time a certain quantity of vola¬
tile oil, which caufes it to become white by the addition
of water : in pharmacy thefe are called fpirituous dif tiled
c, waters .
Volatile oils are entirely foluble in alcohol; if thick
and much coloured, they become lefs fb. Camphor alfo
is foluble in alcohol, but is precipitated by water : in this
way is prepared camphorated alcohol.
Alcohol difTolves refins and gums alfo : thefe folution s
are called tinSlures , elixirs, ^uinteffences, See. The refins
may be feparated from the alcohol again, by pouring-
water over the tindtures. The folution of a gum 'refin
in weakened alcohol, gives a refinous precipitate ; but
the water continues coloured, and holds a part of the
gum in folution. This proves that the alcohol difiolves,
by help of the refin, a fmall portion of the gum ; and,
reciprocally, that the water difiolves a fmall part of the
refin by the help of the gum ; fo that the analyfis of a
gum-refin by water and alcohol cannot be very exaft.
Ballams difl’olve in alcohol. Benzoin, for inftance, in
alcohol, gives a tindlhre, called virgin water. A few
drops of this in water turn it white, which has gained it
the name of virgin milk. Water does not decompofe tlie
tindlures formed with extradto-refinous fubftances ; as,
rhubarb) faffron, opium, See. becaufe they are equally fo¬
luble in either liquid.
The property of alcohol to diflolve refins, has given
rife to a mode of fp reading them on the furfaces of bo¬
dies for ornament or prefervation, under the name of
varnifses. For the moft beautiful varnifhes, the moft
tranlparent refins fhould be ufed. To thefe tindtures are
occafionally added a certain quantity of volatile oil ; as,
oil of turpentine, oil of afpic, or the greater lavender ;
Vol. IV. No. 202.
349
thefe give confiftence to the varnifli, hinder rt from dry¬
ing too faft, and ferve to unite the refinous parts when
the alcohol has evaporated. In this manner, fandarac,
maftic, copal refin, lac, and colophony, make very good
varnifh.
Of ETHERS.
The oldeft of all is the fulphuric ether. Put a certain
quantity of alcohol into a retort, and pour over it by
degrees an equal weight of concentrated fulphuric acid;
agitate and ftir the mixture, that the retort may not
break by the heat. Place the retort on a warm fand-
bath ; adapt two large balloons, of receivers, plunged
into veffels of cold water; and care muft be taken to
keep the firft receiver cool with wet cloths. When the
apparatus is mounted and luted, urge the mixture to
ebullition, which will take place at 78° of heat; then a
fluid will be produced, which, by cooling, condenfes
into a white liquor, light, of an agreeable fmell, which,
from it properties, has received the name of ether. If
the operation be lkilfully conduced, no permanent gas
will be difengaged till about one half of the alcohol is
converted into, ether. As foon as the fulphureous
acid appears, the receiver (hould be changed ; then no
more ether will be produced, but a little yellowifh oil is
volatilized, called fweet oil of wine ; there is water alfo„
and acetous acid, but not an atom of carbonic acid.
When fulphuric acid makes about four-fifths of the mals
remaining in the retort, an inflammable gas is difen¬
gaged, having the fmell of ether, and burning with, a
white oily flame : to this gas the Dutch chemifts have
given the name of carbonated hydrogen gas, or olifiant gas ,
becaufe, mixed with oxygenated muriatic acid, it forms
oil. At this time the temperature in the retort is raifed
to 88 or 900. When the fweet oil of wine no longer
flows, change the receiver again ; nothing is now pro¬
duced but tulphureous acid, and the water formed be¬
fore by the carbonic acid gas ; and in the retort there
remains a mafs, the greateft part of which is fulphuric
acid blackened by carbon.
Fourcroy and Vauquelin affert, that a mixture of equal
parts of fulphuric acid and alcohol, will not boil till there
are 78° of heat, but alcohol alone boils at 64°, whence
they conclude, that alcohol is reftridted by the affinity
of fulphuric acid, which fixes it. They compare this ef-
fedl with what takes place in every other vegetable fub¬
ftance expofed to heat, whofe principles fly off according
to the order of their affinity for caloric, carrying with
them a fmall quantity of the more fixed elements. Thus,
in proportion as the fulphuric acid attracts alcohol and
water, of which it promotes the formation, the ether
which is produced attracts caloric, and becomes volati¬
lized ; and-, when the greater part of the alcohol has been
converted into ether, the mixture becomes more denfe ; it
requires a more confiderable heat ; and, the affinity of
the fulphuric acid for the undecompofed alcohol being
increafed, the principles of that acid are disjoined ; io
that, on the one hand, its oxygen is driven upon the hy¬
drogen of the alcohol, and forms water, which volati¬
lizes by degrees ; while, on the other hand, the ether, re¬
taining a greater quantity of carbon with which it can
volatilize at that temperature, gives rife to the fweet oil
of wine, which ought to be confidered as ether more
loaded with carbon ; as is proved by its increafed weight,
lefs volatility, and its lemon colour.
From this Ample theory, which is drawn from the fadls
and obfervations contained in their writings, we are led
to the following ufeful conclufions : 1. That the forma¬
tion of ether does not arife, as was fuppofed, from the
immediate adlion of the principles of the fulphuric acid
upon thofe of the aldohol, but upon the re-adtion of the
elements of ttye alcohol upon each other, particularly of
the oxygen and hydrogen, occafioned only by the ful¬
phuric acid. 2. That alcohol may be converted into ether
withou the affiltance of heat, by increafing fufliciently
4 U the.
/
350 C H £ M
the proportion of fulphuric acid. 3. That the operation
is divided- into two periods, in one of which tweet oil of
wine is not formed ; as toon as this oil appears, fcarcely
an)' more ether comes over, and at the fame time the ful¬
phuric acid is decompofed by the hydrogen only, whence
refults fulpliureous acid. 4. The formation of the mild
or fweet oil of wine may be avoided, by keeping the
mixture in a temperature of between 75 and 78° by the
fkilful addition of a few drops of water in the retort.
5. Alcohol differs from ether in containing more carbon
arid lets hydrogen and oxygen j and the fweet oil of wine
is to ether nearly what ether is to alcohol.
There are three periods in the formation of ether; the
firft is that in which ether and water are formed with the
afliftance of external heat. In the fecond, the dilengage-
ment of the ether takes place without being accompanied
by any fulphureous acid : and the third is that in which
oil of wine, olifiant gas, acetous acid, fulphureous acid,
and carbonic acid, are difengaged. The formation of
water takes place during thefe three ftages from the be¬
ginning to the end of the procefs.
It frequently happens that the ether thus procured, re¬
tains a little fulphureous acid ; reftification therefore be¬
comes neceflfary, to bring the preparation to its highelt
degree of purity. Several means are employed : lome
ufe potafh, others magnefia, &c. Dize has lately pro-
pofed the oxyd of manganefe for this purpofe ; he ob-
ferves that his procefs produces about a fixth part more
than the ufual mode with the retort and receivers. From
the experience of performing this in the large way for
three years, he recommends his method to the public.
It confifts in neutralizing the fulphureous acid (con¬
tained in the unreftified ether) with powdered oxyd of
manganefe. Then draw off the ether in a water-bath of
tin; this is to be plunged into a cucurbit three parts
full of water ; fix on the head, and a proportional worm-
tub fixed- in a kettle which is to be continually fupplied
with frefh water from the lower part, fo that the water,
which is heated above, is conftantly ejefted by the hole
made in the upper part ; thus, the water in the ,worm-
tub is kept always at the fame degree of coolnefs. Then
proceed to diftillation, raifmg the heat to 36°.
Ether is much more inflammable than alcohol ; it
catches fire if a taper be brought in contadl with the
veflel which contains it. It burns with a whiter, larger,
and more luminous, flame; and, what conftitutes an ef-
fential difference, it is accompanied by a fmall quantity
of foot, leaving a black coally mark on any thing held
over it. Its taite is hot and pungent ; it is fo volatile,
that, by pouring a known quantity from one wide-mouth¬
ed bottle into another, it will be found to have loft a fourth
part. During its evaporation, it produces a great degree
of cold, fo that ice may quickly be produced by its
means : fill a phial with water, and, having wrapped it
up in a fine rag, plunge it into ether; when the rag is
foaked, take it out, and expofe it to the air; the evapo¬
ration may be promoted by fhaking the bottle ; put it in
again when the rag is dry ; in feven or eight minutes the
water will be converted irito ice.
Ether does not unite readily with water; even with
agitation it requires ten parts of water to diffolve it :
which fhews a ready way of proving whether that liquor
has been changed by alcohol. Ether has no aftion upon
earths and fixed alkalis ; it takes from them merely their
uncombined and fuperabundant acid ; hence they are
employed in rectifying ether. Caultic ammoniac unites
with it in all proportions. Sulphuric acid caufes great
heat in combining with ether, and by diftillation will
convert a great part of it into the fweet oil cf wine.
Fuming nitric acid excites a confiderable effervefcence,
and the ether becomes deeper coloured.
Ether has the property of taking up gold from its fo-
lution : Pour ether over a folution, and mix them by
fhaking the phial ; as foon as the mixture is at reft, the
ether feparates from the nitro-muviatic acid, which the
I S T R Y.
reader fhould recoiled is the ufual folvent for gold, and
fwims above it ; then the acid, deprived of the gold, be¬
comes white, while the ether at the fame time takes- a
yellow colour: and thus is quickly formed a tinfture of
gold, or that famous, but ufelefs, preparation, aurum po-
tabile, potable gold. For foon after the gold feparates
from the ether, recovers its metallic brilliancy, and fome-
times is found in cryftals on the furface.
Ether- quickly diflolves the oxygenated muriat of mer¬
cury; it diflolves volatile oils and refins, in the fame
manner as alcohol ; and accordingly phyficians often ufe
ethereal tinctures.
Ether is confidered as a powerful tonic, and antifpaf-
modic remedy. It is ufed in hyfteric diforders, and ipaf-
modic cholics, and is of excellent fervice in cafes where
digeftion is ill performed on account of weaknefs of- the
ftomach. It muft be adminiftered, however, with pru¬
dence, becaufe its exceflive ufe is dangerous. It is like-
wile fucpefsfully applied externally in headachs, burns,
&c. Hoffman, who made many experiments with the
fulphuric acid, and alcohol, ufed a medicine compofed
of fweet oil of wine difiblved in alcohol, which he called
his mineral anodyne liquor. The Faculty of Medicine
at Paris have added ether to this liquor, and preferibe it
to be prepared by mixing two ounces of the alcohol
which pafles in diftillation before the ether, two ounces
of ether, and twelve drops of fweet oil of wine. This
medicine is employed for the fame purpofes as ether,
but is far from having the fame efficacy.
The nitric acid with alcohol furnifhes alfo an ethereal
liquor. Several chemifts have propofed modes for pre¬
paring it, as, Navier, Woulf, La Planche, Bogues, Sea
but the following, by Cha.ptal, is moft ufed : Take equal
parts of alcohol and nitric acid at 30 or 350; put the
mixture into a tubulated retort, and place it on a fand-
bath ; adapt two receivers one to the other, the firft is
to be plunged into an earthen pan with water, or a fhal-
low trough ; the fecond is to be kept covered with a wet
cloth ; and from the tubulation goes a fyphon which
plunges into the water. When the heat begins to aft
upon the,,piixture, much vapour is difengaged, which
condenfes;on the fides of the vefiels, whofe exterior is to
be cooled continually. About one-fourth of very pure
nitric ether is obtained.
Nitric ether, obtained- by this procefs, is a yellowifh
fluid, as volatile and evaporable as fulphuric ether, whofe
linell it refembles, though it is ftronger, and not fo agree¬
able ; its tafte likewife is hotter, and more pungent than
that of fulphuric ether. Its flame is brighter, and the
frnoke it emits, when burned, is denfer than that of the
fulphuric ether ; it leaves a larger coally refidue ; and,
laftly, like the fulphuric ether, it takes gold from its fo-
lutions, and fuipends a certain quantity. Navier ob«
ferves, that this tinfture of gold, laid on glafs or on a
plate of metal, would evaporate, and leave the furface
gilt. Phofphorus, which diflolves but flowly in fulphuric
ether, diflolves better in nitric ether, to which it com¬
municates a flight phofphoric property.
Deyeux,w'ho made oblervations on nitrous ether, thinks
that this ether owes its volatility to the nitrous gas which
continually inclines to exhale from it. To determine the
prefence of this gas, he made the following experiment :
Pour eight parts of water over one of nitric ether; put
the mixture into a bottle furnifhed with a recurved tube
plunging under a bell-glafs filled with water; after a
certain time, bubbles will be difengaged, wdiich difplace
the water under the jar. He then examined the produft
of this operation ; he firft wafhed the gas contained in
the receiver feveral times, to feparate the aeriform fluids
it might contain ; this having produced no fenfible ef-
feft, he then mixed a portion of this gas with atmof-
pherical air; there was a confiderable ablorption, and at
the fame time the upper part of the tube was filled with
vapours ; this was much more apparent, when with an¬
other portipn of this gas he mixed oxygen gas; the mo¬
ment
C H E M
ment they were in contaiff, there appeared in the re¬
ceiver a vapour as red as the moft concentrated nitrous
acid could exhale. If a lighted taper be plunged into
this gas, a flame is produced ilmilar to the combuftion
of nitric ether. He concluded, therefore, that tins gas,
when leparated, always carried with it a certain quantity
of nitric ether; and that its fpontaneous difengagement
is always much flower than when aflifted by water. He
attributes the prefence of nitrous gas to the extreme fa¬
cility with which the nitric acid is decontpofed ; and he
does not regard it as efl'ential to the conftitution or for¬
mation of nitric ether, fince, when deprived of it, this
ether is preferved like other ethers, without breaking the
vefiels which contain it.
This ether has often a yellow colour. Deyeux en¬
deavoured to feparate this ; and he perfeftly fucceeded
by the following procefs : Diftil four parts of nitric ether
upon one part of fugar in powder ; the operation goes
on quietly, with hardly any difengagement of air; the
liquor obtained is very aromatic, and much lefs coloured.
A fecond diftillation overfrefh fugar whitens it ftill more;
but the nitric ether is decontpofed at each operation. The
heat of boiling water is fufticient ; the melted fugar is of
a yellow colour; and at the furface is an oil of the fame
colour, of a fharp tafte and penetrating fmell, very com-
buftible, leaving a mark upon flufFs, ibluble in oils, al¬
cohol, and fulphuric ether, and with alkalis forming
foap : this is the true fweet oil of wine. Deyeux con¬
cludes that this oil is the caufe of the yellow colour of
nitric ether.
The refidue of nitric ether is of a lemon yellow colour,
its fmell is acid and aromatic, and its tafte is penetrating,
and refembles that of diftil led vinegar. It affords, by dif¬
tillation, according to Baume, a clear liquor of a milder
tafte than that of nitric ether, being an agreeable acid,
which reddens fyrupof violets, unites with water in all
proportions, and effervefces with carbonat of potafli. The
retort contains a yellow friable matter, of the appearance
of amber, which attracts the humidity of the air, becomes
of a pitchy confiltence, and is foluble in water without
rendering is mucilaginous. This, which Baume calls a
gummy laponaceous fubftance, if the diftillation be con¬
tinued, affords a few drops of a very clear acidulous fluid,
of an oily confiltence, and flightly empyreumatic fmell.
A fpongy, brilliant, taftelefs, very fixed, coal remains.
Bucquet affirms, that, if the liquor whiclft remains after
the formation of nitric ether be evaporated, it affumes
the confiltence of a mucilage, and at the end of a certain
time affords faline cryftals refembling hairy caterpillars,
which have been called cryftals of Hiseme, from the name
of the chemift who firft deferibed them. It has fince been ,
difeovered, that this refidue is the oxalic acid, which
proves that the combuftible bafeof thrit acid is contained
in alcohol.
The nature of the gas difengaged, during the diftilla¬
tion of a mixture of alcohol and nitric acid, lias been
lately inveftigated by the Dutch chemifts. The produc¬
tion of this gas, is more or lefs rapid according to the
ftrength of the acid, and of the alcohol. After'this gas
ceafed to be produced, nitrous gas was given out, and the
liquor at laft was found to confift chiefly of acetic acid.
Little or no ether is formed during this procefs. The
gas has a difagreeable and etherous fmell, which it did
not lofe by (landing ; it burned (lowly and with a yel-
lowifti flame, by bringing it into contaft with the flame
of a candle. It is wholly abforbed by water, which ac¬
quires the fmell of the gas. Alcohol appears to abforb it
in a (horter time, and in a greater quantity than water.
It is abforbed, though (lowly, by a folution of potafh.
The fulphuric and muriatic acids difengage it from this
combination, with its properties unchanged; ammoniac
lias no a£tion on this gas. Oxygen does not alter it, but
if a mixture of thefe fluids be fired, a very violent explo-
fion takes place. Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic, acids,
change this gas into nitrous gas. By palling it through
glafs tubes red hot, a'thick vapour came out of tire tubes,
which precipitated lime water, and was inflammable. The
inftde of the tubes was covered with an empyreumatic oil.
The gas was now no longer abforbable by water, and it had
the fmell of nitrous gas. Oxygen, and the oxygenated mu¬
riatic acid, produced in it the red vapours, which are Cure
marks of the formation of the nitric acid ; the refidue
was carbonated hydrogen gas. Thefe experiments feem
fufficient to ftiow, that this fubftance was a compound of
nitrous gas, and of a fubftance confiding of hydrogen
and carbon.
By mixing this inflammable gas, with oxygenated mu¬
riatic gas, a very coiiflderable diminution of volume took
place. In this experiment, the oxygenated muriatic acid
converted the nitrous gas into nitric acid,' and was itfelf
reduced to the (fate of ordinary muriatic acid ; for the li¬
quor which is formed, and which trickles down the fides
of the veffels in which the gafes are mixed, affords cry¬
ftals of- the nitrat and muriat of potafli, when that alkali-
is added.
The Dutch chemifts are of opinion, that, befides the
nitrous gas, the other conftituent part of this inflamma¬
ble gas is ether, though in a (fate fomewhat different from,
the ordinary (fate of that fubftance. They call this gas,
therefore, etherized, or ether ated nitrous gas. If one part
of nitric acid be mixed with fix of alcohol, and digefted-
on zink, the gafeous oxyd of azot is firft difengaged, and
afterwards this peculiar kind of inflammable gas. When
this gas was expofed to the re-agents which take oxygen
from nitrous gas, fuch as a folution of copper in ammo¬
niac, of muriat of tin, or an alkaline fulphure, it was
converted into the gafeous oxyd of azot, which having
no tendency to combine with the other, quitted it, and
of courfe, reftored to it its primitive inflammability.
Muriatic ether is produced by the following procefs
from Pelletier and Klaproth : Pelletier’s method is to
put eight parts of manganele and twenty-four parts of
muriat of foda into a large tabulated retort; add twelve
parts of fulphuric acid and eight of alcohol, and proceed
to diftillation ; and a liquor will be produced, from which
■31' °f pure ether may be obtained by diftillation and rec¬
tification. A good ether may be obtained by pafling
oxygenated muriatic acid through alcohol : it is even a
(horter procefs than the foregoing.
Klaproth diftilled equal parts of alcohol and oxyge¬
nated muriat of tin. The refidue in the retort, is' a
brown, tranfparent, refmous, mafs ; what paffes over ftill
contains acid holding tin iff folution 1 this muriat is to
be feparated by means of caultic potafh, and the liquor
diftilled a fecond time. This ether is very volatile, fvvims
upon water, catches fire at a diftance, takes up gold dif-
folved in nitro-muriatic acid, and iron from oxygenated
muriatic acid.
The ACETOUS FERMENTATION.
Boerhaave called the operation by which wine paffes to
the acid (late by the name of acetous fermentation. There
are three conditions necefi’ary to the acetous fermentation.
1. The prefence of a mucilage or mucous matter. 2. A
heat from 18 to 250, (75 to 900 of Fahrenheit.) 3. The
prefence of oxygen gas.
All wines are equally proper to make vinegar; it is made
alfo with cider and perry. Gumsand amylaceous fecula,
difi’olved in boiling water, are capable of undergoing the
acid fermentation. Chaptal made vinegar by cohering the
carbonic acid which was difengaged during the vinous
fermentation ; he obtained it alfo by mixing alcohol with,
(our milk. Vinegar may be drawn from the lees of wine;
it mu ft be (queezedin the prefs, then put into calks, and
left to ferment.
Boerhaave, in his Elements of Chemiftry, has deferibed
a very good procefs for making vinegar. T wo large calks
are provided, and a falfe bottom of wicker is fixed, at fome
diltance from the bottom, within each, on which vine-
branches and grape-ftatks are fpread ; wine is then poured
in 5;
3Sa C H E M I
in ; fo that one of the veffels is filled, and the other only-
half full. The fermentation commences in the latter :
when it is well eftablifhed, it is filled up with wine added
from the other tun. By this means, the fermentation is
retarded in the full veffel, and accelerated in the other.
When it has arrived at a confiderable degree in this laft,
it is again filled up, by transferring part of the fluid from
the other; the fermentation confequently recommences
in the firlt veffel from which the liquor was laft taken,
and becomes flower in that which is filled up. The al¬
ternate filling and emptying of the veffels is continued
till the vinegar is perfectly formed, which ufually happens
in twelve or fifteen days. When the effects of this fer¬
mentation are attended to, much ebullition and biffing
is perceived; the liquor becomes hot and turbid, exhibits
a great quantity of filaments and bubbles, agitated in
every direction; a ftrong acid firnell, not. at all dangerous,
is emitted, and a large quantity of air is abforbed. It
is neceflary to impede the fermentation every twelve
hours. Thefe . phenomena gradually become lefs, the
heat decreafes, the motion decays, and the fluid recovers
its tranfparency : a fediment is depofited, in reddifh
flocks, which adhere to the fidesof the veffels. Numerous
experiments havefhown, that the fmaller the quantity of
wine, and the more perfeft the accefs of air, fo much the
more readily does it pals to the Hate of vinegar. The
vinegar muft be carefully drawn off, in order to feparate
it from its lees, which, without this precaution, would
quickly caufe it to undergo the putrid fermentation.
Vinegar does not depofit tartar by Handing, like wine;
this fait is diffolved, and combined with the alcohol and
water during the fermentation. It is even probable, that
the prefence of this fait influences the developement of
the properties of vinegar- This fluid has more or lefs co¬
lour, according to that of the wine ufed in its prepara¬
tion ; but in general, vinegars, which have the leaf!: co¬
lour, are far from being of as light a colour as the white
wines, becaufe they hold in folution the colouring matter
of the tartar, which has likewife been developed by the
production- of the acid.
Vinegar, prepared in the method here defcribed, is
very fluid; of an acid and fpirituous fmell, and of a
four tafte, of different degrees of ftrength : it reddens
blue vegetable colours. When expofed to a warm tem¬
perature, in imperfectly clofed veffels, it becomes changed,
lofmg its fpirituous part, and depofiting a great quantity
of mucilaginous flocks and filaments, at the fame time
that it affumes a putrid fmell and tafte. In order to pre-
ierve it, it is neceflary to boil k for a (hort time, as Scheele
has oblerved ; but this did not fucceed with Nicholfon.
When vinegar is diltilled by a naked fire, in an earthen
alembic, or in a glafs retort, on a fand-bath, a phlegm
of a lively and agreeable fmell, but fcarcely acid, firft
pafles over; this is fucceeded by a very white acid liquor,
called difilled vinegar., or acetous acid. The following
produfts have lefs Imell, and more acidity, as the diftilla-
tion advances. If thefe products be taken feparately,
diltilled vinegars, differing from each other in acidity
and fmell, m ty be obtained ; but it is ufual, in this procefs,
to draw on about two-thirds of the liquor, which confti-
tutes the pureft vinegar. The portion which comes over
afterwards is more acid, but it has an empyreumatic
fmell, which may be dililpated by expolure to air ; it is
likewife flightly coloured. This operation Ihews, that
the acetous acid is lefs volatile than water. The remain¬
ing vinegar is thick, of a deep and dirty colour, depofits
a certain quantity of tartar, and is conliderably acid. If
it be evaporated in open veflels, it takes the form of an
extraft; and If, when dried, it be diltilled in a retort, it
affords a reddifh acid phlegm, an oil at'firff light co¬
loured and afterwards heavy, with a fmall quantity of
ammoniac. The remaining coal contains much fixed
alkali. ' Vinegar may be concentrated by expofing it to
froff. The frozen part c nfifts almoit entirely of water;
the part which remains fluid, being decanted off, is found
i
S T R Y.
to be much more acid: the quantity of vinegar thus ob¬
tained is fmall.
The acid of vinegar, feparated from tartar and the co¬
louring matter, by diftillation, is capable of uniting with
a great number of bodies. It does not readily combine
with alumine, with which it forms cryftals, in fmall
needles, whole properties are little known. It is the ace-
tit of alumine. This acid unites readily with magnefia,
and affords a fait, which is very foluble in water, and
does not afford cryftals, but is converted into a vifcous
deliquefcent mafs, by evaporation. The acetit of mag-
nefia is decomposed by fire, by the mineral acids, by ba¬
rytes, by lime, and by the alkalis. It is very foluble in
alcohol.
The acetous acid combines with lime, and decompofes
chalk, whole acid it difengages, in the form of an elaftic
fluid. The fait it forms with lime, cryftallizes in very
fmall needle-fhaped priffms, of a fatin appearance. The
calcareous acetit is hitter and four, and efflorelces in the
air. It much refembles the acetit of magnefia, differing
principally in not being near fo deliquefcent as that.
To form thefe falts, the earths fhould be taken in the
carbonat ftate ; the acetous acid, being poured over them,
diffolves them, by difengaging the carbonic acid. They
are all deliquefcent, more or lefs, and may be cryftallized
by flow evaporation. But the combination of acetous
acid with glucine will not cryftallize ; it is reduced to a
gummy appearance, preferving always a flight ductility ;
it has fomething of a faccharine tafte, but more of the
acid, and is very aftringent. The acetit of barytes is a
very good re-agent to detect the prefence of fulphuric
acid in vinegar; it has the greateft affinity for the ace¬
tous acid. All the earthy acetits are decompofed by
fire : they afford a very fmall quantity of an acid oily li¬
quor; and the bafe, blackened by carbon, remains in
the retort. Alkalis and mineral acids decompofe them
alfo. Salts are formed, by the combination of acetous
acid with alkalis, which were called terra foliata tartari,
cryjlallized terra foliata , and fpirit of Mindererus . They
are now called acetits.
Vinegar ads on almoft all metallic fubftances, and its
combinations are attended with a variety of important
phenomena. The oxyds of gold and filver with acetous
acids form acetits ; but thefe falts have not been yet ex¬
amined. It does not appear to difiblve the oxyd of arfe-
nic ; but this laft fubltance diltilled with an equal part
of the acetit of potafh, afforded Cadet, and the chemifts
of the Academy of Dijon, a red fuming liquor of a nau-
feous fmell, very tenacious, and of a lingular nature.
Cadet had before oblerved, that this liquor inflames fat
lute. The academicians of Dijon, being defirous of ex-
aming a yellowifh matter of an oily confidence, collected
at the bottom of the veffel, which contained the arfenico-
acetous fuming liquor, decanted a portion of this fuper-
fluent liquor, and poured the reft on a filter of paper. A
few drops had fcarcely palled, when immediately an of-
fenfive and very thick fume arofe, which formed a co¬
lumn from the veflel to the deling ; a kind of ebullition
was excited on the borders of the matter, and a beautiful
rofe-coloured flame iflued forth ; all which lafted a few
feconds. A full account of the experiments of thefe
learned academicians, may be feen in the third volume
of the Elements of Chemiltry of Dijon. They compared
the liquor we have fpoken of to a liquid phoiphorus ; we
think it is a pyrophorus of the fame kind as tliofe we
fhall prefently mention. The refidue of the diftillation
of the acetit of potalh with oxyd of arfenic, confifts, for
the moft part, of potalh.
Vinegar diffolves the oxyd of cobalt, and forms a fo¬
lution of a pale role colour. It has no adion on bifmuth,
or its oxyd, but it diffoives that of manganefe. It dif¬
folves nickel diredly, according to Mr. Arvidfon ; this
folution affords green cryftals, of the form of a fpatula.
The acetous acid does not appear to ad on antimony,
but it appears to difl'olve the vitreous oxyd of this metal :
iince
C H E M I
fmce Angelus Sala made an emetic preparation with thefe
two fubftances.
Zink, and alfo its oxyd, are readily diflolved by dif-
tilled vinegar. Monnet obtained cryftals from this folu-
tion in the form of flat plates. The acetit of zink ful¬
minates on hot coals with a bluifh flame. By diftillation.
it affords- an inflammable liquor, a yellovvifh oily fluid,
which foon becomes of a- deep green; and a white fiubli-
mate, which, when let on fire by a candle, burns with a
beautiful blue flame ; the refidue is in the ftate of a pyro¬
phorus, not very combuftible.
The acid of vinegar does not diffolve mercury in its
metallic ftate ; but this combination may be made by di¬
viding the mercury into very fmall particles, as was done
by Keyfer. Mercury, in the ftate of oxyd, readily unites
with vinegar. The acid may be boiled either on the red
oxyd of mercury, named precipitate per fe, on turbith mi¬
neral, or mercury precipitated from its nitric folution by
potafli . The fluid becomes white, but recovers its tranf-
parency when boiling hot ; it is then to be filtered, and
iilver-coloured cryftals fall down, in fcales refembling
boracic acid. This acetit of mercury has been called
mercurial joliated earth. It may be immediately prepared
by pouring a nitric folution of mercury into a folution
of acetit of potafh; the nitric acid unites with the fixed
alkali of this laft fait, and forms nitre, which remains
diflolved; while the oxyd of mercury, combining with
the acid of the vinegar, is precipitated in the form of
brilliant fcales. The mixture being their filtered, the
mercurial acetit will remain on the filter. This fait is
decompofed by the action of fire, and its refidue affords
a kind of pyrophorus. It is quickly altered by combuf¬
tible vapours.
Tin is not much altered by vinegar. This acid dif-
folves only a fmall quantity of that metal, which folu¬
tion, by evaporation, afforded Monnet a yellowifh fub-
ftance refembling gum, and of a fetid fmell.
Acetous acid diffolves zircon in a divided humid ftate.
This combination, which is very foluble in water, does not
appear to be capable of cryftallization. This fait under¬
goes lefs change from the heat, than nitrat of zircon,
probably, becaufe it adheres lefs ftrongly to the water of
folution, and becaufe it is dried at a lower temperature.
Like the other falts of this clafs, it poffeffes a very ftrong
aftringent tafte. It is foluble in alcohol, but does not
deliquefce in the air.
The acid of vinegar adds more ftrongly on lead than
on moll other metals, and diffolves it with the utmoft
facility. When thin plates of this metaLare'expofed to
the vapour of heated vinegar, they become covered with
a white powder called ceriife , which is an oxyd of lead,
containing a little vinegar. Cerufe ground with one-
third part of chalk, forms the white lead ufed as a paint.
In order to fa tu rate vinegar with lead, the acid is poured
on cerufe in a matrafs; the mixture is fet to digeft on a
fand-bath, and after feveral hours is evaporated to a pel¬
licle; by cooling it affords white cryftals, forming either
irregular needles, if the fluid has been too much concen¬
trated ; or flat parallelipipedons, terminated by two flant
fedlions, when the evaporation has been well made. This
acetit of lead is called fait or figar of Saturn, on account
of its fweet tafte, which is at the fame time very ftyptic.
A fait of the fame nature is made, by boiling equal parts
of litharge and of vinegar, and evaporating it to the
confiftence of fyrup. This- is the extract of Saturn of
Goulard, which long before his time was known by the
name of vinegar of Saturn. Acetit of lead is decompofed
by heat ; it affords an acid, ruddy, and very fetid, liquor,
different from radical vinegar or pure acetit acid, of
which we Ihall prefently treat. The refidue is a very
good pyrophorus. This fait is decompofed by diftilled
water, by lime, by alkalis, and by the mineral acids.
The extract of Saturn, diluted with water, and mixed
with a fmall quantity of brandy, forms the Yegeio-mims-
ral water.
Vol. IV. No. zoz.
S\ T R Y. 353
Vinegar quickly diffolves iron ; the effervefcence which
takes place in this folution, ariles from the diiengage-
ment of hydrogen gas afforded by the water, which teems
to be decompoied. The liquor has a red or brown co¬
lour ; and by evaporation affords only a gelatinous mag¬
ma, together with fome long brown cryftals. The acetit
of iron has a ftyptic and lweetift) tafte; is decompofed
by fire, which drives off its acid; attratls the moilture
of the air, and is decompofed in diftilled water. When
heated till it no longer emits a ftnell of vinegar, it leaves
a yellowifh oxyd attracted by the load-ftone. The ace¬
tous folution of iron affords a very black ink with nut-
galls, and may be fuccefsfully ufed in dying. The alka¬
line P ru (fiats precipitate a very bright Pruffian blue.
The black, yellow, and brown, oxyds of iron, the native
carbonat of iron, or the fparry iron ore, afford folutions
with vinegar of a very fine red colour.
Acetous acid diffolves copper with very great facility,
and by the affiftance of heat it gradually affumes a green
colour. But this acid a£ts. more readily on this metal
when already oxydated by vinegar, and converted into
the fubftance called verdigris. Verdigris is prepared, ac¬
cording to the improved method of Chaptal, ( Ann.de
Chem. tom. 25.) as follows; Put the expreffed hulks of
grapes in tubs to ferment, giving them as much air as
poffible, by moving them about with the hands ; when
the heat of fermentation begins to flacken, put them in
layers, between plates of copper, in earthen veffels pre¬
pared for the purpofe. At the end of ten, twelve, or
fourteen, days, thefe plates will be covered with fmall
filky cryftals ; they are then piled together on flicks in a
loft. They are left to themfelves for three or four days,
then dipped in water, and replaced. This immerfion
and drying is to be repeated once a-week for fix or eight •
weeks : then the verdigris is fcraped off from both tides
of the copper with a wooden fpatula.
Verdigris readily diffolves in acetous acid or vinegar;
the folution is of a beautiful green colour, affording
cryftals, called verdet, or cryjlals of Venus, properly acetit
of copper. Chaptal directs to diffolve the verdigris in
acetous acid, to evaporate the folution to a pellicle, and
then let it cool to obtain the cryftals. The fame chemifl
endeavoured to Amplify the operation, by oxydating the
copper in the cheapeft manner, and prefenting it in that
ftate to the acetous acid ; he particularly ufed the oxy¬
genated muriatic acid. At length he propofed a method,
at once fimple, ingenious, and cheap, which confifts in
mixing a folution of fulphat of copper with a folution of
acetit of lead : there is immediately an exchange of bafe;
and the acetit of copper, which floats over the precipitated
fulphat of lead, requires only to be concentrated by eva¬
poration to furnifh the cryftals of verdet.-
The verdet or acetit of copper has a ftrong tafte, and is
a violent poifon. It is decompofed by the afilion of fire,
efflorefces in the air, and becomes covered with a powder,
whofe green colour is much paler than that of the fait
itfelf. It is completely diflolved in water without decom-
pofition. Lime-water and alkalis precipitate the oxyd of
copper. When this fait is pulverized and diftilled in an
earthen or glafs retort, a fluid is obtained at firft pale and
fcarcely acid; but affords afterwards one fo ftrong, as to
refemble the concentrated mineral acids. The receiver
muff be changed during the operation, in order that the
phlegm and the acid may be had feparate ; the latter i,s
called radical vinegar, or acetic acid. It has a green co¬
lour, arifing from a certain quantity of the oxyd of cop¬
per which comes over. When the diftillation ceafes, and
the bottom of the retort is red hot, the refidue is a brown
copper-coloured powder, blackened by carbon;
Peres has another procefs for obtaining this acid. Take
a bit of verdigris, and fprinkle it with good vinegar till
all the oxyd of copper is diflolved ; then reduce it to pow¬
der, and put it into a retort with twice the quantity of
concentrated fulphuric acid ; diftil with a gentle heat,
and vapours of acetic acid will prefently a rife, which mutt.
4 X be
354 C H E M
be collefled in the receiver. The refidue, wafhed, and
evaporated, furnifhes cryftals of fulphat of copper.
Acetic acid, or radical vinegar, has fo ftrong and pe¬
netrating a fraell, that it is impoflible to fupport it for
any length of time ; its caufticity is fuch, that it corrodes
and burns the fkin, and it is extremely volatile and in¬
flammable. When heated with contact of air, the rapi¬
dity with which it burns is the greater the more highly it
is rectified. This experiment has induced chemifts to
believe, that vinegar is an acid combined with an alco¬
hol ; it may, perhaps, be confidered as a kind of natural
ether. This notion is rendered probable by the penetrat¬
ing and agreeable i'mell emitted by the firil portions of
this acid in diftillation. Acetic acid evaporates entirely
when expofed to the air; it unites to water with much
heat. This acid was formerly regarded as acetous acid
with a greater quantity of oxygen ; but late experiments
have fixed the ideas of chemills on this head. Peres was
the firlt who aflerted that the acetic acid was not acetous
acid with an excefs of oxygen : his experiments con¬
vinced him that the acetic acid was nothing but acetous
acid much concentrated and deprived of the greater part
of its carbon.
About the fame time, Adet publifhed a very intereft-
ing paper on the fame fubjedf, but drawing conclulions
fomewhat different from thofe of Peres. He diddled acetit
of copper with the hydrargyro-pneumatic apparatus :
befidesthe ufual products, he colledted of gas. Then
examining each of the products feparately and attentive¬
ly, he found that the brown mafs remaining in the retort
was a mixture of carbon and brown oxyd of copper, con¬
taining eight parts of oxygen; which convinced him,
that more than feventeen parts of oxygen has been taken
from this oxyd, which ought to be found again in the
liquid or gafeous produ&s. The elaflic fluids which he
collected, were compofed of io’So5 parts of hydrogen
gas, and 22-686 of carbonic acid, which laft was made
up of 16-297 parts of oxygen, and 6-339 of carbon ; the
oxygen, of which the green oxyd of copper was deprived,
is therefore found, except ro+8, in the acid gas. This
convinced the author, that the acetous acid had not taken
up oxygen to convert itfelf into acetous acid. This ex¬
periment, and many others, made Adet conclude, i.That
the acid of vinegar, as it does not abforb oxygen in its
fuceeflive combinations with metallic oxyds, cannot fur-
nifh two different acids. 2. That it exifts always in the
higheft degree of oxygenation of which it is capable ;
confequently that it is always in the ftate of acetic acid.
3. That there is no acetous acid, unlels under that de¬
nomination are included the tartareous, oxalic, and ma¬
lic, acids, which, by abforbing oxygen, pafs to the ftate
of acetic acid. 4. That the only difference which exifts
between the acetic acid extracted from the acetat of cop¬
per, and that drawn from vinegar, arifes from the fmaller
quantity of water contained in the firft.
Since Adet’s paper appeared, Chaptal has made other
experiments, the refults of which come much nearer, to
the opinion of Peres. He has demonllrated very clearly,
that there is a difference between the acetous and acetic
acids, and that this difference is not merely in the quan¬
tity of water they relpeftively contain, but that the acetic
acid contains a fmaller proportion of carbon than the
acetous.
In order to bring Adet’s hypothefes to the tell of ex-
fperlment, Chaptal reduced the acetic acid to the fame
degree of fpecific gravity with the acetous acid, by add¬
ing to it a quantity of diftilled water. The-fmell and
talte of the tw-o acids were ftill very different ; and the
aflion of the acetic acid on metallic oxyds was more
peedy and more energetic than that of the acetous.
Acetic acid, for inltance, diflblved the oxyd of copper,
precipitated from the fulphat by potafh, and formed with
it beautiful cryftals on cooling. The acetous acid, with
the lame oxyd, acquired merely a bluifh green colour,
I S T R y.
and a green and faline cruft was precipitated on the fide-
of the veffel containing the liquor. Eleven parts of ace¬
tic acid, require for figuration 6-98 of pure potafh, while
the fame quantity of acetous acid require only 5-73.
When fulphuric acid was added to equal parts of ace¬
tic and acetous acids, of the fame degree of concentra¬
tion, a very confiderable degree of heat was produced.
The mixture with the acetic acid appeared at firft of a
pale yellow colour, while in the acetous no change was
produced. The mixture with the acetous acid boiled
fooner than the other ; and, after the evaporation of
about one-third, it afl'umed the tinge of very deep co¬
loured wine. The mixture with the acetic acid was
much paler. During .diftillation much fulphureous acid
was diiengaged, and at the end of the operation the refl-
dues had loft their colour, and confided merely of con¬
centrated fulphuric acid. The acetous acid appeared to
Chaptal to be brought to the ftate of acetic, by its de¬
carbonization in the retort. One hundred parts of potafh
were faturated with each of the two acids, and the falts
which they formed fubjedted to diftillation in a retort.
By this procefs, reiidues of a black colour were obtained.
The acetat afforded feventeen parts of its weight of car¬
bon, and the acetit only thirteen. There is therefore
more carbon in the acetous than in the acetic acid. Si¬
milar phenomena take place in the diftillation of the ace¬
tat of copper; the acetous acid is deprived of its fuper-
abundant carbon ; one part of this carbon combines
with the oxygen of the copper, and forms the carbonic
acid, which is difengaged, while the other remains in.
combination with the oxyd itfelf. The acetous acid de¬
prived in this manner of its carbon, pafles over in the
ftate of acetic acid. Metallic oxyds, and fome acids,
feem to be the only fubftances capable of effecting this
decompofition. From thefe, and other experiments,
Chaptal concludes : i.That the difference between the
acetous and acetic acids depends on the different pro¬
portions of carbon which they contain. 2. That the
acid is in the ftate of acetous acid in metallic falts ; and,
3. That it pafles to the ftate of the acetic, only by being
deprived of a portion of its carbon. An. de Cbem. tom.
xxviii. p. 113. .
The acetic acid, combined with earths, alkalis, and
metals, forms different falts from thofe of the acetous
acid ; they are called acetat s of potstjb, foda, mercury , zink ,
&c. Laffone has fhewn, that the ammoniacal fait formed
by radical vinegar, or the acetic acid, is very different
from that formed by the common acetous acid, and called
Spirit of Mhidererus. Although we do not poffefs a fuffi-
cient knowledge of the properties of all the acetats, yet
their form, tafte, folubility, & c. fufficiently (hew that they
really differ from the acetits. The Marquis de Courtan-
vaux, has fhewn, that it is only the laft portion of the
acetic acid obtained by diftillation from cryftals of ver¬
digris which is inflammable ; and that it likewife has the
property of being congealed by cold. This laft portion,
when re&ified, cryftallized in the receiver in large plates
and needles, and did not become fluid at a lefs heat than
about fixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit. In this property,
likewife, it refembles the oxygenated muriatic acid.
The acetic acid is given to perfons to fmell to in faint¬
ing-fits. For more commodious ufe, very fmall cryftals
of fulphat of potafh are put into a bottle, and fprinkled
with acetic acid : this is improperly called volatile fait
of vinegar.
Acetic acid decompofes alcohol, and forms ether with
the fame facility as the mineral acids. For this purpofe,
acetic acid is poured on an equal quantity of alcohol in
a retort. A confiderable degree of heat is excited The
retort is then placed in a land-bath, with two receivers
fitted on, the outer being plunged in cold water or pounded
ice. The mixture being quickly brought to ebullition,
a dephlegmatic alcohol pafles firft, afterwards the ether;
and, laftly, an acid, which is ftrqnger as the diftillation
advances ;
C H E M :
advances i a brown mafs, confiderably refembling a re¬
fin, remains in the retort.
The acetic ether mull be rectified by a gentle heat with
potalh. This ether has a very agreeable fmell, peculiar
to itlelf ; it neither reddens nor greens the blue vegeta¬
ble colours ; it rather makes paper Itained with turnfole
darker. Poured on the back of the hand, it evaporates
inftantly, leaving no humidity on the (kin, but a degree
of foftnefs. In a long narrow bottle with an equal quan¬
tity of water, it will fwim on the furface in the propor¬
tion of four fevenths; that is to fay, three fevenths of its
volume combine with the water, and difappear. This
ether lofes none. of its properties by age.
The acetous acid, or common vinegar, affifted by heat,
difl'olves the precipitate of gold made from oxygenated
muriatic acid by adding a fixed alkali. This acetous l'o-
lution of gold precipitated by ammoniac affords fulmi¬
nating gold, as Bergman has fhewn. Vinegar does not
aft on platina or filver while they are in the metallic
ftate, but it diffolves their oxyds.
Vinegar combines with many of the immediate princi¬
ples of vegetables. It diffolves extrafts, mucilages, and
effential falts ; unites with aroma, and is confidered as
the proper folvent of gum refins. It has even, after a
certain length of time in the way of diflillation, a con-
fiderable aftion on fat oils, which it converts into a fa-
ponaceousflate. But the combination of vinegarwith vege¬
table fubftances has been by no means accurately examined
This acid is ufed to extraft fome of the vegetable prin¬
ciples, more efpecially that of fmell ; and vinegars of dif¬
ferent nature, either fnnple or compound, are prepared
for medical ufe. The vinegars of fquills, colchicum, &c.
afford an example of the firfl j the theriacal vinegar, and
the vinegar of the four thieves, are of the fecond kind.
Thefe medicines are prepared by maceration and digef-
tion continued for feveral days. As the acid is volatile,
it is dillilled from aromatie plants, whofe odorant prin¬
ciple it takes up ; the dillilled vinegar of lavender, uted
as a perfume, is of this kind ; thefe liquors are in general
lefs agreeable than fpirituous dillilled waters.
Vinegar is much ufed, as to feafon food. It is likewife
of excellent ufe in medicine, as a refrefhing and antifep-
tic fluid. A fyrup is made with fugar, which is' given
with great fuccefs in burning or putrid fevers, &c, This
acid, externally applied, is allringent and bracing. All
its combinations are likewife applied to medical ufes.
The acetit of potafh and of foda, which are known by
the names of terra foliata tartari , and mineral acetous fait,
are powerful deobftruent and aperient remedies; they
are adminiflered in the dole of from half a drachm to a
drachm. The fpirit of Mindererus, or folution of am-
moniacal acetit, taken in the dofe of a few drops in a
proper liquid, is aperient, diuretic, cordial, antifeptic,
&c. It often fucceeds in the leucophlegmatia, or fwell-
ing of the external parts of the body. The acetit of
mercury, or mercurial terra foliata, is an excellent anti-
venerea! ; it is the principal ingredient in Keyfer’s pills.
The extraft of Saturn, vinegar of Saturn, and the ve-
geto-mineral water, are applied externally as deficcatives.
Thefe medicines, being ftrongly repellent, ought to be
adminiflered with great caution, efpecially when applied
to parts which are ulcerated or without fkin. Boerhaave
mentions feveral young women attacked with confump-
tions, in confequence of the external ufe of preparations
of lead.
Cerufe enters into the compofltion of drying unguents
and plallers, and verdigris is a component part of leveral
collyria and unguents. Acetic acid, or radical vinegar,
is ufed as a very powerful flimulant to be refpired by
fuch as fall into fainting fits. For the convenient ufe of this
remedy, a certain quantity is poured on fulphat of pot-
a(h grofsly powdered, which is kept in a well-clofed bot¬
tle ; this medicine is univerfally known by the name of
fait of vinegar. Acetic ether has not yet been applied to
S T R Y, 355
any ufe ; neither is it known whether it has any peculiar
virtues, differing from thole of other ethers.
PUTRID FERMENTATION of VEGETABLES.
All the vegetable fubftances, which have puffed the vi¬
nous and acid fermentation, are fufceptible of a third in¬
teftine commotion, by which they are changed; this is
called the putrid fermentation. Stahl, and feveral other
chemids, have thought, that this kind of fermentation
is merely a confequence of the two preceding, or rather
that thefe three phenomena depend on a fingle procefs,
or motion, which tends to deftroy the texture of folid
fubftances, and to change the properties of fluids. It is
true, in faft, that if certain vegetable fubftances be left
to themfelves, they pals through the three fermentations
fuccelfively, and without interruption. For example;
all faccharine matters, dilfolved in a certain quantity of
water, and expofed to a degree of heat of about fixty or
eighty degrees, afford, firfl wine, afterwards vinegar,
and at lafl the acid charafter is deftroyed ; they putrify,
lofe all their volatile principles, and become dry, infipid,
and earthy. But it mult be obferved, that a great num¬
ber of vegetable fubftances do not pafs through thefe
three kinds of fermentation, at leaft as far as lenfe can
diflinguifli. Infipid mucilages, and folutions of gum in
water, become four, without exhibiting any appearance
of wine ; and the glutinous matter appears to pafs im¬
mediately to putrefaftion, without previoufly becoming
acid. It therefore appears, that though thefe three fer •
mentations fucceed each other in many of the vegetable
principles, there are, neverthelefs, many others which
are capable of the two laft, without the foregoing, or
even of putrefying, without exhibiting previous figns
of acidity. Thefe lafl participate of the nature of ani¬
mal fubftances, and afford ammoniac by the aftion of
heat, and azotic gas by the nitric acid. It appears to be
from this charafter, that the vegeto-animal fubftances
putrify fo readily.
The inteftine motion which changes the nature of ve¬
getable matters, and reduces them to their elements, re¬
quires the following conditions. Humidity, or the pre¬
fence of water, is one of the moll necefiary ; dry and fo¬
lid vegetables, fuch as wood, are not at all changed,
while they remain in that ftate ; but if they be moilten-
ed, and their fibres feparated, the inteftine motion foon
commences : water, therefore, appears to be one of the
caufes of putrefaftion ; and we fhall fee, in the animal
kingdom, that the decompofition of this liquid appears
to produce fermentation. Heat is" not lefs necefiary,.
Cold, or the temperature of ice, not only oppofes this
fpontaneous deftruftion, but retards its progreis, and in
fome meafure reftores the former ftate of fubftances which
have begun to change. The degree of heat necefiary to
putrefaftion, is much lefs than that which maintains the
vinous and acid fermentation, fince it require no more
than about forty-five degrees of temperature ; but a
ftronger degree of heat is more favourable to this pro¬
cefs, provided it be not lb ftrong as to volatilize all the
humidity, and entirely to dry the fubftances which it
putrefies. Accels of air is a circumftance which Angu¬
larly promotes putrefaftion, lince vegetable lubftances
are very well preferved in a vacuum. This prelervation,
however, has its limits; and the contaft of air does not
appear to be indifpenfable for carrying on putrefaftion,
like the two conditions before mentioned.
The putrefaftion of vetables has its peculiar pheno¬
mena. Vegetable fluids, which putrefy, become turbid,
loie their colour, and depolit different fedinients ; bub¬
bles rife to the furface, and mouldinels appears at the
beginning. Vegetable matters, Amply moiftened, and
foft, exhibit the fame phenomena ; the commotion is
never fo great as in the vinous and acetous fermenta¬
tions. The bulk of the matter which putrefies does not.
appear to increafe, neither does its temperature rile ;
.356 - C H E M :
but the raoft Important phenomena is the change of fmell,
and the volatilization of an acrid penetrating urinous
principle, fintilar to ammoniac, and which, on examina¬
tion, is found to be that fubftance. Hence the, putrefac¬
tive fermentation has been diltinguifhed by the name of
the alkaline fermentation, and the ammoniac has been
confidered as its product. The penetrating fmell fh.es off
by degrees, and is fucceeded by a naufeous faint fmell,
not eafily defcribed. The decompofition is then at its
height; the putrefying vegetable matter is then very
loft, or fluid, like a fyrup ; it experiences a great number
of fucceffive modifications in the odorant principle which
exhales. Laftly, It dries, its difagreeable fmell is difli-
pated by degrees, and nothing remains but a blackifh,
and, as it were, coally refidue, known by the name of
-earth, humus <vegetah\lis, in which nothing is iound but
.-certain faline and earthy fubftances. Such is the order
of the phenomena obferved in the fpontaneous decom-
polition of vegetables which putrefy: but this decom-
■pofition, carried to that point in which bodies are re¬
duced to their faline or earthy fkeleton, requires a very
long time ; and it may even be added, that it has not yet
been properly obferved by any perfon. This reproach,
■which is call on chemifts and philofophej's for their inat¬
tention to animal matters, is much more deferved with
regard to vegetable fubftances. No pliilofopher has yet
undertaken to obferve the complete putrefa&ion of thefe
laft, though many have begun to defcribe .the pheno-
■mena which take place in that of animal matters. We
may therefore conclude our detail of the fpontaneous
and natural analylis of vegetables, by adding, limply,
that the fhort account we have given fliews, that vege¬
table putrefaction attenuates, volatilizes, and deftroys
their humours, and reduces them to their earthy ftate.
That nothing is yet certainly known concerning the
phenomena and limits of this kind of putrefaction, which
■requires to be properly diftinguilhed from that of animal
matters. Laftly, As this fermentation is much more evi¬
dent, and has been better obferved, in the fluids and fo-
"iids of animal fubftances, the detail we (hall enter into,
refpedting thefe laft,, will complete our fketch of the
.'known facts relating to putrefaction.
■Of ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
Animal fubftances are diftinguilhed from vegetable, by
■their texture, appearance, composition, See. Their moll
remarkable differences are, i. The power of loco-motion
in animals, 2. The irritability of all their organs. 3.
Senfation arifing from the brain.
Generic Characters. I. A frefh bone, in water,
by. the aCtion of fire, in a retort, yields, 1 . A heavy fetid
oil, forming foap with alkalis. 2. Carbonic acid gas.
3, Carbonated hydrogen gas, of an infupportably fetid
odour. 4. A plentiful volatile oil. 5. A concrete fait,
flicking to the fides of the retort, which is carbonat of
ammoniac ; a plentiful refiduum, very difficult of Solu¬
tion, which is calcareous phofphat.
II. AH animal fubftances pais to the putrid fermenta¬
tion : they yield ammoniac, nitric acid, a gas of a dan¬
gerous nature., very hurtful to miners, producing difor-
ders in the (kin, and putrid fevers ; from this decompo¬
sition arife jail-diftempers, &c. If the gas which is dif-
engaged is loaded with fulphur, it is called Sulphurated
hydrogen gas; if with carbon, it is carbonated hydrogen
gas; if phofphorus, phofphorated hydrogen gas.
III. Alkalis diffolve all animal fubftances; they difen-
gage ammoniac. With alkalis, an oil is obtained which
did not exift before, but is formed during the operation.
Chaptal availed himfelf of this property to fabricate foap
from wool. He obferved during. this procefs, that heat
dilengaged ammoniac formed by a part of the hydrogen
and azot. The refidue, deprived of azot in the propor¬
tion of hydrogen, inclines to the oily ftate, which is only
the combination of hydrogen with carbon. What palfes
-i
S T R Y.
in this operation is the fame as the a£Hon of blue -Hone
in a wound : ammoniac is formed and difengaged, and
the efcar approaches to the oily ftate.
IV. Sulphuric acid carbonifes animal fubftances, pre¬
cipitates the carbon, and alio Separates ammoniac from it.
V. Nitric acid afts upon them in abrifk and rapid man¬
ner ; it difengages azot, and turns them yellow, after¬
wards red. For a refiduum, there is Pruffic acid, ammo¬
niac, two or three vegetable acids, and a fat oil formed
from the animal fubftance.
VI. Azot is another general and diftinguifhing charac¬
ter of animal fubftances.
Animal matters confift of liquids and Solids, which
make up their texture. Liquids circulate in the veflels
interpoied in the texture of the folids. Liquids are dif-
tinguilhed into recrementive, excrementive, and com¬
pound or recremento-excrementive. Recremenilve, as
blood, Serving to the nouriftiment of animals, not part¬
ing through the body but through difeate. Excrement I've,
that which Separates from the bodjq as urine. Recremeto-
excrcment'mje, as bile, which is Separated from the blood
to be mixed with it again ; and milk, which is excre¬
mentive to the mother, alimentary to the child. The
conftituent parts of animals’ are divided into liquids, foft
parts, and lolids.
Of BLOOD.
We are toconfider blood as a liquid, circulating in the
arteries and veins, by means of the heart, which is the
prltnum mobile.
Blood is redder in thofe animals which have capacious
lungs, and infpire a great deal of air ; it is blacker in
thole which live in the water. The changes which the
blood feerns to undergo in various diforders, mull be at¬
tributed to the lymphatic fyftem, or the abforbent nature
of its veflels ; for the nature of the blood itfelf is not
altered. Its tafte is infipid with a flight fmell of garlic;
it thickens fome time after being excluded from the body.
Its temperature is from 28 to 320 of Reaumur. It may
be regarded under fix heads, x . According to the part
it is taken from. z. The age of the fubjedt. 3. The fex.
4. The temperament. 5. Different Hates of difeafe. 6.
The different claffes of animals.
The experiments on blood are generally made from
that of oxen or of men, which agree in iome refpefts;
that of birds and fifties is different. It may be con¬
fidered alfo, 1. In a mafs, as arterial blood. 2. Separated,
as venous blood. 3. Both thefe mixed together. 4. Its
elements. In blood we diftinguiffi, 1. The coagulum, or
colouring part. 2. The ferum. 3. The fibrous part. If
venous blood be left in the veffel in which it was re¬
ceived, a part of it Hicks like glue to the fides of the vef-
fel. To afeertain the nature of blood, it is to be ex¬
amined, 1. By heat. 2. By acids. 3. By alkalis.
The blood, while hot, and in motion, remains con-
ftantly fluid and red ; when it cools at reft it takes the
form of a folid mafs, which gradually and fpontaneoufly
feparates into two parts ; the one red, which floats above,
whofe colour becomes deeper, and which remains con¬
crete till .it is altered by putrefadlion, is called the coa¬
gulum ; the other, which occupies the lower part of the
veffel, is of a yellow greeniffi colour, and adhefive ; it is
called ferum, or lymph. By continuing expofed to the
air, it becomes purple at the furface, and of a darker co¬
lour below. Expofed in a very wide flat-bottomed vef¬
fel, it thickens, changes colour, and becomes concrete in
dried leaves like hyacinth. Combined with air, it takes
more room in thefe veflels, as may be proved by the air-
pump. Drawn from a vein at 24°, it folidifies as at a
lower temperature.
Expofed to a gentle heat, it changes colour, coagu¬
lates, looks like liver, becomes carbonated, and dries,
giving out a liquid with the fmell of amber; this water
is formed in the drying. In a water-bath, at a tempera¬
ture
C H E M ]
ture below boiling water, it coagulates; and this coagu-
lum, prefled and calcined, fliews to the magnetical needle
unequivocal marks that it contains iron.
By diftillation with a naked fire, in clofed veflels with,
the pneumatic apparatus, blood affords, i. Pruffiat of
ammoniac, z. A very fetid thick oil. 3. Sulphurated
hydrogen gas, fetid. 4. Carbonated hydrogen gas. 5. The
carbon which remains is in bright cryltals, refeinbling
carbure of iron ; it contains, 6. Phol'phat of foda. 7. Phol-
phat of lime. S. Carbonat of loda. 9. Iron. This coal
is very difficult to reduce; its allies are of a red colour;
the iron may be feparatecl by waffling, or by the hiagnet.
The prefence of iron in blood may be proved by only
mixing with it a little of the nut-galls in powder; in iefs
than forty-eight hours the mixture becomes perfectly
black.
Blood may be calcined in a crucible; in which cafe
only fixed products are obtained. Diftil dried blood,
and boil the liquid product with quicklime ; a faline cal¬
careous combination is produced. Decompofe this fait
with phofphoric or fulphuric acid, by diftillation in a re¬
tort ; and an acid comes over, difcovered by Berthollet,
and called by him zoonic acid.
Frefti blood mixed with oxygen, acquires a colour
more lively and red. Mixed with hydrogen gas, it in¬
clines to a brown colour, becomes dull, and at length
dark brown. Blood unites with water in all proportions,
difl'olves therein very well, communicating a beautiful
purple colour. This mixture, when heated, depolits
flocks, and the blood coagulates. Mixed with two parts
of water, and evaporated, it forms a liquor fimilar to bile,
but not of the fame properties.
The metallic oxyds, of whatever defcription, all thicken
blood. Acids immediately coagulate it, and change its
colour, which proves that no free acid exifted previoufiy
in the blood ; for, injeft an acid into the vein of a living
animal, and as loon as the vein is tied up, the animal
dies. By filtration, and evaporating of the filtrated liquor
to drynefs by a gentle fire, and fubfequent lixiviation of
this relidual matter, fucli neutral falts are obtained, as
foda forms with each acid; any of which maybe indif-
criminately ufed. Neutral l'alts prevent the coagulation
of the blood.
Blood is diffolved by cauftic alkalis ; on which princi¬
ple depends the mode of forming Pruflian blue, or Pruf¬
fiat of iron, as defcribed under our inveftigation of that
■metal, p. 300.
Of the Serum. — Hitherto we have fpoken of blood
in general, or colleftively ; we mull now fpeak of its con-
tuent parts. The ferous part, though fufceptible of much
variety, is, in general, a liquid thicker than water; fo
that, in fome cafes, it refembles the white of an egg, at
other times it may take the confidence of a fyrup, but
moft commonly it is like a mucilage, or gum diffolved in
water.
According to the experiments of Deyeux, if ferum be
expol’ed to a gentle heat, a greyifh brown fcum is found
at the furface of the veffel ; this is diftindt from another
which lies at the bottom, and is thicker. That which
occupies the upper part is yellow, tranfparent, and tre¬
mulous; this is the gelatin ; the lower part is concrete,
whiter, and more firm, and is the albumen. Hence it ap¬
pears that the ferum contains two diftindt parts, -which
are obtained by evaporation, the albumen, and the gelatin.
If ferum be expofed to 6o° of heat, the gelatin remains
in folution with the albumen, which foon coagulates. By
a ftronger heat, it dries; the hydrogen is fet free, and
forms a water with the oxygen of the atmofphere; the
water thus produced is reckoned to be one-feventh part
of the bulk of the ferum. Then a folid mafs remains, of
a cryftalline appearance and hyacinth colour, which af¬
fords, 1. Carbonated hydrogen gas. 2. Sulphurated fetid
hydrogen gas. 3. Pruffiat of ammoniac. The refiduary
coal contains, carbonats of foda and of lime, muriat of
foda, phofphats of foda and lime, but no iron. The ferum
VOL. IV. No. 202,
S T R Y. 357
prefently changes its appearance by expofure to the air : it
aflumes a yellow colour, then red, and afterwards green :
it gives out a very difagreeable frnelL, and then affords am-
moniacal carbonat : it inclines, therefore, to putrefaction.
Serum unites with water in all proportions : with aerated
water it changes its nature, but not with common water.
Mixed with the former, it becomes red, and precipitates
white flocks; with the latter, it lofes its tranfparency.
Mix ten parts of water with one of ferum ; a membrane
is formed on the furface of the liquor; by evaporation,
gelatin is feparated. A mixture of two parts of water,
with one of ferum, becomes folid by the aftion of heat.
If lime-water be poured into water containing a fmall
quantity of ferum, calcareous phofphat is precipitated.
Serum alfo undergoes an alteration by being combined
with oxygen gas.
Deyeux and Parmentier have proved that ferum con¬
tains fulphur; by heating albumen in a filver faucepan,
they found that the filver loft its metallic brightnefs.
Thele chemifts even fucceeded in feparatjng the fulphur;
it is only neceflary to triturate in a glafs mortar fome of
the albumen, with a few drops of a wel Maturated folu¬
tion of lilver ; leave the mixture to digeft for a time ;
then warm it, after diluting it a little with water; and
l'ome greyilh filaments will appear, which become black
by degrees, and exhibit at the bottom of the velfel a
precipitate from which fulphur may be extracted. Laft-
ly, If pure potalh be boiled with the albumen and water,
a liquid is obtained, which, ftrained and mixed with ace¬
tic acid, gives out an hepatic odour, capable of changing
the colour and brightnefs of filver.
If ferum be mixed with an oxyd which readily parts
with its oxygen, as mercury, for inftance, it takes up the
oxygen, and the ferum becomes firm and bard, as if
baked ; but the mixture mult be made in the cold. Acids
alfo give a confiftence to ferum, by coagulating it. This
mixture being filtrated, and the fluid evaporated, the
neutral fait, which the acid made ufe of forms with fo¬
da, is obtained ; which proves that this laft fait exifted
in a difengaged ftate, and poflefled all its properties in
the ferum. The very cauftic alkalis, uncombined with
water, coagulate the albumen; but ammoniac dift'olves
and decompofes it. If weakened alkalis be then added,
they dift'olve the thickened albumen. Alkalis in gene¬
ral render the ferum more fluid by a kind of folution.
If ferum, newly feparated from the blood, be mixed
with alcohol, the mixture loon becomes turbid, and the
albumen is feparated. If a very pure alkali be poured
over the matter thus feparated, it difl'olves immediately,
and the water with which it may be mixed, will become
tranfparent.
Serum does not decompofe the calcareous and albu-
menous neutral falts; but it decompofes the metallic
falts. If a nitric folution of mercury be poured into the
ferum, there is a role -coloured precipitate; Fourcroy at¬
tributes this to the calcareous phofphat contained in the
ferum.
Of the Coagulum, or Clot. — Parmentier and
Deyeux chemically examined the clot of blood. They
remark, that it preferves its fmell and confiftence for
three, four, or five, days, in a veffel not very wide, and
fet in a cool place ; for in warm air it loon foftens and
putrefies ; its fmell then changes, and becomes very dif-
agreeable. If the clot be feparated from the ferum, it
may be preferved, and even entirely dried, without al¬
teration, efpecially if kept in a warm place : its colour,
in that cafe, is of a very deep red, with a kind of fenri-
tranfparency at the edges. If the clot, feparated from
the ferum, be left to drain for an hour, by then heating
it over a water-bath, it takes a firmer confiftence, and the
liquor which drops differs in no refpeft from ferum ; it
contains as much albumen as that from which' it was pre¬
vioufiy feparated.
Clot of blood, thrown into a certain quantity of boil¬
ing water, gives it a milky appearance ; a fcum riles at
4. Y the
CHEMISTRY.
358
the fame time to the furface, proceeding from a portion
of diifolved albumen ; the clot then aifumes a brown co¬
lour, and firmer confidence. Put in digeftion with alco¬
hol, it becomes harder alio ; but the ferolityi which is fe-
parated no longer contains albumen. The alcohol ac¬
quires merely a lemon colour, provided it be perfeftly
dephlegmated : mixture with water takes nothing from
its tranfparency. Water mixed with clot of blood di¬
vides it, becomes red, and remains clear forfeveral days;
it becomes turbid by degrees, and exhibits membranous
pellicles.
Acids aft in various ways upon clot of blood; but
they all tend to make it more concrete, becaufe they co¬
agulate the albumen ftill contained in the ferum which
adheres. The nitric acid, however, mult be excepted,
which feems to difl'olve it; the phofphoric and fulphuric
acids change it to a black colour. After having been
mixed with acids, it is not fo foluble in water as before;
it undergoes divifion only, and makes the water thick.
Clot of blood is diifolved by the carbonats of potalli
and ammoniac ; and, when deprived of their carbonic
acid, they become of a dark red colour. This kind of
folution may be preferred a long time without alteration ;
but the membranous pellicles before mentioned can no
longer be feparated ; it feems as if the alkalis, by com¬
bining with them, had given them a degree of folubilityr
Clot of blood, by diftill ation in a retort, affords the fame
produfts as animal fubllances ; and the coal which re¬
mains contains iron, fixed alkali, &c.
Colouring Part of Blood. — The colouring part
prefents different phenomena from either the albumen,
or the fibrin. It is of importance to know why the co¬
louring matter rather unites with the fibrin than with
the ferum ; it is becaufe this is what firft tends to coagu¬
late when at reft, and the oxygen fixes with this, rather
than with the ferum, from which it ealily feparates. The
colouring part feems to be the richeft in the conftitution
of the blood ; and it exhibits various phenomena, in its
circulation in different regions of the body. Expofed to
the contaft of air, the colouring matter abforbs oxygen,
carbon, and hydrogen. It becomes brown from the ac¬
tion of hydrogen gas: With carbonic acid gas, in a well-
corked bottle, the liquor becomes of a very dark blue;
with oxygen gas, it takes immediately a beautiful red
purple. If the clot of blood be put in contaft with oxy¬
gen gas, the latter is abforbed, and carbonic acid is
formed. This experiment is eafily made, by mixing
oxyd of mercury with colouring matter : the mercury
palfes to the metallic ftate, and the liquor becomes of
the colour of vermillion. Expofed to heat at a low tem ¬
perature, or in balneum marise, a thick matter of a dark
red colour is foon perceived to float in a liquid, which
had hitherto held it in folution. Separate this matter by
filtration, and then prefs it : it crumbles eafily between
the fingers, and falls to powder ; it has neither fmell nor
tafte ; by expdfure to the air, or to a gentle heat, it be¬
comes black. Parmentier and Deyeux are of opinion,
that this fubftance is the albumen of the ferum, com¬
bined with the colouring matter.
The colouring matter, diftilled to drynefs in a retort,
leaves a folid mafs, whence may be difengaged carbonated
hydrogen gas, and fulphurated hydrogen gas. During
the operation, the produfts are, a fetid oil, and Pruffiat
of ammoniac; the coal contains, carbonats of foda and
lime, muriat of loda, phofphats of foda and lime, and
iron. Pure colouring matter contains, moreover, albu¬
men, and fome foda not free, but in combination with
albumen, gelatin, and iron.
Of the Fibrin. — If frefh-drawn blood be agitated,
and ftirred about with pieces of wood, minute white
flocks will be found flicking to them : this is fibrin, or
the fibrous port of blood. This fibrous matter may be
feparated from the clot by waffling. Put the clot in a
hair fieve; pour water over it in a thin ftream ; rub and
wafti till the water has taken away all the colouring mat-
1
ter; what remains is the fibrin, which is white. Or, in¬
dole the clot in a cloth, and work it between the hands
in a tub of water ; the foluble part feparates by degrees ;
the refidue is the fibrin. This fubftance is of a peculiar
texture: by the folar microfcope, no red globules are
perceptible, only a kind of minute filaments formed into
branches. It is infipid, and contains no faline matters.
The aftion of fire diftinguifhes its nature from the al¬
bumen, which burns and boils up without noife; but fi¬
brin fhrinks up and flies like parchment. By dillillation
in a ftrong heat, it gives out a thick phlegm, which Hicks
to the fides of the vefiel, catching the flocks which fwim
about in the liquor; next comes over a thick fetid oil,
and at the fame time a fetid gas, Which adheres very
ftrongly to woollen rags ; carbonat of ammoniac is ob¬
tained alfo unfaturated with acid, and feveral other falts,
at prefent little known. Its coal is denfe, of a cryftal-
line form, bright, folid, refembling carbure of iron, diffi¬
cult to burn, furnifhing calcareous phofphat, and pure
carbon.
Fibrin, expofed to damp air, fwells and puffs up, and
has a fmell which exhibits the beginning of putrefaftion ;
it is faint and naufeous. In a dry air it dries up. Put
into a vefiel with a little water, and left for a confiderable
time, it is converted into a foft pulpy matter like fat.
Soaked a long while in a confiderable quantity of water,
it rots. Boiling water only hardens it, depoliting a little
gelatin ; but it can neither be converted into gelatin, nor
into glue. It is not changed by combuftible bodies : char¬
coal, phofphorus, fulphur, &c. have no aftion upon it.
It takes no oxygen from the metallic oxyds.
With weak nitric acid, at 200 of heat, azot is produced;
this is then difl'olved with effervefcence, and nitrous gas
is difengaged ; the refidue furnifhes oxalic acid, a little
malic acid, and lome acetous acid. At the furface of the
vefiel there is a fatty liibftance, fimilar to what floats on
the nitric acid. The muriatic, acetous, and acetic, acids,
difl'olve fibrin ; water and alkalis precipitate the fibrous
part united with acids, but no longer with the fame pro¬
perties.
The concentrated fulphuric acid afts upon fibrin, by
changing its colour to yellow, brown, and at length to
black; it thickens it alfo. The fulphuric acid does not
undergo decompoiition, unlefs it was very weak ; in that
cafe it pafl'es to the ftate of fulphureous acid; water is
formed with the oxygen which has been feparated from
the fulphuric acid, and the hydrogen of the fibrin, which
is difengaged during the combination of the fibrin with
the acid ; carbon is precipitated, and the fulphuric acid
remains weaker. Acetous acid and ammoniac are like-
wife produced ; which proves that fibrin contains hydro¬
gen, oxygen, carbon, and azot.
Cauftic alkalis diffolve fibrin with violence, when mixed
with water. By diftillation, an ammoniacal fubftance is
obtained, as hydrogen, oxygen, azot, and carbon.
Of MILK.
This is a liquid peculiar to females, whofe principal
ufe is to nourifli the young animal. The human race,
quadrupeds, and cetaceous animals, are the only crea¬
tures that furnifh milk : .ill others are deftitute of the or¬
gans which fecrete this fluid. In the changes which milk
undergoes, feveral caufes are to be confidered : the aftion
of heat, of air, of acids, oxyds, &c. Milk, expofed to
the fire, fwells up, rifes in a mafs, and a pellicle is formed
on its f urface, which is renewed as often as it is removed,
till all the cafeous or cheely part is feparated ; for, accord¬
ing to Parmentier and Deyeux, it is the cafeous part
whith forms thel'e pellicles. Diftilled with a very gentle
heat, che firft produft is an infipid inodorous water ; after
fome time, this water grows turbid, and becomes putrid,
with a fmell of ammoniac ; it is ulually about a f'eventh
or an eighth part : then the milk thickens, and collefts
into a vifcous mafs. When it has boiled, it is always
thicker, becaufe it has loft a little water; if it has not
been
C FI E M I
been quite coagulated, it keeps fiveet the longer; in the
contrary cafe it quickly becomes four. With a heat Ibme-
what (l.ronger, on a water-bath, in a matrafs, it becomes
like folid pap, or thick milk : this, with the addition of
fugar, orange-flower, almonds, and cinsmon, forms
an extraft known by the name of franchipane. This ex-
trabl, expofeci to a naked fire in a retort, affords a fat
oil, with a fqiid odour, carbonated hydrogen, and car¬
bonic acid gas ; the refiduary coal contains, carbonats of
potafh and loda,muriatofpotafb,and calcareous phofphat.
Milk, expoled to the air in wide open veflels, in order
to prefent a, large furface, becomes covered with cream,
or the butyrous matter, from which butter is made : in
this cafe the milk rifes, which proves that it abforbs oxy¬
gen from the air. But, if left too long in contaft with
air, the furface grows yellow and oily, the interior part
becomes four, and little flocks are leen to float in it.
Milk is capable of the vinous fermentation. Put it
into an open cafk, agitate it frequently, and it will fer¬
ment, grow four, and increafe in bulk ; there is a dil-
engagement of carbonic acid gas, and a vinous liquor is
produced. This is the mode ufed by the Tartars to pre¬
pare wine from mare’s milk; but it is laid they add a fa¬
rinaceous matter to affift the fermentation.
Several gales unite with milk, and coagulate it ; as
fulphurated hydrogen gas, carbonated hydrogen gas, and
carbonic acid gas. Milk, mixed with ten parts of water,
cannot afterwards produce cheefe. Many Jubilances have
the property of coagulating milk, though they be not
acid; as, the plant called curdlemilk, artichoke-flowers,
Spanilh thillle, fugar, extrafls, gums, the inner part of
a fowl’s gizzard, animal gelatin, fifli-glue, hart’s-horn,
See. Acids produce the ferae eftedls on milk; they im¬
mediately coagulate it
According to Scheele, if a little alcohol be mixed with
milk, and the mixture be expofed to heat in clofe veflels,
care being taken to let out occafionally the gas which
arifes during the fermentation, in a month’s time the
whey will be found converted into vinegar.
Rennet, or the curdled milk found in the ftomachs of
calves, is much uled, efpecially in the making of cheefe.
By means of this alio is prepared what is called <whey.
Put a pint of milk into a lilver or earthen veflel over hot
allies, and add two grains by weight of the rennet, diluted
in a little water : as the milk heats, it curdles, and the
whey or ferous part Separates from the white or cafeous
part. When tbefe parts appear diftincl:, pour the whole
Into a cloth : the whey pall’es through into the veflel be¬
neath, and the curd remains, which is to be left to drain.
The whey is always whiter, if it contains a fmall part of
the caleous matter much divided ; but it may be feparated,
fo that the whey remains limpid or colourlefs ; this is
called clarifying. Put into a veflel fome white of egg, a
little of the ierum, or whey, and a few grains of tartar-
ous acidule in powder ; ftir or whip this mixture with
ofier-twigs ; then add the reft of the whey, and place
the whole once more on the fire, till it begins to bubble
up. The tartareous acidule completes the coagulation
of the remaining white part of the milk ; the white of
egg hardens by boiling, and enclofes the caleous part.
When the whey is clear, filter it through blotting-paper;
the ftrained liquor is perfedlly limpid, and of a green-
ilh call ; this is clarified nxikey.
Whey has a mild Iweetilh tafte ; it turns fyrup of vio¬
lets green. In a gentle heat, it gives out water in the
proportion of about a feventh or eighth part. It Hill re¬
tains an animal fubftance like little flocks, becoming fetid
in time ; this is albumen. Whey may be evaporated to the
confidence ol honey ; after which it is put into moulds,
and dried in the fun. This is the fugar of milk in cakes ;
and is diliolved in water, clarified with whites of eggs,
evaporated to the confidence of fyrup, and cryftallized in
the cold. By this treatment it affords white cryllals in rliom-
boidal parallelipipedons ; the mother water depofits yel¬
low and brown cryllals, which are purified by fuccelfive
s T R Y. 359
dilutions. Lichtenftein has examined and analyzed the
different fugars of milk, which are fold at various prices
in Swifleriand, and has more particularly diilinguilhed,
i. The lweet fugar of milk, which is of a white colour,
obtained from lweet and purified whey. 2. The acefcent
fugar of milk, obtained from four whey. 3. The fugar
of milk rendered impure by fat fubftances ; which fepa-
rate, according to him, in the fiift cryftallization. 4.. Su¬
gar of milk, mixed with oil and common fait, which
cryftallizes the lad. 5. Sugar of milk, mixed with fat
matter, common lalt and fal-ammoniac. It is adliefive
and moift, and affords ammoniac on the addition of fixed
alkali. 6. Sugar of milk, mixed with all the before-
mentioned fubftances, and .likewife with extractive and
cafeous matter. This lalt is of the confidence of honey,
become rancid, and is acrid and difagreeable.
Sugar of milk, when very pure, has a flightly faccha-
rine, faint, and, as it were, earthy tafte; it always lofes
by fucceflive dilutions. It is foluble in three or four parts
of boiling water; and, according to Scheele, Rouelle, and
Vulgamoz, it affords the fame products as fugar by dif-
tillation. Rouelle obtained from a pound of this fait,
by burning it, twenty-four or thirty grains of afhes ;
three-fourths of which were muriat of potafh, and one-
fourth carbonat of potafh. On a red-hot coal, fugar of
milk melts, boils up, emits an odour of caramel, and
burns like fugar. Thefe properties appear to indicate,
that this fait is capable of affording the oxalic, like fugar
by the nitric acid ; and Scheele has fhown, by his experi¬
ments, that it does : but he obferved, that four parts of
Ipirit of nitre is required for this purpofe ; that four
ounces of fugar of milk affords five grains of oxalic acid ;
and he has alfo difeovered, that if the refidues of fugar
of milk be treated by the nitric acid, and filtrated, in
Order to cryftallize the oxalic acid by evaporation, a white
powder remains on the filter, which he found to be a pe¬
culiar acid, we give it the name of faccholaftic. He ob¬
ferved, that it poflefles the following properties. . It has
the form of a white granulated powder ; two drachms of
this fait, very pure, being heated in a glafs retort, melted,
fwelled.up, and became black ; a brown fait, of a mixed
fmell of benzoin and amber, fublimed, weighing thirty-
five grains; this fait was acid, foluble in alcohol, more
difficultly in water, and burned on charcoal. The re¬
ceiver contained a liquor of a brown colour, and not of
an oily nature ; eleven grains of charcoal remained in the
retort. Carbonic acid and hydrogen gas were difengaged
during this dillillation. The laccholadtic acid is very
fparingly foluble in water, one ounce of boiling water
diflolving only fix grains; one fourth of which was pre¬
cipitated by cooling. According to Morveau, this acid
efiervefees with the hot folution of carbonat of potalh.
The faccholaftat of potafii was obtained, by cooling,,
which was foluble it eight times its weight of hot water,
and cryftallized again by cooling. The fait is formed
with the foda was cryllallizab-le, but required no more
than five parts of water for its folution. This acid com¬
bines likewife with ammoniac ; the neutral fait, thus pro¬
duced, lofes its alkali by heat. With barytes, alumine,
magnefia, and lime, it forms falts nearly infoluble. It
a<5ls but very feebly on the metals, and forms with their
oxyds falts of difficult folubility. It precipitates the ni-
trats of mercury, lead, and lilver, as well as the muriat
of lead. Scheele, when he firl’t made this difcovery, fup-
pofed that the white powder, depofited by the oxalic acid
obtained from fugar of milk by means of the nitric acid,
was merely a portion of the calcareous oxalat formed of
the lime, which might be contained in that animal fait.
But he was foon undeceived, by pouring a fmall quantity
of pure oxalic acid into a folution of fugar of milk, as
the mixture afforded no precipitate. Weverthelels, Herm-
ftadf, who has pubiilhed two memoirs in Creil’s Chemi¬
cal Journal, the lecond of which treats particularly of
this acid earth, thinks, notwithftanding the experiments
of Scheele, that it is a compound of oxalic acid, lime,
and
CHEMISTRY.
360
and a fat fubftance. Bat Morveau, after examining the
experiments of this chemift: with his ufual accuracy, and
comparing them with thofe of Scheele, has fliown in the
new DiSlionnaire Encyclopedique, that Hermftadt has not
accpmplifned his undertaking, and that, even from his
own refults, the difcovery of Scheele is rather confirmed
than deftroyed. Morveau has likewife made feveral in¬
genious experiments which confirm this affertion. To
thele accounts we may add, that the oxalic and faccho-
la-6lic acids do not exift ready formed in fugar of milk,
and that this fait contains only the bafes, which take the
oxygen or acidifying principle from the nitric acid. We
may likewife obferve, that fubfequent experiments will
probably (how, that the faccholadticacid is nothing more
than a modification of fome other vegetable acid ; for
every circumftance tends to prove, that the principles of
whey are derived from the vegetables on which the ani¬
mals fubfift.
The following appears to be the molt convenient pro-
cefs for obtaining faccholaftic acid. It is given by Boyl-
fon, Mem. Soc. Med. 1787-8. 619. One ounce of fugar
of milk was dilfolved in water, and the folution evapo¬
rated to two ounces, which were digefted for feveral days
in a gentle heat, with nine drachms of nitric acid. When
evaporated to the confidence of honey, the mixture was
diluted and filtered, the lacchola£Iic acid, which had
been formed, remaining in a white powder on the filter¬
ing paper. A frefh quantity of nitric acid was added to
the filtered liquor, and the former procefs repeated, till
■the whole of the fugar of milk was converted into fac-
.choladtic and oxalic acids. By this method, one ounce
of faccholaftic acid, and nine drachms forty-eight grains
of oxalic acid, were procured from four ounces of fugar
of milk and feventeen ounces of nitric acid.
Whey, when prepared with new milk, contains a fac-
charine elfential fait, but it loon acquires an acid tafte,
hy the eftabliihment of the fermentation. This change
is produced by the alterationof a mucilaginous principle,
^contained in themilk; and it is the developement of this
acid which occafions the fpontaneous feparation of the
whey from. the other fubftances contained in milk. It is
■therefore necelfary to examine the acid, which is formed
in milk, and conftitutes fermented whey. It is a well-
known fa6t, that milk left expofed in a temperature of
feventy or eighty degrees, experiences, in a few days, a
•fermentation which developes an acid, and feparates the
butter and cheefe. The acid, formed by this fermenta¬
tion, and which is as ftrong as it will be at the end of
twelve or fifteen days, has been examined by Scheele,
and is called the lattic acid. The following is the procefs
ufed by Scheele, to obtain it in a Hate of purity. After
having attempted, in vain, to feparate the acid by dif-
.tillation from four whey, by which he obtained only a
frnall quantity of vinegar, he evaporated the whey to
one-eighth, after having filtrated it, to feparate all the
cafeous matter. From this he precipitated the animal
earth, by lime water. He then diluted the fluid with
-three times its weight of water, and feparated the lime
by the oxalic acid ; at the fame time taking care that this
laft acid Ihould not remain difengaged in the folution,
which was ealily afcertained and prevented, by the addi¬
tion of fucceflive fmall portions of lime-water. After
evaporating the liquor to the confidence of honey, the
fugar of milk, and feveral other foreign fubltances, were
then feparated, by the addition of alcohol, which ealily
diflolves the laftic acid. Laftly, The decanted folution
being diltilled, the alcohol palled over, and the pure
laftic acid remained in the retort. Scheele has oblerved
following properties in this acid.
When ftroiigly evaporated, it did not afford cryftals,
but attrabfcd the humidity of the air: by diftillation, it
afforded an empyreumatic acid, refembling pyrotararous
.acid ; a fmall quantity of oil, and a mixture of carbonic
acid gas, and of carbonated hydrogen gas. With the
three alkalis, and alio with barytes and lime, it forms de-
liquefcent faits. Its combination with magnefia cryftal-
lizes, blit likewife attracts the moilture of the air. The
greater part of thefe lalts, or alkaline and earthy lattats,
are foluble in alcohol. It does not at all attack cobalt,
bifmuth, antimony, mercury, filver or gold, even by the
heat of ebullition. It diflolves zink and iron, producing
hydrogen gas ; the firft of thefe faits, called the ladhit of
zink, cryftallizes ; the fecond, or the lablat of iron, forms
a brown deliquelcent mifs. The labtic acid oxydates,
and diflolves copper and lead. The lattic folution of
the latter metal depofits a fmall quantity of fulphat of
lead, which indicates the prefence of a fmall quantity of
fulphuric acid in this animal acid. Laftly, It decompofes
the acetit of potafli ; a property, which, together with
moft of thofe here mentioned, denotes that the laddie acid
differs from vinegar. Scheele adds, likewife, that a true
vinegar may be obtained from milk, by mixing fix fpoon-
fuls of alcohol with three pints of milk, and fuffering the
mixture to ferment in a well-clofed veffel. The gas, which
is difengaged during the fermentation, muff: be fuffered
to efcape from time to time ; and at the end of a month
the milk is changed into good vinegar, which may be"
ftrained through a cloth, and preferved in bottles. This
celebrated German chemift likewile adds, that milk, in
a bottle whole neck is plunged in a veffel fided "with the
fiime liquor, and expofed to a heat fomewhat ltronger than
that of fummer, undergoes a fermentation which affords
a large quantity of elaltic fluid. This laft fluid difplaces
the milk, and almoft entirely empties the bottle, at the
end of two days. The acid produced in this fermenta¬
tion, which takes place without the contabf of air, ap¬
pears to receive its oxygen, or acidifying bafe of the air,
from the decompofition of the water.
Earths and alkalis have a fenfible aftion on whey.
Lime and barytes afford a plentiful precipitate, which is
phofphat of lime ; with potafh there is alfo phofphat of
lime, whence it might be fuppofed to be contained in it.
With acids, the whey thickens, but heat is requifite ;
fulphats or other faits are produced according to the acid
employed, but neither muriats nor pholphats. The ox¬
alic acid demonftrates the prefence of lime in whey ; phof-
phats of lime and of foda are obtained. The metallic
faits fliew that pholphorus is contained in whey. With
nitrat of mercury, a precipitate is obtained compofed of
the nitrat and phofphat of mercury.
Of Cheese. — We have feen tiiat the folid mafs, or
cream, which rifes to the furface of the milk, contains
two other principles, cheefe and butter. When cheefe is
prepared for the table, the butter is not feparated ; it is
lweeter and more pleafant. Whether white and loft, or
yellow and firm, cheefe is a mixture of feveral fubftances,
which a chemift diltinguifhes from what is called merely
the cafeous part. Clieeie dried, and put in a proper place
to experience a beginning of putrid fermentation, ac¬
quires confidence, tafte, and colour. There are various
lorts of cheefe. For making cream-cheefe, curdle the
milk quickly with rennet, let all the whey be drained
from it, then wall; it repeatedly in very pure water. The
aftion of a gentle heat hardens it. Diftillation on a wa¬
ter-bath extrafts an infipid phlegm, which putrefies.
Dried cheefe, diftilled in a retort, affords an ammonia-
cal phlegm, a ponderous oil, and much ammoniacal car-
bonat. Its coal is denle, very difficultly incinerated, and
does not afford fixed alkali. When this coal is treated
with nitric acid, it is found to contain lime, and the
pholphoric acid.
Cheefe putrefies in a hot temperature; it fwells, emits
a naufeous lfnell, becomes imperfeftly fluid, and is co¬
vered with a feum, or froth, arifing from the dilengage-
ment of a very ftrong-fimelling and mephitic gas, which
efcapes with difficulty from this vifcid matter. Cheefe
is inioluble in cold water ; hot water hardens it. Scheele
has oblerved, that, when it has been precipitated by a fo¬
reign acid, boiling water diflolves a part. Treated with
potalh, ammoniac is produced. Alkalis diflolve it in
general.
CHEMISTRY.
361
general. La Grange has fome experiments on this
fubjett, printed in the 37th vol. of the Journal de Phy-
fique. “ That which fucceeded belt,” (ays he, “ was to
curdle milk by the ele6tric fluid, and then reltore it to
its priftine ftate by means of a pure alkali. This milk
was as mild, as white, and as creamy, as when drawn
from the animal : but to curdle it again, required fix
times as much acid, or eleftric fluid, as at firit.”
The concentrated acids likewife diflolve cheefe; nitric
acid difengages azotic gas ; but the vegetable acids do
not fenlibly diffolve it. Its folution in the mineral acids
is precipitated by the alkalis, which re-difl'olve it if added
in too great a quantity. The neutral lalts, more parti¬
cularly muriat of foda, retard its putrefa&ion. Alcohol
coagulates it. P’rom all thefe fafts it appears, that cheefe
is a fubftance greatly refembling the albumen of the
blood.
Of Butter. — The manner of making butter varies
according to the materials employed. For good frefli
butter, a certain quantity of the ferous and caleous mat¬
ter Ihould be retained. Butter is of a loft confiftence, of
a yellow more or lefs inclining to the colour of gold, and
of a mild pleafant tafte. If butter incloled in a glafs tube
be heated, its three parts will be feparated, the butyrous
or yellow, the ferous, and the caleous.
Butter in melting approaches to the ftate of fat, not
of oil, as has been faid : its conftituent parts are a proof
of it. At the fame time the albuminous part is feparated,
and it becomes yellower. It may be coloured by the
juice of winter-cherries, carrots, faffron, orcanet, fpinage,
tin&ure of violets, &c. Butter melts by a gentle heat;
when congealed, it cryftallizes and becomes granulated,
having a particular tafte and fmell. If left long upon
the fire, its acid it developed. Diftilled with a naked fire,
hydrogen is difengaged, which, with the oxygen of the
atmofpheric air forms water. By keeping up the heat,
it furnifhes a very ftrong and pungent acid of a penetrat¬
ing fmell; this is febacic acid. ; a fluid oil, and afterwards
a concrete coloured oil of a ftrong fmell, and fome car¬
bonated hydrogen gas. The remaining coal is not abun¬
dant ; it contains very little laline matter; a little alkaline
matter and calcareous phofphatmay be extra&ed from it.
Butter foon becomes four and rancid in a warm air ;
by wafhing and fhaking it may be in fome meafure re-
ftored, but never completely. The w’ater will afterwards
redden the blue vegetable colours. The carbonic acid
turns butter of a brown colour. Alkalis diffoive it ; and
thus very good foaps might be made. Muriat of foda
lias the property of keeping butter fweet, by abforbing
the water from the atmofphere, and preventing it from
combining with the butter.
Properties of different Kinds of Milk. —
Woman’s milk will not furnifh butter. The milk offheep,
cows, goats, and women, has a very thick cream. Cream
from the milk of women, mares, and afles, never can be
made into butter. The cafeous matter is fcarcely coagu-
lable in fheep’s milk, but very eafily in that of cows and
goats. The ferum is very plentiful in the milk of wo¬
men, mares, and afles ; lefs fo in that of cows and goats,
and leaft of all in (heep. The proportions, according to
Hoffman, Parmentier, and Deyeux, are as follow : In
Iheep, o-i 5 ; goats, o-20 ; women, C27 ; mares, C30 ;
afles, 0-35.
Haller has given the following proportions of the fugar
contained in the milk of different animals1:
Four ounces of Iheep’s milk afforded of
Sugar of milk,
Goat’s milk afforded
Cow’s milk,
Human milk,
Mare’s milk,
Afs’s milk.
-
-
35 or
37 grains.
-
-
47 —
49
-
-
53 —
54
-
-
58 —
67
-
-
69 —
70
-
-
80 —
82
Rouelle has obferved, that the whey of cow’s milk,
from which the fugar of milk has been extracted, takes
Vol. IV. No. aoj.
the form of jelly by cooling 5 and he confequently admits
it to contain gelatinous matter.
Milk is an agreeable food, of confiderable ufe in a
great number of cafes; it is even one of the moll valu¬
able medicines we poffefs. It correfts the acrid humours
in diforders of the fkin, and of the articulations. It ci-
catril'es -ulcers of a good kind. It may be charged with,
the aromatic parts of plants, and is then an excellent re¬
medy in the pulmonary confumption. All ftomachs,
however, do not digeft milk. Such perfons as are inclined
to acidities in the firft paflages, are ufually incommoded
by it ; and in general it ought to be adminiftered pru¬
dently. Milk, rendered medicinal, by caufing the animal
which gives it to take different fubftances, is often ufed
with fuccefs in various diforders.
The millc-of different animals has certain peculiar
virtues. That of the human fpecies is mild, of afaccliarine
tafte, and is greatly ferviceable in the marafmus. The
milk of the afs is l'uccefsfully ufed in the pulmonary con¬
fumption and the gout ; it ufually relaxes. Mare’s milk
relembles that of the afs. Goat’s milk is ferous, and
lightly aftringent. Cow’s milk is the-thickeft, the fatteft,
and the moft nourilhing; it is likewife the moft difficult
of digeftion, and often requires to be diluted with water,
or with fome aromatic infufion, efpecially if it does not
eafily pafs off, or produces coftivenefs. Milk is likewife
ufed externally, as a loftening and emollient remedy. It
mitigates pain, ripens gatherings and abfcelfes, and haf~
tens fuppuration. It is applied hot, and enclofed in a.
bladder on the dilealed parts.
Of BILE.
The bile, or gall, is a fluid feparated in thatglJndulous
vifcera called the liver. The nearer the bile lies to the
ftomach, the more the animal eats. The bile, when fe¬
parated, is collefted in the gall-bladder, and thence goes
to the duodenum. The horfe and flag have no gall-blad¬
der ; but it is never wanting in birds and fillies : moft ani¬
mals have it, except infedls and worms. The bile is of
a green colour inclining to yellow, bitter in tafte, and
of a glutinous, or almoft gelatinous, confiftence; it pours
out like fyrup; and by agitation it lathers like foap-wa-
ter. It will take out fpots of greafe.
When diftilled in the water-bath, it affords a phlegm,
which is neither acid nor alkaline, but after a certain time
putrefies. This phlegm often exhibits a lingular charac¬
ter ; it emits an odoriferous fmell, of confiderable ftrength,
and greatly refembles that of mufk or amber. Fourcroy
thinks it might be ufeful in perfumery. When all the
water which bile affords in the water-bath has been dif¬
tilled off, the refidue has the form of an extract, more or
lefs dry, and of a deep and brownifh green. This extradl
of bile attrafts the humidity of the air, is very tenacious
and pitchy, and is totally foluble in water; by diftilling
it in a retort, it affords a yellowifh and alkaline phlegm,
an empyreumatic animal oil, much ammoniacal carbo-
nat, and an elaftic fluid, confiding of a mixture of car¬
bonic acid and hydrogen gas ; after this operation, a coal
remains of confiderable bulk, and lefs difficult to incine¬
rate than thofe we have hitherto fpoken of. According
to Cadet, who communicated a very valuable memoir, on
the analyfis of bile, to the Royal Academy, this coal
contains carbonat of foda, an animal earth, and a final!
portion of iron. By flow diftillation, it affords febacic
acid and Prufiic acid, much more than other animal fub¬
ftances, carbonat, febat, and prufliat, of ammoniac. A
denfe heavy coal remains, difficult of incineration ; but,
when reduced to allies, calcareous phofphat and fulphat
of foda may be obtained by lixiviation. Expofed to a
temperature between fixty-five and eighty-five degrees, it
quickly changes, its fmell becomes more naufeous, its
colour is deftroyed, whitifh mucilaginous flakes are preci¬
pitated, its vifcidity difappears, and its fmell foon becomes
fetid and penetrating. When the putrefaftion is in an
advanced ftate, its fmell becomes fweet, and refembles
4 Z amber,
362 C H £ M
amber. Vauquelin has difcovered, that the bile of the
ox, heated in the water-bath, and (lightly evaporated,
may be afterwards preferved for many months without
alteration, as is likewife the cafe with refpeil to vinegar
which has been boiled. He likewife difcovered, that
the altered bile of the ox, which exhales a fetid fmell,
and has a brown dirty and turbid colour, becomes of a
a beautiful green, and lofes its fmell when heated, fome
concrete albuminous flakes are then feparated from it.
Bije is much changed by air; none of the animal fluids
give fo fetid a fmell. In uniting with water, it exhibits
rays or ftreaks ; the flocks difappear ; from dull it pafl'es
to yellow, then green, according to the quantity or pro¬
portion of water. Mixed with water and heated, it lofes
its ill fmell, and may be preferved unchanged.
All the acids decompofe it in the fame manner as foap,
and produce a coagulum. If this mixture be filtrated,
and the fluid evaporated, a neutral fait is obtained,
which is found to confift: of the acid made ufe of and
foda. This valuable experiment, firfl: made by Cadet,
proves the exi Hence of foda in the bile. The matter re¬
maining on the filter, in thefe experiments, is thick, vif-
cid, very bitter, and very inflammable ; its colour and
confidence vary, according to the nature and concentra¬
tion of the acid made ufe of- The fulphuric acid gives
it a deep green colour; the nitric acid, fomewhat con¬
centrated, a brilliant yellow; and the muriatic, acid, a
very beautiful light green colour: thefe colours, however,
vary greatly, according to the date of the bile, and of the
acids. This precipitate has been conlidered as a fubdance
limilar to refin, which fwells, melts, and takes fire on hot
coals, is totally foluble in alcohol, and water precipitates
it like the refinous juices. The ailion of acid on bile,
proves, therefore, that it is a true foap, formed by an oil
of the nature of refms, combined with foda. They like¬
wife indicate the prefence of a certain quantity of the al¬
buminous matter in this animal fluid, which caufes it to
coagulate by fire, by acids, and by alcohol ; it is the fame
principle likewife which produces its putrefaction. Neu¬
tral falts, mixed with bile, prevent its putrefadiion.
Metallic folutions, and bile, mutually decompofe each
other ; the foda of this humour unites to the acid of the
foiution, and the coloured oil of the bile precipitates in
combination with the metallic oxyd, forming metallic
ibaps, ufeful in painting.
Bile unites readily with oils, and takes them out of
cloths in the fame manner as foap. This fluid is foluble
in alcohol, which feparates the albuminous matter. The
tindlure of bile is not decompofed by water; which fhow's,
that this fubdance is a true animal foap, equally foluble-
in aqueous and fpirituous mendrua. Ether likewife dif-
iolves it very readily. Vinegar decom poles bile in the
fame manner as the mineral acids ; when the filtrated li¬
quor is evaporated, the acetit of foda is obtained, well
crydallizecl.
From thefe feveral experiments, it follows, that bile is
a compound of much water, a peculiar aroma, albumi¬
nous mucilage, a peculiar concrefcible oil, and carbonat
of foda. Cadet found it to contain a fait, which he thinks
to be of the nature of fugar of milk, and whofe exiltence
has been fince confirmed by Van Bochaute. But it is
probable, that this pretended faline matter, is rather ana¬
logous to the iamellated Aiming and crydalline oily fub¬
dance, which Poulletier difcovered in the human biliary
calculi, and of which we are about to treat.
Bile, confidered with rei'pect to the animal economy,
is a fluid which appears to allfd the procefs of digeilion.
Its faponaceous quality renders it capable of uniting oily
fubdances with water. Its bitter talte proves, that it fii-
mulates the iritedine^, and promotes their aition on the
aliments. Roux, a celebrated phyfician and chemifl, of
the Faculty of Medicine at Paris, was of opinion, that
the bile is likewife principally calculated to evacuate the
colouring part of the blood from the body. It appears
to be decompofed in the duodenum, by the adds which
S T R Y.
are almod always c'ifengaged in digedion. It is certain,
at lead, that it is greatly altered, elpecially in its colour,
wrhen it compotes part of the excrements. Judicious phy-
ficians may therefore, in many cales,, make uleful infer¬
ences from the infpeition of thefe matters, w'hich indi¬
cate the date of the bile, and that of the liver, which
feparates it.
Dr. Bodock of Liverpool has fucceeded. in forming
a fubdance extremely fimilar to the refin of bile, from
the craffamentum of blood digefted with the nitric
acid. Two ounces of crafiamentum were boiled with
one ounce of nitric acid, till the whole of the crafiamen¬
tum was diflolved. During the diflblutipn, a great quan¬
tity of azotic gas was dilengaged, and a (mail quantity
of nitrous and carbonic acid gas. When the foiution
cooled, a Iamellated fubdance, confiding chiefly ofadipo-
cire was depofited, and the fupernatant liquid was of a
dark green colour It w'as faturated with potalh. No
precipitation followed, but the cryftals of nitrat of pot-
afh procured by evaporation were impregnated with a
brownifh coloured matter lblnble in alcohol. This mat¬
ter, when feparated from the alcohol, had a pitchy con¬
fidence, a deep yellow colour, and a bitter tafle. When
boiling water was poured on the adipo-cire, a fimilar
matter was procured from it. De Secretione, Edin. 1798.
The extrait of the gall of bullocks, and of many other
animals, is ufed as a very good dom.achic medicine. It
fupplies the defeit and inaitivity of the bile, reftoies the
tone of the flomacb, and eftablifhes the functions of that
organ, when debilitated; but great care muft be taken in
its ufe, becaufe it is acrid and heating; and it mult be
adminiftered only in very lmall doles, elpecially in irrita¬
ble iubjedts.
Of Biliary Calculi. — Whenever the human bile is
detained in the gall-bladder by any caufe, and elpecially
by fpafmodic contradtions, as in melancholic or hyfteric
diforders, long-continued grief, &c. it thickens, and pro¬
duces brown, light, inflammable concretions, of a very
ftrong bitter talte, which are called biliary calculi. Thele
concretions are often very numerous, diftending the gall¬
bladder, and fometimes entirely filling it. They produce
violent hepatic cholics, vomiting, jaundice, &c. Fourcrdy
diftinguilhes them into three varieties : the firfl: are brown,
blackilh, irregular, tuberculated, and formedas it were by
biceps. The fecond, which are harder, brown, yellowifn,
or greenilb, exhibit concentric layers, and are often co¬
vered with a dry, fmooth, and greyifh, crult. Their form
is commonly angular and polyhedral. The third variety
comprehends the white oval concretions, more or lets,
irregular in their form, covered with a whitilh and often
unequal cruft, in fryers of a pathol’e appearance, or in
tranfparent cryftaliine plates, often radiating from the
centre to the circumference.
The biliary calculi, of the fecond variety,, have been
examined by Poulletier de la Salle. He has obferved,
that they are. foluble in alcohol. After having digefted
the ftones in ftrong fpirit of wine for a certain time, he
obferved that the fluid was filled with (lender, brilliant,
cryftaliine particles, having all the appearances of a fait;
and the experiments made on this faline fubilance, gave
occafion to fufpeit, that it was an oily fait, fimilar, in
fome of its properties, to the acid fait, known by the
name of flowers of benzoin, but its nature is not at all
known. If water be added to the foiution of calculi in
alcohol, a fat matter will be precipitated, which Four-
croy calls adipo-cire.
The difcovery of Poulletier de la Salle has thrown light
on fome fails, collefted by the Royal Society of Medi¬
cine, relpeiling the ftones of the gall-bladder. Thislo-
ciety received from feveral phyli clans, biliary calculi of
the third variety we have mentioned, which have not hi¬
therto been delcribed. They confift of a mafs of crys¬
talline tranfparent laminse, fimilar to mica, or talc, which
have ablolutely the fame form as the fait difcovered by
Poulletier. It even appears, that the human bile is ca^>
C H E M I
pable of affording a great quantity of thefe cryftals 5 for
the Society of Medicine is in polfeffion of a gall-bladder
entirely filled with this fiiline tranfparent concretion.
Fourcroy, on examining thefe cryftallized biliary calculi,
found them to be of an oily nature, 'fimilar to fpermaceti.
Soap, the mixture of oil of turpentine and ether, &c.
have been propofed to.diffolve the biliary calculi. It is
an important obfervation, that they are only found in the
gall-bladder of oxen after dry feafons and a fcarcity of
fre'fh fodder ; and that they difappear in the fpring and
fummer, when thefe animals find abundance of green and
fucculent vegetables. The butchers are well acquainted
with this phenomenon ; they know that thefe itones are
found in oxen from the month of November to the month
of March, and not afterwards. This phenomenon fuf-
ficiently fhows the power of the faponaceous juices of
plants in diffolving the biliary calculi. Yet it is not to
be thought, that medicines, however afiiive and volatile,
can be introduced into the gall-bladder in fufficient
quantity to dilfolve the biliary calculi, with the fame
energy as in our experiments. The ceflation of fpafm,
and confequently the dilatation of the biliary canal, is
probably the true caufe of the good effedls of the ethereal
mixtures that have been propoled by Durande, which we
would recommend to be made up without oil of turpen¬
tine ; belides being very heating, it produces no uleful
effedi but that of diminifliing the volatility of the ether;
and it has been proved, that the yolks of eggs, and un¬
doubtedly many other fubftances, will ferve the fame pur-
pofe as well, and without the fame inconveniences.
Of FAT.
Fat.varies according to the parts it occupies; it is fof-
ter and more fluid about the heart, and large vefiels ; if
it becomes folid round the heart, it is a difeafe.
In examining- the nature of Art, we fit all take that of
quadrupeds, and chiefly that about the kidneys, called
axunge, or fuet. Axunge, properly fo called, is a fblid
mafs, enclofed in many veficles of a cellular texture; it
fis leparated from foreign bodies for the purpole of ana-
lyfis ; this is termed purification. To prepare it for phar¬
maceutical purpofes, or for inveltigating its chemical
properties, it muft be cut in pieces, and the membranes
and veflels feparated ; it is afterwards to be waftied with
much water, and meited in a new earthen veffel, with
the addition of a fmall quantity of water; when this fluid
is diflipated, and the ebullition ceafes, it mull be ltrained
into a glazed earthen veffel, where it fixes, and becomes
folid.
The fat of any animal, expofed to a gentle heat, li¬
quefies, and congeals by cooling. If it be llrongly heat¬
ed, with contaft of air, it emits a fmoke of a penetrating
fmel), which excites tears and coughing, and takes fire
when fufticiently heated to be volatilized : the char¬
coal it affords is not abundant. If fat be diftiiled on a
water bath, an infipid water, of a flight animal, finell,
is obtained, which is neither acid nor alkaline, but which
foon acquires a putrid fmell, and depofits filaments
of a mucilaginous nature. This, phenomenon, which
takes place with the water obtained by diftillation on
the water-bath, from any animal fubftance, proves,
that this fluid carries up with it a mucilaginous princi¬
ple, which is the caufe of its alteration. Fat, diftiiled in
a retort, affords phlegm, at firit aqueous, and afterwards
llrongly acid; an oil partly liquid, and partly concrete ;
and a very fmall quantity of charcoal, exceedingly diffi¬
cult to incinerate, in which Crell found a fmali quantity
of calcareous phofphat. Thefe products have an acid and
penetrating fmell, as ftrong as that of the fulpliureous
acid. The acid is of a peculiar nature, and has been
carefully examined by Crell ; but, as it is very difficult to
obtain by dithllation, this celebrated chemiff has ufed a
much more certain and expeditious procefs. The con¬
crete oil may be rectified, by repeated diltiilation, fo as
to become very fluid, volatile, and penetrating ; in a word,
to prefent all the characters of a true ellential or volatile
S T R y. 363.
oil. Twenty-eight ounces of human fat afforded Crell
twenty ounces five drachms forty grains of fluid oil,
three ounces three drachms and thirty grains of febacic
acid, three ounces one drachm forty grains of a brilliant-
charcoal, confiderably refembling plumbago, or carbure
of iron, as Morveau remarks. Five drachms ten grains
of matter were loft in this analyfis, which may be at¬
tributed to the water in vapour, and the elaftic fluids,-
becaufe Crell did not ufethe pneumatical chemical appa¬
ratus.
Fat expofed to a hot air, alters very quickly; the mild
and fcarcely fenfible fmell is changed to' ftrong rancidity.
This alteration appears to confift of a true fermentation,
by which the acid is developed and difengaged. Rancid
fat may be correfled by two methods : water alone is ca¬
pable of carrying off the acid it contains, as Poerner
has obferved ; but alcohol has the fame property, accord¬
ing to Machy. This proves, that a part of the rancid
fat is put into a faponaceous ftate by its acid, and by
that means rendered foluble in water, and in alcohol :
either of thefe fluids may therefore be ufed with fuccefs.
to deprive fat of its rancidity. When fat is waftied with?
a great quantity of diftiiled water, the fluid diffolves a
gelatinous matter, which may be exhibited by evapora¬
tion ; but the fat always retains a certain portion of this,
matter, with which it is intimately combined, and on
wdiich its property of fermenting depends. The aftion
of water on this animal fubftance has not yet been fur¬
ther inquired into.
Sulphur unites very readily with- fat, and forms a com¬
bination, which has not yet been accurately examined.
In the combinations of fat with the oxyds of metals, it
is obferved, that the latter affume readily the metallic-
ftate w'hen heated: this phenomenon arifes from the hydro¬
gen gas, which is difengaged from the flit, and unites
with the oxygen of the oxyds. Water is formed by the-
fame means ; and the charcoal of the fat is more at li¬
berty, or naked, the more the oxygen has been abforbed
from it.
The fame effedl arifes from palling oxygen gas into
melted greafe ; it becomes yellow, and comes to refem-
ble wax; whence it appears that hydrogen is difengaged,
which forms water with the oxygen, and the coal is left
naked. Fourcroy and Alyon have lately made fome ex¬
periments upon oxygenated fat, as thinking it might
anfwerall the purpofes of what is called yellow ointment.
The following is Fourcroy’s method of oxygenating
fat. Melt purifie'd axunge in an earthen' pot ; then add
two thirds of its weight of pure nitric acid' at 28 or 300.
Stir the mixture in a glafs mortar till it is completely
cool. Melt the whole mafs in thirty times its weight of
river or rain water ; let the water boil for half an hour,
ftirring the fat into all the liquor with a porcelain fpatu-
la. Let it cool; then feparate the fat from the water, and
melt it alone with a gentle heat: then pour it into moulds
of glafs, porcelain, or earth,
Alyon’s procefs is this. Take fixteen parts of puri¬
fied fuet, or axunge, and one part of nitric acid, at 320.
Melt the fat over a flow fire, and then add the acid : ftir the
mixture with a glafs tube, leaving it on the fire till bub-,
bles are formed ; then take it oft’. The atlion continues,
according to this author, till all the nitric acid is decom-
pofed ; nothing but azotic gas is decoinpoled during the
efferveicence, and the oxygen remains in the fat without
making it acid ; this principle, by increafing its weight*
only makes it of firmer confidence, grained, in fliort,
oxygenated. As Alyon is fatisfied that the nitric acid, en¬
tirely decompofed, communicates nothing but oxy¬
gen to the fat, he does not wadi it afterwards. By this*
method of oxygenating fat, it abforbs much more than
by Fourcroy’s mode; for he only communicated to it
about a thirtieth part of its weight, while Alyon’s oxyge ~.
natfd ointment contains nearly double.
The yellow ointment of the {hops is prepared with three*
parts of mercury, dilfolved in four parts of nitric acid.
When the mercury is entirely dilfolved, melt thirty-two
parts
364 C H E M
{ tarts of pure fuet in a glazed pan. Let the fat cool a
ittle, and then mix the folution of mercury with it, in
a wooden mortar ; work the mixture about till it begins
to thicken; then pour it quickly, into a large paper
mould ; when the ointment is cold, cut it into fquares.
This compofition is much more confident than fuet itfelf.
Fat is capable of diflolving certain metals. It unites
with mercury in the well-known preparation called mer-
curial ointment ; it is called alfo Neapolitan ointment,
unguentum duplicatum, See. it is the unguentum hydrar-
gyri fortius, or ftronger ointment of quickfilver, of the
New London Pharmacopeia, and is direfted to be thus
made: Take of purified quickfilver, two pounds; hog's
lard, prepared, twenty-three ounces by weight; mutton
fuet, prepared, one ounce by weight. Firll rub the quick¬
filver with the fuet and a little of the hog’s lard, until
the globules difappear; then add what remains of the
lard, and make an ointment. It is very difficult to ex-
tinguifh the mercury entirely : rub a little of the oint¬
ment on the back of the hand, and through a magnifier
obferve whether fome globules of mercury are yet vifible,
in which cale the trituration mull be continued.
Veau Delaunay, of Tours, has propofed a fhorter way
of diflolving the mercury in fat: Triturate mercury with
old olive-oil in an iron pot, with a long-handled wooden
peftle ; this peftle is directed to be more than two yards
long, and to be confined at top with an iron ring. This
is the mode of preparation now ufed for the military liof-
pitals in France. But a mode Hill more expeditious and
fimple, is to make a grey oxyd, by mixing together red
oxyd of mercury, and metallic mercury ; by triturating
this mixture, a grey oxyd of mercury is prefently pro¬
duced. This grey oxyd readily dilfolves in fat, and pro¬
duces an ointment fimilar to the former.
As the procefs of combining mercury with hog’s-lard,
is well known to be tedious, and to require a confidera-
ble time, the following method of (hortening it, has been
announced by Gottling, in his Tufchen-Bach fur Scbeia -
hunftler, 1798. This procefs, fays he, may be Ipeedily
performed, by the addition of a very fmall quantity of
the flowers of fulphur. In a mixture of two ounces of
liog’s-lard, and fix drachms of quickfilver, it will be
necefiary to employ only iix grains of the flowers of ful¬
phur, and the procefs will be completed in a few mi¬
nutes. This diicovery cannot but prove of great ufe in
pharmacy.
Vauquelin has given a procefs for taking out of linen
fuch fpots as are occafior.ed by preparations of mercury
and lead. Walh the linen in a ley made of fifty parts of
water, one of potafli, and one and a half of lime; when
all the greafe is difl'olved by the alkali, and nothing re¬
mains on. the linen but the oxyd of mercury, plunge it
into a tub containing a liquor compofed of twelve parts of
water, and one part of oxygenated muriatic acid as ftrong
as poifible, at the temperature of 6°. Let the linen re¬
main till the fpot is removed ; then walh it in fpring-w'a-
ter, and afterwards in foap-water, to take away the
fmell ; then, to make it perfeftly white, it may be foaked
for a few hours in water containing one thoufandth part
of fulphuric or fulphureous acid.
Lead, copper, and iron, are the three metals mofteafily
altered by fat. If fat be left upon copper, the fat turns
green, and the more fo as it becomes more fluid ; hence
the extreme danger of leaving food of a fat nature in
vefiels of copper ; the danger of leaden veffeis is not much
lefs, if the fat has any thing acid in it, or of earthen
vefiels covered with giafs of lead.
Acids do not aft upon fats as upon oils ; none of them
take fire with the nitric acid; the fulphuric acid tuins
them brown, the nitric yellow. Alkalis diflolve them,
forming foaps in the fame manner as with oils. If thefe
foaps are treated with a folution of alum, an oil is lepa-
rated from them, according to Crell, and, by evaporation,
febat of potafli. Sulphuric acid diftilled over this fait
a
I S T R Y.
decompofes it, by which means is obtained the feba-
cic acid.
Guyton has a more fimple procefs for obtaining the fe-
bacic acid : — Suet is melted, and quicklime added ; when
the mixture is cold, it is boiled in a large quantity of
water, which, by filtration and evaporation, affords the
febat of lime, of a brown colour, and acrid tafie. This
is purified by c lcination in a crucible, folution, and fil¬
tration ; a lufficient quantity of water, impregnated with
carbonic acid, being added, to feparate the fuperabun-
aant lime. The fluid being evaporated, affords a white
fait, from which, by diftillation with the fulphuric acid,
the febacic acid is dilengaged. To deprive this of the
portion of fulphuric acid it may be contaminated with,
Crell direfts it to be re-diflrilled from one-fourth of the
febat of potafli, which muft be referved for this ufe. It
may be afcertained that it contains no more fulphuric
acid by the addition of the acetit of lead ; for, if the pre¬
cipitate be totally foluble in vinegar, it does not contain
fulphuric acid.
This acid is formed by heat in the butter of cocoa,
fpermaceti, and probably in all fixed vegetable oils. The
following are its characters : it is liquid, white, and of a
very ftrong fmell ; it emits white fumes, is decompofed
by fire, becomes yellow, and affords carbonic acid. It
ftrongly reddens blue colours ; unites, in all proportions,
with water ; forms a cryltallizable fait with lime ; and,
with potafli and ioda, falts, vvl ich cryltallize in needles,
and are fixed in the fire. It difiblves gold, when united
with the nitric acid ; attacks mercury and filver; preci¬
pitates the nitrat and acetit of lead ; it decompofes tar-
tarit of potafli by precipitating tartareous acidule, or
cream of tartar, and likewife decompofes the alkaline
acetits. When ftrongly heated on fulphuric lalts, it fe-
parates the acid in the fulphureous ftate. It precjpitates
the nitrats of mercury and of liiver; and decompofes the
oxygenated muriat of mercury. This acid is compofed
of hydrogen, carbon, and azot.
Fat combines very readily with the colouring parts of
vegetable iubrtances ; a proof of which is feen in ieveral
pharmaceutical preparations, as the unguentum populeon ,
See.
Thefe are the chemical properties of fat at prefent
known •• they teach us, that this fubftance greatly relem-
bles butter ; that is to fay, it is a kind of concrete fixed
oil, which owes its folidity to the oxygen which chemifts
have hitherto attributed to the acid. With regard to its
ufes in the animal economy, befides that of maintaining
the heat of thole parts which it furrounds, and the agree¬
able plumpnefs and pliancy it produces, together with
the whitenefs it communicates to the fkin ; it likewife ap¬
pears, according to Macquer, to be of uie in abfiorbing
the fuper-abundant acids which may exilt in the bodies
of living creatures ; it is, as it were, the refervoir of thofe
falts. It is likewife known, that too great a quantity of
acid, introduced into the body of an animal, dilfolves
and melts the fat, doubtlefs by rendering it laponaceous,
and confequently more foluble. The exceflive abundance,
and more efpecially the alterations, of the fat, produce
dangerous diforders in the animal economy, whole fymp-
toms and eft’efts have not yet been well examined. Lorry
has particularly attended to the nature of fat, and has
difeovered a ftriking analogy between this fubftance and
bile. This analogy appears indeed to be founded on the
fat nature of bile, on the colour w’hich the fat aflumes
in bilious difeafes, on the melting and diiappearance of
the fat in long-continued affeftions of the liver, on the
cruel method cf intreafing and of foftening this vilcus
in lome birds, in melting their fat by long inaftion, com¬
bine 1 with a dry and long-contiaued heat, &c.
Fat is ufed in foods, and is Tiouriftiing for fuch perfons
as have ftrong digeftive powers. It is ufed externally in
medicine, as a foftening remedy ; and as fuch it enters
into the compofition of ointments and plalters. The
marrow.
C H E M
marrow, contained in long bones, exhibits the fame pro¬
perties as fat ; but the comparative analyfis has not been
yet made with fufficient accuracy to defcribe its charac-
teriftic properties.
Of URINE.
Margraaf is the firft who made an accurate analyfis of
urine; this was in 1737. He difcovered therein feveral
phofphoric falts. Rouelle the elder has given four excel¬
lent papers on the fame fubjeCl. Scheele difcovered the
matter which forms calculus. Berthollet difcovered
naked phofphoric acid.
Urine is a faltifh liquor, regarded as an animal lixi¬
vium. There are two forts of urine, the firft called crude
urine , when emitted a fhort time after meals, is clear,
and almoll deftitute of talfe and l'mell ; it contains a
much l'nialler proportion of the principles than the other,
■which is called urine of the blood, or urine of concoc¬
tion. This laft is not emitted till the procefs of digef-
tion is finifhed, and if is feparated from the blood by
the kidneys ; while the former appears to be filtrated, in
part, from the ftomach and inteftmes immediately to the
the bladder, by means of the cellular membrane, or by
the abforbent veflels. Many foods are capable of com¬
municating certain peculiar properties to urine. Tur¬
pentine produces a fmell of violets, and afparagus a very
fetid fmell, in this fluid. Such perfons as have weak fto-
machs, void urine, which retains the fmell of filch foods
as they have taken.
Urine reddens tinflure of turnfole ; its heat is from 30
to 32°. In a cold temperature, it fooner grows turbid,
and makes a depofit. If the temperature is from fixteen
to 1 8°, the urine, being deprived of 120, does not
grow thick, as in winter. Expoled to 6° below zero, a
part freezes ; but this is not fait ; it is fcarcely any thing
but water; the other partis more condenfed, more eafily
evaporated, more proper for the extraction of a number
of falts. Left to become putrid, it firft lofes its natural
fmell for an ammoniacal one, which pafies away in its
turn ; its yellow colour is converted to a green, and then
the fmell is fetid and naufeous. Putrefied urine exhibits
more of the naked alkali than frelh urine.
If urine be evaporated flowly, the firft cryftals which
appear are earthy phoiphats, then nitric acid, phofphat of
potafli, and muriat of foda. If urine be concentrated to
the confidence of an extraCf, or of honey, and then mixed
with muriat of lead and charcoal, phofphorus will be
obtained. For this purpofe, mix muriat of lead (proceed¬
ing from the diltillation of four parts of minium with two
of muriat of ammoniac) with fix parts of extract of urine;
add one half part of charcoal in powder. Dry the mix¬
ture in an iron pot till brought to a black powder : put
this powder into a retort, and draw from it the ammo¬
niac, a fetid oil, and the muriat of ammoniac ; the re-
fidue contains the phofphorus. Try it by throwing a
little upon burning coals: if it exhales a fmell of garlic
and a phofphoric flame, put it into a good ftone retort,
well luted. Place this in a reverberatory furnace, ter¬
minated with a pipe or chimney 5 adapt to the retort a
a balloon or receiver half full of water ; lute the joinings
exaClly, and proceed to diltillation with a gradual heat.
The phofphorus thus obtained may be purified by a le-
cond diltillation. In this operation, the muriat of lead
decompofes the phofphat of foda contained in the extract
of urine, forms a phofphat of lead which affords phoi-
phorus, while the phofphat of foda is indecompolable by
the charcoal.
The analyfis of urine has been made by feveral che-
mifts, as may be l'een in moll elementary treatiles : but
a more extenfive and accurate analyfis has lately been
accompliftied by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, not only on
urine, but on urinary calculi. Many valuable papers on
this fubjeCt, have been recently prefented to the public
both in England and France ; and La Grange has given
Von. IV. No. t,q 3.
S T R Y. 36s
a fuccinCt account of molt of their contents, in his Court
de Cbimie.
Urine, by a gentle heat, is brought to the confiftencd
of honey : this is to be treated with very pure alcohol,
which diffolves, 1. A particular fubftance called urinous
matter. 2. Muriat of ammoniac. 3. Muriat of foda. The
other falts are not foluble by the alcohol.
To feparate this urinous matter, evaporate the alcohol
with a gentle heat, or diltil in a retort that the product
may not be loft; dilute the reiidue with water, till it is
of the confidence of a thin fyrup ; then pour in nitric
acid, and a plentiful precipitate will be depofited, which
is the combination of this urinous matter with the nitric
acid. The muriats of ammoniac and of foda remain in
folution in the liquor, falted by a portion of the urinous
matter. To have the urinous matter pure, diflolve in
water the precipitate formed by the nitric acid ; add pot-
a(h to faturate the nitric acid it is joined with. Then
evaporate to the confidence of honey, and treat afrefh
with alcohol, which attacks the urinous matter, while
the nitrat of potafli which is formed remains infoluble.
Separate this l’alt,. and diltil with a very gentle heat to
colleCt the alcohol. A yellowifh fubftance remains in
the retort, hitherto unknown, with new and peculiar
characters. This is what thefe chemilts regard as the
urinous matter, or that which gives to urine its charac-
teriftic properties, as fmell, tafte, & c. By diflblving tins'
in water, an artificial urine may be formed, of a deeper
or lighter colour, according to the quantity of water
ufed. This fubftance affords cryftals with the nitric
acid. Diddled over a naked fire, it is almoft entirely
converted into carbonat of ammoniac ; it gives fcarcely
any oil, and very little coal remains in the retort. It
unites with many faline fubftances, and modifies or in¬
verts their form of cryitallization ; the muriat of ammo¬
niac palling from the oCtahedron to the cube, and the
muriat of foda from the cube to the octahedron. P'our-
croy and Vauquelin propofe to examine farther into this
matter, as it affords au inftance unexampled in its kind.
The falts not foluble in alcohol, are, phofphats of mag-
nefia, lime, and foda, uric and benzoic acids, and albu¬
men. To feparate thefe falts, pour them into hot water,
to cryftallize fuch as are fufceptible of it, and their crys¬
tals will be obtained feparately. But the phofphats of
lime and of magnefia, and the uric acid, cannot be dif-
folved by the water. To feparate the uric acid from
thefe laft falts, add potafn, which attacks the uric acid,
and decompofes the phofphat of magnefia at the fame
time. Thus you have an urat of potafh, and a phofphat
ofpotafh; the magnefia remains with the phofphat of
lime. The urat of potafli may be decompoied by help
of the muriatic acid, which feizes on the potafli ; dif-
folve the uric acid in water, and it will crylcailize On
the other hand, the phofphoric acid is to be attacked
with lime, which forms an infoluble fait. To feparate
the magnefia from the phofphat of lime of the firft expe¬
riment, add fome acetous acid, which forms a foluble lalt
with magnefia, and the phofphat of lime remains pure.
Thele experiments prove, that ten diltinCt iubftances
may be obtained from urine: 1. Muriat of foda, wdiich
in urine that has been evaporated, cryftallizes in oCtahe-
drons. 2. Muriat of ammoniac, the natural octahedral
form of which is changed into the cube, by its combina¬
tion with the urinary matter, in the fame manner as the
muriat of foda is changed by this combination from the
cube to the oCtahedron. 3. The acid pholphat of lime,
which forms about one-feven hundiedth part of the urine.
It is precipitated by alkalis, which take from it the exr
cefs of acid. 4. Phofphat of magnefia decompofed by
alkalis, and giving its earth mixed with the phoiphat of
lime, which is depofited, becoming' a triple lalt, its cryf¬
tals l'eparating by the lpontaneous formation of the am¬
moniac. 5. Phofphat of loda, efflorefcing in the air, al¬
ways united with phofphat of ammoniac. 6. Phofphat
5 A of
CHEMISTRY.
366
of ammoniac, which is very fcanty in frefli urine, in-
creafing much by its decompofition, and by the formation
• of ammoniac. It affords phofphorus when the fufible fait
of urine is heated with charcoal. 7. The uric, formerly
called the lithic, acid. It cryftallizes by the cooling of
the urine, and forms the red fand which is depofi'ced at
the bottom of the veffels. It is molt abundant in fick
people, and is readily diffolved by alkalis in their cauftic
ftate. 8. The benzoic acid, which is molt abundant in
infants, is eafily obtained from evaporated urine, by mix¬
ing it with one-tenth of concentrated fulphuric acid.
9. The gelatin and albumen are very variable in their
proportion in different kinds of urine. They appear hi
the form of clouds in urine in which ammoniac is form¬
ed, in that of filaments in urine into which an alkali is
poured, and in flakes in evaporated urine; they are pre¬
cipitated by tannin, which ferves to afcertain their pro¬
portion; and fpeedily produce putrefa&ion in the urine,
which contains them in large quantity. They appear to
be, by their increafe, the primary caufe of the formation
of calculi, and to afford the gluten which holds the p ra¬
dicles of the calculi together. The quantity of thefe f'ub-
jftances in urine is in proportion to the flrength or weaknefs
of the digeftive organs. 10. The peculiar urinary matter,
which gives to urine its charaCreriftic properties. It is the
jnoft abundant of the matters contained in urine, forming
alone about nineteen-twentieths of thefe matters. This
.urinary .matter was' confidered, but improperly, as a fa-
ponaceous extrafil, by Rouelle the younger. It is to this
matter that we are to attribute the almolt complete cryf-
tallization of urine, which has been evaporated to the
..confiftence of a fyrup, the folid and cryftalline form
which it affumes in this ftate, by the addition of concen¬
trated nitric, -and the cryft'allization of the muriats of
foda and ammoniac.
If urine be diftilled over a naked fire, an ammoniacal
liquid will be found in the receiver, and very little oil.
By continuing the operation, there will be fublimed in
the neck of the retort fome carbonat of ammoniac, then
fome benzoic acid, and laftly muriat of ammoniac ; the
uric acid is moftly decompofed. There remains in the
.retort a faline coaly mafs, whence the falts may be ex¬
tracted by the means already pointed out.
Acids have no aCtion upon frefli urine; but they quickly
take away the fmell of putrefied urine, by combining with
the ammoniac, which is the principal caufe of its odour.
Fixed alkalis and lime dilengage much ammoniac from
urine. Lime-water forms a precipitate which at firft is
.foluble, while the phofphoric acid is not entirely fatu-
rated with it. In this ftate, the urine ftill reddens the
blue vegetable colours ; the phofphoric acid is at liberty;
calcareous pholpliat is formed. When the precipitate is
no longer foluble, it is a proof that the phofphoric acid
is faturated ; then it no longer reddens blue colours.
■Cauftic ammoniac alfo precipitates the calcareous phof¬
phat from urine, by neutralizing the free phofphoric
acid. Fixed alkali the fame.
Urine decompofes many metallic folutions. Lemery
diftinguifhed by the name of the rofe- coloured precipitate,
a magma of that colour, which is formed when the nitric
folution of mercury is poured into urine. This precipi¬
tate is partly formed by the muriatic acid, and partly by
the phofphoric acid contained in this fluid. Brongniard
lias obferved, that this preparation l'ometimes takes fire
by friCtion, and burns rapidly on hot coals ; he attri¬
butes this effeCt to a fmall portion of phofphorus. By
treating the precipitate with cauftic alkali, the two falts
may be decompofed.
Such is the prefent ftate of our knowledge refpeCting
the chemical properties of urine. Much remains to be
-done, before we may efteem ourfelves in pofieffion of all
that analyfis is capable of difcovering with regard to this
ifiuid. It is neceffary, for this purpofe, to examine the
different depofitions obferved in urine, and well defcribed
by Halle, the red or tranfparent faline concretions which
are formed, and which Sclieele takes to be the lithic acid,
fnould alfo be analyzed, and the abundant fediment which
urine affords after fits of the gout, in fuch as are attacked
by the ftone, &c. Berthollet lias obferved, that the urine
of gouty perfons contains lei's acid than that of perfons in
perfeCt health ; that, during the fit of the gout, this fluid is
much lefs acid than ufual. He conjectures, that in gouty
patients, the phofphoric acid is not evacuated by urine,
as in healthy perfons ; that it wanders, as it were, and is
carried into the articulations, where it excites irritation
and pain. This excefs of acid in the urine appears, to
hold the calcareous phofphat in folution.
Calculus of the Bladder. — It is only fince the
time of Bergman and Scheele that we have had precife
notions of the nature of calculi. Scheele difcovered the
lithic acid, now called uric acid. Bergman obtained one
two-lnindredth part of lime from it, by precipitating its
nitric acid with fulphuric acid, and calcining the refidue
of the fame folution : this had efcaped the obfervation of
Scheele.
The combination of lime with phofphoric acid, con-
ftitutes a kind of calculus, well known by its whitenefs,
friability, infolubility in w'ater, flow' folution in acids,
and the fulphat of lime w'hich it furnifhes with fulphuric
acid. But the late experiments of Fourcroy and Vau-
quelin, enabled them to difcover five other fubftances in
the human calculus. 1. Ammoniacal urat, or a faturated
combination of uric acid with ammoniac. This fubftance
is foluble in pure fixed alkalis, with a difengagement of
ammoniac.
a. Ammoniaco-magnefian phofphat. This fait, which
contains magnefia, (an earth not hitherto found in the
human body,) prefents fome remarkable phenomena. It
never of.itfelf forms a human calculus : it is mixed fome-
times with calcareous phofphat, fometimes with uric acid,
fometimes with both at once : but it always forms the
outer cruft of the calculi ; its furface is uneven, it is
white and lamellous in its fracture. It is not foluble in
alkalis ; they produce from it an ammoniacal fmell, and
precipitate magnefia, while they feize on the phofphoric
acid. Analyfis difcovers the magnefia and ammoniac
united to the phofphoric acid ; muriatic acid diffolves
them. It is this ammoniaco-magnefian phofphat, which
occafions the calculus to acquire fuch a vaft fize, as fome¬
times to render its extraction impofilble. Thefe calculi
are of the fame nature as thofe found in the colon of a
liorfe, lately analyzed by the fame chemifts.
3. Oxalat of lime. The difcovery of this infoluble fait
in the bladder, greatly furprifed Fourcroy and Vauque-
lin. They are black, ponderous, hard, full of prickles or
turbercles like a mulberry; and they have been in con-
fequence called mulberry-Jlones. They fcroop under the
faw, and their divided furfaces take a high polifti like
agate. Thefe calculi are infoluble in pure alkalis; but
alkaline carbonats decompofe them, and diffolve their
acid. Lime, added to thefe folutions, precipitates a white
fait, which at firft fight might be taken for phofphat of
lime ; but analyfis prefentiy fhevvs that it is the oxalat of
lime revived. Another exclufive character of thele cal¬
culi, is the pure or quicklime which they leave in the
crucible, when they have been ftrongly calcined, and which
is afforded by no other calculus. Thefe are foluble in the
muriatic and nitric acids, See.
4.. Silex. In 150 calculi analyzed by Fourcroy and
Vauquelin, this fubftance was met with but once. It was
not alone ; but, in a calculus compofed of four or five
ftrata, it formed the third, of a yellow horny colour, and
very hard under the faw. This having refilled all. the
modes of analyfis ufed for 'the other calculi, they at length
melted it, having firft pulverized it in a filter crucible,
with fome potafh ; and, with the help of an acid, they
precipitated, from the aqueous folution of thefe two fub¬
ftances, a tranfparent powder which rendered water ge¬
latinous, and which thefe chemifts difcovered to be filex.
5. A particular animal fubftance, more or lefs abun¬
dant.
C H E M ]
dant. This is conftantly found wit h the greateft part .of
the before-mentioned fubftances in calculi. The uric
acid alone is almolt entirely free from it, becaufe it is of
itfelf a kind of peculiar organic compofition. But the
earthy phofphats, the oxalat of lime, and the filex itfelf,
never condenfe into calculous ftrata, plates, leaves, or
cryftals, without borrowing from the urine a certain por¬
tion of animal matter, which is found in the ■whited: and
mod: laliniform calculi. This matter is the caule of the
fetid ftnell, of thefe concretions, and the black colour
they obtain by calcination.
Thefe difcoveries on the nature of calculi, led Four-
croy and Vauquelin to undertake fome experiments for
didolving them in the bladder by means of injedtions.
They found that calculi compofed of uric acid and unit
of ammoniac, dilfolved readily in water, which contained
fo little cauflic alkali as not to caufe a dilagreeable fen-
fation on the tongue. By very weak nitric and muriatic
acids, they found they could diffolve fuch calculi, as were
formed of ammoniaco-magnefian phofphat, calcareous
phofphat, and oxalat of lime.
Of Uric Acid. — This acid was formerly called the li-
thic acid. It was difcovered by. Scheele ; but Dr. Pearfon,
in his Experiments on Calculi, publilhed in the Philofo-
phical Tranfadlions of 1798, having fhewn the impro¬
priety of this term, the chemiifs have, in confequence,
affixed to it the name of uric acid ; its combinations are
called urats.
We have already faid, that fome calculi are formed of
the pure uric acid alone. This acid is always in the
concrete form, and is not eafily foluble in water. Diftil-
led in a retort, it is decornpoled, and partly fublimed.
It decompofes the nitiic acid. It is completely decom-
pofed, without fmell, in cauflic potafh weakened with
water. If weak muriatic acid be added to the folution,
the uric acid will be precipitated in cryltals. This acid
unites with earths, alkalis, and metallic oxyds : it yields
its bafes to the weakell vegetable acids, even to the car¬
bonic acid ; therefore it is not foluble in alkaline car-
bonats.
OF the SALIVA, PANCREATIC JUICE, and GAS¬
TRIC JUICE.
There is a great analogy between the faliva, and the
pancreatic juice. The falivary glands, and the pancreas,
have, in fact, a ftrudture entirely of the fame kind, and
the ufe of the fluids, fecreted by thefe organs, appears to
be the fame. Man. and quadrupeds, are the only animals
in which the faliva exifts ; or at lead the falivary glands
have not been oblerved in any other animals. No accu¬
rate chemical experiments have yet been made with thefe
fluids. This circumftance may be attributed to the dif¬
ficulty of procuring them, even in very fmall quantities.
It is only known, that the faliva is a very fluid juice, fepa-
rated by the parotides, and many other glands, which con¬
tinually flows into the mouth, but molt abundantly during
maftication. It appears to be of a faponaceous nature,
impregnated with air, which renders it. frothy ; it leaves
but a fmall refldue, when evaporated to drynefs ; but it
forms, neverthelefs, certain falivary concretions in the
palTages which convey it into the mouth. It appears to
contain an ammoniacal fait, fince lime and cauflic fixed
alkalis difengage from it a penetrating and urinous odour.
Pringle, from experiment, concluded, that the faliva is
very feptic, and that it favours digeflion, by exciting a
commencement of putridity in the aliments, Spallan¬
zani, and many other modern phyficians, think, on the
contrary, that it poffeffes the property of retarding and
impeding putrefaftion.
The gaftric juice is feparated by fmall glands, or the
arterial extremities, which open into the internal tunic
of the ftomach. The cefophagus likewife affords a fmall
quantity, efpecially in the inferior region. Glands of
conliderable magnitude are obferved in many birds, which
open into very lenfible excretory duffs. Some modem
1
8 T R Y. 367
philofophers have paid great attention to the gaftric juice.
Spallanzini, Scopoli, Monch, Brugnatelli, Carminati,
have, within die laft few years, examined the properties
of this liquor. They colledled it in the ftomach of iheep
and calves, by opening them, after having fuft'ered them
to fall for fome time. They obtained it from carnivorous
and gallinaceous birds, by caufing them to fwallow fpheres
and tubes of metal, pierced with holes, and filled with
very fine fiponge. Spallanzani examined the gaftric juice
of his own ftomach, by procuring a vomit, or by fwalloiv-
ing wooden tubes, filled with different fubftances, to
judge of the effedt of the gaftric juice on each of them.
The experiments with tubes had been before attempted
by Reaumur. Goffe of Geneva had the courage to caufe
himfelf to vomit a great number of times, by a procefs
which is peculiar to himfelf, and conftfts in fwallowing
the air. From all the modern obfervations, the gaftric
juice appears to poffefs the following properties.
It is the principal agent of digeftion, and changes the
aliments into a kind of uniform foft pafte : it adls on the
ftomach itfelf after the death of animals. Its eftedls fliew,
that it is a folvent, but of that peculiar nature, that it
diffolves animal and vegetable fubftances uniformly, and
without exhibiting a ftronger affinity for the one than
for the other. Far from being of the nature of a fer¬
ment, it is one of the moft powerful antifeptics we are
acquainted with: and from the experiments of the phi¬
lofophers before cited, its nature appears to be eflentially
different in the feveral dalles of animals. According to
Brugnatelli, the gaftric juice of birds of prey, and grani-
vorous birds, is very bitter, and compofed of a difen-
gaged acid, refin, animal matter, and common fait; that
of ruminating quadrupeds is very aqueous, turbid, and
fait, containing ammoniac, an animal extradf, and com¬
mon fait. Morveau, having digefted portions of the in¬
ternal tunic of the ftomach of the calf in water, found
that it has an acid character. Spallanzani thinks, that this
charadler depends on the aliments, as he never found the
acid gaftric juice in the ftomach of carnivorous animals,
but always in thofe which feed on grain. Goffe made
the fame obfervation on himfelf, after having ufed crude
vegetables for a long time. Brugnatelli thinks, that the
white matter, in the excrements of carnivorous birds,
contains pholphoric acid ; but Morveau obferves, that
his experiments are not conclufive. Scoppuli found mu-
riat of ammoniac, and fufpedts that the muriatic acid is
produced by the vital power of animals ; but no decifive
fadt has been brought in fupport of this opinion ; every
circumftance, on the contrary, tends to ffiew, that this
acid comes from the food. Macquart and Vauquelin
have found that the gaflric juices of the ox, calf, and
ftieep, are conftantly poffeffed of an acid charadler ; but
it appears from their accurate experiments, that it is the
dilengaged pholphoric acid which gives to them this
charadler. They have alfo difcovered that thele juices
alter and loon putrefy. The gaftric juice of carnivorous
animals pofieffes the antifeptic qualities in the liigheft:
degree.
Hence it may be concluded, 1. That the gaftric juice
is not well known ; z. That it appears to be different in
feveral claffes of animals, and in the fame animal, accord¬
ing to the diverfity of food ; 3. That no proof has been
brought to fliew that it is a peculiar acid, and that we
(liould acknowledge the exiftence of a gaftric juice ; 4.
That its moft remarkable property conlilts in its great
lblvent power, which extends even to bony and metallic
fubftances; and it is even faid to be capable of attacking
ftliceous ftones ; an indifference or equal attradfion for
the matter it adls on. Its very ftrong antifeptic quality,
which it communicates to all the bodies it is mixed with,
and which even puts a flop to putrefadHon, in fubftances
which have already begun to be changed by that procefs,
has excited a greater degree of attention than the others.
Carminati, Jurine, and Toggai, have applied the gaftric
juice on wounds. Carminati has even ufed it internally ;
and
CHEMISTRY.
368
and they all agree with refpeff to its antifeptic virtue.
But the experiments of Macquart and Vauquelin prove,
that this antiputrid quality does not belong to the gaftric
juice of ruminating animals. Some 'chemifts think that
the gaftric juice ails upon food rather as a decompofing
principle, than as a folvent: but, indeed, its powers are
known with as little precifion as its chemical compofition.
It appears from the curious experiments of Mr. Smith,
that the fub.cutaneous parts of living animals, when
wounded, or llimulated, pour out a lecretion analogous
to the gaftric liquors in the property of coagulating milk,
and in adding as a decompofing principle on animal and
vegetable fubftances.
Of the HUMOURS, or ANIMAL MATTERS, not
yet examined; such as SWEAT, the NASAL
MUCUS, CERUMEN, TEARS, GUM of the EYES,
SEMINAL FLUID, and EXCREMENTS.
There are many animal fluids and matters, which have
not yet been examined. It is therefore not fo much with
a view to exhibit their properties, as to engage young
phylicians to make refearches, equally new and ufeful,
that we propofe to fpeak curforily refpefting the humour
of tranfpiration, of fweat, of the mucus of the noftrils,
the cerumen of the ears, the tears, the gummy matter
of the eyes, the feminal fluid, and the excrements.
Phylicians have difcovered a great analogy between the
fluid emitted by cutaneous tranfpiration, and urine;
they have obferved, that thefe excretions mutually anfwer
the liune purpofe in many circumftances, and are there¬
fore naturally led to confider the vaporous fluid of tranf¬
piration as of the fame nature as urine. Medical prac¬
tice has Ihown, that its qualities are fubjedt to variation;
that its fmell is faint, aromatic, alkaline, or four; that
its confiftence is fometimes glutinous, thick, tenacious,
and that it leaves a reftdue on the Ikin ; that it often
tinges linen with various fliades of yellow. Berthollet
affirms, that fweat reddens blue paper; and that this
phenomenon takes place more particularly in parts effeft-
ed with the gout. He thinks it contains the phofphoric
acid. It has been hitherto impoffible to collect a l'uffici-
ently large quantity of this excrementitial humour, to
examine its properties with accuracy. Many inquiries,
therefore, remain to be made, which can only be under¬
taken and purfued by phylicians in peculiar circumftances
and occafions.
The humour, prepared by the membrane of Schneider,
which is thrown out of the noftrils by fneezing, deferves
to be carefully attended to by phyflcians. It is a kind of
thick mu'cilage, white or coloured, more or lefs fluid, or
conliftent in certain affedlions, and more efpecially in
catarrhs. It appears to be a mucus and alkaline fub-
'ftance, which becomes thick, in confequence of abforb-
ing oxygen from the atmofphere.
The yellow, greenilh, or brown matter, which is col¬
lected, and becomes thick, in the auditory canal, and is
known by the name of cerumen , becaufe of its confiftence,
has not been fufflciently examined. It is very bitter,
and appears to be of a refinous nature-; it fometimes be¬
comes to concrete, as to flop the auditory canal, and pre¬
vent the free paffage of found : there leems to be lome
analogy between this and the inflammable matter of the
bile. Cerumen is a compound fubftance, confifting of a
number of wliitilh particles, connefted together by a te¬
nacious matter, which is foiuble in warm water. Ceru¬
men differs from bile in being infoluble in alcohol, and
not being decompofed by diluted acids.
We are better acquainted with the nature of the tears,
which are prepared in a peculiar gland, fituated towards
the external angle of the orbit, and deftined by nature
to maintain the humidity and liipplenefs of the external
parts of the eye. This fluid is clear, limpid, and manifeftly
fait ; it fometimes ifiues out of the eye in large quantities.
In the natural ftate, it gradually flows into the noftrils,
and appears to dilute the mucus. Moft authors who have
fpoken of this liquor, and in particular Pierre Petit, a
phyiician of Paris, who publifhed a treatife on Tears
about the end of the laft century, confider them as water
nearly pure. We have found them to contain a peculiar
mucilage, which becomes thick by abforbing oxygen,
muriat of foda, and foda, in a cauftic ftate; after that,
the humour of the tears is limilar to the mucus of the
nofe with which it mixes.
Neither has the chemical nature of the feminal humour
been much more inquired into than that of the forego¬
ing matter. — The few obfervations, which it has been
hitherto poflible to make on this liquor, have Ihown, that
it refembles animal mucilages, becomes fluid by cold and
by heat, and that the aCtion of fire reduces it to a dry
and friable fubftance.
The anatomical and microfcopical obfervations on this
fubjeft have been carried much further. They have
Ihown, that the feminal humour is an ocean, in which
certain fmall round bodies fwim, which poflefs a rapid
motion, and are by fome confidered as living animals,
deftined to reproduce the fpecies, and by others as orga-
nicmoleculse, adapted toforma livingby being theirunion.
The microfcope, in the hands of a modern oblerver, has
likewife Ihown cryftals formed in the leminal liquor by
evaporation and cooling. Itmuftbe admitted, however,
that thefe fine experiments have not hitherto been at¬
tended with confequences which have advanced the fci-
ences, but that they have merely afforded data for the
conftru&ion of certain ingenious hypothefes. See under
Animalcule, in vol. i. p.727, of this Encyclopaedia.
Vauquelin has publilhed, in the Annales de Cbimie ,
(April 1791) a memoir on the Human Semen. The fol¬
lowing are the only new faCts which it contains : 1. This
fubftance has a faint fmell, a (harp and flightly aftringent
tafte, its weight is greater than that of water.
2. To afcertain whether the air be the caufe of the li¬
quefaction, which this humour undergoes fome minutes
after it has been emitted, he expofed equal quantities of
it in the air, and in clofe veffels containing no air. The
liquefaction having taken place in the fame manner, and
in the fame time, he concluded, that neither the air, nor
the fubftances diffolved in it, produced this effeCt.
3. By leaving the feminal liquor to liquefy in a finall
glafs ball, terminated by a very narrow tube, its volume
was not increafed. This was eafily obferved, by marking
the place to which the liquor role. He l'eems to doubt
whether this effeCt is to be afcribed to caloric.
4. When the lemen is kept for fome days expofed to
the air, in a fmall caplule, long tranfparent cryftals are
depofited in it, of the fhape of a priftn with four fides,
terminated by pyramids with four faces. According to
the experiments of this author, thefe cryftals, which had
been announced in the Journal de Phyfique, are very pure
phofphat of lime.
5. Avery white pellicle, forming on the feminal liquor,
fome time after it has been expoled to the air, which is
fet with opaque white points. Thefe points are of the
fame nature with the fucceeding cryftals, and differs from
them only in not being tranfparent.
6. If the air in which the feminal matter is expofed be
humid, it does not dry completely, but remains loft and
ductile. Before arriving at this ftate, it undergoes many
changes, which Vauquelin has carefully deicribed. At
firft, it affumes a yellow colour, and then becomes acid:
Byfi grow on its furlace, cryftals are depofited in it, and
at lalt it exhales the odour of putrid fifti. If, on the con¬
trary, the air be dry and warm, the femen dries, fpeedily
becomes dry and brittle, like horn ; it loles, during the
deficcation, about nine-tenths of its weight
7. The feminal liquor exhibits a very marked alkaline
character, which is owing to the foda the author dif¬
covered in it.
8. Water, at whatever temperature it may be, from
zero to the boiling point, does not diffolve femen that
has not been previoufly liquefied ; but it combines with
the
C H EM I
fbe femen at every temperature, when once this fluid has
become liquid. This, Vauquelin obferve's, (hows that
fome change takes place, either in the texture, or or¬
ganization, or intimate nature, of the femen, during its
liquefaction.
9. All the acids, excepting the. oxygenated muriatic
acid, difl'olve the feminal.liq.uor very readily. Alkalis
cannot difengage it afterwards under a folid form. The
oxygenated muriatic acid, inftead of diffolving it, re¬
duces it into white flakes, which become yellow, if a large
quantity of this acid be added. Urine, by means of1 its
difengaged acid, likewife dillfolves the feminal matter.
10. The feminal liquor when frefh, does not decom-
pofe barytic falts ; but it decompofes them after being
long expofed to the air. This effed is owing to the car¬
bonic acid of the air, which is abforbed by the foda con¬
tained in the femen, and which communicates to it the
property of decompofing barytic falts. All the calcare- .
ous, magnefian, and aluminous, falts, are decompofed by
the femen, becaufe the foda has a ftronger attraction for
acids than thefe earthy matters have. The metallic falts
are itill more readily decompofed by this fubftance.
11. By diftillation, the dry femen affords, 1. Some drops
of water; 2. An elaftic fluid, confifting of carbonic acid,
and of carbonated hydrogen gas; 3. An empyreumatic
oil ; 4. Carbonatof ammoniac ; 5. A very light charcoal
remained in the retort.
12. To difcover the proportions of the fubftances which
the preceding experiments had difcovered in the femen,
Vauquelin took forty grains of it in a dry ftate, which
was equal to 400 grains of it when frefh, fince it lofes
nine-tenths of its weight by drying, and heated them in
a crucible of very pure white clay. This fubftance fwell-
ed, emitted yellowifh ammoniacal fumes, and was con¬
verted into charcoal, when a very ftrong heat difengaged
no longer any from it; the crucible was taken from the
fire, the charcoal which it contained waswafhed, and the
lixivium afforded, by evaporation, eight grains of a fait,
known by its properties to be carbonat of foda. The
lixiviated charcoal was again expofed to the fire, it burned
readily, and twelve grains of white allies remained, which
had no bafte, which did not difl'olve in water, and which
melted with the blow-pipe into an opaque globule, that
emitted a phofphoric light, while it continued in fufion.
This fubftance difl'olved in acids, its folution was preci¬
pitated in white flakes by all the alkalis, and by lime-wa¬
ter. A folution of it in muriatic acid evaporated to dry-
nefs, and afterwards treated with highly redified alcohol,
was divided into two portions ; one of thefe, difl'olved
in alcohol, afforded, with the oxalic and fulphuric
acids, precipitates of the oxalat and fulphat of lime, and
with potafh of pure lime. The other portion, which re¬
mained of a thick confiftence, was melted by the blow¬
pipe into a tranf'parent glafs, which was l'olubk in water,
and the folution of which precipitated lime-water, and
reddened blue vegetable colours. This analyfls proves,
that this laft fubftance is compofed of lime, and of phof¬
phoric acid, like the bafis of bones. It follows, from
the preceding experiments, that the human femen is com--
pofed,
1. Of animal mucilage, - 6 parts.
2. Of foda, - - 1
3. Of phofphat of lime, - 3
4. Of water, - - ' - 90
100
The food, by which animals are fupported, contains a
large quantity of matter, which is not capable of nou-
jifhing them, and is rejected out of the. inteftines in a fo¬
lid form. The excrements are coloured by a portion of
bile, which they carry with them. The fetid odour they
exhale, arifes from the commencement of putrefadion in
their paflage through the inteftines, Homberg is the
Von. IV. No. 203. c
S T R Y. 369?
only chemifli who has examined thefe matters. He ob-
ferved, that the phlegm afforded by excrements diftilled
on the water-bath, was of a naufeous fmell ; by walking
and evaporation, he obtained a fait, which melted like
nitre, and took fire in dole vefl’els. The diftillation of
this matter, in a retort, afforded the fame products as
other animal fubftances. Putrefied excrements afforded
an oil without colour or linell, which did not convert
mercury into filver, as he had been led to expedt. It
mult be obferved, that the fecal matter examined by
Homberg, was thatof men, fed with coarfe bread and cham¬
paign wine ; a circumftance which was laid to be eflen-
tial, in order to fucceed in the alchemical experiments
he was diredled to make. There can be no doubt, but
that the properties of the excrements mult depend on the
nature of the food, of which they are merely the relidue.
An accurate and careful analyfis- of the excrements of
different claffes of animals, is one of the moft certain
means of difcovering the phenomena of digeltion. Se¬
veral cliemifts are at prefent engaged in it.
Of the SOLIDS of ANIMALS.-
The organs of carnivorous animals are divided into-
three dalles. The firlt comprehends the white or loft
parts, as the Ikln, the tendons, the membranes, the in¬
teguments, the aponeurofes, the ligaments, &c. The fecond
includes the mufcular organs, which are red in fome ani¬
mals, white or grey in others. The third confilts of the
hard parts, as the hair, the nails, the fcales, or lhells, the
cartilages, the bones, &c.
Of the soft and white- Parts.
The firff white organ is the Ikin, a very elaftic body*
fufceptible of changing its dimenfions, and fwelling up
in water; which is common to all the white parts, but
not to the mufcles. They are all capable of abforbing
water with tannin and alum; expofed to the air, they
dry up, forming glue, jelly, &c. When (kin has been
tanned, it is no longer foluble in water; it is then a com¬
bination of gelatin and tannin. It becomes brittle and
unchangeable ; Fourcroy regards it in this ftate as an an-
tifeptic, more powerful than bark in external dilorders.
The texture of the dermis is not of the fame nature as
that of the epidermis, which eafily peels off in tranfparent
lamina, while the dermis, lying underneath, is more
folid and fixed ; it contains fibrin and albumen, which
keep it compad even in a ftate of ebullition. Chaptal
has made fome recent experiments on the epidermis. He
found that the epidermis of. the human lkin was perhaps
the moft diftind, and the molt eafily detached. The hu¬
man lkin becomes tough, like horn, by the heat of water,
and furnifhes two diltind parts, epidermis and leather,
which laft in its confiftence refembles foftened cartilage 3
but the continued adion of hot water diffolves the lea¬
ther, without affedirig the epidermis. Neither will hot
alcohol, long kept in digeltion over epidermis, attack it
in the lealt. Cauftic alkali diffolves it ; lime produces the
fame effed, though more (lowly. Hence we perceive
analogy between the exterior covering- of the human
body, and the covering or outer part of filk.
From thele principles Chaptal has drawn confequences
which may be ufeful in tanning. 1. If a (kin covered
with its epidermis be plunged into an infufion of tan, the
tan will ad only on the inner or flelhyfide, the outer fide
being guarded by the epidermis, which is incapable of
• any combination with the tan. 2. When, by the adion
of the cleanfing matter, the epidermis is taken away, the
tan penetrates both fidesof the lkin. 3. The lime gene¬
rally ufed for this purpofe feems to ad only by diffolving
the epidermis ; lime-water has more adion than quick¬
lime ; but its effed ceales the moment the fmall portion
of lime which was held in folution becomes combined;
hence the neceflity of renewing the lime-water to finilh
the cleanfing.
Of
Of -THE Jelly, Gi.ue, See. — The membranes, ten¬
dons, aponeurofes, cartilages, ligaments, and (kin, con¬
tain in general a mucous fubdance very foluble in warm
water, but ihfoluble in alcohol, known by the name of jelly.
To form a jelly by way of experiment, take one or more
■of the animal fubdances mentioned above, as calf’s foot or
any other ligament ; boil it over a flow fire, ftrain, and
evaporate till it becomes a tremulous mafs by cooling }
to render the jelly more tranfparent, it may be clarified
with the whites of eggs. A ftronger degree of evapora¬
tion a (fords a dry, brittle, tranfparent fub (lance, known
by the name of glue.
Glue is prepared with all the white parts of animals ;
the (kin, the cartilages, and the feet of oxen, are ufed to
prepare the ftrong glue of England, Flanders, Holland,
.&c. The (kins of eels afford the bafe of gold fize, and
with old white leather gloves and parchment, a kind of
glue u(ed by painters, &c. is made. There are fcarcely
any animals, whofe tendons, cartilages, nerves, and more
efpecially the (kin, will not ferve to prepare thefe different
kinds of glue. It mud be here obferved, that glues dif¬
fer from each other in their confidence, tafte, fmell, and
folubility : there are fome which readily become foft in
cold water, others are not diflolved but in boiling water.
The bed glue is tranfparent, of a yellowilh brown colour,
without fmell and tade, entirely foluble in water, with
which it forms a vifeid uniform fluid, that preferves an
equal degree of tenacity and tranfparency in all its parts
as it dries.
Animal jelly does not differ from glue properly fo
■called, but in its poffefling a lefs degree of confidence
and vifeidity. The fil'd is more efpecially obtained from
the foft and white parts of young animals ; it is likewile
found in their flefli, mufcles, (kin, and bones. Glue is
obtained only from animals of a greater age, whofe fibres
are dronger and drier. Thefe two fubdances, however,
exhibit the fame chemical properties ; and therefore we
sfhall (peak of the jelly afforded by the cartilages or mem¬
branes of veal.
In its natural date, jelly has no fmell, and but a faint
tade : by didillation in the water bath, it affords an infipid
..and inodorous phlegm, capable of putrefaCtion ; in pro¬
portion as it lofes its water, it affumes the confidence of
glue, and, when entirely dried, it refembles horn ; when
expofed to a dronger fire, with accefs of air, if (wells,
liquifies, and becomes black, emitting an abundant
fume, of a fetid fmell ; it does not take fire without ex-
pofure to a violent heat, and even then not readily ; by
.didillation in a retort, it aflords an alkaline phlegm, an
empyreumatic oil, and a fmall quantity of ammoniacal
carbonat ; it leaves a large mafs of charcoal, difficult to
incinerate, which contains muriat of loda and calcareous
rphofphat.
Jelly, when expofed to a hot and moid air, becomes
fil'd acid, and foon after putrid. Water diffolves in it
all proportions ; acids, and efpecially alkalis, diflolve it
readily. By diffolving glue or ifinglafs in warm water,
and pouring an infufion of nut-galls into the folution,
a precipitate is obtained. Acids readily diffolve jellies
and glues. With nitric acid, glue is converted into ox¬
alic acid, and difengages azotic gas. Alkalis diffolve
i jelly entirely.
Of the Brain. — This fubdance, whofe nature is fo
little known, merits fome attention from the chemid.
To preferve it, it (hould be kept in a veffel with alcohol.
In a certain time it becomes faturated, takes a difagree-
able fmell, and depofits little needles, which feem to be an
adipo-ferous fubdance, fimilar to the white of whale, im¬
properly called lpermaceti. Water does not entirely dif¬
folve brain ; awhitifli matter always remains at the bottom.
Thouret has written at fome length upon the fubdance
of the brain. He confiders the white of whale to be one
of its condituent principles, and one of the mod natural
elements of the animal economy. He fays' it is mingled
in a certain proportion with the lymphatic juices of all
i
parts of the body; and, being depofited in a membrane
or net of a particular texture forms the bafis of the brain.
Fourcroy has analyfed the brain of feveral animals s
his memoir on that fubjeft is in the 16th vol. of the An -
nales de Ckimie. He has demondrated by experiment,
that befides the animal pulp, or bafis, it contains phof-
phats of lime, ammoniac, and foda, in very fmall pro¬
portions ; that it contains no uncombined alkali, as fome
chemids have afferted, and not an atom of potafli. As
to the formation of the pulp or bafis of brain, Fourcroy
is of opinion, (quite contrary to Thouret before cited,)
that among all animal organs it forms a clafs, or rather
genus, entirely didinCl from all other matter. Experi¬
ments have now confirmed this affertion beyond difpute;
they prove efpecially, that it has the lead analogy with
white of whale ; and that it differs greatly from the al¬
bumen of the blood, though it refembles this perhaps
more than it does any other animal fubdance.
The ’vitreous humour of the eye is perfectly foluble in
water; but the cryflalline coagulates, becomes opake, and
hard.
Of the Muscular Organs. — The mufcles are red
in certain animals, white or grey in others. The flefliy
parts are lean in fome animals, fat in others. The an¬
cient chemids, as Geoffroy, &c. though they made many
experiments on thefe fubdances, have left us nothing fa-*
tisfa&ory. Fourcroy, whom we have fo often quoted in.
this treatife, has dilcovered, befides gelatin, albumen,
and fibrin, a fourth component, which is fat. Bertholiet
had the fame refults.
By wafliing a mufcle in water, from red it becomes
white ; the colouring part unites with the water ; by this
means, the gelatin, albumen, and extractive matter, may
be feparated. The red liquid drawn out by expreffion,
is fimilar to the clot of blood waflied and exprefied. It
is a very bad method to wafli the mufcular parts in water,
previous to making broth. If the refidue of the lixivi-
ation be treated with alcohol, a peach-coloured precipi¬
tate will be thrown down ; the alcohol retains only (ome
portions of fait, either muriat of foda or of potafli, and
the extractive matter; which lad is feparated by evapora¬
tion. Boil the flefli which has undergone thefe two ope¬
rations in water; by ebullition the gelatinous part is dif-
folved, and it takes away alfo the portions of extraCl and
of (alt, which efcaped the aCtion of the firfi folvents. By
(lowly evaporating the water fil'd employed, without heat,
the albuminous part coagulates, and is leparated by the
filter, and the faline matter may be obtained by a fuc-
ceeding evaporation ; the alcohol likewile being evapo¬
rated, affords the coloured extractive matter; and ladly,
the decoCtion affords the jelly and the fat oil which fwims
at the furface, and fixes by cooling. After the extrac¬
tion of thefe different fubdances, nothing remains but
the fibrous matter, which is white, infipid, inloluble in
w'ater, contracts and curls up by heat, and by didillation
in a retort, afibrds much ammoniac, and a very fetid oil.
A large quantity of azotic gas is obtained from this fub-
ltance by the aCtion of the acid of nitre. In a word, it
pofleffes the characters of the fibrous part of the blood ;
it therefore appears to be proved, that the mufcular or¬
gan is the refervoir, in which the aCtion of the vital
powers depofites the fibrous matter, which becomes con¬
crete by red ; and which appears to form the bafis of
that animal property which phyfiologids call irritability.
When flefli is boiled in water, the albumen coagulates
and rifes to the furface, this is called feum ; the (aline
parts, which remain in the water, and the gelatin and
fat which coagulate when cold, conflitute broth or fov.p.
For a lighter kind of Coup, boil the meat as long as is
neceffary, and then drain through a cloth ; a great deal
of the fat will be left behind. Evaporate this well-drain¬
ed broth over a water-bath, and a (olid jelly is produced,
called gravy cakes, or folid broth. Thefe cakes may be
enriched with chickens, aromatics, &c. they are tome-
times alfo made from herbs.
Lime-
C H E M
Lime-water forms a precipitate with broth j it is cal¬
careous' phofphat. Cauftic alkalis and urine have the
fame effefil. Mufcles diddled in cauftic alkali become
red, though previous wafliing had rendered them white.
With nitric acid, azotic gas is obtained.
Berthollet has lately difeovered a new acid by the dis¬
tillation of mufcular flefti. The liquid procured by dif-
tillation from animal fubftances had appeared hitherto to
contain only carbonat. of ammoniac and an oil; but this
chemill found in it an acid, to which he has given the
name of the zoonic acid. He obferved this acid in the li¬
quid obtained from the gluten of wheat, the yeaft of
beer, bones, and woollen rags, diftilled for the prepara¬
tion of themuriatof ammoniac. He therefore considers
it as produced by the dillillation of all animal fubftances.
To feparate this acid, mix quicklime with the diftilled
liquid, after having feparated the oil, and then boil or
diftil the mixture. Carbonat of ammoniac is exhaled ;
and when the odour ceafes to be fiiarp, filter, and add a
little quicklime to the liquid, which boil again, till the
fmell of the ammoniac goes off entirely. What remains
is zoonat of lime, which filter again ; then pour on wa¬
ter impregnated with carbonic acid, or blow into the li¬
quid through a tube, in order to precipitate, by the car¬
bonic acid of the refpired air, the quicklime which may
be held in folution without being combined. Zoonat
of lime may therefore be employed to effefit combinations
by complex affinities; but, to obtain the zoonic acid
pure, make ufe of the following procefs : Mix the folution
of zoonat of lime in water, made pretty ftrong ( rap-
procliee ) in a tubulated retort with the phofphoric acid ;
then diftil it. The dillillation, as the zoonic acid has
very little volatility, requires a degree of heat nearly
equal to that of boiling water. The liquor mull then be
made to boil. If two veffels be adapted, one after the
other, nothing will pals into the fecond. It appears that
a part of the acid is deftroyed by the afition of the heat ;
for the liquid which is in ebullition becomes brown, and
grows black at the end of the operation. It may thence
be concluded that this acid contains carbon.
The zoonic acid has an odour like that of meat when
frying, and is indeed formed during that procefs. It has
an auftere tafte. It gives a ftrong red colour to paper
tinged with turnfol, and produces an effervefcence with
alkaline carbonats. It did not appear to produce with
alkaline and earthy bafes falls which cryftallize. It forms
a white precipitate in a folution of acetit of mercury in
water, and in that of the nitrat of lead ; fo that it has
more affinity with the oxyd of mercury than the acetous
acid, and with the oxyd of lead than the nitric acid. It
aids on the nitrat of filver only by complex affinity ; and
the precipitate if then forms grows brown with time,
which Ihewsthat this precipitate contains hydrogen. The
zoonat of potalh calcined, did not form Pruffiat of iron,
with a folution cf that metal.
Of the hard or solid Parts.
The hair, the nails, the ftiells, and the cartilages, hold
a middle place between the foft parts and the hard. The
hard parts, properly fo called, are the bones.
The hair is a fort of emunftory ; its change of colour,
and its lenfibility, are proofs of this fa£t ; it is known
that in certain dil'eafes it is dangerous to cut the hair.
Black hair is moft loaded with carbonat of lime ; it is
harder, and more fubj eft to turn grey, than lighter hair.
There are inftances of fudden fright turning the hair
grey in one night’s time. Hair, in dillillation with a
naked fire, gives out carbonat of ammoniac, a concrete
oil, a coal relembling carbure of iron, and lome Pruffic
acid; by the aftion of cauftic alkalis; carbonated hydro¬
gen gas and calcareous phofphat. Oxygenated muriatic
acid whitens hair. Nitric acid turns it yellow. The mu¬
riatic acid will diffolve it by the affiftance of heat, which
the acetous acid does not ; but which alkalis do com¬
pletely. If an acid be poured into the folution, there is
I S T R Y. 37ir
a precipitate; fulphurnted hydrogen gas it difengaged if
mmiatic acid be ufed, azotic gas if nitric acid.
Hair undergoes little change by the aftion of boiling
water ; a little gelatin is obtained at laft. Hair has been
regarded as unchangeable ; it exifts when all the other
arts are corrupted and deftroyed. Hair may therefore
e regarded as the moft durable part of the body ; a fa£l
which has been frequently evinced by the accidental dig¬
ging up of human fculls, on which the hair has been
found in a ftate of life and growth.
To turn red or light hair black, rub it with an acetous
folution of lead, or oxyd of lead, the nitric folution of
filver, or even of mercury : having foaked the hair, put
a little oil to it, which makes it blacker. All thefe ope¬
rations help to burn up or deftroy the hair ; and it is not
uncommon to fee the head break out in tumours, and
the falivary glands affedled, in perfons who thus take
meafures to change the natural colour of their hair.
Feathers, by fire and re-agents, give nearly the fame
produbls as hair. Weakened muriatic acid poured over
feathers, makes a black precipitate ; the nitric acid only
changes them of a yellow colour. Feathers are rather
lefs foluble in potafh than hair; they alfo afford lefs am-
moniacal carbonat.
BriJJles have properties fomewhat fimilar. By diftilla-
tion in a retort, they give out carbonat of ammoniac
and phofphat of lime. White bridles are turned yellow
by ftrong nitric acid. Alkalis do not form a fimple com¬
bination : ammoniac is difengaged, and Pruffic acid,
which would form a very goodPruffian blue with fulphat
of iron. They form very good foaps alfo.
Of Cartilages. — Thefe may be regarded as the be¬
ginning of bones ; and tendons, may be confidered nearly
in the fame light. In boiling water, they melt into a ge¬
latinous matter; they differ from bones only in the greater
or lefs quantity of phofphat of lime which they contain.
See Anatomy, vol. i. p. 526-581.
Of Horn. — The (havings cf horn, by long boiling in
water, may be converted into a jelly ; in this manner
hartfhorn is prepared for pharmaceutical purpofes. Take
one part of hartftiorn (havings, and fix parts of water;
put them into a tin-kettle, made to (hut 1b clofe that
there may be very little if any evaporation. Boil the
mixture over a (low fire for twelve hours : drain the de-
coftion, while warm, through a hair-fieve. In making-
up this jelly for fick perfons, add one half-part of white
wine and one part of fugar ; clarify with the white of an
egg. When the liquor is quite tranfparent, pour it boil¬
ing hot through the (litre, upon which is to be previoufiy
put thirty grains of cinamon in grofs powder, and 180
grains of fpirit of lemon. Acids promote the folution
of horn in water, and contribute to its clarification.
Of Bones. — Bonesarenot entirely an earthy fubftance,
as was formerly fuppoled, but a combination of phofpho¬
ric acid and lime. Bones in their origin are membranous;
they are much fofter in children than in adults, and in
old people are very brittle ; hence it is much more diffi¬
cult to make them knit and grow together after they
have been broken ; and in very old people they never will
become firm after fucli accidents.
Bones expofed to the air become covered with a yellow
undluous matter. With a gentle fire, they grow black
within, white wilhout. Diftilled in a retort, they afford
a great quantity of fat oil, an ammoniacal liquor, and
carbonat of ammoniac ; carbonated hydrogen gas is dif¬
engaged alfo. The coal is of difficult incineration ; it
leaves a wffiite refidue, which, by waffling in cold water,
furniffies a little carbonat of foda; hot water then lepa-
rates a certain quantity of fulphat of lime, and fome cal¬
careous phofphat remains. The animal oil which is ob¬
tained, when diftilled afrefli by a gentle heat, is known
by the name of Dippel's animal oil.
By continuing the calcination, the coal is burnt; all
the gelatinous matter is confumed, nothing remains
but the calcareous phofphat, which is friable. If the heat
be
3?2 C H E M
be increafed and continued upbn the calcined bones, they
acquire a fulible property. If the fire be maintained to
fucli a degree as to make the fufible matter of the bones
red-hot, they recover their folidity, and become like por¬
celain. The phofphat of lime does not melt, but the
molecules are drawn fo clofe together as to be almoftvi-
trefied. The calcined bones no longer contain any al¬
kali 5 it is by means of this that the fufion takes place,
and that the calcareous phofphat pafies to the ftate of glafs.
If bones in pieces, or l'afped, be boiled in water, the
liquor, when cool, becomes gelatinous and tranlparent.
Bones may be reduced to a pulp, by boiling in Papin's
digefer. If entire bones be put into acids, it foftens them,
reducing them to a kind of membrane ; if with a ftrong
and aftive acid, as the nitric, not only the earthy part
will be dilfolved, but the membranous part will be at¬
tacked alfo; it grows yellow, and yields, by dillillation,
the oxalic and Pruffic acids.
Calcined bones are foluble in all the mineral acids1, and
by. the acetous and tartareous acids. The pholphoric
acid diflolves bones more readily than the others. If a
folution of bones in an acid be precipitated by an alkali,
you have, according to Scheele, a combination of the al¬
kali with the acid, and the calcareous phofphat is fet free.
Sulphuric acid has alfo the property of decompofing bones :
fulphat of lime is formed, and the phofplioric acid re¬
mains uncombined. This, as we have feen, is the procefs
for obtaining pholphorus.
Of the PUTREFACTION of ANIMAL SUB¬
STANCES.
Organical matters being different from inorganic, muff
undergo a different procefs in their changes, the one be¬
ing vegetable, the other animal : the former ferment, the
latter putrefy. Fourcroy divides putrefaftion into fix
parts : its hiitory, caufes, phenomena, nature, the art of
Hopping it, and the means of preventing it.
I. PutrefaClion called by Boerhaare Fermentation. — In
this operation nature exhibits a curious phenomenon to
the minute enquirer. Bacon was aware of its import¬
ance; and the advice he gave to phyficians, though fol¬
lowed, leaves much ftill to be done. Rouelle has been
employed upon thisfubjeft; but Pringle has treated it
the belt. Macbride examined the affinity between fixed
air and animal fubflances ; he ©bferved, in putrefaction,
i. That fixed air was difengaged. z. That, by putting
putrefying fubflances with fixed air, the putrefaction flop¬
ped, was even retrograded. 3. That all animal fubflances
which afforded fixed air, were anti-feptics.
II. Caufes of Putrefaction. — There is no putrefaftion in
animal fubflances without the prefence of water ; the heft
preventive, therefore, is very dry air: hence the burn¬
ing fands of Libia preferve bodies by depriving them of
their water. Below o, or zero, there is no putrefaction ;
a little above, it proceeds but (lowly ; at 150 it is more
haflened. Animal fubflances have in themlelves a caufe
which renders them more or lefs liable to putrefaClion.
The albuminous and fibrous parts are called more ani-
malized, as being nearer to the ftate of fermentation. All
thefe fubflances pafs the acid fermentation before they
become putrid.
III. Procefs of PutrefaClion. — Every animal fubflance has
its own peculiar mode and time of fermenting, when ex-
pofed to a warm moift air. Thefe phenomena may be
diftinguifhed into general and particular. The general
appearances are always the fame. There are fix changes :
3. Of confidence. 2. Of colour. 3. Of fmell. 4. Of
organization. 5. Of bulk and weight. 6. Of nature; it
becomes a kind of inorganical earth, in which vegetable
f ubflances (hoot out and grow.
IV. Nature of PutrefaClion. — Fourcroy made fome in-
terefling experiments in the pits of the ci-devant burial-
place of the Innocents at Paris. He obferved, that when
lime was thrown upon bodies newly put in, the workmen
could not remain any time in the pits ; they were forced
[ S T R Y.
to retreat to avoid an afphixy or apolexy ; their eyes were
r£d, and they felt great pain. Fourcroy went down : he
found that the effect arofe from the difengagement of
ammoniac ; he difcovered, alfo, that what the workmen
called fat snatter, was only ammoniacal foap.
When putrefaftion is complete, many elaftic fluids of
a dangerous nature are difengaged. Compound fubllances,
by putrefaction, pafs to a more fimple (late : thus, if car¬
bon unite with oxygen, carbonic acid is formed ; if it
is phofphorus, it will be phofphoric acid; if fulphur,
fulphuric acid; if phofphorus or fulphur combine with
hydrogen, fulphurated or phofphorated hydrogen gas will
be the refult, which will burn, if brought in contaft with
the air : this combination has given fupport to fome fu-
perllition among the ignorant. If carbon unites with
hydrogen, oil is produced ; if azot with hydrogen, it be¬
comes ammoniac; laftly, if the azot is difengaged, it
unites with the oxygen of the air, and forms nitric acid.
There is alfo a great difference in the progrefs of putre¬
faClion. Some fubflances decay rapidly, others flowly,
as in argillaceous or fat earth. All change, according to
the fubllances with which they come in contaCl : hence
it may be difcovered why fome tend to vitrification, others
turn to manure, and how fome pafs to the mummy or fat
ftate. It has been propofed to bury dead animals in con¬
taCl with humid Alliances, iri order to convert them into
fat, which may be ufed for burning in lamps.
V. Of preferring Bodies from PutrefaClion. — In the fat
matter, there is a part which leems to remain unchanged,
and Hill furniflies gluten; it is this which tends to the
prefervation of mummies.
VI. To fop the Progrefs of PutrefaCiion. — To prevent
putrefaClion, we mull remove the caufes which produce
it. Whatever abforbs humidity, is antifeptic ; as, alka¬
lis, lime, acids, andfugar; all the neutral falts, efpecially
thofe with an excefs of acid, all aromatics, all the labiated
plants, fimarouba, pomegranate-peel, dry balfams, gum-
refins, &c. may be ufed with fuccefs. To keep infeClion
from cities, burying-places, common fevyers, &c. thefe
places fliould be fo difpofed, that fecal matter may always
be carried off by a llream of running water.
The art of dellroying the effeCts of putrefaClion, is to
difengage the muriatic acid from the muriat of foda by
fulphuric acid ; the fame elfeCl may be produced by oxy¬
genated muriatic acid, which deflroys colours and lmells 5
and, as Fourcroy obferves, might be ufed as an odorimeter
in anatomical refearches : the bodies might alfo be rub¬
bed with oxygenated muriatic acid. It was proved by
Guyton, as far back as 1773, that the fumes of the mi¬
neral acids poffefled the property of flopping contagion.
This chemift, by means of the fumes of muriatic acid,
extricated from the muriat of foda (fea fait) by the ful--
phuric acid, purified the air of the cathedral of Dijon,
which had been fo much infeCled by exhumations, that
they were obliged to abandon the building. The procefs
was afterwards publifhed under the form of “ Inllruc-
tions for purifying the air in the military liofpitals of the
French republic ;” a copy of which appeared in the Jour¬
nal de Phyfique. The procefs confilted in removing the
patients, heating fome common fait, previoufly moiftened
with water, upon a flove, and then pouring fulphuric
acid upon the hot fait. In an inflant the fulphuric acid
begins to aft upon the fait, combines with its foda, and
dilengages its acid, which rifes in the Hate of vapour.
The operator then leaves the room, and (huts the door ;
and, after twelve hours, returns, and opens the windows,
to admit frefh air.
Dr. Carmichael Smith, F. R. S. deferves great praife for
his meritorious perfeverance in this difcovery, till he got
the ufe of acid fumes introduced into the Englifh hofpi-
tal (hips, in 1796 ; and his fubftituting nitre for common
fait was a happy improvement ; for, though acid fumes
were known to prevent infeftion, there was no proof of
their having contributed, at the fame time, to the reco¬
very of the lick, till thefe experiments w;ere made accord-
C H E M :
Ing to inftru&ions drawn up by him. See the article
Contagion.
Thus we have given the general phenomena obferved
in the putrefaction of animal fubftances ; whence may be
clearly feen, how much the pjiilofophy of animal fub¬
ftances and the fcience of medicine may expeft from
chemiftry, when thefe two fciences are connected toge¬
ther. There is a great difference between the putrefac¬
tion of the parts of living animals, and that of their dead
organs. The motion which exifts in the former, lingu-
larly modifies the phenomena of this alteration ; and
phyficians have frequent opportunities of obferving the
difference between thefe two ftates, with refpeft to putre-
faCliou. Befides this, every humour, and every folid part,
feparated from a dead animal, has likewife its peculiar
way of putrefying. The mufcular, membranous, or pa¬
renchymatous, texture of the organs ; the oily, mucila¬
ginous, or lymphatic nature of the humours ; their con-
iiftence, their ftate with refpeCt to that of the animal
which afforded them, all influence the putrefactive motion,
and modify it in a thoufand manners, perhaps impoflible
to be eltimated. And how greatly will the difficulty of
the fiubjeCts be increafed, if we add to this enumeration,
the ftate of the air, its temperature, elafticity, weight,
drynefs, or moifture ; the expofition of the putrefying
fubftance in various places, and even the form of the
veffels which contain it; all thefe circumftances being
capable of varying the phenomena ? It mull therefore
be allowed, that the hiftory of animal putrefaClion is
fcarcely begun, and that it demands an iinmenfe feries of
inquiries and experiments.
Such are the phenomena which take place, when ani¬
mal matters putrefy, and are decompoied ; but as the
refult of this decompofition in different mediums throws
great light on the knowledge of the revolutions of the
globe, let us conflder, for an inltanf, what happens to
thefe matters, in their various decompofitions, in the dif¬
ferent parts and fituations of the earth.
The bodies of animals plunged into water, firft fwell
up; elaftic fluids are difengaged ; the water dilfolves a
great part of their principles, decompofes another part,
and difperfes the different principles of thefe bodies
among the great maffes that conftitute rivers and ftreams ;
whence feveral favage nations expofe dead bodies in rivers,
and commit their deltruCtipn to the water.
Different phenomena take place, when the bodies of
animals are buried beneath the ground. In thefe cafes
putrefaClion takes place more or lefs flowly, the fluids
and the folids finiffi, by being reduced -almoft entirely in¬
to azotic gas, carbonic acid gas, hydrogen gas, and am-
moniacal gas. All thefe elaftic fluids being filtered through
the earth, are flopped and partly fixed, and render the
ground black, greafy, and fetid. They faturate it, as it
were, with thefe products of putrefaClion, until the dif-
folving power of water and air, the vaporization effected
by heat, and the abforption by vegetables, deprive the
ground of the fluids with which it is impregnated. Thus
it is that nature, by flow decompofitions, reduces the
bodies of animals, deprived of life, to more Ample fub¬
ftances, deltined to enter into new combinations.
This decompofition, confidered on every part of the
globe at once, in the earth, in the water, or in the air,
produces great changes, which the philofopher ought to
appreciate. By obferving the vail extent of the feas, and
the immenfe quantity' of animals which inhabit them,
we perceive thofe animals periffi in enormous maffes, and
fuffer a decompofition, which produces phenomena hi¬
therto not fufficiently examined. What becomes of tfie
immenfe remains of animal matters ? To what fuccef-
five revolutions are thefe ruins of living beings expoled ?
It is known that the waters of the fea contain the mu-
riats and fulphats of foda, of lime, and of magnefia. It
cannot be doubted, but the muriatic acid, magnefia, lime,
and foda, are continually formed in this vaft laboratory.
Perhaps the formation of many of thefe fubftances may
Vol. IV. No. 304.
S T R Y. 373
take place during the life of thefe marine animals ; but
fome otliers are certainly owing only to the decompo¬
fition of the fame fubftances after death. It cannot be
denied, that the ftrata of calcareous matter, which con-
liitute, as it were, the bark or external covering of the
globe, in a great part of its extent, are owing to the re¬
mains of the fkeletons of fea animals, more oriel’s broken
down by the waters ; that thefe beds have been deposited
at the bottom of the fea; that fuch is likewife the origin
of bitumen, and more especially pit-coal, which is depo¬
fited in very thin and extended ftrata, which likewife
occupy a part of the globe. Thfere is, therefore, in the
fea, a never-ceafing caufe of the decompofition of water ;
numberlefs agents continually feparateits principles, and
are theml'elves changed. Immenfe maffes of chalk, de¬
pofited on its bottom, abforb and fix the water, or con¬
vert it into a folid fubftance, part of the liquid which fills-
its vaft bafons.
From thefe confiderations, refpefiting the decompofition.
of animal fubftances in the earth, in the air, and in the
water, united to all the data afforded by chemiftry, it
follows, that the external ftrata of the globe are no longer
what they were at the moment of its formation ; that it
increafes in folidity and extent by the l'ucceffive and un¬
interrupted augmentation of thefe depolitions ; that the
foil we inhabit is modern and factitious ; that it does not
belong to minerals; that this l'uperficial foil is owing to
the flow decompofition of animals and vegetables ; that
water is continually diminifhed in quantity, and changes
its form; that one part being decompofed, fnrniflies one
of the bafes of the bodies of vegetables and animals ; that
another part is rendered- folid in. the calcareous ftrata
added to the globe ; that the atmofphere mult have been,
modified by all thefe fucctffive changes ; that vegetables
continually influence the atmofpheric air ; and that the
folar light is greatly concerned in all thefe mutual de¬
compofitions. Though it feems impoflible to determine
the times which have fucceflively beheld the decompofi¬
tion of water, vegetation, fermentations, putrefaClion, the
formation of faline fubftances, bitumens, calcareous mat¬
ters, and the modifications of the atmofphere ; yet philo-
fophy and chemiftry, enriched by modern difcoveries,
fhew. us at leaft. that thefe phenomena have taken place
at different epochs ; that they continue to modify the.
aCtual ftate of the planet we inhabit ; and that if. matter
be one and the fame thing, with refpeCt to its mafs and-,
intimate nature, as great philofophers have thought, yet
its form being continually varied by the combinations it
experiences, mull gradually produce great revolutions,
of which modern chemiftry may appreciate the caufe,,
and of which, perhaps, it may fome clay foretel the final
effects.
DESCRIPTION of several new and valuable
CHEMICAL MACHINES.
Compound diftillation is one of the mod important
operations in chemiftry. The fubftance which is fepa¬
rated in every diftillation, comes over into the receiver in
the form of gas. Now, if the nature of the gas be fuch,
that by cooling alone it enters with facility into the li¬
quid ltate, a common receiver, fufficiently cooled, may
be made ufe of for receiving this product; as, forex-
ample, in the preparation of alcohol, diltilled vinegar.
Sec. But, if the gafeous fluid cannot, by cooling alone,,
be condenfed l'o as to become liquid ; or, if this change
proceed very flowly, there is no other means of obtaining
it in the lattter form, than to combine it, if poffible, with
a greater or lefs quantity of water. Inftances of this kind
are vtny frequent, as in the diftillation of nitric acid, of
oxygeff^ted muriatic acid, caultic ammoniac, See. The
means by which the ancient chemifts accomplifned this,
end, confided in adding, in the retort, to the mixture to
be diftilledfn^ much water as was neceffary to arreft the
gafeous body which .had been difengaged. This water,,
in confequence of the application of heat, being changed
5 C into
CHEMISTRY.
374
into vapours, came over in this Form into the receiver,
together with the other gas, where it condenl'ed, and
maintained the gas in folution. This was the mode of
proceeding in the operations above-mentioned ; but this
method is liable to many objedtions and inconveniencies,
the principal of which we will flate.
1. Many aeriform acids, ammoniac, & c. are much more
volatile than water, and come over, for this reafon, in
part, much fooner into the receive)' than the water. The
dirfl: portion of thofe bodies, not being arrelted by the
water, is, therefore, loft. Chemills endeavoured to ob¬
viate this fault, by making ufe of very large receivers, in
which the gas remained included, till it could be dif-
■folved in the water as it came over. But even thefe were
infufficient, ar.d required to be tubulated to procure an
jfifue for the accumulated gas, and prevent the apparatus
from breaking. Sometimes, alio, the experimenter ufed
to introduce a ftnall quantity of water into the receiver,
previous to the operation ; but, as the gas only touches
the furface of tire water, its folution became extremely
tedious-
2. It has been proved that gafeous bodies are difl'olved
much more readily and copioully in cold than in hot
water. Now, as the water which comes over during the
above procefs is always hot, it heats the receiver, and,
•of courle, remains hot for a long time; this is confe-
-quently a new impediment, and the water cannot, there-
ffore, in this manner, be perfedtly faturated with the gas.
3. From what has been obferved, it follows, that the
dofs experienced during thefe operations can be dimi-
nilhed only by an extremely flow and careful operation,
and that the flighted: inattention may not only fpoil the
whole procefs, but endanger the life of the operator. But,
notwithftanding the utmoft precaution and attention, the
operator remains expofed, in a great meafure, to the nox¬
ious and difagreeable vapours ; even the mere effufion of
fuming fpirit of nitre, and of concentrated muriatic acid,
from the enormous receivers, is attended with great in¬
convenience.
4. If, efpecially in operations in the large way, any
dirt or impurity adhered to the body made ufe of, it was
taken up by the water, and came over into the diflilled
liquor, for which reafon the fuming and concentrated mu¬
riatic acid, for in dance, was never obtained clear.
5. Neither the quantity, nor the degree of concentra¬
tion of the liquor to be obtained, could be optionally de¬
termined, fince the lofs depended upon a great many cir-
cumflances, which the operator could not altogether fore¬
fee nor prevent.
To obviate.thefe inconveniencies, feveral chemills pro-
.pofed new machines, for the purpofes of dillillation ; but
none have been more generally approved, than that of
Mr. Peter Woulfe, which, w:ith the improvements by
Pelletier, we fhall defcribe, as follows :
WOULFE’S APPARATUS.
This apparatus, as ufed in chemical and pharmaceutical
operations, is always formed of glafs, and, which is the bell,
of white glafs. In large manufadlories only, it may, ac¬
cording to circumllances, be partly made of wood, iron,
copper, See. The peculiar velfels and inftruments of
which it is -compofed, are delineated in the Chemiftry
Plate VI. Fig. 1, is the apparatus, with luted junctures,
for the reception of gafeous and liquid bodies. Fig. a,
is the apparatus for the dillillation of fuch bodies as come
over in the form of gas only, with refrigeratory veflels,
and junctures not luted.
Fig. 5, the tubulated receiver, or balloon with two
.necks. This receiver ought to have a Ihort wide neck,
proportioned to the beak of the retort intended to be
ufed. It Ihould alfo be rather wider towards the mouth,
and conical towards the receiver, that it may be joined
^the clofer to the beak of the retort, and be more firmly
.luted. As moll of the common receivers are jars, of
•which the greateft part of the neck is broken off, they
have the fault that their neck is narrow at the mouth,
and wider towards the belly. The collateral neck of
this receiver Ihould be very round, and fufticiently long,
that a cork of fome length may exadlly fit in it. More¬
over, the polition of this neck ought to be fuch, that,
when the receiver is connected with a retort moderately
inclined, it Hands perpendicularly, as fhewn at fig. 1.
The dimenfion of thefe receivers ought to correfpond
with the extent of the procefs ; in chemical or pharma¬
ceutical experiments, we have feldom occafion for larger
ones than fuch as hold from eight to twenty pints. If
the receiver be very lmall, the collateral neck may be
omitted ; but, inflead of it, we Ihould bore a hole, of
about two lines in diameter, to admit the communicating
tube.
Fig. 3, and 4, are Woulfe’s bottles. Thefe are com¬
mon cylindrical fhort-necked bottles, furnifhed, befides
the ufual neck in the middle, with one or two collateral
necks. At firft they made ufe alfo of bottles with four
necks, but thefe may be difpenfed with in almolt all ope¬
rations, for thofe with two and three necks, anfwers all
purpofes as well. The middle or principal neck of thefe
bottles is generally fomewhat wider than the reft; but
its diameter Ihould never exceed one inch, for otherwife
the junctures become unnecefiarily large. Moreover,
thefe necks fhould be almoft cylindrical, very round, and
as much as poflible perpendicular and parallel. The fize
of thefe bottles differs according to the operation ; they
cannot, however, be much fmaller than of half a pint ;
and, in extenfive operations, they do not require to be
larger than of twelve pints.
The communicating tubes conned the apparatus toge¬
ther. Of thefe the experimenter fhould have feveral in
ftore, or he fhould form them, according to neceflity, of
llraight tubes of foft glafs, which he may bend over a
charcoal fire, or by the blow-pipe. If the operation be
moderately great, they are belt of one line in diameter j
but, in greater operations, they may meafure as much as
two lines. In general, it is better to have them too wide
than too narrow. The intermediate part between the
ends fhould be fufticiently long, that the bottles, with
which it communicates, as well as the refrigeratory vef-
fels, may conveniently fland near each other. The cor¬
ners or angles of the communicating tube fhould not be
too fliarp, but fomewhat round, otherwife the tube is li¬
able to break. They may be liKewife made in the form
of a femicircle. They are commonly quite Ample, but in
fome cafes they are furnifhed with a fhort capillary tube.
The tube of fafety, is a llraight glafs tube, riling up¬
wards, of about one line in diameter, and about two feet
in length.
Fig. 6, the adopter; which ferves to combine a retort
with one of Woulfe’s bottles, as at fig. z. We fhould
always be furnifhed with feveral of thele, of different di¬
menfion, according to the fizes of the different retorts.
Smaller ones may be made of the beaks of old retorts.
The refrigeratory veflels ferve to cool the liquids con¬
tained in the bottles, by means of ice, fnow, or cold wa¬
ter, continually replenifhed. For this purpofe we may
ufe fmall wooden tubs, earthen batons, &c. But the molt
convenient veflels are thofe made of copper, or tin, painted
with oil colours; they bave a cock or fyphon near the
bottom, by which the melted ice, or the water, when it
becomes too warm, is drawn off. In thefe veflels the jars
or bottles are placed, as at fig. 2.
As the joinings in all operations where Woulfe’s ap¬
paratus is employed, fhould be perfedlly doled, left any
aeriform body pals through, the choice of a proper lute
is of very great importance. Ail lutes, it is well known,
are divided into two claffes, into fat and common lutes.
Of the former we make ufe of two kinds in Wouife’s ap¬
paratus, which are prepared in the following manner :
1. Take very dry rich clay, triturate it in an iron mor¬
tar, and form it into a thick pafte, by fucceifively add¬
ing boiled linfeed oil, commonly termed linfec-d varnifh.
This
a.t' t7i<; Ac£c&rg£fs.ir&<?Sj$oj. . fiv ftrz7fc& . _
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■s
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C H E M
Th is lute is not expenfive, and is of very great lervice in
the diftillation of acids, and of all corrofive bodies ; but
it cannot be long prelerved, and mull, therefore, be frefh
made every time. z. Take one pound of pulverized am¬
ber, melt it by a gentle fire in an iron veffel with an iron
cover, containing one ounce and a half of turpentine.
In the mean time boil on a feparate fire one pound of
linfeed oil, and pour it hot, and while ftirred with an iron
ladle, into the melted amber. In this manner we obtain
a liquid of the confiftence of honey, which conftitutes the
bails of common amber-varnifli. This liquid is then
wrought with good dry clay into a palle, during which
operation a fmall portion of expreffed nut-oil may be,
added by way of dilution, and to prevent drying. This
lute is much more expenfive than the former, but prefer¬
able in all its properties, It keeps for a very long time,
and may be ufed twice or three times.
In the diftillation of volatile alkali, ether, &c. there is
no neceflity for ufing fat lute, we therefore employ one
with much more convenience, which is thus prepared ;
almonds finely powdered and lifted, or, which is prefer¬
able, flour of linfeed, is mixed with good ftarch, properly
boiled, and formed into a hard pafte, which, in the ope¬
ration, may be foltened by fprinkling water upon it.
This lute is very clean, and may be employed to great
advantage in all operations where no corrofive bodies are
treated} but it can be ufed only once, nor does it keep.
It becomes ftill better and more firm, if a fmall portion of
common glue be added to the ftarch.
The application of the lute, in fecuring the junftures,
is another important point; for, with the belt kind of
lute, we fhall not be able to clofe a joining well, unlefs
it be properly applied. But this operation is bell learned
by praftical inftruftion and ufe ; and the only rule which
we can give in this place is, that the glafs is to be per¬
fectly clean and dry, that the lute mull be applied in
fmall quantities only, and by degrees ; and that the laft
portion is to be properly combined with the portions ap¬
plied firft, by kneading.
The communicating tubes are inferted in the necks of
the bottles, by means of perforated corks. For this pur-
pole a hole is firft bored through the cork, and filed with
a round file, till the tube may be firmly fixed in it ; the
outfide of the cork is then filed with a coarfer file, till it
fits exaftly the necks of the bottles. The cork lliould
always go quite down into the neck, and not appear
above it. Woulfe’s bottles and communicating tubes,
joined to each other by corks alone, are reprelented by
fig. z, and thofe which are luted, by fig. x. In joining
the retort with the balloon, or the adopter, or an adopter
with the bottles, lute alone is made ufe of, fome part of
which Ihould be always preffed between the joinings of
the veffels, for thefe mult never touch each other.
As the junctures, defended either by fat or common
lute, may be eafily difplaced by motion, and as fat lute
is very liable to become foft, and to fink, when expofed
to heat, it is effential, in nice operations, that the join¬
ings already luted Ihould be further l'ecured by wet blad¬
ders, or, which is ftill better, by ftrips of linen coated
with white of egg and lime ; thefe, by their compaCt-
nefs, do not only tend to conned the joinings more clofe-
ly, but they contribute very much to render the lute co¬
herent and firm. For this purpol'e, take ftrips of linen
not too coarfe, of an inch wide, cut them into pieces as
long as the coating of the lute upon the joinings is broad,
dip them into frefli white of egg, take then out one after
another, and rub them well in with powdered quicklime;
this being done, put them tranfverlely upon the joining,
and prefs them clofe and even upon the lute. In this
manner the lute is covered with one, two, and, in greater
operations, with three or four ftrips, which are then coated
©nee more with white of egg; and, laftly, with quicklime.
If, in a diftillation by Woulfe’s apparatus, the body,
which is feparated, either on account of the mutual ac¬
tion of the fubftances with which it is in contaCl, or by
the aCtion of heat, come over entirely in the form of gas
foluble in water, the apparatus, in order to obtain the
gas combined with water, in a liquid form, is to be con¬
nected in the following manner : The earthen glafs or
retort, on the land-bath, water-bath, or the naked fire, is
to be joined by means of the adopter, with the central
neck of a Woulfe’s bottle with three necks. In one of
the collateral necks of this bottle the tube of fafety is in¬
ferted in fuch a manner that it nearly touches the bot¬
tom. The other collateral neck is connected with a
Woulfe’s bottle by means of a communicating tube with
unequal ends, fo that the lliorter end only reaches into
the neck of the bottle with three necks, whilft the other
extends almoft to the bottom of the bottle with two
necks ; this lecond bottle is combined, in the fame man¬
ner, by means of the ufual communicating tube with un¬
equal ends, or, which is preferable, by means of the com¬
municating tube with the fmall capillary tube, with a
third bottle with two necks, as Ihewn at fig. z. As much
dhtilled water is introduced into the firft, or the bottle
with three necks, previous to its being luted, as to allow
the tube of fafety to be immerfed about half an inch.
That quantity of water, which from experience we know
to be requifite for the abforption of the gas which comes
over, is then diftributed in equal proportions in the fe-
cond and third bottles. The tube of fafety remains open,
but thefhort capillary tube of the lecond communicating
tube is luted in fuch a manner, that it may be opened
with facility and fpeed. The ferond neck of the third
bottle is either left open, orllightly Hopped by a cork.
If a tubulated retort be made ufe of, the whole appa¬
ratus is luted, and the fubftances to be treated, or at iealt
thofe which are to facilitate the developement of the gas,
are introduced through the tubulure of the retort. On
the contrary, the joinings between the retort, the adop¬
ter, and the firft bottle, remain open till the laft, but are
luted the moment the bodies have been introduced through
the neck of the retort. Now, if in confequence of the
gradual application of heat, the fubftances contained ire
the retort begin to aft upon each other, and difengage
the gas, it mixes at firft with the common air confined
in the retort, the firft bottle, and the firft communicating
tube, which is thus condenfed, and preffes upon the whole
furface of the water contained in the firft bottle, and up¬
on that of the water in the communicating tube of the
fecond bottle. But, as the refiltance of the water in the
fecond bottle is equal to the preffure of a column of wa¬
ter whofe height equals the fum of the heights of the wa¬
ter in the fecond and third bottles, and is confequently
much greater than the refiltance of the water in the firft
bottle, which at molt is equal to that of a column of wa¬
ter of one inch high, it follows, that the furface of the
water in the immerfed end of the communicating tube
in the fecond bottle remains unaltered, till, by the gra¬
dually increafed preffure, the water in the tube of fafety
has ri'fen to a height which equals the fum of the heights
of the water in the fecond and third bottles. If, for in-
ftance, the water in the fecond and third bottles be four
inches high, the water in the tube of fafety would rile
eight inches, before the gas could be forced through the
orifice of the immerced end of the firft communicating
tube.
As foon as the preffure of the water in the fecond bot¬
tle is overcome, the gas penetrates through the water,
in the form of bubbles, into the fecond bottle, and from
thence through the fecond communicating tube into the
third bottle. During this tranfition, the gas is abforbed
by the water, and the circumllances which promote the
abforption are, i. the ftate of compreffure both of the
gas and water; z. the minute divifion of the gas which
paffes through the watef; 3. the cool temperature which
is to be maintained in the refrigeratory veffels, in the
manner reprelented by the plate ; for the caloric, which
is difengaged from the gas, frequently raifes the water
to ebullition,
Whe$
37$ C H £ M I
When the operation is once commenced, the water in
the tube preferves conftantly the fame altitude, which is
only altered in the five following cafes: i. When the de-
velopement of the gas, by imprudently increafing the
heat, or from other caufes, takes place with fuch rapi¬
dity, that the gas cannot pafs with fufficient fpeed
through the communicating tube, and confequently ac¬
cumulates in the firft bottle. In this cafe the water rifes,
and, if the mafs be great, and the tube of fafety not
long enough, all the water in the firft bottle is forced
through the tube of fafety, and the apparatus is fponta-
neoufly opened. The tube of fafety, in this cafe, there¬
fore, prevents the apparatus from breaking. 2. When
the denlity of the water, in the fecond and third bottles,
is increafed by the gas which it has already imbibed.
For this reafon we (hould never pour too much water into
one bottle, but rather diftribute it in feveral ; or the
ends of the communicating tubes fhould not be immerfed
fo low, becaufe in nwft operations the denfity of the li¬
quid is at laft confiderably increafed, and of courfe the
refinance becomes greater. 3. As foon as the develope-
rnent of the gas begins to decreale, the water in the tube
of fafety delcends. This happens either towards the
end of the operation, or when the heat is imprudently
diminifhed If the apparatus be then perfectly cooled,
the air in the firft bottle is condenfed to fuch a degree,
that the atmofpheric air enters the tube of fafety. If
this tube were wanting, the water contained in the fe-
cond bottle would neceffarily come over into the firft.
It would be the fame with the third bottle, if we were
not to open the capillary tube of the fecond communi¬
cating tube, and thus caufe the atmofpheric air to enter.
If the communicating tube be without a capillary tube,
the luting of the third bottle muft be inftantly opened,
and the bottle itfelf removed. 4. The height of the
water in the tube of. fafety decreafes alfo at laft, in con-
f'equence of the lecond and third bottle becoming cooler,
or when from any other caufe the abforption of the gas
is more rapid than its developement. 5. Not unfre-
quently alfo it happens in the midft of the operation,
that the gas, inltead of being developed, is ablorbed for
a fhort time by the mafs contained in the retort, or that
the. volume of this mafs is otherwife fuddenly diminifhed,
which, in like manner, caufes the water in the tube of
lafety to fall. The tube of fafety, therefore, not only
defends the apparatus from breaking, but alio prevents
the fluids in the bottles from mixing. It ferves more¬
over as a mean by which we may judge of the progrefs
of the operation. «
_ If, daring the procefs, we fhould obferve a fmall quan¬
tity of gas unabforbed pafs through the open neck'of the
third bottle, a fourth bottle is immediately to be joined
with the third bottle, by means of a communicating tube,
in the fame manner as the third bottle is conneiled with
the fecond. But on this occafion we fhould not forget
that the preffure is increafed in the firft bottle, and con-
fult the tube of fafety. When the operation is finilhed,
and the apparatus cooled, we find the water contained in
the bottles impregnated with the developed gas, and more
fo in the firft bottle than in the laft. The liquor con¬
tained in the firft bottle is frequently not quite pure, be¬
caufe the fmall quantity of the body which comes over
in the liquid form carries along with it the impurities of
the diftiiled fubftances ; the other liquors, are, however,
perfectly pure. If the weight of the water poured into
each bottle has been accurately determined, we fhall be
able, after the operation is finilhed, to point out in the
moft precife manner, from the increale of weight, not
only the whole weight of the gas obtained, but alfo the
degree of concentration of the fluids in each bottle. By
way of example,1 we will ftate the refult of an operation
for a preparation of fpirit of cauftic ammoniac. One
pound and a half of dry fal-ammoniac, and four pounds
and a half of quicklime, were introduced into.a glafs re¬
tort in this-- manner ; half a pound of lime was put at the
S T R Y.
bottom by itfelf, upon this was thrown a mixture of three
pounds and a halfvof lime, and one pound and a half of
fal-ammoniac, and the whole laftly covered with the re¬
maining half pound of lime. The retort was- placed on
a fand-bath, and connected with an apparatus of the na¬
ture before deferibed. Diftillation was now commenced,
and continued, by a heat gradually increafed to the igni¬
tion of the retort, till the gas ceafed to come over. To
immerfe the tube of fafety, three ounces of diftiiled water
were poured into the firlt bottle, and half a pound into
each of the fecond and third. The apparatus being open¬
ed, the firft bottle was found to contain four ounces, two
drams, forty grains, of a foul weak fpirit of fal-ammoniac ;
the. fecond bottle, one ounce and a half, twenty-eight
grains, of the ftrongell and pureft fpirit of fal-ammoniac;
and, in the third bottle, nine ounces and a half, three
drams, fixteen grains, of an equally pure but weaker fpirit.
Bottle. Water. Increafe of Gas.
No. 1 3 ounces 1 ounce 2 drams 40 grains
2 8 ounces 4 ounces - 28 grains
3 8 ounces x ounce 7 drams ifi grains
19 ounces 7 ounces 2 drams 24 grains
From this computation it appears, that'one pound and
a half of fal-ammoniac affords feven ounces, two drams,
twenty-four grains, of pure gafeous ammoniac, which,
diflbrved in nineteen ounces of water, form twenty-nine
ounces, two drams, twenty-four grains, of fpirit of fal-
ammoniac, of which the fmall portion contained in the
firft bottle is weak and impure, and cannot therefore be
computed ; that contained in the fecond bottle is very
ftrong, fince two parts water contain one part gas ; that
the third portion is alfo pure, but lefs ftrong, the pro¬
portion of the gas to the water being about 1 : 5.
If the products which come over in any diftillation
whatever, appear partly in a liquid form, and partly in
that of gas, three different cafes may occur. 1. That the
gas which comes over is foluble in water, and may thus
combined with it be received feparately from the body
which comes over it in the liquid ftate. 2. The gas which
comes over, whether it be foluble in water or not, may
be collected in this ftate, and at the fame time the liquid
body may be feparated without any lofs. 3. If the gas
which comes over be two-fold, and partly foluble in wa¬
ter and partly not, the foluble part combined with water,
the ipfoluble part in the form of gas, and the body in the
liquid form, all three may be obtained feparately, and
without any lofs.
In the firlt cafe, the apparatus is to be difpofed as re-
prefented by fig. 1, that is, the beak of the retort is in-
ferted in the tubulated balloon, which is connefted by
means of a communicating tube, of which the ends are
equal, with a Woulfe’s bottle with three necks, in fuch
a manner that the ends of the communicating tube only
reach into the neck of the balloon and of the bottle. In
one of the collateral necks of this bottle we infert the
tube of fafety ; and the third neck is combined with a
fecond bottle, by means of a communicating tube with
unequal ends, fo that the Ihorter end only extends into
the neck of the firft bottle, and the longer end almoft to
the bottom of the fecond bottle. In fome cafes, this fe¬
cond bottle may- be linked in a fimilar manner with a
third. The balloon is left empty; in the firft bottle in¬
troduce the water which is required for the immerfion of
the tube of fafety, but in the fecond and third bottles pour
the water which is to abforb the gas.
The body which in the diftillation comes over in the
liquid form, colledts immediately in the empty balloon,
and remains at its bottom ; but the galeous fluids, after-
having forced the common air out of the apparatus, rife
through the firft communicating tube into the firft bottle,
where, having produced the neceffai-y preffure in the tube
of fafety, they pafs on through the fecond communicating
tube into the fecond bottle, to combine with the water
which it contains* After the operation is finilhed, the
ballooa
CHEMIS TRY.
377
balloon is found to contain (be liquid body which has
come over, and the fecond bottle the gas abforbed by the
water.
Though, in cafe of neceflity, the balloon might be con¬
nected directly with the fecond bottle, in the feme man¬
ner as this bottle is connefted with the firfl: ; yet the in¬
termediate bottle, with the tube of fefety, is of great ufe,
as it enables us to judge of the progrefs cf the operation,
and prevents the water, in cafe of an abforption of air in
the retort, from patting into the balloon, where it would
not only mix with the fluid, but might frequently, on ac¬
count of the great heat excited, produce an explofion of
the balloon, and thus endanger the operator. With re-
fpefit to the other circumftances and cautions, the fame
obiervations are here applicable which we mentioned be¬
fore.
This cpmpofition of Woulfe’s apparatus is made ufe
of in the diftillation of ethers, and of edulcorated acids,
but efpecially in the preparation of nitric acid, which,
by way of example, we will proceed to deferibe.
Four pounds of nitre, deprived by fufion of its water
of cryftallization, were pulverized, and introduced into
a glafs retort ; the apparatus was compofed in the man¬
ner deferibed, and all the joinings, except that between
the retort and the balloon, were luted with fat lute and
ftrips of linen. Two pounds of the beft oil of vitriol (that
of Nordhaufen) were then poured through the neck of
the retort upon the nitre; the joining was immediately
fecured, and diftillation commenced on the fend-bath by
a heat at firfl: gentle, but gradually increafed till the retort
became red-hot. The firfl; bottle contained three ounces
of water for the innnerfion of the tube of fefety, and the
fecond bottle one pint of water. The operation being
finifhed, the balloon was found to contain twenty-feven
ounces and two drams of the moll concentrated fuming
nitric acid; in the firfl: bottle, five ounces fix drams of
green fuming nitric acid; and, in the fecond bottle,
twenty-fix ounces of Among blue nitric acid.
Bottle. Water. Increafe.
Balloon 27 ounces 2 drams
No. 1 3 ounces a ounces 6 drams
2 1 6 ounces 10 ounces
It thus appears that there was obtained in this operation,
befides the twenty-feven ounces two drams of fuming
fpirit of nitre, in which the acid is bound by the water
contained in the fulphuric acid made ufe of, twelve
ounces fix drams of nitrous acid gas, combined with the
nineteen ounces of the water employed.
Second cafe. If, in a diftillation, where the bodies come
over partly in the form of gas, and partly in the liquid
ftate, we wife to obtain the gas feparately from the liquid
over water or mercury, the retort is joined, as in the for¬
mer cafe, with the tubulated balloon, the collateral neck
of which is conne&ed by means of a recurved tubulated
communicating tube with a bell glafs in the pneumatic
apparatus. The fubftance which comes over in the li¬
quid form, is here, as in the former cafe, collefted in the
balloon ; but the gafeous body paffes through the com¬
municating tube into the pneumatic apparatus, and rifes
into the bell-glafs filled with vPater or mercury. By open¬
ing the fliort capillary tube of tine communicating tube,
we (hall at all events prevent the tranfition of the water
or mercury from the bell into the balloon. This compo-
fition of Woulfe’s apparatus is frequently made ufe of
in the analyfis of organized fubftances bv dry diftillation.
Third cafe. If we know before-hand that the gafes
to be obtained in a diftillation, befides the body in the
liquid form, are two-fold, and that one is foluble in wa¬
fer, the other not, the two gafes may be obtained fepa¬
rately. To this end the apparatus is compofed exactly
in the fame manner as in the firfl: cafe ; and a fecond bot¬
tle is moreover connected by means of the recurved comv
municating tube with the pneumatic veflel. The liquid
body, in this cafe, as in the two former, comes over di-
refel-y into the balloon, but the gafeous bodies rife through
VoL, IV. No. 2 op.
the communicating tube into the firfl receiver, and from
thence into the fecond. The foluble gas is here abforbed
by the water, and the infoluble gas paffes through t he
bent communicating tube into the belbof the tube. T he
tube of fefety in the firfl. bottle indicates the progrels of
(lie operation, and prevents the tranfition of the water
into the balloon, but the capillary tube of the third com¬
municating tube is of great ufe in cafe the water of the
tub fliould come over into the fecond bottle. If of the
two the foluble gas be carbonic acid gas, we ufually ap¬
ply a foiution of cauftic pot-afh in the fecond bottle in¬
stead of pure water, becaufe it ablorbs this gas, mora
perfeftly, and with greater fpeed.
This conftruftion of Woulfe’s apparatus is principally
made ufe of in the examination of organized fubftances by
fire. Wood, for inftance, affords by dry diftillation, ail
acidulous phlegm, an empyreumatic oil, inflammable and
carbonic acid gas. To obtain thefe produ&s feparately,
the wood is diftilled in the apparatus as above-mentioned,
when the water and oil remain in the balloon, the carbo¬
nic acid is abforbed by the cauftic alkali, and the hydro¬
gen gas or inflammable air paffes over into the bell. Now,
if the weight of all thefe bodies be afeertained, we find
that the firm of the weight of the liquid body, of the
gafes, and of the refidual carbon, is, fave a very final!
lofs, equal to the weight of the wood made ufe of.
Woulfe’s apparatus is likewife calculated for the im¬
pregnation of water with carbonic acid. For this pur-
pofe, a bottle with two necks is connedled with a fecond
bottle alfo with two necks, by means of a communicating
tube with unequal ends, in liich a manner, that the lon¬
ger end enters the fecond bottle. After an optional quan¬
tity of pure water has been introduced into this fecond
bottle, it is connefited in a fimilar manner with a third
bottle, and this with a fourth. All the joinings having
been fecured by lute of almonds, powdered chalk, and.
highly diluted fulphuric acid, is alternately introduced
through the fecond neck of the firfl: bottle, which. is clofed
immediately after by means of a cork. The carbonic
acid gas, generated during the foiution of the chalk in
the fulphuric acid, comes over into the fecond bottle,
and what is here not entirely abforbed by the water, pafles
on to the third bottle, &c. After the operation has been
continued for fome time, the water in the bottles is
found to be highly feturated with the carbonic acid. The
foiution of the chalk fhould be carried on very flowly,
left the violent effervefcence, and the great degree of heat,
caufe the fulphuric acid to "go over and mix with the wa¬
ter.
In this manner a foiution of potafh or foda may be
completely feturated with carbonic acid, and changed
into a perfefit mild ftate. With a diluted foiution of pot-
afli is prepared alfo the acidulous water for diffolving the-
ftone ; if the ley be concentrated, very beautiful cryftals
of the neutral carbonic acid felt will be formed during
the operation. For this realon the communicating tubes
fliould be always fomewhat wider in this operation, that
they may not be fo ealily obftrudted by the cryftals.
From this apparatus of Woulfe, feveral of thofe ex
hibited in the preceding plates have been in part con.
ftrudled, and adapted to particular experiments.
VAN MARUM’s GAZOMETER.
This is an improved apparatus, conftrudled by D „
Van Marum, of Haarlem, for the purpofe of producing
water by the combuftion of hydrogen in oxygen gas;
and is delineated in the Chemiltry Plate VII. The vef-
fel, eleven inches in diameter, containing the air or gas
to be employed, is reprefented at A. The mouth of it
is clofed by a brafs cover ferewed upon it, and furnifhed
with three cocks, B, C, D. On the cock B, is ferewed.
a copper fyphon E F, having its end F ferewed upon
another brafs tube open at the bottom, reprefented by
the dotted lines G G, and which defeends, within the
brafs cylinder H, which is open at the top.- To the
5 D lower
CHEMISTRY.
378
lower part of the cock E is cemented a glafs tube I I,
which is open at the lower end near the bottom of the
glafs. When the cock B is opened, the tubes G G, F
E, I I, make only one fyphon; from which, when
it is completely full, and the water in both veflels does
not ftan'd on the fame horizontal line, the water will be
conveyed from that veflel where it has the greateft height
into the other, until the water in both be of the fame
height. For example, when the water in the cylinder
H hands at K, and in the glafs A at L, (in which cafe
we muft fuppofe the cock D open that the air may efcape,)
the water will continue to flow from H into A, till it
Hands at the fame horizontal line.
The higher the water K is railed in H, the greater is
the weight of the column, and the quicker the efcape of
the air. By thefe means M. Van Marum obtains what
Melfieurs Lavoilier and Meufnier call preflure in the ga¬
someter, merely by the higher level of the furface K
over L. That the height of the water in H may be ob-
ferved, a glafs tube M M, about i-i inch in diameter,
and connected with it, is placed between H and A, in
which the water will always have the fame altitude as in
H. An ivory fcale, divided into inches and lines, fattened
to a cork ball, floats upon this water, and ferves to (hew
the difference of the.al-titudes of the water at L and K.
The cock N, fitted to the top of the open cylinder O,
ferves, together with the cock P, to preferve the preflure
perfectly uniform. Suppofe, for example, that a conftant
preflure of water of two inches high was required ; as
much water muft be fuffered to flow continually into H,
as is equal in bulk to the quantity of water that this pref-
tfute of two inches forces from H into A. For this purpofe,
fill the cylinder O, with water to the height of four inches,
and turn the cockN, until the preflure of the four inches
of water, which is maintained by the cock P, forces
through N into H a quantity of water exaSHy equal to
the quantity that the preflure of two inches forces from
H into A. The index Q^, of the cock N, and the fcale
R S, ferve to give to the cock N the exa<5l opening re¬
quired ; this having been determined before-hand, and
*he fcale divided accordingly. The cock N begins to
open when the index R is turned towards S ; and, for
this reafon, the gradation of the fcale begins at R. When
the index is in a vertical pofltion, the cock is completely
open.
As it might perhaps be difficult to give to the cock P,
which is connefted with a ciftern of water, fuch an open¬
ing as not to permit more water to flow through it
than neceflary for preferving a height of four inches
in the cylinder O, a wafte-pipe T T is applied at this
height, which buffers all the fuperfluous water of the cock
P to run off. In order that it may be more conveniently
obferved, whether the cock P has a fufficient opening
for maintaining a four-inch column of water, a glafs tube
U, marked at the required height, is applied on the
.outfide, connefted with the cylinder O.
To fill this gazometer, nothing more is neceflary than
to let water run out from the cylinder H. For this pur¬
pofe, the cock V muft be opened, until the water in H
Hands lower than that in A. The cock D, and the cock
W, ftanding over the bell-glafs X, are then opened. The
air contained in X rifes through the pliable tube Y Y
into A. This filling may be continued, by leaving the
cock V open, that the water which proceeds through the
fyphon from A to H may run out, and the furface of
the water in H ftand always a few inches lower than that
in A, At the fame time the bell-glafs X is to be fup-
plied with new gas in the ufual manner. When the ope¬
ration of filling is completed, the cock V is to be fhut,
and that at Z opened ; the lower part of the opening of
the key of which is in the fame horizontal line with zero
of the fcale, which (hews in cubic inches the altitude of
the water in A. By thefe means the water falls no lower
in A, than to the above-mentioned line ; and A is con-
fequently filled with air to the beginning of the fcale a b .
Before the cock D is fhut, care muft be taken that the
water in the bell-glafs X do not ftand higher than the
water that furrounds it in its tub, which may be effected,
if the bell-glafs be deprefl'ed in the tub, till the internal
and external altitude of the water be perfedtly equal ;
and the air in A will then be of the fame denfity as that
of the atmofphere.
The gazometer is furnifhed with a thermometer f g,
which is fo cemented with fealing-wax into a piece of
copper e, that the bulb of it is within the gazometer. By
thefe means the temperature of the air ufed may be
known, and its weight accurately afcertained. The tri¬
pod on which the gazometer ftands, facilitates the adjuft-
ment of the apparatus, and a brafs bottom fcrewed upon
the tripod is furnifhed with a brafs rim or lip, to receive
the glafs A, and keep it faft in its place. Exactly at the
upper level of this rim the fcale a b commences. The fcale
is of ivory, fattened on a flip of brafs, and at the ends
are two fquare pieces of brafs, by which it is made faft,
by means of two fcrews, to the cover at the top, and to
the before-mentioned lip. The fcale is divided in the
common method, by pouring equal meafures of water
(fuppofe two cubic inches) into the glafs, and marking
the height of each on the fcale, or, as the glafies are
nearly cylindrical except at the neck, it may be fufficient
to ufe at once thirty-two cubic inches, and divide the
height into fixteen equal parts ; the neck of the veflel
muft be divided, as above, by two cubic inches at a time.
To explain the ufe of this gazometer, it is only necef-
fary to fliew how the fyphon G F E I, is filled at the com¬
mencement of the experiment. This is done almoft in
the fame manner in which M. Lavoifier filled the fyphon,
which he employed in order to fill the lamp ufed in the
experiment relpedting the comb.uftion of oil. The me¬
thod is as follows : The two cocks N and P are to be
opened at the fame time, and to be kept fo until the cy¬
linder H is completely filled with water. The tube G G,
which is open both above and below, as the crooked tube
F E is not yet joined to it at F, will be filled at the fame
time with the cylinder. The tube G G is then to be fhut.
below by the cock h. This cock is fixed into a piece of
brafs, which is faftened in the cylinder H by four fcrews,
the heads of which may be feen at ;, i, i, i. To this piece
of metal, made hollow in a perpendicular direction, is
foldered the tube G G, which touches the infide of the
cylinder H, and is mule faft at the top by a piece of brafs,
which is fcrewed to the interior edge of the cylinder by-
two fcrews, the heads of which are feen at K. As loon,
therefore, as b is fhut, the crooked tube F E is to be
fcrewed to G G and the cock B. The cock B is fhut, the
fcrew j is to be unfcrewed to open the tube at that place,
and water poured by means of a funnel into the orifice
thus opened. As foon as the tube E F is full, the orifice
is again fhut. The cock b being then opened, and after¬
wards B, fo much water runs from H, through the fy¬
phon G F E I, that A will be completely filled, if care
be taken, by opening the cocks N and P, that the water;
in H ftand always higher than that in A. To liaften the
the filling of the glafs A, 'it will be convenient to fill the
cylinder H almoft entirely.
In order that the bent tube E F may be faftened air¬
tight to the cock B, and the tube G G, without turning it
round, each end of E F is ground to fit conically the
places intended to receive them, and is preffed home by
the following contrivance: Fig. 2. reprefents a fedtiou
palling through the axis of this part of the apparatus.
The part a a, which is furnifhed with a fhoulder, is flip¬
ped into the hollow c of the cock B; and the female
fcrew dd , by means of its fhouldery f, when turned upon
the fcrew e e, preffes the conical part a a into c. The
conical piece of the other end F of the tube E F, is ad-
jufted in the fame manner into a piece of copper foldered
to the tube G G. All the tubes of this apparatus are ad-
jufted to their refpeffive cocks in the fame manner. It
will be luflicient to greafe flightly the furface of any of
thefe
Plate. m.
‘•V.
4
!
CHEMISTRY,
thefe conical pieces, before it is put in its place, to pre¬
vent all communication with the air of the atmofphere.
The balloon, for the compofition of water, placed
■Upon its tripod between the gazometers, differs from that
of Lavoifier, principally in the manner of lbutting it, in
order to prevent the entrance of air. For this purpofe
there is a rim of copper a a, fig. 3. fixed on the neck of
the balloon, by means of plafter of Paris, which, that
it may afford no paflage to the atmofpheric air, is coated
over with common cement or lute, above the edge of the
banian:, as may be feen at bb-, and this cement is co¬
vered with a ftrip of linen c c, a quarter of an in-ph in
breadth, dipped in the white of an egg mixed with lime.
The rim of copper a a, has a copper ring d d, foldered
to it at right angles; and on which the plate of copper
e e is ground, in fuch a manner that it is fufticient to
greafe (lightly the upper furface of the ring d d, when a
vacuum is to be made, taking care to apply To little
greafe that it may not, penetrate into the balloon. To
exhauft the balloon there is a cock, which communicates
by a bent tube with an air-pump placed behind the bal¬
loon; and to prevent the working of the air-pump from
lliaking the balloon, this bent tube is made in part of
elaftic gum. The plate of copper e e, is kept down upon
the ring dd, by fix (crews; two of which may be leen
at/ /, placed at equal diftances round the neck of the
balloon, and by means of which the plate ee may be
made to prefs very (trongly on the ring d d, on turning
thefe (crews by the help of a key. Both of the gazo-
meters are made to fhut in the fame manner.
The inferior furface of the plate e e is covered, as far
as it covers the opening of the balloon, by a thin plate
of pure lilver, in order that the vapours formed during
the experiment may not touch the copper. For the fame
reafon the bent tube hn> in the balloon, is alfo made of
pure filver. At the extremity of this tube, is a piece of
platina, having a very fmall aperture, fcarcely fufticient
to afford a paflage to a very fine needle. The part
which ferves as a conduftor to kindle the hydrogen gas
by an ele&ric fpark, is alfo made of platina, as far as it
■is not inclofed in the glafs tube, 0 0, by which it is infu-
lated. Platina is preferred for thefe two parts, in order
to prevent the oxydation of the metal, which the heat,
produced by the combullion of the hydrogen gas in oxy¬
gen, might occafion. The tubes pppp, which ferve to
conduft the gales into the balloon, are made of glafs, and
cemented into the copper tubes q q, which have conical
extremities, like thole above defcribed, to fix them on
the cocks. Thefe glafs tubes are raifed a little above the
edge of the cylinder H, to prevent the water from palling
into the balloon, Ihould we happen to fill one of the
glafles A, and negleCl to Ihut well the cock C.
It will be proper to make the glafles A, pretty large,
if they can be procured fo, in order that the gazometers
inay contain the more air. It will however be belt to
make them rather high (twenty-eight or thirty inches)
than wide, in order that the exaCtnefs of the fcale a b
may not be diminilhed. M. Van Marum anfwers an
objection, which he fays may pofiibly be urged againll
this apparatus, namely, that the combullion is obliged to be
lufpended every time that the gazometers need to be re-
pleniftted with either oxygen or hydrogen. He fays this
is no folid objection, as he finds that, fince he ufed pla-.
tina for conveying the eleCtric fpark, he never fails to
kindle the hydrogen the firft moment it enters the bal¬
loon ; and that, befides, the combuftion of a cubic foot
of hydrogen gas, in order that the water produced may
not contain acid, odght to take fix hours. Thofe who
with to make experiments of longer duration, have only
to attach two other gazometers ; by which means, while
the one let is emptying, the other may be repleniflied.
For this purpofe it will be neceflary to have, inftead
of the cock u, two cocks Z 1, Z 2, fig. 4, lcrewed to a
piece of copper fixed to the cover of the balloon 5 and
by which each of thefe cocks has a communication with
379
the bent tube Irn, by means of two holes x, x, which pro¬
ceed obliquely through this piece, and end in the tube/.
The firft gazometer, which communicates with the bal¬
loon by the cock Z 1, being almoft emptied, the cock
Z 2, of the fecond gazometer, may be opened, after hav¬
ing made the preflure in the fecond gazometer equal to
that in the firft. It is evident that the preflures of thefe
two gazometers being equal, the velocity with which the
hydrogen gas enters the balloon will not experience the
leaft change. When the firft gazometer is entirely empty,
the cock Z 1 is fhut and the firft gazometer is filled ; and
the cock Z 1 is not opened till a little before the fecond
gazometer is totally emptied. The fecond gazometer is
then to be filled again ; and in this manner the combuf¬
tion of hydrogen gas may be continued by thefe gazo¬
meters to any length of time, without interruption. To
introduce the oxygen gas without interruption into the
balloon by means of two gazometers, it will be fufticient
that the two cocks, which form a communJcation between
the gazometers and the balloon, be immediately fixed in
the covering of the latter.
Both halves of the apparatus being fimilar, the letters
of reference are only marked on one fide of the plate.
VAN MARUM’s APPARATUS for the COMBUS¬
TION of PHOSPHORUS.
This able chemift having made feveral fruitlefs attempts
to render a balloon, for the combuftion of pholphorus
in hydrogen gas, perfectly air-tight, according to the
method defcribed by Lavoifier in his Elements of Che-
miftry, he conftruCted another fimilar to that employed
in his gazometer, above defcribed, for the compofition
of water; and fecured it againll the entrance of air in the
like manner. This apparatus is reprelented at fig. 1, in
the Chemiftry Plate VIII. where the balloon A, has two
cocks B C, with conical Hoppers, and united to the tubes
by the fame means as thofe in the gazometer above-men¬
tioned. Within the balloon is a fmall crucible of pla¬
tina, d, fufpended by two wires of the fame metal, from
the plate of copper by which the balloon is (hut. The
cock B ferves to conneCt the tube with an air-pump, and
by thefe means to empty the balloon of atmofpheric air.
By the cock C, the oxygen gas, contained in the gazo¬
meter G, is introduced ; but, as this gas ought to be as
dry as poflible before it is admitted into the balloon, there
is applied, between it and the gazometer, a glafs cylinder
H, filled with a fait which ftrongly attracts the moifture
of the gas. The fait found molt effectual in this expe¬
riment, was that ufed and recommended by Sauflure for
drying atmofpheric air. It is the alkali which remains
after the decrepitation of a mixture of equal parts of
nitre and crude tartar, which has been kept at a red heat
for an hour.
The fait in the tube H mull not be pulverifed, but di¬
vided into fmall fragments, in order that the gas may
penetrate through it, and come in contaCt with a greater
portion of its furface. The tubes i, u , k, by which the
cylinder H is connected with the gazometer and the bal¬
loon, muft be pliable, becaufe it would be too difficult
to place the cylinder H in fuch a pofition, as to be united
with the balloon and gazometer by means of tubes not
capable of being bent. Pliable tubes of elaftic gum are
bell for this purpofe, the ends of vvhich are faltened to the
copper pipes lcrewed into the cocks.
Lavoifier kindled the phofphorus in his balloon by a
burning lens ; but Van Marum oblerved that phofphorus
wrapt up in a particular manner inflames fpontaneoufly
when the air is rarefied to a certain degree ; and he em¬
ployed the refult of this obfervation to inflame the phof¬
phorus in his balloon. This chemift deferibes the utility
of the prefent apparatus, as follows: “I have feveral
times, both in the courfe of my lectures and on other
occalions, (hewn the production of the phofphoric acid
by the combuftion of phofphorus in oxygen gas, as de¬
fcribed by Lavoifier in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences
380 CHE M. ;
Sciences for 1777. In my experiments I have generally
burnt fixty grains of pbofphorus. They have (hewn that
the weight of the phofphoric acid produced, is always
.nearly equal to that of the pbofphorus burnt, and of the
oxygen gas employed. I calculated the refults by the
method defcribed by Lavoifierin his Treatile of Chemif-
try (vol. ii) ; but it is not' neceflary they fliould be in¬
ter ted here, as the compofxtion of the phofphoric acid
has been diffidently eflablilhed by the accurate experi¬
ments of Lavoilier. My objedl, in deficribing the appa¬
ratus I employed, was merely to enable thole who wifli
to repeat the experiments, to do fo by an eafier method,
and with more certainty than according to that propofed
by him. It mull here be obferved, that as the pbofphorus
by my proeefs, inflames in rarefied air, there is no dan¬
ger that the hidden expanlion of the air, produced by the
intenfe heat of the inflamed phofphorus, will built the
glafs, to, prevent which, in Lavoifier’s method, requires
great caution, as he himfelf has remarked. That the
balloon during the combullion may be as little heated as
poffible, I fuller the air, after the inflammation, to pafs
gradually, and in fmall quantity, into the glafs globe,
and for that reafon do not open the cock until the flame
begins to be extinguiffied. In this manner the experi¬
ment may be performed without any danger.
“ In the year 1794, I made known, in the thirteenth
number of th eCbemifchen Oejfeningen of the celebrated Klaf-
tellyn, my experiments on the combullion of phofphorus
in the fo-calLed vacuum of an air-pump. Had profeflor
Gottling, and other German chemifts, who have obferved
phofphorus to ffiine in azotic gas, paid more attention to
what thefe experiments clearly eftablilh, they would not
have made fo much noife refpedlinga phenomenon which
is fo like the Alining of phofphorus before it inflames in
air highly rarefied. This ffiining of phofphorus in an
imperfedl vacuum, Ihews, that the fmall quantity of oxy¬
gen gas contained in atmolpheric air lo highly rarefied,
is Hill fufficient to occafion that luminous appearance;
and, as it is well known that it is abfolutely impoflible to
produce azotic gas which does not contain fome oxygen
gas, they might have feen by thefe experiments, that the
fmall quantity of oxygen which mull have been contained
in their azotic gas, was fufficient to produce that light
which they obferved.
“ I (hall here only add, that phofphorus will not fliine
at .all in azotic gas which contains no oxygen gas. This
I ihewed, on the 18th of January 1794, in ray leisures
at the Teylerian Inllitute. I introduced azotic gas over
mercury, and freed it totally from oxygen gas, by intro¬
ducing phofphorus into it on the point of a bent iron
wire, which I pafled up through the mercury, fo as to
bring the phofphorus in contadl with a piece of ignited
iron previoufly introduced into the receiver. All the
oxygen gas united itfelf in a moment with the volatilized
photphorns ; and another bit of phofphorus, which after
the cooling of the apparatus I made to rife through the
quickiilver into the azotic gas, which in that manner
was freed from all oxygen, did not ffiine, A fmall bub¬
ble of atmolpheric air was fufficient to reproduce the
ffiining. It was then feen diffufed throughout the whole
gas, in the fame manner as when atmolpheric air is ad¬
mitted into an exhaufted receiver, in which phofphorus
has ceafed to be luminous. I Ihewed, in the courfe of
the fame ledlure, that phofphorus does not fliine in a per-,
fedl vacuum. For this purpofe I caufed the phofphorus
to ai'cend through the quickfllver of a barometer, and it
exhibited no light, ’in order that this experiment may
completely fucceed, you mull employ a barometer, the
tube of which has been well freed from atmofplieric air,
by boiling the'quickfilver in the tube. If you ufe a ba¬
rometer the quickfllver of which has not been boiled, the
fmall quantity of air contained in it will be fufficient to
make the phofphorus luminous ; but this appearance will
be of fliort duration, becaufe the exhaufted fpace of fuch
1
S T R Y.
a barometer can contain only a very fmall quantity of
oxygen gas.”
The MERCURIAL G AZOMETER of W. H.
PEPYS, Jun.
The difficulty which has attended the exhibition of
acid and alkaline gafes, was the firft inducement to
Prieftley, Lavoilier, and others, to ufe mercury for fuch
experiments ; but the great expence and enormous weight
of this fluid, obliged many accurate and experienced
chemifts to relincjuifii them almoll entirely, as there ap¬
peared no other iikely means of fucceeding but by its
means, and that of the exhaufted receiver. A contri¬
vance to leffen the quantity of mercury neceflary for fuch
experiments, is therefore a defirable objedl; and Mr.
Pepys feems to have fucceeded in conftr.udling an appa¬
ratus, in which the above-mentioned requiiites are ob¬
tained at a comparatively fmall expence; As it is hardly
poffible to japan tin or copper fo perfectly as to prevent
their being attacked by mercury when brought in contadl
with them, the cylinders' are turned in lignum vitae, on
which the mercury has no adlion ; the conducting tube is
of glafs; and the cocks are coated on the infide with var-
nifli. The ufefulnefs of an apparatus fo conllrudled will
appear fufficiently obvious, when it is recolledted, that
all gafes pafled through any other fluid than mercury,
as water for inftance, take up a quantity of moilture,
which adds confiderably to their gravity, and makes it
impoflibfe to determine their real weight.
For weighing the gafes, a glafs globe and llop-cock of
a fmaller fize than is commonly employed, is here to be
ufed, as greater accuracy can be obtained by ufing a
proportionally delicate beam, than by employing a larger
globe, which mull be fufpended to a beam of fuch ftrength
as greatly to increafe the fridtion on its axis. It is of
great importance in the analylis of bodies, or in other
chemical experiments, to be able to afcertain with accu¬
racy the weight of any gas obtained by the proeefs. The
weight of two or more quantities of gas fliould however
be always tried, and the mean be taken, to prevent any
error.
Fig. 2, in the Chemiftry Plate VIII. is a reprefenta-
tion of the bell-glafs of the gazometer, furnifhed with a
cock at top, and able to contain thirty-four ounces troy
of diftilled water. Thedivilions of capacity, determined
by adlual meafurement, are marked on the glafs with a
diamond. B B, fedtion of two cylinders of lignum vitae,
the outward one ferewed upon the lolid internal one,
which is made to projedt at its lower extremity, and fur-
nilhed with a male ferew, to work into a female ferevr
with which the lower end of the external cylinder is fur-
nilhed. The fpace between thefe is fo adjufted, as to be
almoll filled up by the fubftance of the bell-glafs A,
when dropped into it, fo that the quantity of mercury
neceflary to fill up that fpace is proportionally fmall.
The internal cylinder has a condudting tube through its
axis, the lower end of which is furnifhed with a female
ferew anfwering to the male ferew of the cock of the fmall
receiver C. The receiver C is made of glafs, and open
at the bottom. When this receiver is ufed, it is ferewed
into its place, and refts upon a fmall cup or cittern of
mercury D, in which the beak of a retort, furnifhed with
a bent glafs tube, may be introduced under the receiver.
E, E, fedtion of a wooden Hand, upon which the cylin¬
ders of lignum vitae are l'upported, having an opening
through the top, to permit the cock of the receiver C
to'be joined to the condudting tube of the internal cy¬
linder B. The ciftern D is adjufted to its height by
means of a riling cylinder in the pedeftal F. Fig. 3. is a
transfer glafs for mixing alkaline gales in vacuo, or
other purpofes; and, when ufed, is joined to the top of
the bell-glafs A. Fig. 4. a glafs globe and llop-cock,
capable of holding 14 ounces troy of diftilled water for
weighing gafes; it receives its gas by being inverted.
mut- mi
C H E M I
and fcrewed into the bell-glafs A. Fig. 5. an elaftic-
gum bottle, capable of containing thirty ounces of di(-
tilled water, for holding the acid gafes : whenufed, it is
fcrewed into the top of the transfer glafs at fig- 3' the
bottom cock of the latter being at the fame time joined to
the bell-glafs A, previoufly charged with the alkaline
gas : the cocks being turned, the gafes rufii together in
vacuo. Fig. 6. a fmall portable air-pump, for exliaulting
the glafs globe at fig. 4.
One of the principal obje&ions to the ufe of mercury
in fuch experiments as this apparatus is intended for,
has been, the great force neceffafy to overcome the re¬
finance of a column of mercury when gafes are to be re¬
ceived over that denfe fluid; a refiftance in the propor¬
tion of one inch of mercury to fourteen inches of water,
and which very few lutes are able to withfland. This
refiftance however maybe overcome by a bent tube fitted
into the beak of the retort, (if one be employed,) or
into a Woulfe’s bottle, and palling into the upper part
of the fmall receiver, expreffed in the plate at C. By
employing mercury for fuch experiments, another ad¬
vantage is gained by the ufe of this apparatus, namely,
a power of exhauftion in the retort, or Woulfe’s bottle,
equal to a column of two inches of mercury, or twenty-
eight inches of water. This will be eafily conceived,
when it is recollected that, by drawing up the large re¬
ceiver A, the linall one C is raifed in its ciftern, hearing
up with it the contained mercury, which is kept in its
place by the preflure of the atmofphere on the lurface of
the mercury in the ciftern. The cock of the fmall re¬
ceiver C is then to be turned off, and that of the large
one A to be turned on. The air, of which the retort,
or Woulfe’s bottle, is thus exhaufted, may then be let
out, by plunging A into the mercury between the cy¬
linders B B, and turning off the cock. When a fuffi-
cient quantity of gas pafles from the retort, or bottle,
through the bent tube into C, to level the mercury in it
and the ciftern, the communication may again be open¬
ed, and the fame Heps followed as before defcribed. By
this means Mr. Pepys was enabled to obtain more gas,
from the fame materials, than if he had received it
through a fluid of the weight of water; a circumftance of
fome importance where nice and accurate refults are to
be made.
GUYTON’S EUDIOMETER.
Chemifts have long wilhed for an eudiometer capable
of fhewing exactly the' quantity of oxygen gas mixed in
any other gas. Berthollet has proved, in his LeCtures at
the Normal School, that the eudiometer of Scheele,
which he juftly confidered as the beft, has ftill great de¬
feats, as the abforption requires feveral hours, and as
towards the end there is a decompofition of water, and
confequently a difengagement of hydrogen gas, which
occafions uncertainty refpeCting the quantity abforbed.
This induced Guyton to leek for lome fubftance, which,
in a convenient manner, might immediately give a more
accurate refult than nitrous gas, hydrogen gas, phof-
phorus, and a mixture of fulphur and iron, the only fub-
ftances hitherto employed for that purpofe. Sulphure
(fuiphuret) of potafh, appeared to him fit to be tried
under this point of view. He was well aware that at the
ordinary temperature, it is fufceptible only of a com-
bullion ftill flower, and more infenfible, than a moiftened
mixture of fulphur andiron; but he prefumed that, if
the temperature were raifed by applying a fmall taper,
it would befufficient to put in aClion the affinity, and to
determine rapidly an abforption which would not then
be afteCted by any foreign caufe. The effeCt fully an-
fwered expectation ; fo that the queftion then only was,
to determine the apparatus neceflkry to form this new
eudiometric inltrument. He thought that an inverfed
retort would unite fimplicity, convenience, and every
advantage that could be defired. This inltrument, thus
Von. IV. No. 104.
S T R Y. 38r
completed, is exhibited in the Chemiftry Plate VIII. at
fig. 7. AB is a glafs retort with a long neck, and ca¬
pable of containing from twelve to fifteen centilitres,
which is about eight cubic inches. One mult be chofen '
fo much bent that, when the neck is placed vertically,
the bulb may form in its lower part a cavity containing
the matters introduced into it. The extremity of the
neck is ground with emery, to fit air-tight at C into the
glafs tube C D, open at both ends, and twenty or twen¬
ty-five centimetres in length, (a centimetre is about four
lines or tenths of an inch,) F is a cylindric velfel, or
common glafs jar, into which the tube of the glafs C D
may be entirely immerfed below the furface of the water.
When you wiffi to try any aeriform fluid, in order to
feparate its parts, and difeover the quantity of refpirable
air it contains, put into the retort two or three bits of
fulphure of potafh of the fize of a pea; fill it with water,
taking care to incline it to make all the air which might
remain in the bulb pafs into the neck ; (lop with the
finger the orifice of the retort, and place it in the pneu¬
matic ciftern, that the gas to be tried may be introduced
in the ufual manner. By inclining it again, alternately
in different directions, all the water may be eafily dil-
placed, and the fulphure left remaining in the bulb.
Then place the retort vertically, and introduce the end
of it into the glafs tube CD, which mult ftill be under
water; and place below the bulb a fmall lighted taper.
To preferve the retort in its pofition, a cover of wood,
with an aperture for its neck to pafs through, fhould be
fitted to the jar.
The firlt impreffion of the heat dilates the gafeous fluid,
fo that it defeends almoft to the bottom of the tube,
which has been difpofed on purpofe to receive it, and to
hinder any part of it from eicaping, which would be the
cafe if the tube were not fufficiently long, and which
would prevent the diminution from being accurately
determined. As foon, however, as the fulphure begins
to boil, the water afeends with rapidity, not only in the
lower tube, but alfo in the neck of the retort, notwith-
flanding the application or even augmentation of the
heat. If it be vital air, abfolutely pure, the abforption
is total. In that cafe, to prevent the veffel from burlting,
wnich might happen were it cooled too fuddenly, the af~
cent of the water mult be retarded, either by removing
the taper, or inclining the retort, which will not hinder
the abforption to continue, while there remains gas pro¬
per for maintaining combuftion.
If it be common air or vital air mixed with any other
gas, you muft, after cooling, meafure the quantity of
water which has entered the retort, and which will ex¬
actly reprefent the bulk abforbed. You mult not negleCt
to confine the remaining gas under the fame preflure, by
immerfing the retort in the pneumatic ciftern, till the
internal and external water be on the fame level, before
you clofe the orifice by a Hopper. This operation, very
eafy when you have graduated veflels, may be made in
common practice by means of a piece of paper cemented
along the neck or the retort, and having traced out
on it divifions determined by experiment, and which
may be covered with varnifli, to defend it from the action
of the water.
C. Chauflier has conftrudted, for eudiometric experi¬
ments by phofphorus, an apparatus fomewliat different,
compofed of a long tube all of one piece, one end of which
is bent and blown into a bulb, and having, as ate, atu-
bulure fhut with a Hopper after the water has been marie
to alcend in the infide of the tube to two-thirds of its
height. This inltrument would ferve alfo for experi¬
ments with the fulphure of potaffi ; but we muft obferve,
that the execution of it isnot fo eafy as on the firlt view
might appear. Befides, if the tubulure renders it very
convenient for trying atmofpheric air, the cafe is not the
fame in regard to other gafes which cannot be introduced
but by tranfmiffion.
New
382 C H E M
New GAZOMETER of the PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY of LONDON.
This improved apparatus* recently conftru£ted for the
production or formation of water, by the combuftion of
hydrogen gas in oxygen gas is • accurately delineated in
the Cheiniftry Plate IX. fig. r, where AB reprefents a
light globular veflel of flint glals, about twelve inches in
diameter, in the manner of an adopter, having the nar¬
row necks A and B oppofite to ea"ch other. -The lower
part of this veffel is drawn out at C, to form the tube
C D, which is provided with a flop cock at its. lower ex¬
tremity D.‘ The fquare mahogany frame F G (lands pa¬
rallel with the horizon. Near the end K of a mahogany
board, the brafs rod MN is (crewed fo as to (land up¬
right; it is provided with a (houlder, in order that it
may be firmly fixed into the plate M O, fattened at each
angle to the board with fcrews. In the fame manner the
rod PQJs fattened at the otherend of the board K, which
fattening cannot be feen in this view of the apparatus.
Tbefe rods pafs through the fquare frame F G at H and 1,
fo that it may be tlidden upwards or downwards on the
rods. At each hole in this frame, through which the
rodpaffes, a brafs focket Ha, is (crewed to the lower fide
of the frame, fo that the rod may pafs freely through it;
and that it may be fixed at any elevation, the focket is
provided with a fcrew H, by which the rod may be prefix¬
ed againfl: the oppofite fide of the focket, and thus kept
in the pofition required. The oppofite fide of the frame
near I, is in the fame manner provided with a focket and
fcrew.
The veffel Q^, containing water, has a tube fixed in
the centre of its bottom, which receives the rod, and
flides on it, fo that the veffel may be (uftained at any re¬
quired height. By means of a (lop cock b the water
rnay be made to trickle more or le(s quickly from the
veflel Q, upon a piece of muflin c, by which it is diftri-
buted over the whole furface of the adopter A B, and
defcends by CD into the lquare trough D, after having
ferved to cool the adopter; d is a glals funnel, cemented
into a brafs cap at nr, from which the tranfverfe tube
22 e, provided with a (lop cock, may deliver the hydro¬
gen' gas of the funnel d into the adopter, through the
(lender extremity e, made of iron, left it fhould be melted
by the- flame of the hydrogen gas.
Under the other neck of the adopter (lands the funnel
g, furnifhed with -a (top cock at f, intended to receive and
deliver oxygen gas by the courfe g g A into the adopter,
in order, to maintain the combultion of the hydrogen
gas. Through a collar of leather, fixed in the tube be¬
tween i and A, an iron- wire paffes, bent in the direc¬
tion A e: the end of this wire at e is at the diftance of
one-eighth of an inch fiom the end of the tube which
Jfupplies the hydrogen gas, when the wire (lands in this
pofition to deliver the eleftrical fpark, and inflame the
hydrogen gas as it iffues. The end of the wire at i, is
(crewed into a fmall brafs ball, by which it receives
(parks from the larger ball k of the eleftrical conductor.
"The funnel containing oxygen gas enters water to the
depth of three or four inches in the veflel R S, the fize
of which admits a pint bottle of gas to be introduced
under the funnel and delivered into it. The veflel T U
ferves in like manner for the fupply of hydrogen gas to
the funnel d.
When it is intended to accelerate the combuftion of
the gafes, the hydrogen funnel mull be kept conftantly
full, fo that it may be prefled upwards by a column of
three or four inches of water: at the fame time the oxy¬
gen funnel muft be fupplied fo (lowly, that the water may
rife in it five or lix inches above the common level. In
the contrary circumftances the combuftion may be re¬
tarded at pleafure ; but care muft be taken that the hy¬
drogen gas ilfue in a continued dream, and the flame be
maintained, a
I S T R Y.
As it is neceffary that the adopter (hould be firmly
fcrewed to the fquare frame, and yet eafily feparable
from it, the following provilion is made : ab as the neck
of the adopter through which the gas is to be introduced.
The lip at b (trengthens the mouth of the adopter, d is
the external projecting part of the glals ltopper, which
is accurately ground to fit. This (topper being ground
to a fmaller diameter between d and g is there cemented
into a brafs capg/l The (lender wire which is to deli¬
ver the ele&ric fpark is continued through the glals Hop¬
per d to i. The oxygen funnel g communicates by a
narrow paffege with the cavity of the adopter round the
wire i e. The neck of the adopter is imbedded in the
mahogany frame; the brafs clip b (huts upon this neck,
and preffes it to the frame by the fcrews i i. To keep
the (topper d firm in the neck of the adopter, a fenticir-
cular clip embraces the brafs cap g f, and meets the
(boulder of the (topper d. From this clip two brafs pins
enter the piece k, which being drawn to the flame by
the fcrews ll, forces the clip againfl; the glafs (topper d,
and thus fattens it firmly in the neck ot the adopter.
By the like mechanifm the other neck of the adopter is
made faft to the frame.
The wire ie, being moveable in a well-greafed collar
of leather, the brals ball i is turned round, when the
hydrogen gas has been inflamed ; and the wire A e turn¬
ing with this ball, the end e is removed to one fide
from the flame of the hydrogen gas; the fcrew m ferves to
keep the wire in the pofition required.
Previous to the ufe of this inftrument the funnels are
to be fcrewed off : the oxygen funnel at f ; the hydrogen
funnel at the. neck B, of the adopter. The hydrogen
(topper being removed, the adopter is to be rinfed with
diftiiled water, and, being again put in its pofition on
the frame F G, is to be left to drain, the tube C D being
left open. After this the adopter with its (toppers and
included air is to be weighed : the hydrogen (topper be¬
ing then removed, the adopter is to be filled with diftiiled
water of a known temperature, and the (topper to be
again replaced. By the weight of the water in the
adopter its capacity in cubic inches is afeertained.
The fame (topper is now to be taken out and dried,
and oxygen gas, under a preflure of a two-inch column,
of water, to be introduced till all the water is excluded
from the adopter : its orifice, being (till under the wa¬
ter, is then covered with the finger, and another perlon
ftands ready to introduce the (topper, which has to ex¬
pel its bulk of gas, lo that no air can enter againfl; this
current of the gas. The adopter is now fattened to its
frame, and the funnels are fcrewed on. To prevent the
hydrogen tube from introducing the atmofpheric air
which it otherwife would hold, oxygen gas is lucked
through it from the fmall extremity.
The funnels, the capacities of which are determined
by meafurement, and marked at the different heights,
now contain atmofpheric air confined by water, which
is to be fucked out by means of a (lender fyphon: when
the oxygen funnel is thus emptied of its air, in order
that none may remain in the neck, oxygen gas is to be
introduced and fucked out repeatedly. Then it is to be
charged with the fame gas, and the flop cock to he open¬
ed to' allow a free communication between the gas in
the funnel and that in the adopter, which is now left to
drain for twenty-four hours, at the end of which time
the water which has gathered in the tube CD, is to be
puffed off by opening the cock D, which mult juft touch
the furface of the water in D, that the oxygen gas in
the adopter and funnel may accommodate itfelf to the
prefen t temperature and preflure of the external air,
which is to be noted, and then the cock to be (lopped.
The water on the outfide of this funnel is to be kept two
or three inches lower than in the infide. The hydrogen
funnel d is to be freed of its contained atmofpheric air
by the lame means employed for freeing the other funnel.
C H E M I
and hydrogen gas is to be repeatedly introduced and
fucked out. At laft it is to be filled with meafured
quantities of this gas to the lip, which is to be comprefl'ed
by a column of about four inches of water.
The apparatus is now ready. The ball k of the elec¬
trical conductor, charged by a good machine, is to be
brought near to the ball i; and while the Iparks pals in
quick fucceffion from the wire Ae to the pointy of the
tube Be, the cock at f is to be opened quickly, fo that-
the firfl portion of hydrogen gas ifluing at e may be in-
ftantly inflamed; the wire is then to be turned away
from the flame. The combullion may be accelerated by
increafing the column of water which prefles the hydro¬
gen gas, and leflening the preflure on the oxygen gas.
The\dopter is now to be kept cool by water, allowed to
trickle down over it from the veflel Ch During the com-
buftion, meafured quantities of the gafes are to be intro¬
duced into the proper funnels; and, when it is wilhed to
interrupt the procefs, the cock which admits the hydro¬
gen gals is to be quickly flopped. As the veffels cool,
the oxygen gas and aqueous vapour in the adopter will
contrail in bulk, and the water in the oxygen funnel
will rile towards the brafs cap f. At this moment the
cock muftbelhut, to prevent the water from rifmg higher.
When the procefs is to be renewed, the oxygen funnel'
is to be charged with gas, and the cock to be opened.
The hydrogen funnel is next to be charged; the wore
A e to be -turned to its' AkA pofition, and the eledli ic
fpark to be applied as before. Thus the combullion may
be carried on from day to day. That the eleflric fparks
may llrike quickly, and vigoroufly, a communication
fhould be made with U wire 'between the culhion of the
machine and the brafs capm.
As the gafes employed are not to be conlidered as
wholly free from azotic gas, its prefence will at lalt re¬
duce the gas in the adopter to the ftandara of atmo-
fpheric air. The flame will then become weaker, and
muft be watched, that the cock of the hydrogen funnel
may be flopped before the flame is extinguilhed ; other-
wife fome of the hydrogen gas will pals unaltered into
the adopter, and be confounded with the azotic gas,
from which it is not ealily feparable.
When the procefs is terminated, the quantity of hy¬
drogen gas remaining in its funnel, is to be noted from
the gradations marked on the veflel, and to be dedudled
from the fum of the meafures of the hydrogen gas em¬
ployed. This funnel is then to be fcrewed off. The
oxygen funnel is to be treated in the fame manner, proper
attention being paid to the level of the water, and to
the temperature and preflure of the air at the time. The
adopter and hoppers, being now in the ftate in which
they were firfl weighed, are now to be weighed again,
with the contained water, to determine its prelent weight.
To weigh the water thus formed more accurately, and
to examine its quality, it muft be drawn off from the
adopter. For this purpole the adopter, after it has flood
to drain for twenty-four hours, is to be warmed by wrap¬
ping the upper part of it in a hot doth : a bottle of a
proper fize is to receive the^xtremity of the tube CD,
and, the flop cock being opened, the expanded gas in
the adopter will prefs all the water into the bottle. Du¬
ring the palfage of the water, the bottle is to be held at
fuch a height that the orifice of the Hop cock may dip
only one-eighth of an inch in the water; and when a
fingle bubble of gas from the adopter has ilfued through
the water, the flop cock is to be inflantly doled.
The gas remaining in the adopter is now to be tranf-
ferred into another veflel, in which it may be expofed
firfl to lime-w'ater, that any carbonic acid gas contained
in it may be meafured; and afterwards to fulphure of
lime, which will imbibe all the oxygen gas, and leave
the azotic gas in a ftate fit for menluration. The quan¬
tity of heterogeneous matter introduced with the gafes
duping the combuftion, being thus difeovered, a pro¬
portionate deuuilion is to be made from the calculated
S T R Y. 383
weight of the hydrogen and oxygen gas employed. The
difference of weight of the azotic gas remaining, and
the common air at firfl weighed with the inftrument,
may thus be ealily determined.
The Society, from whole minutes this extraft was
made, carried on the combuftion in the manner above
deferibed, for about two hours at a time on different
days, till the column of water in the tube CD was eight
inches and a half in length. At each of thefe times the
temperature of the gafes and the height of the barome¬
ter were carefully noted. In the manner deferibed by
Lavoifier, the volume of each gas at 2985 inches of the
barometer, and 54.' 50 of thethermometer, was afeertained j
and the weight of the oxygen gas confirmed was found to
be 4i6-5grains, and that of the hydrogen gas 72-5 grains ;
the weight of both being 489 gr. — 1 oz. n dvvt. 9 gr.
The water produced weighed 1 oz. n dwt. 7 gr. ; and,
contrary to all expectation, had nofenfible acidity.
M. Des VIGNES’s APPARATUS, for preparing
AERATED, ACIDULATED, op. MINERAL WA¬
TERS.
Although we have, in page 210 of this volume, given,
a defeription of Dr. Nooth’s apparatus for this purpofe ;
and alfo of the improved one conftruCled by M. La
Grange, both of which are delineated in the Chemiftry
Plate III. yet the acknowledged utility of thefe waters,
and an ardent defire of Amplifying the means of obtain¬
ing them, and of procuring, at pleafure, by artificial
means, all the moft valuable mineral waters, will fuftici-
entiy juflify our recurring to the fubjeft in this place.
Water impregnated with carbonic acid gas, acquires
the properties of Ample mineral waters, and poffefies all
their medical qualities. The natural acidulous mineral
waters do not differ from thefe except in holding other
principles in folution ; and they maybe perfectly imitat¬
ed, when their analyfis is known. It is abfurd to think
that art is incapable of imitating nature in the competi¬
tion of mineral waters. The operation is purely mecha¬
nical, confilling of the folution of certain known prin¬
ciples in water; w,e can and ought therefore to perform
it dill better, as we have the power of varying the ma¬
terials, and proportioning the ftrength of any mineral
water, to the purpofes for which-it is intended to be ap¬
plied. When properly made, the liquor fhouM have a
brifk acidulous tafle, moft relembling Seltzer water. In
an alkaline folution, if it be not perfedfly faturated with
carbonic acid gas, it is apt, not only to be difagreeable
to the tafle and ftomach, but alfo to prove irritating to
the urinary paflages, which it rarely does when properly
prepared. White powder of marble may be ufed for the
production of carbonic acid gas, in preference to chalk.
Des Vignes’s apparatus for preparing thefe waters, is
delineated in the Chemillry Plate IX. fig. 2 ; and the fol¬
lowing is the defeription that chemift gives of it : A, the
bottle or veflel in which marble, chalk, or any other proper
fubftance, is to be put, with a little water. B a bottle
containing fulphuric acid, and having its neck ground
to fit in the firfl bottle at C, and a cock a, by which any
quantity of the acid can be introduced to the chalk, or
other fubftance. As the gas is extricated, it paffes through
the tube D, into the veflel E, which contains the liquid
to be faturated : the gas, by its elafticity, prefles the li¬
quor, and forces it through the tube F into G. At H,
is a (mail hollow glafs ball I, with a item ground to fit
the mouth of the veflel G, which it fhuts as a valve by
the preflure of the liquor, aflifted with a fpiral fpring,
until the water or other liquid, which has been forced
through the tube F into G, prefles down by its weight
the ball I, and returns back into E. When it accumu¬
lates to a certain point in E, the valve is again flint, and
it riles through the tube F, as before. At b is a ftopper,
to which hangs a finall weignt, about half an ounce,
which a els as a fafety valve to prevent the preflure from
reaching that point which would endanger the burfting
of
3S4 C H E M
of the veffels. The advantage which this apparatus pof-
feffes, is, that it not only gives the fame preffure of the
gas upon the fill-face of the liquor to be impregnated,
which the common machines do, but, by the conffant
agitation which is kept up, by the afcent and defcent of
the fluid, continually expofes a freflr l'urface of it to its
a&ion : by which means water or other liquors may be
as fully faturated in two hours as they can in twelve by
any apparatus in common ufe.
Fig. 3, is a feftion of the valve ball I, the fpiral fpring
K, and the cork L, to which the two former are faffened.
At c is a piece of lead, which ferves at the fame time to
adjuft the weight of the ball, and to keep it in an up¬
right pofition.
Fig. 4, is a plan of the cork, {hewing the apertures
through which the liquor delcends. The tubes D and F
are each in two parts, joined by pieces of elaltic gum,
by which means the apparatus admits of being moved
without danger of breaking. There is alfo a glafs rod e
in the veflel A for the purpofe of ftirring the materials.
This rod paffes tight through a piece of elaftic gum (the
mouth end of one of the common bottles made of that
fubltar.ee), the ether end of which is fitted clofe to the
mouth of the veflel A, by means of wire or catgut wound
round it, to prevent the el'cape of the gas.
Dr. Fierlinger has propofed the following very Ample
method for impregnating water with carbonic acid gas.
He fills common round bottles with water, inverts them
carefully under water, in order to prevent any air from
entering, and charges them in the ufual method with
carbonic acid gas. He then corks the bottles, thus filled,
under the water, with a ventilated ftopper, immerfes them
under water in a proper cylindrical, almoff tubular ffiap-
ed, veflel, two feet high, and of a^ proportionate width
to the diameter of the bottle, in order to apply, by means
of hydroftatic laws, a great preffure with a fmall quan¬
tity of water. The bottles thus filled with the gas, and
entirely immerfed, imbibe water by means of the affinity
the carbonic acid gas has for it, in fuch a manner that
they are nearly filled ; and water is thereby obtained,
impregnated with an equal volume of gas, the water
having lodged itfelf in the interftices of the gas. It is
pretty ftrong, and can be made Hill more fo. This me¬
thod has, befides its conveniency and cheapnefs, Hill
other advantages ; the degree of impregnation may be
regulated by the height of the column of water under
which the bottle is immerfed, and the water is prepared
in thofe veffels out of which it is to be drunk, and this pre¬
vents that efcape of gas which always takes place when
poured from, one veflel to another, efpecially if the wa¬
ter be ftrongly impregnated. The above-mentioned ven¬
tilated Hoppers are only corks, fitted exadtly to the bot¬
tles, perforated lengthways, by holes drilled through
them,- the uppermolt orifices of which are covered with
a {'mail plate of pewter, {'aliened to the cork by means
of a Hring paffed through a hole in the centre, and drawn
through the cork. If this fmall plate be furnifhed with
a little cavity, in which iron filings are put, the water
becomes chalybeate.
APPARATUS for FREEZING MERCURY.
The freezing or fixing of mercury, has been the means
of proving it to be a metal, poffefling the principal pro¬
perties and charadleriftics of other metals, as lplendour,
malleability, and a cryfiallized flrudlure when reduced
to a folid form. Gmelin was the firff who obferved mer¬
cury at fuch a low temperature as leads to a belief that
a partial congelation had taken place, though he did not
then fufpedl the fa£l 5 but De L’ifle was probably the firff
perfon upon earth who law quickfilver reduced to a folid
form by cold, and ventured to credit the teflimony of his
fenfes. Th:s happened at Yakutlk in Siberia, in 1736,
where the natural temperature was fo low as to produce
the effedl without the aid of artificial means.
Since that period, the production of artificial cold, -by
: S T R Y.
means of various mixtures, fufficiently intenfe to freeze
mercury, has employed the abilities of the mod experi¬
enced chemifts and philofophers. The materials employed
by Seguin, for frigorific mixtures, are however the belt
that have yet been propofed, or perhaps can poffibly be
deviled. Confidering the muriats as a clafs of falts beft
fuited for the purpole, and having tried them all, he gave
the decided preference to muriat of lime in cryffals. His
method was to mix the cryffals, previoufly pulverifed.,
with an equal weight of uncompreffed fnow. Meffrs.
Pepys, Allen, and Lawfon, feem to have been the firff,
wdio in this country tried that method : this was in De¬
cember 1798; and they fucceeded perfeijlly in freezing
the mercury. We {hall give the account of it as com¬
municated by Mr. Pepys himlelf, in the Philofophical
Magazine.
“ Determining to make the experiment with accuracy
in refpedl to the weight of the materials employed, and
on fuch a fcale that it might be repeated by any one, on
the 30th of January 1799, we collected a quantity of fnow
for the purpofe. The temperature of the laboratory at
the fame time was 400. It may not be improper to men¬
tion here, that the thermometer employed in this and
the other experiments which followed, was filled with
tinged, alcohol, and accurately divided according toFah-
renheit’s fcale, as mercurial thermometers cannot be re-
forted to for determining degrees of temperature at or
under the freezing point of that metal. Having put into
an earthen pan equal parts of muriat of lime of the tem¬
perature of 400, and fnow at 32° above o°, we found-
that the temperature of the mixture, as foon as lique¬
faction took place, was 320 below o°. Into this mixture
we immerfed, each in feparate veffels, eight ounces troy
of muriat of lime, and the fame weight of {'now, by which
means, and with very little trouble, they were cooled
down to 50 above o°, the mixture gaining a proportionate
increafe of temperature by the heat which had paffed into
it from the immerfed fnow and muriat.
We now placed a half-pint Wedgewood’s cup within a
white ftone-ware jar, infulating it with three corks placed
at equal diffances round the veflel, and one at the bottom
for the cup to reff upon. This prevented the cup from
coming in contaCl with the jar, which we now placed,
with the cup in it, in the mixture that had ferved for
cooling the materials down to 50 above zero, adding to
the mixture. a little more muriat of lime at 400 and {now
at 320. By this means we fecured the advantage of hav¬
ing a" cold atmofphere, within the jar, all round the in-
fulated cup.
Upon mixing the cooled ingredients, which were now-
put into the cup, the thermometer, being immerfed in
the mixture, funk to 500 below zero. Four ounces of
pure mercury at 400 above o, in a fmall thin glals retort,
were then introduced into the mixture, which in fifteen
minutes became perfeftly fixed. We obferved that it
congealed from the circumference towards the centre, in
the fame way as wax or refin fixes in cooling. We now
broke the retort, and gave the mercury leveral blows
with the beak of a hammer, which indented, and at laft
fraftured it : the frafture was fimilar to that of zink, but
with facets more cubical. Inadvertently taking up a
piece of the folid mercury, I experienced a fenlation as
if I had received a wound from a rough-edged inffru-
ment. I threw it from me as I would have done apiece of,
red-hot iron, and was not a little alarmed when I found
that the part of my hand which had been in contaft with
the metal, immediately after loff all fenfation, and be¬
came white and dead to the view.
The mercury in the mean time had become fluid. The
time that had paffed from taking it out of the mixture
might have been about two minutes ; but the accident
that happened to my hand prevented me from noting it
exaftly. On trying the temperature of the mixture, I
now found it 420 below o ; the addition of fome {now,
which had been cooled for the purpole while the preced¬
ing
CHEMISTRY.
mg experiment was goi-ng on, reducing it again to 500
below o.
We now put into the mixture a glafs tube containing
fome mercury. In two minutes it was completely fixed.
We broke the tube, and bent the cylindrical piece of
mercury into an acute angle, by means of pincers : we
attempted to ftraiten it again, but it became fluid during
the operation. Several fubltances in proper veflels were
now tried in the cold mixture. Sulphuric ether exhibited
110 figns of congelation : rebtified fpirit of turpentine be¬
came thick and nearly confiftent at 500 below o ; pure
concentrated l’ulphuric acid was fixed : acetic acid like-
wife was fixed : nitric acid became thick and ropy ; but
on muriatic acid the cold had no effect.
Encouraged by the luccefs of this experiment, we re-
folved to attempt one of greater magnitude. Accordingly
we weighed fifty-fix pounds avoirdupoife, of mercury, and
prepared every thing neceftaiy forfixingthis quantity. The
mercury was put into a ftrong bladder, and well fecured
at the mouth, the temperature of the laboratory at the
time being 330. A mixture coniifting of muriat of lime
a lbs. at 330 and the lame weight of 1'now at 320, gave
420 below o. The mercury, was put as gently as polfible
into this mixture (to prevent a rupture of the bladder),
by means of a cloth held at the four corners. When
the cold mixture had robbed the mercury of fo much of
its heat as to have its own temperature thereby railed
from 420 below to 5n above o, another mixture, the lame
in every refpebt as the laft, was made, which gave, on
trial with the thermometer, 430 below o. The mercury
was now received into the cloth, and put gently into this
new mixture, where it was left to be cooled Itill lower
than before.
In the mean time five pounds of muriat of lime, in a
large pail made of tinned-iron japanned infide and out-
fide, was placed in a cooling mixture in an earthen-ware
pan. The mixture in the pan, which confided of four
lbs. of muriat of lime and a like quantity of fnow, of the
fame temperature as the former, in one hour reduced the
five lbs. of muriat in the pail to 150 below o. The mix¬
ture was then emptied out of the earthen pan, and four
large corks, at proper diftances, placed on its bottom,
to lerve as refts for the japanned pail, which was now put
into the pan. The corks anfwered the. purpole already
mentioned, that of infulating the inner veffel, while the
exterior one kept off the furrounding atmofphere, and
preferved the air between the two at a low temperature.
To the five pounds of muriat of lime, which had been
cooled as already noticed, and which Itill remained in
the metallic veffel, was now added fnow, uncompreffed
and free from moifture, at the ufual temperature of 32.0,
In lefs than three minutes the mixture gave a temperature
of 6z° below o ; a degree of cold never before fuppoled
to have been produced in this country, being 94° below
the freezing point of water.
The mercury, which, by immerfio'n in the fecond
cooling-mixture to which it was expofed, we found by
this time reduced to 300 below o, was now, by the means
employed before, cautioufly put into the laft-made mix¬
ture of the temperature of 6z° below o. A hoop, with
net-work fattened to its upper edge, and of fuch a breadth
in the rim that the net-work, when loaded with the blad¬
der of mercury, could not reach its lower edge, was at
the bottom of the mixture, to prevent the bladder from
coming-in co/itabt with the veffel ; by which means the
mercury was fulpended in the middle of the mixture. As
loon as the bladder was fafely depofited on the net-work,
the veflels were carefully covered over with a cloth, to
impede the paffage of heat from the furrounding atmof¬
phere into the materials. The condenfation of moifture
from the atmofphere, by the agency of fo low a tempe¬
rature, was greater than could have been expebted : it
floated like Iteam over the veflels, and, but for the inter-
pofed covering, would have given the mixture more tem¬
perature than was definable. After one hour and forty
Vo L. IV. No. 305.
3S5
minutes we found, by means of a fearcher introduced
for the purpofe, that the mercury was f’plid and fixed.
The temperature of the mixture at this time was 46° be¬
low o; that is, 160 higher than when the mercury was
firft put in.
We now regretted that we had not flung the hoop and
net-w'ork in the fame way as the fltell of a beam is fuf-
pended, which would- have enabled us to lift it out of
the mixture at once with the bladder and its contents ;
but, having overlooked this provifion, we were obliged to
turn out the whole contents of the pail into a large eva¬
porating capfule made of iron, which was not effected with¬
out the mercury ftriking againft its bottom, and at the
fame time receiving a confiderable increafe of tempera¬
ture. The bladder was now cut. The eagernefs of our
friends, of whom feveral were prefent, to be in poffefllon
of pieces of the folid mercury, which had frabtured by
the fall it had received, was paft defcription. Forgetting,
and perhaps not being aware of the confequence, fome
rufhed their hands into the frigorific mixture, while lonie
feized on pieces which others, having ielected with their
eyes as their prize, alfo laid hold of at the fame moment,
and confequently each grafped them harder than otherwise
they would have done. The acute pain that inftantly
followed, quickly recalled their recollection, and, bur.
for the lufferingsof the individuals, thefcene would have
excited no fmall degree of mirth : fome clapt their hands-
into their mouths, others fiiook them, blew on them, or
rubbed them againft their clothes; and all were more or
lefs alarmed at the dead appearance of the parts that had
been fo fuddenly robbed of heat by the frozen metal. Ic
was a confiderable time before fenfation and the natural
colour was reftored to the parts, which however returned
without any other means being employed than fuch as
have been mentioned. It is eafy to conceive that the in¬
jury was little more than Ikin deep, like what takes place
from touching a hot metal, without allowing it to remain
long enough in contact with the Ikin to produce a wound ;
but what is very lingular, almoft every individual com¬
pared the fudden pain he experienced to that produced
by a burn or fcald ! One gentleman, who called acciden¬
tally while we W'ere preparing for our experiment, but
who had no acquaintance with the fubjebt, not being'
able to conceive how the effebt propofed could be pro¬
duced by the mixture, was defired to take a little fnow
in one hand and muriat of lime in the other : “ they were
neither of them colder than he expedited to find them
then to put the fnow into the hand that held the muri't.
The ingredients had hardly come in contact when' he
threw them from him, exclaiming, “ Cold ! — 'Tis a red-
hot coal !”
The larger pieces were kept for fome minutes before
fufion took place, while others were twilled and bent into
various forms, to the no fmall gratification and furprile
of thofe who had never witneffea or expedited to fee fuch
an eft'ebt produced on fo fufible a metal.
Though mercury in the Hate in which we had it, ex¬
hibited a confiderable degree of dubtility and malleabi¬
lity, w'e cannot thence infer the degree in which they
would be found to belong to it, could it be reduced to
a temperature much more confiderably under its freezing
point, which leems to be at about 390 or 400 below o.
At the time that we bent and twilled it, it may be con-
lidered as having been in a proportionate temperature to
iron near its point of fufion, when, as is well known, it
will hardly bear the fmallelt blow of a hammer.
The apparatus employed in thefe experiments is re-
p relented in the Chemiltry Plate IX. Fig. 5, reprefents
that employed in the firft experiments; and only viewing
the figure will convey to any one a complete idea of the
arrangement, as it exhibits the retort containing the mer¬
cury, furrounded by' the cooling-mixture in the half-pint
cup, which is infulated by means of the corks, and pre¬
vented from coming in contact with the ftone-ware jar
the Ipace between the latter being occupied only with
5 F 'cold
386 C H E M I
cold air, preferved in that Rate by means of the frigorific-
mixture in the exterior vefiel, and which furrounds the
jar. Fig. 6, in the fame plate, reprefents the apparatus
employed in the large experiment, which is fimilar in its
.arrangement to the former; only that the cold atmofphere
round the japanned pail had no exterior cold mixture to
defend it; which, however, was the iefs neceffary, as the
earthen-pan was of considerable thicknefs, and had ac-
quiied the temperature of the mixture that had been em¬
ployed in cooling the five pounds of muriat of lime.
In experiments. of this kind, all the exterior veffels
Ihould be of earthen -ware or wood, which, being bad
conductors of heat, prevent the ingredients from re¬
ceiving heat from the atmofphere and furrounding .objects
"with the fame facility that they would through metals ;
and, for a fimilar reafon, the interior veffels are belt of
metal, that they may allow the heat to pafs more readily
from the fubllance to be cooled into the frigorific mixture
employed for that purpofe.
Muriat of lime is certainly the moll powerful, and at
the lame time the molt economical fubllance, that can
be employed for producing artificial cold; for its fir It coft
is a mere trifle, being a refiduum from many chemical
jiroceffes, as the diftillation of pure ammonia, See. and
often thrown away: befides it may be repeatedly ufed for
limilar experiments, nothing being neceffary for this
purpofe but filtration and evaporation to bring it to its
firlt Hate. The evaporation Ihould be carried on till the
folution becomes as thick as a ltrong fyrup, and,' upon
cooling, the whole wiil become cryltallized: it mull then
be powdered, put up in dry bottles, weil corked, and co¬
vered with bladder or cement, to prevent liquefaction ;
which otherwife would foon take place, owing to the
great affinity the muriat has for moilture.
The powerful effefts produced by the frigorific mixture
of muriat of lime and l'now, prefentsa wide field for ex¬
periments, to determine the pofiibility of fixing fame of
the gafes by intenfe cold.
NEW STEEL-YARD for WEIGHING GASES, See.
This ingenious apparatus is the invention of C. Paul,
public infpeCtor of weights and meafures in the city of
Geneva. Erefledon a large fcale,. it may fervefor weigh¬
ing in the ufual manner, and according to any fyltem of
weights, all ponderable bodies, to the precifion of half a
grain in the weight of a hundred ounces ; or, in other
words, of a ten thoufandth part. It is employed, befides,
for ascertaining the fpecific gravity of folids, of liquids,
and even of the air itfelf, by proceffes extremely fimple,
and which do not require many fub-divilions in the .
weights. This complete apparatus is reprefented in the
Chemiftfy Plate X. fig. i.
The beam A B, is conftruCted on the fame principles
as the commercial fteel-yard, but of much fmaller dimen-
fion- The fhears are fufpended by a ferew to a crofs bar
cf wood fupjJpYted by two pillars, which reft on the two
extremities of a fmall wooden box furnilhed with three
drawers, and which ferves 3s the ftand of the apparatus.
This beam is divided into ioo parts, beginning at its
centre of motion. The divifion is differently marked on
the two faces : on the anterior face the numbers follow
each other from ten to 200, proceeding towards the ex¬
tremity ; and on the other face, reprefented apart at F,
the numbers are marked in the oppolite d.reCtion.
The fmall frame G, is deftiped to prevent the ofcilla-
tion. of the beam, and it is placed at the proper height,
by means of the nut and ferew by which it is fufpended.
Above the beam is a fmall crofs bar of brafs, fulpended
by its two extremities from the crofs bar of wood. Dif¬
ferent weights are hooked to it, each having its particu¬
lar value marked on it. And, in the la (t place, a fmall
mercurial thermometer, having the two molt ufual divi-
fions, and deftined to point out the temperature of the
air and the water during the experiments. The axis of
fulpenfion of the Iteel-yard refts upon two beds of very
2
_S T R Y.
bard well-poliftrad Heel. The cafe is the fame, but in a
reverfed fituation, with the axis which fupports the hook
C, that ferves for l'ufpending different parts of the appa¬
ratus according to the purpofe to which it is to be applied.
When you wilh to employ it as a common fteel-yard,
>ou fufpend from it the brafs (liell E, which is an exadt
counterbalance for the weight of the beam when unload¬
ed. The latter then affumes of itfelf a horizontal fitua¬
tion. You then learch for the equilibrium of the fub-
ftance put into this (hell, by fixing at the proper place,
on the beam, the weight and its fradtions correfponding
with the fyltem of weights adopted ; and when you have
found the equilibrium, you obferve the w’eight indicated
by the divifions on which each of the weights employed
is found, exadtly in the fane manner as is done in regard
to the common lleei-yard.
There is a glafs fiiell fufpended in a jar, filled to a cer¬
tain height with water. This fiiell is deftined for expe¬
riments in regard to the fpecific gravity of folids. It is
in equilibrium, if, when immerfed in water at 120 of Reau-
mer, as far as the junction of' the three filver wires by
which it is fupported, it exadtly balances the weight of
the beam unloaded. When you wilh to try the fpecific
gravity of a folid, you firlt weigh it in air; but by putting
it into the brafs fiiell, and then fubllituting the glafs one,
you weigh it in water. It is well-known that the differ¬
ence of thefe weights, employed as a divifor of the total
weight in air, gives for quotient the fpecific gravity.
Care muff be taken, as in all experiments of the kind,
that no bubble of air adheres to that part of the appara¬
tus immerfed in the water, or to the fubllance, the weight
of which is required, and which is immerjed alfo.
The folid glafs ball H, is deftined for the purpofe of
afeertaining the fpecific gravity of liquids, in the follow¬
ing manner : This piece is furnilhed with a hook of fine
gold, that it may be immerfed without inconvenience in
acids. When it is fufpended to the hook of the Iteel-yard,
and in the air, it is in equilibrium with the beam loaded
at its extremity (either at the divilion marked O, on the
fide of the beam feen at F) with weights entitled fpecific ,
and -j-'oo of fpecific hooked on at the other.
Tliis ball, immerfed in diftilled water at 120 of Reau-
mer, as far as the end of the ftraight metal wire which
fufpends it, is ftill in equilibrium with thefe two weights
placed in the following manner, viz. the large one at the
divifion in the middle of the beam marked water on the
fide F of the beam, and the fmall one at the divifion O,
that is to fay, the extremity. When the apparatus is
thus prepared, you fill a jar with the liquid, the fpecific
gravity of which you wifh to afeertain ; fufpend the ball
H to the hook of the fteel-yard, and immerfe.it into the
liquid till it rife exaftly above the ring from which the
ball hangs, obferving the temperature, and diiengaging
carefully all the air bubbles that may adhere to the bali ;
then remove the fmall weight to the divifion O, at the
end of the beam, and convey the large one as far as that'
divifion, preceding that where the weight of the ball
would raife the beam ; and afterwards move the final!
weight as far as the divifion where the equilibrium will
be reftored, the beam being horizontal. Mark the divi¬
fion at which the large weight is found, and add two cy¬
phers; to this number add the indication immediately re-
iulting from the pofition of the final! weight, and the lum
of thefe two numbers gives the fpecific gravity of the li¬
quid, or its ratio, with the weight of diltilled water to a ten
thoufandth part.
The balloon N, is deftined for trying the weight of
any given kind of gas, compared with that of atmolphe-
ric air, in the following manner : The weight entitled
air tare , is arranged in f'uch a manner that when placed
in the notch, feen at the extremity of the beam beyond
the divifions towards B, it forms an equilibrium with
the balloon exhaufted by the air-pump and fufpended
from the hook of the fteel-yard. If the fteel-yard is net
then ill equilibrium, it is a fign that the; inftrument is
• * deranged,'
i.
1
flat* X.
C H E M I
deranged, or that the vacuum is not perfect. The air,
the relative weight of which in regard to atmofpheric air
you tvilli to afeertain, is to be introduced into the bal¬
loon, and the weight marked air, is to be moved along
the beam, The divilion at which it hands when an equi¬
librium is produced, will indicate, in hundredth parts of
the weight of the volume of atmofpheric air that could
be contained in the balloon, the weight of the gas a£hi-
ally inclofed in it. This indication is read on the ante¬
rior part of the beam, where the words atmofpheric air are
marked .
Not fatisfied with having procured to philofophers, and
thole fond of accurate experiments, an inftrument ex¬
tremely convenient for the clofet, and of very extenfive
nfe, C. Paul has endeavoured to render this apparatus
portable, and has conftrufted various pocket heel-yards,
with which the nicelt experime'nts, may be made, and the
quality of gold coin be afeertained by the trial of its fpe-
c inc gravity. They are conhrufted exaftly on the fame
principles as the Roman heel-yard, but are neceffarily
lefs exteniive in their ufe. They cannot be employed,
for example, in determining the fpecific gravity of an
aeriform fluid, and do not extend beyond ioo deniers of
weight ; but as they poh'efs all the advantages of a balance,
befides thofe peculiar to themfelves, they are extremely
convenient for philofophers who are obliged to travel.
APPARATUS for the COMBUSTION of the
DIAMOND.
That the diamond is combufiible, is a fa£l which New¬
ton, in fome meafure, conjeblured j which experience has
fully confirmed ; and refpefting which it is no longer
pollible to entertain the leaft doubt. The experiments
for ehablifhing this truth, have been recently made by
C. Guyton, and in whofe words we fhall give the detail.
“ My firft experiments, publifhed in 1785, on the entire
combuftion in nitre in fufion, feemed to announce that
the diamond burnt in it after the manner of coal, fince
it left an effervefeent alkali ; and this fufpicion acquired
more reality, after the examination made by Lavoifier of
the gas remaining in the vefl'els in which it had burnt,
.and which he found charged with carbonic acid. Mr.
Tennant has fince furaifhed us with a new proof of this
important fabl, by repeating the combuftion of the dia¬
mond by nitre in a gold crucible, as I had propofed, in
order to obtain a refiduum abfolutely free from all fo¬
reign matter. There were, however, Hill fufiicient rea-
fons to induce us to difbeiieve that the diamond and
carbon, or that the diamond and the carbon extrabled
from the carbonic acid by the noble experiment of Mr.
Tennant, were the fame fubftance. Independently of
their external charadlers, fo completely different, feveral
obfervations', which I have already communicated, prove
that their chemical charableps no lefs excluded this iden¬
tity. Indeed if the diamond was pure carbon, why had
it not the fame affinities ? Why does it not, like it,"ferve
to make the oxygenated muriat of poiafh detonate ; to
deoxygenate fulphur, arfenic, and phofphorus ; to de-
oxydate metals, which are fufficiently fixed to undergo
the degree of fire which determines its combination with
oxygen? Why does it not form alio carbures ? Why
does it not, like it, conduit the eledtric fluid ? We know
that the aggregation conceals fometimes the affinities by
counterbalancing their power, but not in operations
where the bodies are fufficiently fixed, and the tempera¬
ture fufficiently high, to render effedtual the weakell at¬
tritions. Something remained, then, to be difeovered
to harmonize and make us comprehend fadts in appear¬
ance fo contrary. 1 imagined that it was by attentive
cbfervation of what took place during the adt of the com¬
buftion of the diamond, that we fhould attempt to pene¬
trate this fecret of nature. The experiments I am about
to deferibe will, I hope, prove that my attempt has not
been vain ; that the explanation of phenomena, which
have appeared to us the moil incoherent, may hereafter
S T R Y. 387
be deduced from fome circumftances which were not ob-
ferved nor even lufpedted, and which have enabled us to
make an important ftep in the knowledge of the nature of
the diamond, fince we can indicate fubftances which ap¬
proach much nearer to it than carbon.
Thefe experiments occupied a part of two fucceffive
years. Various accidents, which may be readily con¬
ceived, and the fewnefs of the days when the rays of the
fun are not interrupted by clouds, or weakened by va¬
pours, were the principal caufes of this delay. I fhall
fupprefs the details of thofe efl'ays which did not lead to
con'clufive relults ; but I fhall not negieCl thofe which
furnifhed us with an opportunity of obferving feveral
times the fame fadls, and fometimes' in a more diftindl
manner; though, by the effeft of fome unforefeen cir-
cumftance, it was not poffible to keep an account of them
in regard to the correfpondence of the ingredients and
the produdls. I mult not omit to remark, that I had, as
co-operators. in thefe experiments, C. Clouet, and Ha-
chette. The journal of them was correctly kept by C.
Deformes, formerly a pupil of the Polytechnic School.
The moll important phenomena were feen, at different
fittings, by feveral men of letters.
The council of the adminillration of the Polytechnic
School, approving the objedl of the experiments, autho-
rifed me to ufe fome of the diamonds. in its cabinet. The
firft experiment was made on the 9th of Fruftidor, in
1797, or fifth year of the republic. We placed upon the
table of a mercurial pneumatic ciftern, C, a bell of flint-
glafs, as at D. Near the ciftern was placed, on one fide, a
pneumatic machine, to exhauft the common air from the
bell by means of a bent tube, which rofe as far as the
knob, A. On the other fide was a water pneumatic ciftern,
bearing a large receiver, having at its tubulure a cock, E,
which communicated with the infide of the bell by a
tube of bent glafs, and riling, in the like manner, to the
hollow knob of the bell. On one of the edges of the
mercurial ciftern was fixed a Hide, F, bearing a kind of
mandril, deftined to receive a cylinder of hard wood, G,
moveable in every diredlion, terminated by a handle of
iron, H, and ferving to fupport the cup, I, made of the
crucible earth of Valogne ; lb that this cup could be con¬
veyed to every point of the interior part of the beil-
glals, to reprelent the diamond to the focus. This appara¬
tus is reprefented in the Chemiftry Plate X. fig. 2. Every
thing being dilpofed in this manner, we put into the cup
an incomplete oflahedral diamond, having the edges a
little rounded, of a dirty water inclining to yellowifh-
grey. O11 the cup, the edge of which was ground flat, a
cover was applied, attached to a thread tied round the
lower part of the fupport.
A fmal'l air-pump, K, was made to adl, till the mercury
in the bell -glafs role to near the orifice of the tubes of
communication. - The cock of the receiver of the mer¬
curial pneumatic ciftern, which had been previoufly filled
with oxygen gas obtained from the oxygenated muriat
of potafh, was then opened; and the firft portion of this
gas which had palled into the bell, was extracted by the
pump, in order to exhauft, as much as poffible, the re¬
mainder of common air. After this it was filled with the
fame gas to within iixty-nine millimeters ol its internal edge,
and fifty-one of the external. It may readily be con¬
ceived that ltill a little air remained in the cup in which
the diamond was placed, and which, during thefe experi¬
ments, had been (hut by its cover; but its content not
being all together three cubic centimeters, this inconve¬
nience was thought the fmalleft of thole which were to
be apprehended.
The diamond having been uncovered, we began, at
ten minutes after one, to throw upon it the folar rays,
through the focus of the large lens belonging to the.ca-
binet of the Polytechnic fchool. We are well aware of
the neceffity of heating the bell-glafs by degrees, to pre¬
vent its cracking. For this purpofe we intefpoled, at
firft, green and blue coloured glafs 5 but whether they
acquired
388 C H E M
acquired more beat, or refilled dilatation more, thefe
glades all fpeedily broke; and we were not able to ac-
complifh our object but by covering with paper, for fome
moments, the part of the bell which received, the lumi¬
nous difk. When the paper .was withdrawn, the mercury
fell rapidly in the infide. The diamond, expofed to the
focus for twenty minutes, did not inflame. It appeared
at firll mealy, but fenfibly blackened at the furface when
obferved through the coloured glafs. The focus having
been intercepted by an opaque body, to examine more
clofely the ftate of the diamond, no alteration was" re¬
marked in it, except that it had aflumed a yellowifh
fliade, perfeftly like that of tranfparent amber. The at-
mofphere beginning to become charged with vapours,
the experiment was difcpntinued, in order that we might
relume it at a more favourable moment. This moment
occurred the next day, the loth, and was announced by
a riling of the thermometers; one of "which, expofed to
the fun in the open air, rofe to forty degrees; and the
other, expofed to the fun alfo under a bell-glafs to com¬
pare the interior temperature, rofe to forty-four degrees.
The focus was- thrown upon the diamond at twenty-eight
minutes after eleven. At forty-two minutes after eleven
the cone of light was intercepted, and we law the dia¬
mond red, tranfparent, and furrounded with a faint ra¬
diation. When cooled, its edges appeared blunted : we
obferved in it a black point ; but it had become white,
and had loft the yellow colour acquired the day before.
The experiment could not be refumed till the 15th.
We began, by noting the height of the interior column
of the mercury, to calculate, according to the tempera¬
ture and preiTure, the volume of the aeriform fluid re¬
maining under the bell; and we judged that it had de-
crealed about 173 cubic centimeters. The rays of the
fun were bright and ftrong ; but the air fo much agitated,
that while the thermometer under thebell-giafs was 3144-5,
that expofed to the fun in the open air did not rife higher
than 3 z°. There was a moment, however, when the lu¬
minous cone produced a flight fcintillation on the furface
of the diamond. An opaque body, immediately inter-
pofed, made it appear red ; but more obfcure than on the
10th. It was alfo found white after cooling.
Being aftonirtied that the diamond, when inflamed, as
on the 10th, did not maintain of itfelf the temperature
neceffary for its combuftion, efpecially in oxygen gas, as
happens to metallic combuftibles, we imagined it might
rel'ult from its being too much in a mafs, or, perhaps,
alfo too much infulated from every other combuftible
which might contribute to this temperature : and, that
we might make an attempt to remove this obftacle, we
.introduced into the fame porcelain cup, and without de¬
ranging the apparatus, a fmall cut diamond; but there
was no appearance that the combuftion was in the leaft
augmented ; and this fmall brilliant, inftead of being
more rapidly attacked by the heat, after having been two
days expofed to the action of the folar fire, capable of ig¬
niting obfcurely the large diamond placed clofe to it,
gave no flgns of inflammation, and was taken from the
apparatus without having experienced the flighted alter¬
ation, either in the polifh of its furface, or the vivacity
of its edges.
On the 23d of the fame month we took the diamonds
from the faucer, to examine, with care, that which had
given manifeft figns of a commencement of combuftion.
It weighed no more than eighty-eight mil ligrammes ; it
had therefore loft fifty-four, about 0-38 of its weight. It
ftill retained its original octahedral form ; but the angles
were blunted, and the edges rounded. The furface was
tarnifhed, and full of fmall inequalities ; which, obferved
with a magnifying-glafs, prefented cavities, falient points,
and fometimes parallel feftions of the laminar. In feveral
of the cavities we could plainly perceive a fort of fpecks
inclining to grey ; but what appeared worthy of moft at¬
tention was, a pretty large hollow almoft at the extremity
of one of the quadrangular pyramids, which feemed to
I S T R Y.
indicate the place where the folar focus had exercifed, at
the end of the operation, its greateft inteniity ; and where
we diftinguifhed a blackifh ftripe, not terminated like a
ftroke formed, by a foreign body, but on the contrary
loftening itfelf off, and penetrating into the interior part
of the mafs by degrading its colour.
I thought it might be of fome importance to preferve
the 'mb j eft: of theie obfervations, and that it vvould not
difgrnce the colleftion of the cabinet of the fchcol, with
an infcription allufive to the experiment to which it had
been fubjefted. Another diamond was therefore deltined
to be put into the apparatus, in order that it might be
there fubjefted to entire combuftion. This diamond was
alfo a pretty regular oftahedron, of a much more beautiful
water than the preceding, and weighing joci milligram¬
mes, 377 grains.
As the feafon was already fo far advanced that it left
us no hope of a folar focus as ftrong as that from which
we had obtained fo little effeft with the lenles we had
employed, I was defirous of terminating the experiment
with the great lens of Tfchirhaulen ; and the clafs granted
me permiffion'to take it from their cabinet. This lens,
as is well known, is 86-6 centimeters (thirty-two inches)
in diameter, and 211-076 (feventy-three indies) focus.
We augmented its power ftill more by catching the lu¬
minous cone with the linall lens of the cabinet or the In-
ftitufe.
A ftrft fitting gave fcarcely any flgns of a commence¬
ment of combuftion. Next morning, the luminous difk
having fallen on one of the parts of the bell-glafs which
was thickeft, it occafioned it to crack. It was therefore
no longer poflible to compare the volume of the gas be¬
fore and after the operation, nor to diftinguifh and alcer-
tain the quantities of the produfts. We confined our-
felves to making lime-water pafs through the interior of
the bell, before the fi flu re had fuffered afenfible quantity
of common air to enter, and we obferved that it was much
troubled.
The diamond which had been laft expofed was no ways
changed at its furface: it had, however, loft two deci-
milligrammes of its weight; which was verified by the
fame balance with which it had been weighed, and which
is capable of marking, in a very fenflble manner, thefe
fractions of the milligramme. Thus we were obliged to
adjourn the experiment till the next fummer, in order to
find a more favourable fun, and to have time to provide a
new apparatus.
After examining what means were moft proper for pre¬
venting the veflels from cracking by the inequality of
their dilatation, it was found that there were none more
certain than to employ, inftead of a bell-glafs, a well-
chofen balloon or globe of a moderate thicknefs, and of
fuch a fize that its furface might be at a fufticient diftance
from the point of the luminous cone. This globe, or
balloon, is reprefented in the plate at fig. 3. The giobe
which we judged belt for anfwering theie conditions was
28-63 centimeters in diameter: its content was i23'25
deciliters, or 12,325 cubic centimeters, comprehending
that portion of the neck which it was thought' proper to
retain, and which was 159 millimeters. That we might
the more eafily obferve the rifing and falling of the mer¬
cury in the infide, and thence determine the volumes of
gas, we cemented on the outfide flips of paper, on which
we traced, by means of meafured veflels, leales indicating
deciliters, or ioo cubic centimeters.
It may be readily conceived, that it was not poflible to
fill fo frail a veil'd with mercury in order to difplace it
afterwards by oxygen gas. In transferring the gas by
means of water, we fliould have been obliged to leave a
portion of that liquid on the interior fide of the veflel.
We determined, therefore, to convey the. gas, at the mo¬
ment when it was difengaged from the oxygenated mu-
riat of potafh, by means of a tube adapted to the diddling
apparatus, and made to defcend to the bottom of the
globe in fuch a manner that the common air fliould be
forced
CHEMISTRY. .389
foTced to Sffue from the globe by another pipe fixed in
the ftopper cf the orifice, and communicating with the
pneumatic ciftern, as at A, fig. 3.
This procefs is exafitly the inverfe of that which I pro-
pofed in my work on aeroftatien, to fill a balloon of in¬
flexible matter with hydrogen gas. ft was founded on
the fame principle, the difference of the fpecific gravity of
the two fluids. Here'it had the advantage of leaving the
veffel perfectly clean ; an important condition, and which
it is fo difficult to obtain when air is expelled by mercury.
; It was yeadily forefeen that the fir It portions of the
oxygen gas would become mixed with the atmofpheric
air, and that it would be neceflary to difplace this mix¬
ture feveral times by new quantities of oxygen gas,
that no more azotic gas might remain in it, or, at leaft,
that the remaining quantity fhould be fo fmall as to be
incapable of having a fenfible effe£V on the refults of the
experiment. We had even contrived means to determine
it, by receiving under the pneumatic jar the laft por¬
tions difplacea, that we might fubjefit them to a eudio-
metric proof. With this view we employed eighteen de¬
cagrammes (about fix ounce?) of the oxygenated muriat
of potaffi, which were put into a retort, at once to fur-
nifti, at one operation, the whole quantity of the gas ne~
ceffary for this renewal. Thofe who have not tried this
method of fubftituting one aeriform fluid for another,
might entertain fiome doubt refpe&ing the purity of that
employed in our experiment ; but it will be eafy for me
to remove it. This was an article of fo much importance
that we could not negleft attempting to collect proofs
of it.
We know with what fuccefs M. Humboldt applied to
the improvement of eudiometry. The intereft which he
took in our experiment induced me to invite him to come
and determine himfelf with thofe inltruments, and by
thofe proceffes, which were familiar to him, the purity
of the oxygen gas in which the combultion was to take
place. He readily accepted my invitation, as I had rea-
fon to expefit, from his well-known zeal for the progrefs
of fcience ; and this article of our report is the produc¬
tion of his pen. I had likewife the fatisfafition of feeing
him apply eudiometric inltruments to the examination of
the reliduum of the gas after the combuftion. The fol¬
lowing is the reful t of the proofs to which he fubje&ed
that introduced into the apparatus to ferve for the com¬
buftion :
Nitrous gas, difengaged, by means of copper, from
weak nitric acid, was tried with fulphat of iron and oxy¬
genated muriatic acid, which fliewed in it from 0-09 to
o-io of azot. One hundred parts of oxygen gas received,
towards the middle of the operation, as it iifued from the
globe,- in which we had propoled to difplace, in l'uccef-
fion, common air by oxygen gas, were mixed with 300
parts of this nitrous gas : there was an aeriform refiduum
of o-66 : making allowance for 0-27 or 0-30 of azot, pre-
exifting in the nitrous gas, we judged that, in 100 parts
of gas tried, there were ftill thirty-fix of azotiq gas. We
then continued to introduce into the globe frelh oxygen
gas. We collected towards the end a portion which was
fubjefited to the fame proof, in the fame proportions, with
the fame nitrous gas. The refiduum this time was only
thirty parts j and as the 300 of nitrous gas employed con¬
tained nine or ten parts for § of azot, we concluded that
this oxygen gas was quite pure. Thefe are the words of
M. Humboldt.
When this firft condition was fulfilled, the queftion
tlien was to place, in the center of this globe, the dia¬
mond deftined for the experiment. We had previoufly
formed a fmall cup of the lower portion of a furnace-
pipe, the tube of which, five centimeters in length, was
fixed to an iron ftalk, and this ftalk was ftuck into a cy¬
linder of cork deftined to be inferted in the neck of the
balloon. This cork was dipped in maftic to (hut its pores,
and a fmall glafs tube palled through it to eftablilh a
communication between the infide of the balloon and the
Vol. IV. No. 205.
mercurial ciftern, as (hewn at fig. 3. We then placed the
diamond on the cup, where we left it, having put it there
by means of a ribbon, which we drew from under it in
an inftant, as foon as the balloon, or globe, had been in¬
verted, and its neck immerfed in the mercury. The bal¬
loon, in this pofition, was made fait in a kind of collet,
which refted on the edges of an iron mortar that flawed
as a mercurial pneumatic ciftern. We then exhaufted,
by fnftion, a portion of the oxygen gas, fufficient to
make the mercury rife to twelve centimeters above the
orifice of the balloon. The diamond was the fame that
had been already expofed to the aftion of the folar fire
towards the end of the experiment of the preceding year,
and which had loft only two decimilligrammes, and cou-
fequently weighed 199-9 milligrammes, 3766 grains.
On the 5th Fruflidor laft year, at one in the afternoon,
we began to throw upon the diamond the focus of the
large lens of the National Inftitute. The thermometer,
expofed to the fun under a bell-glafs, indicated 39-75:
the mercury in the barometer flood at 75-89 centimeters,
twenty-eight inches 0-5 lines. The volume of air, in-
doled by means of the mercury in the tub, brought to
the preffure of 757-7 millimeters (twenty-eight inches,)
and to the mean temperature of 12-5 degrees of the deci¬
mal thermometer, according to the experiments of Pneier,
and the tables of Prony, was then found to be 11,470 cu¬
bic centimeters.
Having taken the neceflary precautions to heat gra¬
dually the balloon, the point of the luminous cone being
almolt in the center, we were obliged to cover with a
glafs-plate the wooden fupporter, which wras already on
fire. The diamond firft exhibited a black point at the
angle immediately ftruck by the fun. We afterwards
faw it entirely black, and, as it were, charred : we dif-
tinftly perceived, a moment after, brilliant points in a
ftate of ebullition, as it were, on the black ground. The
folar rays, having been for a moment intercepted, it ap¬
peared tranfparently red. The fun becoming obfcured
by a cloud, we faw it of a much purer white than it had
been at the commencement of the operation. The fun
having now emerged from the cloud, the furface of the
diamond affumed the appearance of metallic fplendour :
it was then fenfibly diminifhed, and there remained no
more than a quarter, of a lengthened form, without an¬
gles or perceptible edges, but ftill very white, and of a
beautiful tranfparency. We obferved a flight fiffure at
the bottom of the pipe which fupported it, but without
any feparation of the parts. I mull not forget, that at
the commencement of the combuftion, we thought we
obferved a purpurefcent cone arifing from the fupport in
the pencil of the folar rays; but this phenomenon was
only an optical effetft, which depended on the pofition of
the obfer.ver.
The whole apparatus was left in the fame ftate, only
defended by an inverted box placed over it, until the 7th,
when we again bega'n, at one hour twenty minutes, to
prefent the diamond to the focus. We foon obferved the
fame phenomena as on the 5th, the black furface, the
brilliant points in ebullition, which vanifhed and re-ap¬
peared according to the intenlity of the focus : we faw
alfo a brilliant metallic appearance, or rather leaden-co¬
lour. This is the expreflion which the affiftants employed
to charafterife this phenomenon. At one hour forty mi¬
nutes the diamond was entirely confumed. We at firft
fufpe£ted that there ftill remained a brilliant particle ;
but we foon judged that it was a vitrified point of the
fupport, which was confirmed on infpedting the pipe
when drawn from the globe. The queftion now was to
collefit the produfts of the combuftion. No means feemed
likely to be attended with more certainty, than to intro¬
duce water of barytes into the apparatus, taking care to
adhere, as nearly as poffible, to the proportions indicated
for the faturation of the carbonic acid, which we lhppofed
muft have been formed, to prevent the uncertainty which
the excefs of this re-agent might occafion in the refults.
5 G The
390 C H E M
The whole apparatus being removed into the fhade, we
began on the 9th to draw put the pipe which ferved as a
fupp'ort, and obferved on it two flight fiflures occafioned
by the contraction, and a fpot of four or five millimeters
' in diameter, the center of which had a vitreous appear¬
ance, and its edges a reddifti hue. On examining it with
a magnifying-glafs, we obferved at the lowed point a
fpace of two or three millimeters diameter, the furface
of which was really vitrified, but of a tarnifhed and un¬
equal colour. We diftinguifhed a particle of white glafs,
pure and brilliant, formed into a globule, with fome
Imaller portions of the fame nature, and two fmall glo¬
bules of a' vitreous fubftance, which had a greenilh red
colour.
On one fide we obferved on the edges feveral other
very fmall globules interlperfed in a yellowifli ground,
and on the oppofite a flight tinge of very bright red with
very fmall reddilh points. A particle of white earthy
matter was at firft taken for a fragment detached from
the edges of the pipe, but it was found friable, and afcer-
tained, by the ftain it left on gold, to be oxyd of mer¬
cury. This examination being finilhed, we introduced
into the globe five meafures of fatilrated water of barytes,
each of 46-5 cubic centimeters. The liquor immediately
aflumed a milky appearance, and there was a diminution
in the volume of gas, which, calculated by means of the
attached paper fcale, amounted nearly to 300 cubic cen¬
timeters. Thus we might Hop here, and confider the
experiment as terminated, and, by making fome allow¬
ance for the errors unavoidable in fuch manipulations,
' make the refult tally with the amount, determined
before by the noble experiment of Lavoifier and La
Place, of the refpeflive quantities of carbon and oxygen
which form the carbonic acid. Mr. Tennant feems to
have done the fame thing lately after the combuftion of
the diamond by nitre. But we fliould only have con¬
firmed what was before known, or fuppofed to be known.
Our objefl was not only to obferve, with more attention,
what took place during the aft of combuftion, but to af-
certain, as accurately as poflible, the nature and quantity
of the produft, and the reader will find that the labour
undertaken on this fubjeft has not been fruitlefs.
The liquor was agitated in the globe to mix the white
matter which had been depofited. We drew out four
meafures three quarters of the five we had introduced,
by making ufe of the fame inverted bottle filled with
mercury, and which we raifed on the infide by means of
an iron ftalk compofed of feveral pieces, which could be
adjufted by fcrews, as Ihewn at fig. 7, in the plate. We
introduced into the balloon three new meafures, each
containing the fame quantity of diftilled v'ater, which
was Ihaken in the infide to detach and colleft w'hat ad¬
hered to the fides. Thefe united liquors, being imme¬
diately filtered in an open filter, left 19a centigrammes
(36-142 ) of carbonat of barytes dried in the heat of boil¬
ing water.
It may be readily judged what was our aftonifhment,
when proceeding to examine the liquor, inftead of find¬
ing in it a flight excefs of uncombined barytes, we ob¬
ferved that it changed neither the colour of turmeric,
nor that of logwood ; and that, on the contrary, it afted
on an infufion of turnfole as water charged with the car¬
bonic acid- The prefence of this acid unequivocally raa-
nifefted itfelf, when we poured upon it a few drops more
«f barytes water, which immediately rendered it turbid.
It was neceflary to add even 4-65 centimeters of this wa¬
ter to faturate and precipitate the remaining acid gas.
Being informed by this phenomenon that the produftion
of the gas had been more confiderable than we expefted,
and that fome of it Hill remained mixed in the aeriform
fluid in the balloon, we took every meafure neceflary to
determine the quantity. This we were luckily enabled to
do by the divifions which had been marked on thefcales,
the orifice of the globe having never been yet taken out
of the mercury.
I S T R Y.
When the barytes water was taken but, the apparent
volume was found to be exaftly 122 deciliters, the inter¬
nal column of the mercury above the level of the ciftern
was forty-feven millimeters ; the barometer being at
759-96 millimeters (Fruftidor 19, an. 6, of the republic,
or 1798,) the centegrade thermometer at 21-25, the real
volume, at a mean preflure and temperature, was 112,426
deciliters, or 11242-66 cubic centimeters.
I Itill invited M. Humboldt to co-operate with us in
examining the nature of this refiduum of gas. It was
transferred in his prefence into a pneumatic ciftern pre¬
pared on purpofe with diftilled water, and received into
four large fiaiks. The trial was made by the fame in-
ftruments, and with the fame nitrous gas, which had
ferved for the oxygen gas before the combuftion, andcon-
fequently containing from 0-09 to o-io of azotic gas. The
trials made on portions extrafted from different flafks
varied from thirty-one to thirty-four in the quantity of
the refiduum of gas, in a mixture of 100 parts of gas ex¬
amined with 300 parts of nitrofts gas. I fhall not even
take the mean term; I (hall ftop at the weakeft, which
indicates four hundredth parts of carbonic acid gas,
which, I think, I can aifert to be father below than above
the truth ; lince a portion of this gas, brought into con-
taft with ammonia, under a receiver, experienced a di¬
minution of 4-5 per cent.
Let us now eftimate the carbonic acid gas which en¬
tered into the compofition of the 192 centigrammes of
carbonat of barytes. According to Pelletier, whofe ac¬
curacy is well known in refearches of this kind, 100 of
this earthy fait contain twenty-two of acid gas, which
gives 42-24 for 192 ; and as the cubic centimeter of gas
weighs 1 ’847 milligrammes, it follows that the 42-24 cen¬
tigrammes reprefent 228-621 cubic centimeters. If we
now add, on the one hand, the 449 cubic centimeters,
found in the refiduum of the gas after combuftion, and
which, as we faw, formed the four hundreth parts; and
deduft, on the other, the fame quantity from the aeriform
fluid in which the combuftion was eftefted, it refults,
that, in 11470 cubic centimeters of oxygen gas contained
in the balloon, there remained, after the combuftion, only
10793 ; that 677 were confumed ; that thefe 677 cubic
centimeters of oxygen gas, in the ratio of 1-3577 milli¬
grammes each, produced, with the 199-9 milligrammes
of the diamond, 1 1 1 7-96 milligrammes of carbonic acid.
In the laft place, that, inftead of the proportions 0-28 of
combuftible fubftance, and 0-72 of acidifying principle,
obferved in the combuftion of carbon, the proportion was,
for the combuftion of the diamond - 17-88 of carbon.
82-12 of oxygen.
100-00
Though it was not poflible for me to doubt fafts de¬
duced from calculation, I at firft hefitated to admit dif¬
ferences fo confiderable in the manner in which the fame
combuftible united itfelf to oxygen in the quantities it
could take up, and the produfts of its combuftion ; in a
word, a carbonaceous combuftible more abundant in real
combuftible matter than charcoal itfelf, and which at
the fame time differed fo much from it in the degree of
temperature neceflary to determine the aCtion of its affi¬
nity. But I foon began to refleft, ift. That this would
not be the only inftance of the firft degree of the oxyda-
tion of an acidifiable bafe having been operated with
great difficulty, while the acidification was afterwards
completed with the utmoft facility. 2d. That feveral fub-
ftances of the fame kind prefented to us alfo thefe two
characters; a greater abundance in real carbon, and
greater refiftance to inflammation ; fo that they naturally
placed themfelves in an intermediary rank between the
diamond and charcoal. Thefe two considerations, ftill
ftrengthened by the fimilarity of the phenomena obferved
during the courfe of our two experiments in the paflage
of the diamond to the (late of carbonic acid, appeared to
me to throw a ray of light on this fubjeft hitherto fo ob-
fcure,
Jn
C H E M
In regard to the firft confideration, it will be fufficient
for me to call to mind with what difficulty the commence¬
ment of a comlpofition of azot and oxygen is formed by
the direct way, and the high degree of temperature which
it requires, while nitrous gas cannot be in contact with
oxygen without palling immediately to the acid ftate.
Charcoal will then be to the carbonic acid, what nitrous
gas is to the nitric ; and the diamond will be to char¬
coal, what azot is to nitrous gas. There will, therefore,
be no longer occalion of wonder that more oxygen is ne-
ceflary to that fubftance, which as yet has none of it, than
to that which has already been united with' the quantity
necelfary for arriving at the firft point of faturation.
The fecond conlideration refts on fafts no lefs conclu-
five. Plumbago is a carbonaceous combuftible, which
does not burn but at a very high temperature, or in ni¬
tre in fufion ; which produces by its combuftion carbonic
acid; which, as well as the diamond, is^ more abundant
in combuftible matter than carbon itfelf. We are in¬
debted to the illuftrious Scheele for the firft obfervation
of this fa6l. One part of carbon alcalizes only five parts
of nitre ; one part of plumbago can alcalize ten. The
operation performed in a retort on eighty centigrammes
of plumbago, gave him 357 cubic centimeters of carbo¬
nic acid gas. This agreement will not be contefted by
thofe who, having been witnefles of our experiment, fo
unanimoufly declared, that the furface of the diamond af-
fumed inftantaneoully a leaden colour.
This mineral is not the only body which prefents thefe
ftriking charafters of a fubftance almoft incombuftible,
and yet very abundant, in combuftible matter. I de-
fcribed, fixteen years ago, in the Memoirs of the Aca¬
demy of Dijon, a foffil found in a mafs in the coal-pits
of the Rive-de-Gier, which was fent to me under the
name o f incombuftible coal, and which I then coniidered as
real coal which had palled to the ftate of plumbago. I
characterized it in that manner. Dolomieu has delcribed
a foffil of the fame kind, which he calls carbure of alu¬
mine, which is the anthracolite of Werner. I iiad already
fuipe&ed that it was neither the prefence of four or five
centiemes of alumine, nor that of a ftill fmaller quantity
of iron, that rendered it incombuftible, but the little ad¬
vanced ftate of the oxydation of the carbon. I fubjeCted.
it to two experiments, by which this was fully confirmed.
The objeft of the firft was to determine if the alumine
prefent was in a ftate of combination fufficiently intimate
to refill the aftion of potalh by the humid way : 100 parts,
put in digeltion in that folvent, left it in 4-6 of alumine.
The fecond was, to afcertain whether this combuftible,
which poflefled fo little inflammability, had alfo the power
to alcalize more nitre than carbon, confequently to take
up more oxygen. Three fucceffive trials gave for a mean
refult the alcalization of 7^87 parts of nitre by one part
of that mineral ; and the fame coally matter, digefted for
four or five days in oxygenated muriatic acid, burnt com¬
pletely with 6-’5 of nitre.
M. Klaproth, the celebrated chemift of Berlin, had be¬
fore fubmitted to trials of the fame kind a foffil delcribed
by M. Widenmann, under the name of incombuftible coal,
and found that 100 parts left, after combuftion at a very
firong heat, only feven of a cineritious refiduum ; that
treated in a crucible with eight parts of nitre, and the
mafs diffolved in water, acids occafioned no precipitate.
Kirwan, in his experiments on coal, remarks, that that
which he calls Kilkenny coal, having a metallic brilliancy,
which does not burn but when carried to incandefcence,
and which then confumes (lowly without emitting flame,
can decompofe 9 *6 of nitre. After this, I do not lee how
there can remain any doubt, that thefe fuppofed incom¬
buftible fubftances are real oxyds of carbon, which, like
coal or charcoal, have the property of conducing the
eleCtric fluid ; of cementing iron ; of taking the oxygen
from fome acidifiable bafes ; but which are not at that
degree of oxydation necelfary for exerdfing this feparat-
ing affinity at a weak temperature.
S T R Y. 39.1
I mull not omit this opportunity of making fome ap¬
plication of this principle, which may become ufeful to
the arts. It has not yet been fufficiently explained, why
fome animal and vegetable matters produce carbon lo
difficult to be incinerated; why charred pit-coal, known
under the name of coke, or cinders, and which has been
half burnt in the preparation, is, however, fo powerful a
combuftible ; why peat, or turf, the weakelt of combul-
tibles, acquires, by being charred, the property of weld¬
ing large pieces of iron better than charcoal; and why,
in the laft place, charcoal, when expofed to a very ftrong
heat in veflels impenetrable to air, becomes there, in a
certain degree, incombuftible, as is proved in experiments
made by Mr. Tennant.
The anfwer to all thefe queftions may be found in the
theory I have laid down: they are charcoals in the firft
degree of oxydation. Thus lome of them have not yet
acquired that which conftitutes charcoal. properly fo call¬
ed; others, after pofieffing all the qualities of vegetable
and mineral carbon, have returned to the firft degree by
a real unburning ( debrulemen 1) of the remaining carbon ;
fo that, by ^lofing their inflammability, they become ca¬
pable of fixing a greater quantity of oxygen, and confe¬
quently of fetting at liberty a greater quantity of caloric,
when they find themfelves at a temperature fufficiently
high to determine and complete their acidification.
Some practical conlequences will doubtlefs hence be
deduced, in regard to procefles for the reduction of me¬
tals ; for the ce/nentation of fteel, which it is probable
takes up only oxyd of carbon, fince it is feparated from
it in that ftate ; for the incineration of the carbonaceous
refiduums of our analyfis ; for the carbonization of wood,
pit-coal, and turf: in a word, we may, perhaps, thence
conclude the poffibility of rendering ufeful thofe mafles
of pit-coal, laid to be-incombuftible, found at Rive-de-
Gier, by mixing it with more inflammable matters, to
maintain the temperature which determines its combuf¬
tion. Its pofition, texture, and all its exterior charac¬
ters, announce, as already faid, that it conlifcs of beds of
coal changed by a fubterranean fire ; and this is confirmed
by tradition, which preferved to that mountain, for three
centuries, the name of the Mountain of Fire, ( Montague de
Feu.) We can now pronounce, that it is coke too far ad¬
vanced, but fo much the more fufceptible of producing a
great heat, under favourable circumftances.
Racapitulation. — I (hall here enumerate the confe-
quences, or rather the faCls, which refult from the pheno¬
mena obferved in the two combuftions of the diamond by
the folar fire, and the experiments which followed. 1. It
is not only by the colour, weight, hardnefs, tranfparency,
and other fenfible characters, that the diamond differs
from charcoal, as feems hitherto to have been believed
2. Nor is it by the ftate alone of the aggregation of the
matter, that conftitutes diamond : 3. Neither is it on ac¬
count of the two hundredth part of the cineritious refiduum
left by carbon, or the fmall quantity of hydrogen which
it contains. 4. It is more eflentiaily by its chemical pro¬
perties that it differs. 5. The diamond is the pure com¬
buftible fubftance of this genus. 6. The product of its
combuftion, or of its combination with oxygen to fatura¬
tion, is carbonic acid without refidue. 7. Carbon burns
at a temperature eltimated at 1880 of the centigrade ther¬
mometer; the diamond does not inflame but at about
thirty pyrometric degrees, which, according to Wedg¬
wood’s icale, makes a difference of 188 to 27 65. 8. Char¬
coal, when kindled, maintains of itfelf, in oxygen gas,
the temperature necelfary for its combuftion. The com¬
buftion of the diamond Hops when you ceafe to maintain
it by a furnace-heat, or the union of the folar rays. 9.
The diamond, for its complete combuftion, requires a
much greater quantity of oxygen than charcoal does,
and produces alfo more carbonic acid. One part of char¬
coal abforbs, in this operation, 2527 of oxygen, and pro¬
duces 3*575 of carbonic acid. One of diamond abforbs
a little more than four of oxygen, and really produces
five
iJ* 03
C H •£ M I S T R Y,
ve of carbonic acid. to. There are fubftances which
are in a (late of intermediary competition, between the
diamond and charcoal. Thele are plumbago, or native
■carbure of iron; incombultible foffil coal; the carbure
of alumine of Dolomieu ; the anthracolite of Werner;
the black matter united to iron in the (late of cad-iron
and Heel; carbonaceous refiduums difficult to be incine¬
rated ; and carbon itfelf unburnt ( debrule ,) by the action
■of a llrong heat without the contact of air. n. Thefe
fubftances mixed, or weakly combined with three or four
hundredths of their weight of iron, oralumine, give bytheir
combuftion carbonic acid, like charcoal and the diamond.
They approach to carbon by their colour, their lightnefs,
their opacity ; by their ferving, like it, to decompofe wa¬
ter, to cement iron, to de.oxydate metals, to deoxygenate
fulphur, phofphorus, and arfenic ; and, by conducing,
•like it, the eleftric fluid. They approach the diamond by
containing more combuftible matter than charcoal ; by
abforbing alfo more oxygen, and producing more carbo¬
nic acid; by decompofing more nitrous acid ; by burn¬
ing only at a much higher temperature, even in nitre in
fufion ; and by their combuftion being Hopped when this
tegaperature is lowered. They feem to differ from each
other by the property of producing with zinc galvanic
irritation, as well as tilver does : which can be effefted
.neither by the diamond nor charcoal.
12. Thus the diamond is pure carbon, the pure acidi-
fiable bale of the carbonic acid. Its combuftion is ef¬
fected in three periods, which require three different
temperatures. At the firft, which is the higheft, the dia¬
mond afiumes a black leaden colour. It is an oxydation
in the firft degree, the llate of plumbago and anthraco¬
lite. At the (econd temperature, which may be ellimated
at eighteen or twenty pyrometric degrees, there is a fe-
cond flow and fucceflive combination of oxygen. It is a
progrefs of oxydation which conftitutes the habitual Hate
of charcoal, or rather that in which it is found after tha
aftion of a llrong heat in dole veflels has difengaged a
part of its oxygen. Thus plumbago is an oxyd of the
firft degree, charcoal an oxyd in the lecond, and the car¬
bonic acid the produft of the complete oxygenation of
the carbon. Suppofing, then, that we operate with fuf¬
ficient precifion to take away from the furface of the dia¬
mond the black matter in proportion as it is formed, by
fuddenly withdrawing from it each time the aftion of the
folar fire, we lliould doubtlefs be able to convert it into
charcoal, or at lead plumbago, if the too rapid paffage of
the lalt degree of oxydation to oxygenation did not pre¬
vent us from furprifing it in that Hate. 13. In the lad
place, feveral confequences, of importance to chemiftry
and the arts, arife from thele principles. It will be alked,
no doubt, how it happens that the Ample matter, pure
carbon, the diamond, is fo rare, while its compounds in
different Hates are fo abundantly diifufed ? To put an
end to the altonilhment of thofe who might entertain any
miftruft, I (hall oblerve, that aluminous earth is alfo one
of the mod common matters, and that adamantine (par,
as rare as the diamond, is, however, only alumine ; that
iron every where exilts, under all forms, except in the
ftate of purity : the exiltence of native iron is Hill doubt¬
ful. The wonder exills only in the oppofition of fafts to
our opinions, and will difappear in proportion as we dif-
cover, and appropriate to ourftlves, the means employed
by nature in producing the fame effefts.
The Angularity and importance of thefe two experi¬
ments, fuggefted the idea of fearching for a confirmation
of a new kind, by trying to make loft iron pafs to the
ftate of Heel, by cementation with the diamond.
It has hitherto been confidered as certain, that iron
does not melt but by palling to the ftate of Heel or call-
iron. But in what llate does the carbon enter into that
combination ? It might be conje&ured, that it is in the
ftate of plumbago, or oxyd of the firft degree; fince.that
which is feparated by acids, exhibits the brilliant black-
aefs and iocopabullibility which form its principal cha-
1
rafters. Hence fome were inclined to conclude, that the
carbon entered into this union in the ftate of an oxydule ;
that confequentiy the carbon employed in the cementa¬
tion of Heel began by deoxydating itfelf to a certain de¬
gree. This was even, in fome meafure, proved; as the
carbon employed for this operation was indeed found to
have a more brilliant afpeft, and nearly refilled1 incinera¬
tion, like carbon in a mafs burnt in clofe veflels. But, if
carbon really burns in the cementation of iron, it ought
to dilengage from it oxygen gas. This is a queltion which
I have endeavoured to refolve by experiment.
I cemented fmall bits of iron in a porcelain retort, wrhich,
in the preceding operation, had received a vitreous coat¬
ing, and which confequentiy was no longer permeable to
air. Thefe fragments were all furrounded, on every fide,
by charcoal of beech pulverized, and very dry. The re¬
tort was put into the reverberating furnace, and a tube
connected to it and carried under a receiver filled with
mercury. There was difengaged a quantity of elaftic
fluid, compofed of carbonated hydrogen gas, and carbo¬
nic acid gas, the lalt of which was at firft only o-i 1 in
bulk; towards the middle of the experiment, o-i3; and
at the end, 0*15.
The converlion of iron into Heel being found only lit¬
tle advanced, after three hours and a half expofure to the
fire, we put the fame iron and the fame carbon again into
the retort, and expofed it to the heat of a three-blaft fur¬
nace. This time there was only a very fmall quantity of
gas; but it was Hill carbonated hydrogenous gas mixed
with carbonic acid gas, and always with the fame pro-
greflion of the latter; which made at firft only 0^07 of
volume, while the lalt portions contained 0-12. The iron,
on this occafion, was converted into Heel, and even the
fragments had united by a commencement of fufion.
It Was very probable that a part of the carbonic acid,
collected in this operation, might have been formed at
the expence of the remaining carbon and with difengaged
oxygen; but the conftant prefence of the hydrogen only
ferved to indicate the difficulty of freeing the carbon en¬
tirely from the lad portion of water it contained. I lhall
here take occafion to obferve, that this experiment feems
not at all reconcileablc with the opinion of lome chemifts,
that hydrogen has more affinity than carbon for oxygen :
an opinion which they found on this circumftance, that
carbon is precipitated, in Volta’s eudiometer, when a mix¬
ture of oxygen gas and carbonated hydrogen gas is mads
to detonate, if a quantity of oxygen fufficient to acidity
the two bafes has not been employed. I fay, that this
affinity was not exerted in my experiment*: for it cannot
be doubted that the temperature was high enough to re¬
produce water by the union of the oxygen and hydro¬
gen ; and we can here fee nothing which could decide a
preference of the oxygen for the carbon.
Thefe confiderations feemed to me fufficient to create
a new intereft in regard to this experiment, propofed by
C. Clouet. I did not hefitate, therefore, to employ in it
one of the diamonds preferved in the cabinet of the Poly¬
technic School, according to the leave granted by the
council ; being perfuaded that if it difappeared in the
operation, merely by expofure to a high temperature, in
contaft with iron, without the acceffion of the air, or any
other oxygenating fubftance, the faft thereby eltablilhed
would leave no room to regret having facrificed if. Clouet
had himleif prepared a fmall crucible of foft iron, forged
on purpofe out of picked heads of nails. Its form was
a folid of eight planes, as Ihewn at fig. 4. It was (hut by
a Hopper of the fame iron well adjulted, as at fig. 5.
This crucible was to be placed in a Heflian crucible,
furnilhed with a cover well luted. This was all the ap¬
paratus for the experiment. I cannot give a better idea
of the refult, than by the report drawn up by C. Clouet,
Welter, and Hachette.
The diamond employed weighed 907 milligrammes. As
it did not entirely occupy the crucible, we filled it with
filings of the fame iron as that of which it was formed.
The
393
C H E M 1
The crucible was {hut by its iron ftopper, which was for¬
cibly thruft home, that as little air as poffible might re¬
main in the inhde.
Grammes.
The crucible and ftopper weighed together - 55^
The iron filings which covered the diamond 2
Total weight of the iron furrounding the diamond 57-8
After having cut off the excofs of the ftopper, the cru¬
cible was placed alone, and without the addition of any
iurrounding matter, in a very Imall Heffian crucible, and
the latter in a fecond crucible of the fame earth ; but the
fpace between the two latter crucibles was filled with lili-
ceous fand free from all ferruginous particles. In the laft
place, the large crucible was luted with earth arifing from
pounded crucibles and unbaked clay, and the whole was
expofed about an hour to a three-blaft forge fire. The
whole being cooled, we found, in the interior Heffian
crucible, the iron converted into an ingot of call fteel, as
Ihewn at fig. 6. It formed, with the ftopper and filings,
but one round mafs well terminated, fome few globules
excepted, which were detached, and which weighed only
884. milligrammes.
Grammes.
The ingot of caft fteel weighed - - 55- 500
The detached globules ... °-SS4
Total weight of the fteel obtained - - 56- . -4
The iron and the diamond weighed, before the opera¬
tion, 58 707 grammes 5 from which it follows that there
was a lofs of iron about 2-425 grammes. This iron had
given to the Heffian crucible the colour of plumbago.
The fufion of the iron being fo far perfedt as to fhew
on its furface the rudiments of the moft beautiful cryftal-
lization, it is not poffible to think that any part of the
diamond could have remained in the infide untouched,
or that it was not in the moft intimate ftate of combina¬
tion. The difference of the fpecific gravity oppofes fuch
an idea.
Some perfons having expreffed a defire to fee the in¬
fide of the ingot, it was broken on the anvil, which was
not effected without feveral blows from a very large ham¬
mer. It divided itfelf into two fragments, which were
exhibited at the next fitting. The fradture appeared per¬
fectly uniform, and of the moft beautiful grain.
Thus the diamond difappeared by the affinity which
iron exercifed on it by the help of the high temperature
to which they were both expofed, in the fame manner as
a metal difappears in the alloy of another metal. The
diamond, therefore, has furnifhed here the fame principle
as carbon, fince the produdt of the union has the fame
properties.
The whole of the apparatus for this experiment, which
is very fimple, is ffiewn in the plate, as follows : A, fig. 4,
is the plan of the iron crucible. B, a fedlionof this cru¬
cible. C, fig. 5, the ftopper of the crucibles D, E, fig. 6,
ingobof caft fteel feen in perfpe&ive. The fpot formed
by the nitric acid on the poliffied part is reprefented at a>.
Thofe who have never turned their attention to the
phyfical fciences, to eftimate at leaft their influence on
public felicity, are difpofed to treat as vain curiofity la¬
bours which are not immediately diredted towards a near
objedt of new enjoyment. What would have been their
aftonifhment had they been told, that refearches on the
nature of the diamond would one day produce truths,
which might give rife to happy changes in the pradtice
of the moft familiar arts ; in the preparation, and in the
employment of the coarfeft combultibles ! Such, how¬
ever, are the confequences that may arife from the belt
known properties of the effential principle carbon in its
different ftates. For an account of the new meafures and
weights lately adopted in France, and occafionally men¬
tioned in the foregoing treatife, fee the article Mea¬
sure.
Vos.. IV. No. 205.
S T R Y.
The CALORIMETER op LAVOISIER and La
PLACE.
-Caloric, or the matter of heat, confidered as accumu¬
lating in a greater or lefs quantity in fubftances of diffe¬
rent natures, but of equal mailes, and in which it ac¬
quires the fame expanfive force, is often termed fpecific
caloric : it is the relation of the quantities of heat necef-
fary to raife different fubftances of equal maffes to the
fame temperature.
To difcover the quantity of caloric contained in diffe¬
rent bodies, Meffrs. Lavoifier and La Place have invented!
a fimple but admirable inltrument, to which they gave
the name of calorimeter, or apparatus for meafuring the
relative quantities of caloric, contained in bodies, or
what they term latent beat, as ampiy deferibed under the
head Caloric, p. 181, See. of this treatife. The inftru-
ment is founded upon the following principles: I. That
if any body be cooled to the freezing- point, and then,
expoled to an atmofphere of 88-25, it will be heated gradu¬
ally from the turface inwards, till at laft it acquires the
fame temperature with the furrounding- air. 2. That, it
a piece of ice be placed in the fame fituation, thecircum-
ftances are quite different ; it does not approach in the1
fmalleft degree towards the temperature of the circumam¬
bient air, but remains conftantly at 320, or the tempera¬
ture of melting ice, tilt the laft portion of ice be conv-
pletely melted : in other words, that ice abforbs all the
heat communicated to it, without communicating it to
otherbodies, until the whole be melted; and, confequently,
that we may calculate the degrees of heat communicated*
by the quantity of ice which is melted..
This phenomenon is thus explained: To melt ice, or
reduce it into water, it mult be combined with a cer¬
tain portion of caloric : the whole quantity firft commu¬
nicated, is fixed at the furface of the external layer of
ice ; this it diffolves, combining with it to form water j
the next quantity combines with the fecond layer, and
forms it into water; and fo on fucceffively, till the whole
is diflolved and converted into water'by being combined
with heat ; the laft atom ftiil remaining at its former tem¬
perature, becaufe the heat never penetrates fo far, as long
as any intermediate ice remains to be melted.
Upon theft: principles, if you imagine a hollow fphere
of ice at 320, priced in an atmofphere of 54 or 5 50, and
containing a fubftance at any degree of temperature above
freezing, it will follow, 1. That the heat of the external
atmofpnere cannot penetrate into the internal cavity of
the fphere of ice. 2. That the heat of the fubftance
placed cannot penetrate outwards beyond it, but will be
flopped at the internal furface, and continually employed
in melting fuccefiive layers of ice, until its temperature
is reduced to 320, by having all the heat above that tem¬
perature carried off by the ice. 3. If the quantity of
water within the fphere of ice during the experiment be
carefully collefted, the weight of the water will be exa£Hy
propoitional to the quantity of caloric loft by the body
in paffing from its original temperature to that of melting
ice ; it being evident, that a double quantity of caloric
wouid have meited a double quantity of ice ; and that
the quantity of ice meited is an exadl meafur'e of the
quantity of caloric employed to produce the etteft; and
of the quantity loft by the only fubftance from which it
could be obtained. The foregoing fuppofition is only
made to explain more readily the nature of the experi¬
ments to be made with the above-mentioned apparatus,
which is fo contrived, 1. That the ice abforbs all the ca¬
loric difengaged from the bodies under examination.
2. That the ice is lecured from the aftion of every other
fubftance which might facilitate its fufion; and, 3dly, To
coheift with care the water produced by the fufion.
The apparatus confifls of three circular veffels, nearly
inferibed in each other, as reprefented in the Chemical
Elate XI. fig. 1, and 2 ; by which means three vacancies
5 H. are
394- C H E M I
are produced. The interior fpace or vacancy, is formed
by an iron grating upon the fupports of the fame metal j
here it is that the bodies fubjefled to experiments are to
be placed. The top of this cavity is clofed by means of a
cover: the middle fpace next to this is deiigned to con¬
tain the ice which furrounds the interior compartment :
this ice is fupported and retained by a grate upon which
a cloth is fpread ; in proportion as the ice melts, water
flows through the grate and the cloth, and is collected
in a veffel placed underneath. Laftly the external place
or compartment of the apparatus contains ice, intended
to prevent tl\e effeft of the external heat of the atmofphere.
To ufe this machine, the middle or fecond fpace is filled
with pounded ice, as is alfo the cover of the internal
fphere: the fame thing is done with regard to the exter¬
nal fpace, as well as to the general cover of the whole
machine: the interior, ice is fuffered to drain; and when
it ceafes to afford water, the covering of the internal
fpace is raifed to introduce the body, upon which the
experiment is intended to be made : the covering is to be
put on immediately, and the whole apparatus remains
untouched until the included body has acquired the
temperature of 32°, or the freezing temperature of water,
which is the common temperature of the internal capa¬
city: the quantity of melted water afforded by the melt¬
ing ice is then weighed; and this may be conlidered as an
accurate mealure of the caloric or matter of heat difen-
gaged from the body, becaufe the fufion of the ice is the
effefl of this heat only. Experiments of this kind lalt
fifteen, eighteen, or twenty, hours.
It is of great confequence, that in this machine there
fliould be no communication between the middle, or fe¬
cond, and the external fpace. The air of the room fhould
not be lower than 32, becaufe the ice would then receive
a degree of cold lower than that temperature.
It is extremely eafy, with this apparatus, to determine
the phenomena which occur in operations where caloric
is either difengaged or abforbed. If we vvifh, for in fiance,
to afcertain the quantity of caloric which is difengaged
from a folid body in cooling a certain number of de¬
grees ; let its temperature be firft raifed to 2120, it is
then placed in the interior cavity ffff, fig. 2 and 3, of
the calorimeter, and allowed to remain till we are certain
that its temperature is reduced to 320; the water pro¬
duced by melting the ice during its cooling is collected,
and carefully weighed; and this weight, divided by the
volume of the body fubmitted to experiment, and mul¬
tiplied into the degrees of temperature which it had
above 32° at the commencement of the experiment,
gives the proportion of fpecific caloric.
Fluids are contained in proper veffels, whofe fpecific
'beat, or caloric,. has been previoufly afcertained, and are
operated upon in the machine in the fame manner as di¬
rected for folids, taking care to dedu£t, from the quan¬
tity of water melted during the experiment, the propor¬
tion which belongs to the I'pec.ific heat of the containing
veffel. If the quantity of caloric difengaged during the
combination of different fubftances is be determined,
thefe fubftances are to be previoufly reduced to the freez¬
ing degree, by keeping them a fufficient time furrounded
with pounded ice ; the mixture is then to be made in
•the inner cavity of the calorimeter, in a proper veffel like-
wife reduced to 32°; and they are kept inclofed till the
temperature of the combination has returned to the fame
degree: the quantity of water produced is a meafure of
the caloric difengaged during the combination.
To determine the quantity of caloric difengaged dur¬
ing combuftion, and during animal refpiration, the com-
buftible bodies are burnt, or the animals are made to
breathe, in the interior cavity, and the water produced
is carefully collected. Guinea-pigs, which have the fa¬
culty of very eminently refilling the effects of cold, are
extremely well adapted for this experiment. 'As the con-
tiziual renewal of air is abfolutely neceffary in luch ex-
S T R Y.
periments, we blow frefli air into the interior cavity of
the calorimeter, by means of a pipe cleftined for thafc
purpofe, and allow it to efcape through another pipe of
the fame kind ; and that the heat of this air may not
produce errors in the refults of the experiments, the
tube which conveys it into the machine is made to pafs
through pounded ice, that it may be reduced to 320 be¬
fore it arrives at the calorimeter. The air which efcapes
muft likewife be made to pafs through a tube furrounded
with ice, included in the interior cavity of the machine,
and the water which is there produced ninft make a part
of what is collected, becaufe the caloric difenged from
this air is part of the product of the experiment.
It is fomewhat more difficult to determine the fpecific
caloric contained in the different gaffes, on account of
their fmail degree of denfity ; for, if they are only placed
in the calorimeter in vefiels like other fluids, the quan¬
tity of ice melted is fo fmail, that the refult of the ex¬
periment becomes at beft very uncertain. For this fpe-
cies of experiment, the air muft pals through tv/o metal¬
lic worms, or fpiral tubes ; one of thefe, through which
the air paffes, and becomes heated in its way to the ca¬
lorimeter, is contained in a veffel full of boiling water ;
and the other, through which the air circulates within
the calorimeter to difengage its caloric, is placed in the
Interior cavity of the machine. By means of a fmail
thermometer placed at one end of the fecond worm, the
temperature of the air, as it enters the calorimeter, is de¬
termined ; and its temperature in getting out of the in¬
terior cavity, is found by another thermometer placed
at the other end of the worm. By this contrivance we
are enabled to afcertain the quantity of ice melted by
determinate quantities of air or gas, while lofing a cer¬
tain number of degrees of temperature, and, confequent-
ly, to determine their feveral degrees of fpecific caloric.
The fame apparatus, with fome particular precautions,
may be employed to afcertain the quantity of caloric dif¬
engaged by the condenfation of the gafes or vapours of
different liquids.
The various experiments which may be made with the
calorimeter do not afford abfolute conclufions, but only
give us the meafure of relative quantities ; we have there-*
fore to fix a unit, or ftandard point, from whence to form
a fcale of the feveral refults. The quantity of caloric
neceffary to melt a pound of ice has been cholen as this
unit; and, as it requires a pound of water of the tempe¬
rature of 167° to melt a pound of ice, the quantity of
caloric expreffed by the unit, or ftandard point, is what
raifes a pound of water from 320 to 1^7°. When this
unit is once determined, we have only to exprefs the
quantities of caloric difengaged from different bodies, by
cooling a certain number of degrees, in analogous va¬
lues : the following is an eafy mode of calculation, given
by Lavoilier for this purpole, and applied to one of his
earlieft experiments. He took 7 lb. 11 oz. 2 gros 36 grs.
of plate-iron, cut into narrow flips, and rolled up, or ex-
prefling the quantity in decimals, 77070319 lbs. Thefe
being heated in a bath of boiling water to about 207-5°,
were introduced into the interior cavity of the calori¬
meter. At the end of eleven hours, when the whole
quantity of water melted from the ice had thoroughly
drained off, he found that 1-109795 pounds of ice were
melted. Hence, the caloric difengaged from the iron by
cooling 175-5°, having melted 1-109795 pounds of ice,
how much would have been melted by cooling 1350?
This queftion gives the following ftatement in direct pro¬
portion, 175-5 : 1-109795 : : 1 35 : ^"0-85384- Dividing
this quantity by the weight of the whole iron employed,
viz-. 77070319, the quotient 0-1109 is the quantity of ice
which would have been melted by one pound of iron
while cooling through 135° of temperature.
Fluid fubftances, luch as fulphuric and nitric acids,
&c. are contained in a matrafs, having a thermometer
adapted to the cork, with its bulb immerfed in the liquid.
The
Flats JU.
a
/. ..
‘
-/
V
ft' ■
i '
■■■ ■■■ :
V ' ' ■ '•
. ■ ■ . . :
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» I
CHEMISTRY.
The matrafs is placed in «a bath of boiling water, and
when, from the thermometer, we judge the liquid is raifed
to a proper temperature, the matrafs is placed in the ca¬
lorimeter. The calculation of the products, to determine
the fpecific caloric of thel'e fluids, is made as above-di-
reCted, taking care to deduCt from the water obtained the
quantity which would have been produced by the ma¬
trafs alone, which muft be afcertained by a previous ex¬
periment.
The various parts of the calorimeter, adapted to thefe
feveral purpofes, are delineated in the plate, as follows :
Fig. i, 2, and 3, give a perfpeCtive view of the appara¬
tus, and exhibit a vertical and an horizontal feCtion of
the fame ; ff f f, in fig. 2, fhews the interior cavity in
which the fubftances are to be placed ; it is compofed of
a grating, or cage of iron wire, fupported by feveral iron
bars ; this grating, or cage, for the fake of diftinCtnefs,
is reprefented feparately at fig. 4, with its lid or cover; b b,
in fig. 2 and 3, denote the middle cavity, deftined to con¬
tain the ice to be melted ; this is fupported by the grate
mm> under which is placed the fieve nn. Thefe two are
reprefented feparately at fig. 5 and 6. In proportion as
the ice is melted, the water runs into the conical funnel
ccd, fig. 2. This water may be retained or let out at
pleafure by the ftop-cock u. The external cavity aaaa,
fig. 2 and 3, is filled with ice, to prevent any effect from
external heat on the ice in the cavity b b b b ■, fig. 7, is
the lid to cover the machine. The fubftances to be ope¬
rated upon are placed in the thin iron bucket, fig. 8, the
cover of which has an opening fitted with a cork, into
which a fmall thermometer is fixed. When acids, are
ufed, they are put into a glafs veflfel, or matrafs, fig. 9,
which has alfo a fmall thermometer fitted to its neck,
and is alfo fupported by the fmall ring, fig. 10.
On the CHEMICAL CHARACTERS.
Language, in many cafes, is incapable of exprelling
our conceptions with that rapidity and perfpicuity,
which we fometimes find neceffary for an inflantaneous
communication of our ideas. Writing is Hill flower than
fpeech, in the ordinary mode of exprefling things by
words at length ; hence the introduction of figns and
fymbols, to exprefs whole fentences by Angle marks.
The chemical characters are an inftance of this; they
were invented by the earlier chemifts, to fave time in
writing the names of fubftances that frequently occurred,
in the fame manner as we avoid repetitions by the ufe of
pronouns, or of exprefling firms in words, which are
more expeditioufly let down in figures.
We need not have recourfe to the remote field of Chi-
nefe literature, to fliew how admirably the (implicit.)' , re¬
lative poiition, and connection of characters, are calcu¬
lated to exprefs ideas, at one glance of the eye, with a
degree of accuracy and precifion not to be obtained by
the ufe even of many written words. Neither need we
recur to the fcience of algebra, where, by the ufe of cha¬
racters, the mind receives the proof, and aflents to pro-
pofitions alrnoft inftantaneoufly, which would have re¬
quired a long feries of verbal deductions in any other
way. Our own fcience, chemiftry, will afford us in-
ftances of the moll linking nature. The tables at the
end of Bergman's Efiay on the Affinities, exhibit, in a
fpeedy and intelligible manner, the greater part of many
volumes of chemical refults; and it is certainly eafy, by
a Ample combination of chemical and algebraical cha¬
racters, to write the whole contents of any chemical
work in a fmall compafs ; yet fo full, clear, and p erfpi-
cuous, that whole pages may be read and underftcod in
a few feconds.
Characters are either entirely arbitrary, or they have
fome refemblance to the idea they reprefent. The latter
property is naturally aimed at, where it can be obtained,
becaufe it cannot but tend to afiilt the memory. Thus a
number of dots were ufed to denote fand or powder ; the
figure of a retort, to denote the retort ; and the combi-
395
nation of characters is ufed to denote fimilar combina¬
tions of the fubftances they reprefent. Very little of
fyftem appears in the ancient characters of chemifts:
thofe of the alcliemiits were certainly intended to fcreen
their fcience under a myfterious veil ; yet many of the
characters of Bergman feem chiefly grounded on thefe
ancient characters, with additions and improvements.
But the characters of Halfenfratz and Adet are fyftema-
tical throughout, and are now generally adopted,
Thefe two chemifts w'ere employed by the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, in 1787, to correct and reform the
chemical charaCteriftics. Their official charge was to
methodize and illuftrate two problems or parts: 1. To
find out general characters, or fymbols, by which the
then known Ample fubftances, or confidered as Ample,
as well as thole which may be difcovered in future, may¬
be exprefied in a conftant and uniform manner. 2d. To
combine thofe general characters in fuch a manner, that,
with regard to compounds of the Ampler fubftances, the
number, nature, and proportion of their component
principles, may be diftinCtly exprefied by that union of
the primitive fymbols.
In order to folve the firftpartof the problem, Haflen-
fratz and Adet divided the Ample fubftances, according
to the modern difcoveries, into four genera. To tilde
they added two other genera ; one for fubftances fup-
pofed to be compound, and whole decompofition is al¬
ready forefeen ; the other for compound bodies, with
the conllituent principles of which we are as yet unac
quainted.
Firft Genus. — Subfiances <u>hich appear to enter into
the Compofition of the greater number of Bodies. F or
thefe they have chofen a fliort ftraight line, which can
have four different pofitions. The vertical, which they
have adopted for exprefling caloric; the horizontal,
adopted for oxygen ; the oblique, from the right down¬
wards to the left, the character of azot or nitrogen;
laftly, the oblique from the left to the right, which may
ferve for future difcoveries, as well as the zigzag or wa¬
ving line in thefe four pofitions. — By a vertical zigzag
line they exprefs light.
Second Genus. — Alkaline and Earthy Subfances. Thefe
are denoted by an equilateral triangle. With its vertex
upwards, it Agilities the alkalis ; and with its vertex
downwards, it is appointed to indicate the earths. — To
diftinguilh the individual fubftances of each of thefe fpe-
cies, the initial letter of their Latin name is infer abed in
the triangle : as P. for potaflinum, S. for foda, C. for
calx, A. for argilla. But, whenever two or more of
thefe have the fame initial letter in their name, the next
conionant in order is added. Thus llrontian-earth, is
diftinguifhed by St. from Alex, marked only by S. —
Ammoniac is left out from the alkalis, becaufe its con-
ftituent parts are at prefent known. The initials of the
Latin names were chofen, becaufe they are known in
every country, and the characters were defigned to be
univerfal, otherwife each nation would have a difference
in thefe characters.
Third Genus. — Inflammable Subfla/ices. To fignify
thefe, the femicirclehas been taken, with its four different
pofitions. Opening to the left for hydrogen; opening
to the light for carbon ; opening downwards for phoi-
pliorus ; opening upwards for lulphur. By doubling
this femicircle, inflammables of future dilcovery may
be denoted. Thus Dr. Pearfon has lately employed two
femicircles, placed vertically upon each other, and open¬
ing to the left, for reprefenting the diamond, which is
now confidered as the purelt carbon.
Fourth Genus. — Metallic Subflanccs, for which the
circle has been chofen. Gold has preferved its ancient
fign, a circle with a point in the centre, heretofore ufed
to reprefent Sol, the fun. The other metals are diftin-
guifhed by inferting the firft letter of their Latin name,
but to avoid confulion in metals having the initial in their
name, the next confonant in order, that is to fay, begin-.
ning
CHEMISTRY,
395
«ing the next fyllable, is added tothe firft. In this manner
As. diftinguifhes arfenicnm from A argentum. M. with
an annexed L. diftinguifhes molybdena from Mi mag-
neiium ; and St. expreffes ftibium, or antimony, to dif-
tiuguift] it from ftannum, or tin, denoted by S. infcribed
in the circle; and platina is Signified by P. with the pro¬
minent top of T, in contradiction to the Simple P. by
which plumbum, lead, is marked.
Fifth Genus. — Acidifiable Subfiances, which are juftly
fuppoied to be formed of feveral principles, and whole
decompofition is at prefent forefeen. Thefe are denoted
by the fquare in its horizontal pofitkm. The initial of
the Latin name of each is inicribed in the fquare, ad¬
ding the firft confonant of the next f'y liable, to diltin-
guilh any one from another of the fame initial letter.
Thus the benzoic, formic, faccholaCtic radicals, are dif-
tinguilhed by Bz. Fm. SI. from the boracic, fluoric, fuc-
cinic, to fignify which B. F. S. areinicribed in the fquare.
Sixth Genus. — Compound Subfiances, with (be Confii-
tuent Principles of 'which we are as yet unacquainted.
To thefe the fquare, with its angle upwards, has been
appropriated. The difference between each is again de¬
noted, as in the preceding zd, 4th, and 5th, genera, by
infcribing the firft letters of their Latin names, and ad¬
ding, when neceffary, one or two of the confonants next
in order. Thefe distinctions are all clearly exprefled in
the firft five of the following tables, which have been
projected by thefe able chemifts.
As to the fecond part of the problem, the firft law is,
to join the primitive characters of the Ample fubftances,
&c. by two and two, three and three, four and four, &c.
according as the compound fubftance confifts of z, 3,4,
&c. different principles; and the fecond. law is, todiver-
fify the pofltion of thole characters in fuch a. manner,
that the different' proportions in which the Ample, or at
leaft lefs compound fubftances are chemically combined,
may he fufficiently and diitinCtly indicated. Now the
primitive characters may have eight different pofitions.
Two horizontal, two vertical, two obiique to the right,
and two oblique to the left. For inftance, the fquare
may be placed horizdntally on the right or on the- left
fide of the circle; or vertically, above or underneath it;
or obliquely to- its right or left, and in both cafes either
the circle or the fquare uppermoft. — The four oblique
pofitions have been rejected, to avoid confufion when
not Well. written ; and as it is of little importance which
of two characters is placed to the right or to the left of
the other, only one horizontal pofltion has been adopted,
in general, for binary combinations.
With refpeCt to the fecond law, two characters are
placed upon the fame horizontal line, to indicate that
the faturation is reciprocal, and that there is an equality
in the proportions of the conftituent parts of the com¬
pound fubftance reprefented — However, if a triple or
any multiple combination is to be lignified, the character
of any fubfhmce may be farther advanced to the left-
hand, in proportion as it has a lefs affinity than the
others with that denoted by the character placed on the
right. But, in the vertical pofltion, the character which
is the inferior, indicates the fubftance denoted by it is in
excefs of proportion to the other. — Thus, the proportions
of fulphur and potalh in the alkaline fulphure are diftin-
guiftied in three different- ways : — their equality of pro¬
portion by the pofltion of their refpeCtive characters next
to each other, on the fame horizontal line; and the ex¬
cefs of fulphur, or that of alkali, by placing the fign of
fulphur, or that of the potalh, undermoft in the vertical
junction of tlieir figns.
From thefe general rules* fome exceptions are to be
made. i°. Caloric is always combined in fome degree
with every fubftance. Hence, to avoid the too frequent
repetition of its character or fymbol, it is omitted when¬
ever the body reprefented is confidered in the l'olid Itate, as
zink ; but it is added, either above or below the charac¬
ter of zink, to denote this metal in the liquid or elaltic
s
ftate; that is to fay, in the ftate of fufion or fublimation,
Water and aqueous vapour afford another example.
z°. Oxygen makes another exception; for its different
proportions produce properties in the compound fo re¬
markable as to require that they Ihould not be miftaken:
It produces, ift. oxyds, as oxyd of fulphur; zdly. acids,
where the bafe predominates, as fulphureous acid ; qdly.
acids in reciprocal faturation of the two fubftances com¬
bined, as fulphuric acid; and, 4thly.by combining with
an acid, vvhofe two principles are already faturated, the
oxygen produces a combination diverted of the charac-
teriitic properties of acids; though its retention is then
fo inconfiderable as to be fet at liberty, and to regain the
elaltic. ftate by a few rays of light. This lalt ftate of its
combination is well known only in the oxygenated mu¬
riatic acid ; and, to denote it, the GharaCter of oxygen is
placed under the character of1 the acidifiable bafe, and de¬
tached from it. The combination of azot and oxygen
likewife feems to produce thefe four fpecies of com¬
pounds. Hence gafeous oZyd of azot, nitrous and ni¬
tric acid, and the fort of nitric acid which Monge fays
he has obtained, and which appears to he oxygenated
nitric acid. The character of oxygen, therefore, has
four pofitions : at the top of the character joined with
it, on its right fide towards the middle; underneath it,
and joined; and, laftly, underneath it, and feparated.
The characters formed by thefe laws from the primi¬
tive figns, as relating to Ample fubftances, &c. offer fix
general Ample characters: the line, the triingle, the fe-
micircle, the circle, the fquare placed horizontally, and
the fquare placed with one of its angles upwards. The
firft five, with the infcribed initial letters of the Latin
names of the known metals, earths, See. then known (at
prefent increafed to 63), have afforded to Adet and-Haf-
lenfratz fifty-four particular characters ; which, com¬
bined two and two, form— --=143 1 figns for fo many
z
binary combinations. ' But as there can be exprefled
three Hates of combination, befides that oxygen is capa¬
ble of four, the fame number 1431, multiplied by three,
will give 4293 different figns, to denote fomany different
compound fubftances.
On arguing farther upon the fame principles, if two
characters can have three different pofitions, the union
of three will afford thirteen.
Hence the above fifty -four fymbols, combined by
three and three, produce-? - — - — =24804, which,
z X 3
multiplied by thirteen, gives 321454 different ternary
combinations of charaCtersj capable of fignifying fo many
fubftances, compounded of three principles; and, with¬
out calculating farther the- number of fymbols arifing
from the union of four, five, and more, of thefe fifty-four
characters, the above Ihews that we have a fuflicient
number of characters to denote all fubftances hitherto
known, or whole diicovery may be expeCted.
Hence, then, it mud be confeffed, that the invention of.
thefe characters is extremely ingenious, and promifes to
be of no lefs general utility. They are of confiderable
advantage in making out Tables of At tractions in a fmall
compafs ; and alfo in the Tables of Com pofitions, wherein
one fubftance, whether Ample or compound, being plated
at the head, and the other on the left-hand fide, the point
or angle where the tw'o columns concur, which bear thefe
two figns, 01 characters, willfhew the compound, like the
produCt in the Pythagorean tables for multiplication.
The whole of w'hat has been here Hated, may be fuffi¬
ciently underltood by an attentive inveftigation of the
firlt fi-zie of the following tables, as projected by Halfen-
fratz. and Adet. Thefixth table contains the chemical
figns which occur in the writings of Bergman; and it
was though fit to add finally the ancient figns and cha¬
racters, that the reader may be at no lofs in reading either
the ancient or modern authors on chemiftry.
TABLE
3 97
C H E Ml S T R Y.
TABLE I. . _ C II AR AC1! E R S in ,C H K M IS TRY 1 V. Haffcnirat z and Ade t
' Lnjht .
Caloric 1 fatter of 'Heat.
Simple < Substances
which can cat's ( in the
aeriform state in the or¬
dinary temperature of \ - OocvetenJiase of Vital Ab-
the Amtosphere,<md which) / C. hose of limited
... / - - -K ' - Ah- orMbfihte
• Characters to eapre/s
stances demand a preat I such new and simple
f © /Vatina .
Metals reducible be heat alonej. © Cold durum
bimetal in the li/iticl State in ® Silver Argentum .
j® ihrunlM^u-m,
siin/diih’ of their i haiac -
ters.
Alkalies which are as vet
considered as siniple Sub¬
stances.
Simple Earths
X
(embus tilde Simple Sub
stances, commonly called.
Inflammable < Substances,
Substances as mar be
discerned.
Ietash.iimstien.rcd Alkali.
Seda.CausticMhmdAlkati.
Jimytcs. Ponderous earth .
lime. Calv.
Jiatpnesia.
Marline. 'Kvdaeceus
earth .
Silea .Quart*.
3 Hydropen. ftiZtty
Q Cavbeji.oi'pine Charcoal
Sulphur.
iVicsphon/s.
I Characters to eapress
\ such new cpmbiistible
substances as will be
discovered .
J lalledlde Metals .
Eases which we do not
as yet /enow, but whose,
nature we capeetto be '
able to discover.
r\
3
£
xx]
/qd
m
CD
m
m
m
CD
(D
CD
ED
CD
Ba
Metals not malleable
„ I ei unable Metals.
Tin .. damn mi .
Copper. Cuprum.
Lead. Plumbum .
Tron.Feri'um .
Manganese Magnesium,
Nickel Niccolum ,
Bismuth . Bismuth urn.
A/itimonv. Stibium .
I ebalt. Kolaltum .
Arsenic. - iiseniatm .
MelvbdenJIolvb demon .
Tunosteti .Tunstenuni .
CD
CEO
ED
CD
CD
ED
DO
CD
ED
m
Vox,. IV. No. 206.
Muriatic.
Boraeie.
Fluoric.
Succinic.
Acetic.
Tartaric.
Pyre-tartaric.
O.ralie.
Gallic .
Citric.
Malic.
Bene ore.
Pyro-lipnic ,
Tyro -mu etc.
Camphoric.
Lae lie.
Saccho -lactic.
For n lie .
Prussic.
Sebacic.
Bombic .
lit/Cte .
r\
( o/npoimd bodies which
are not aeidiiiable based
X‘ whose component pi in - ~\ /\ \
ciples ate verv little knomi >/
General t Imrae/e ;
5 1
Combustable . iubstmtees.
Metallic Substances .
O' Conif ound Aciditi -
•able Bases,
Non Aeidiiia ble com ¬
pound Substances .
Table
3 98
C H E M I S T R Y.
Solid
Liquid
A&iform
-
Solid
Liquid
flcri/vimi
Solid
Liquid
Atrifom
Azof. .
/
1/
r
Copper
©
0
0
Ryr'o/ai tai -eons Radical
FI
If
0
Potash
/K
i/iK
A
Lead
©
0
0
Vocalic Radical
0
a
a
Soda ....
/iz
iA
A'
Iro7L
©
0
0
Bailie Radical
0
a
a
Barvtes
V
y
f^7
Zink
©
0
P:
Citric Radical
0
a
p
Lime
V
y
f\7
ManqaneSe-
©
^ 1
Malic Radical
0
a
a
Magnesia.
V
y
Nickel
0
0
Ben zoic Radical
0
a
a
Ahnnine
V
V
|^a7
Bismuth
0
P
Tyro liqnie Radical
0
a
a
Silex
V
y
Antimony
@
©
0
Camphoric Radical
0
a
a
Hydrogen
3
s
P
Arsenic
©
©
0
lactic Radi • ai
0
a
a
Carbon .
C
t
P
Molybdena
©
0
@
Saccho lactic Radical
0
tei
a
Sulphur
c
Punqsien
©
©
p
Formic Radical
[FwJ
B
R
Phosphorus
n
A
P
Miaiatie Radical
ED
t0
p
Pints! c Radical
0
a
p
Co id
O
0
P
B Oracle Radical
0
a
P
Schacic Radical
0
a
Piatiiia.
©
©
Fluoric Radical
FI
a
pn
Bombu • Radical
0
tH)
p
Silver
©
©
P
Succinic Radical
0
a
p
Li tine Radical
0
a
a
Mcrnny
®
©
Acetous Radical
0
£1
p
Ether
Tin
©
0
P
Tar (are mu- Radical
0
a
pn
Alcohol
$
Table H. Combinations oi Caloric.
Table ILL The known Combinations of Oxygen ani> Caloiu c.v.mth different Sub stances.
Eitrous Gas
r
Concrete OrvpemtedShrioJic Acid
0
Liquid S ehacic Acid
Nihvus Acid Cos
t
( on crete Boraeic Acid
0
Liquid Rombic Acid
Nitrous Acid
v~
Fluoric Acid Gas
0
( \rvd of Tungsti
Nitrie Acid
\tL
Concrete Succinic Acid
0
Tungstic Acid
Oxygenated ATtric Acid.
[/
Liquid Tortureous Acid
&
Oxyd of Mol i Aden a
Ice _
jr
Concrete Tortureous Acid
F-
Concrete Molvbdic Acid
K/
Wafa •
h-
<T
Liquid Pixo-tartareeus Acid
&
Oxyd of Arsenic
Vapour of Water .
Liquid Ace tons Acid ......
a-
Concrete Arsenic Acid
Carbonic Acid Gas
<r
\~r
M-
u
U
Acetous Acid Gas
&
Oxyd of Cobalt .
Sulphureous Oxvd Gas
Liquid Acetic Acid
0
0
a
Oxyd of Antimony
Sulphureous Acid Gas
Concrete (1 asdic Acid
Liquid Gallic Add
Oxyd of Bismuth .
Oxyd of Nickel . .
Sulphureous Acid
Liquid Citric Acid
a
Oxyd of Manganese
Liquid Sulphuric Acid
Liquid Malic Acid
a
Oxyd o f Zink
Concrete Sulphuric Acid
U-
Conor etc Benzoic Acid
0
Oxvd of Iron .
Concrete Phosphorous Acid
rv
Liquid Lyroliqneous Acid
&
Oxyd of Lead .
Liquid Rhosphorous Acid
in-
LiquidPyi'o mucous Acid
R-
Oxyd of Lapp cr
Liquid Phosphoric Acid
K_
Concrete Camphoric Acid
0
Oxyd o f Tin
Liquid Muriatic Acid
F
Liquid Lactic Acid
a
Oxyd of Mercury ...
Muriati c Acid Gas
0
Concrete Saccho -lactic Acid
0
Oxvd of Silver .
OxyqenatedM.uiialie deal Gas
F_
Lhpdd Formic Acid
EL
Oxvd of Gold .
Liquid OsypaiatedMwiatic Arid
a
Frufsic Acid Gas
0
Oxyd ofPlatina
Isil
&
gr
<SL
®-
©r
®r
0~
gr
dT
gr
®"
0"
®r
©■
cr
or
Table
399
C H E MI ST 11 Y.
Tab le
IV. Combinations of Two Substances.
Calorie forms a. third in some of these Compositions
AmmoniacA Gas
P
< Sulpha v of Alumine
¥
Sulplwrc cfhuhnon v
te)
Amah/am of Silver
~T
( bmnyte Ammoniac
?
< iirip/uu v of Cch 1
g
Snip hoe of ( obalt
&
- of Copper
§
Carbonated A to tic Gas
f
Su/phure of Silver
< Sulpha e of li venic
8
- of Tin
1
SulplunyUed Azotic Gas
y
Siriphure of Mercury
&
SulpliurcofMolvbrien
§
Allov of Tin . 0 Cbppci •
©©
larbonatedfiydvqai Gas
?
Sukriiiire of Tin
Phosplurc oflcari
_ of Tin Head
©©
Sulphui atcdJiyi h 'oqen
Otis
A
Sulphur of topper
<£)
Phosphide of Iron
©
_ ofLvn&Mmyanese
@©
FZiosphora/i’d Ilydrotien
2
Sulplwrc oflcari
8
Alloy ofPhtinai'Golri
©o
_ of Iron A IV/ Wed
(f)
Siilphin v of Potash
Sulplwe of Iron
- - o f PlatinaP Silver
©@
1
Strip] are of Soria
Sulphur oflinf
1
— of Goldie Silver
ex©
( arherc of Iron
SiripJmre of Bar vies
Sulplmt'e of Aided
(£)
— of Gold & Copper .
§
Sulphur of lime
al
S ulphae effiisnurih
Ainah/am of Cold
iL
(©
Table V. Ieutral Salts composed op Three
Sub STANCES.
Caloric is not exp re fs crib ocaus e 1 he v are all supposed lobe in tlie solid state . -The Ammoniacal S late are composed of four Substances.
Calcareou. t Acetal :
VEL
CaJcmrous Camphorat
Viol
Acidulous Oazriatof Potash
£l
Sulphat of Lime
—
< Icetat ofA/wnin e
Citrat of Soria
AF1
Phosphat of 'Potash
Arc.
AadutousSulphateid/umiae
Acetat of Magnesia
WD.
Immcnuu'til Citrat
pm
Phosphat of Soria
Ar\_
Sulphat of Ahanixe .
V^-
Aeetcit of Potash
AIZL
Calcareous Citrat
m
Ammowacal. Phosphat
/JK-
Sulpha! of Alumine with
excels of base
¥-
Acetat of Soda
AEL
Find of Potash
ADO-
Phosphat of lime
SulphatofMopnesia
Tf/d--
Acetat of topper
©Gil
Flvat of Ammoniac
pm
Phosphat of Iron
©TV
Siriphatof fill er
Acetat of Iron
®QL
Filial of lime
m
Phosphit of Soria
A n_
Siriphatof Mercury
©Vc
Ammoniacal Acetit
PEL
Foma A of Soria ..
Prussiat of Iron
©EL
Sulphat of Tin
dkt.
Acetit of Potash
AEL
Ammoniacal Formiat
PEI
PyrotarUitol 'Potash
Siriphatof Copper
©u»
Calcareous Acetit
Calcareous For/niat
^EL
Tyro mucit of Soria
Siriphatof lead
©U-
Bombiat of Potash
aim]
ladatef Soda
AEL
Are -hipritef Ammoniac
pm-
Siriphatof Iron
®u~
AmmuniacalBembiat
PEL
AmmoniacaZIactat
PEI
Saccho-lat of Potash
/\EI
Siriphatof Zink
©u_
Calcareous Bombiat
WEL
Lactatoflime
VEL
Sebatof Soria
AE1
SulphatofMaiiganese
<gu_
Cat -bonatat Potash
Galhtof Potash
AEL
Snlphit of Potash
ALJ~
Sulphat of. 'Nickel
®V-4.
Carhonat of Soda
ALP
Malat of. Potash
AEL
SiJphat of Polish
AL2
Sulphat ot. ’Bismuth
Cu_
Ammoniacal Carbonat
PC_
vc_
MujiatofMtash
Mia iat of Soria
AFT1
^ laihdousSuMialot 'Potash
Sulphat of Potash .
k
SiriphdtoSAiirimon y
Calcareous Ciubonat
AEL
Sulphat of Cobalt
©Ll.
Bay tic Utrbonal
^FC_
AmmoniacalMuriat
pm
with carets of base
Sulphat of Aroemc
Magnesian Carbonat
BarvticMuriat .
AEL
Siripluit of Soda
ALj
Sulphate fit folvbricna
®UL
Cvbonat of Iron
©CP
Miaiatoflron
©EL
Aeidirious&JphatcAScdii
ik
Siriphatof Tungsten.
0A.
Benzoat of Potash
Amr Honiara] Beh/zoat :
AEL
/J0.
OxypenaledMmdtofSodd
SitvatofPotas/i.orMtie
AL3_
AkL
Siriphatof Soria with
carets of base
Succinat of Potash
Arscm'at of Potash
A0»
(fricareons fieri zoat
Wd
Nitrat of Soria
Ay
Acidulous j IrsematcfFobish
fiornt of Soda
Ammoniacal fi ova t
AEL
A*L
Ammon iacalNilrat
Baev tic Nitrat
Siriphatof Ammoniac
Acidulous Sulphat of Am¬
moniac
Arsemat of Potash
with excels of base
Molvbdat of Soria
A©L
(alrarrous Herat
^EL
Nitrat of Silver.
©L
SiJphatofAtnmmidc
AnunoniaCaZ Timpstat
pa
Camphomtof Potash
AEL
Niti itof. Potash
AA
with excels of base
talcat vousTuiu/stat
va_
Ammoniacal th/nphorat
JEL
Ocra7at of Potash
AE1
Barytic Sulphat
vu.
lithiat of Potash
AEL
Table
400
CHEMI STUY.
Table VI . The Chimical Signs as they occur in the writings of Bergman.
Ac
D S.
Earths.
Metallic Calces.
2. + QY Vitriolic .
26’.+ GO Aniber.
'20-V Pixe Pondeious .
44 T O 6u/<7.
2.+ Q5l A Phlogf heated .
J7+ ® Sugar of Milk.
3<2.Y p-Piwe calcareous Lime.
44. Y YD Phi tin a.
3 . + 0 Nitrous,
4. + 0 Phiogisticated.
3+ 0 Marine.
6.\Q ^Dephlogisticnted.
y.Sft Aqua Regia.
8. .0? of Fluoi'.
p. o+o Arsenic.
io.+ c2d Boraoc.
u.+ 0 Sugar.
12 .+ c=p Tartar.
18. 4)4 Acetous distilled.
ip.+ © J#7A\
AntS.
22.+ 0
22+ 4 of Phosphorus.
23+ ^ Perlatum.
24+ ^ ofPrutsian blue,
ay A Aerial.
Alkalis
32 . Y Pure Magnesia .
132^° Pure Argillaceous.
33 . ax Pure Siliceous.
34. V Water.
3+.X} Air.
y,6.<d‘ Phlogiston.
37. id Matter of Heat.
38. 0 Sulphur.
33.© ^ Saline Hep or.
40.. V Spirit of Wine .
0 '
42.o°0 ^ Ether.
O
42.0.0 Essential Oil.
43 • © 7 Whtous Oil.
46. A J> Silver.
47A V Mercury.
\8. A T> Lead.
4p. 0 0 Copper.
go- A d Iron.
32. t a .
32. T © Bismuth.
33 'T § Ya’/o’?.
34 ■ T O— 0 Arsenic.
55. JV, Q A/W/.
36“. T 0 ?////'.
37. Y 6 Antimony.
38. A (J) Manganese.
59- T 0P Sidciite.
23+ d Sorrel.
24+ C Lemon.
15 S ^ Benzoin.
2<>. ©O S' Dae tired Vegetable.
27. ®A1UP Pure fired Mineral.
28. ©* /? Volatile.
Table VII. The
Ancient Chemical Signs or , Characters.
A /»•<?.
CAd ; (*) Regains of Antimony.
C . ©A i aus tic vol. Ill ali.
© Caput Mortnum .
A
OO Arsenic.
¥ Potash.
O v/ Powder.
V jfoter.
^ Regains of Arsenic.
0' > ; Acids.
3C Ashes.
V Edith.
K Cobalt.
0,- Vinegar.
B. A Bath.
f. A Fixable Aii\
N JftvSrf.
0+y > ®; Vitriol n Acid.
B M; Mi; ftiiter-bath .
in. A Mephitic Air.
S.M. Metallic Substances.
Q>; >0; iVitivus Acid.
AB. Sand bath.
V
C
©I/ > Q;J/arine Acid.
V.B. Vapour-bath .
Gypsum.
0=0 Orpiment.
T; vT; Aquafortis.
X An Hour.
Y ;C- V; Calcareous Earth .
(§) Cinnabar.
Tl Aqua Regia .
d A Bay.
p C V;T Quicklime .
L .C. Lapis Calaminaris.
Vol Sulphureous Acid.
Q A Wight.
3Vq fitrifiable.ar Siliceous Ecu-ths.
A Phosphoric Acid.
[3 A Month.
■V0 Fluoiv.orFusibte Earths.
0 Vitiiot.
V: Wine.
a ail ^ Amalgam.
X Talk.
0/ Sect Suit,
Y Spirit of Wine.
(5/xY;
M.V Magnesia.
& 0— Sal Gem.
V? RcotiticdSpirit oflVine.
Sublime.
AV/@; Earth otAlwn.
© Mitre.
jE Etha\
To Precipitate .
.V. Sand.
dh ; cfj ; Borax.
^ Lime Water.
Ag A Retort.
O Gold.
S.S. Sedative Salt.
CD Urine.
\ V sin Alembic.
~3i h Silver.
Y Copper.
% Tin .
lx Ziv*?.
0 Mercury,
d bvn.
Z Tine. .
4}?- ©Dfc? Sal Ammoniac.
O; d±l ; Alim •
10 Tiu‘tai\
Q ; 8 ; Alkali \
0v ; ©v Fired Alkali.
0 a . 0a; Volatile Alkali .
m. ©v' Mild tired Alkali.
o°0;®4; >tOil.
A; p; o°0; Essential Oil.
^ Fired Oils.
^ Sulphur-
©-4 Ifepar of Sulphur.
%. Phosphorus.
A Phlogiston.
0 <Tuu/2.
'EiJrvy A Crucible.
S.S.S.. Stratum SipcrSimtum.
C.C. Cornu Coni Hartshorn.
A Bottle.
7'gV. A Grain.
i 5. A Scruple.
\g . A DrdcJim.
j An Ounce.
B;W Bismuth.
0 . ©/ Gmstic tired Alkali.
0 Verdegris.
I W. A Pound.
O Antimony.
m. ©*• Mild Yol Alkali.
0-0 Glass.
' dwt. A Penny -weight.
ON
C H E M
Os THE ANCIENT CHEMICAL CHARACTERS of
the METALS.
Concerning the origin of thefe characters, we have the
following ingenious account from profefl’or Beckmann :
Thole metals earlieft known, viz. Gopper, iron, gold, fil-
ver, lead, quickfilver, and tin, having received the fame
names as thofe heavenly bodies which appear to us largelf,
are diftinguilhed by the like characters. On this two
queftions arife : Whether thefe names and characters were
given firft to the planets, or to the metals ? When, where,
and on what account, were they made choice of ? and
why were the metals n anted after the planets, or the pla¬
nets after the metals ? The latter of thefe queftions can¬
not be anlwered with any degree of certainty ; but lome-
thing may be laid on the 1'ubjeCt which will not, perhaps,
be dilagreeable to thole fond of luch refearches, and who
have not had an'opportunity of examining it.
That the prefent ufual names were firll; given to the
heavenly bodies, and at a later period to the metals, is
beyond all doubt; and it is equally certain that they
came from the Greeks to the Romans, and from the Ro¬
mans to us. It can be proved alfo, that older nations
gave other names to thefe heavenly bodies, at much ear¬
lier periods. The oldeft appellations, if we may judge
from fome examples ftill prelerved, feem to have origi¬
nated from certain emotions which thefe bodies excited
in the minds of men ; and it is not improbable that the
planets were, by the ancient Egyptians and Perfians,
named after their gods, and that the Greeks only adopted
or tranffated into their own language the names which
thofe nations had given them. The idea that each pla¬
net was the refulence of a god, or that they were gods
themfelves, has arifen, according to the mod probable
conjecture, becaufe rude nations worflripped the fun,
which, on account of his beneficent and neceffary influ¬
ence over ail terreftrial bodies, they confidered either as
the deity himfelf, or his abode ; or, at any rate, as a fym-
bol of him. In the courfe of time, when heroes, and
perfons who, by extraordinary circumftances, had ren¬
dered their names refpeCted and immortal, received di¬
vine honours, particularly heavenly bodies, of which the
fun, moon, and planets, leemed the fittell, were afligned
to thefe divinities alfo. By what laws this diitribution
was made, and why one planet was dedicated to Saturn,
and not to another, Pluche, who wrote on this fubjeCt,
did not venture to determine ; and on this point the an¬
cients themfelvefe are not agreed. When the planets were
once dedicated to the gods, folly, which never itops where
it begins, proceeded ftill farther, and aferibed to them
the attributes and powers for which the deities, after
whom they were named, had been celebrated in the fic¬
tions of their mythologifts. This, in time, laid the foun¬
dation of aftrology ; and lienee the planet Mars, like the
deity of that name, was laid to caufe and to be fond of
war; and Venus to prefide over love and its pleafures.
The next queftion is, why were the metals divided by
the ancient chemilts among the gods, and named after
them ? Of all the conjectures that can be formed in an-
fwer to this queftion, the following appears the molt pro¬
bable : The number of the deified planets made the num¬
ber feven fo facred to the Egyptians, Perfians, and other
early nations, that all thole things which amounted to
the fame number, or which could be divided by it with¬
out a remainder, were fuppofed to have an affinity or a
likenefs to and connection with each other. The feven
ancient metals, therefore, were confidered as having fome
relationfhip to the planets, and with them to the gods,
and were accordingly named after them. To each god
was afligned a metal, the origin and ufe of which was
under his particular providence and government; and
to each metal were aferibed the powers and properties of
the planet and divinity of the like name; from which
arofe, in the courfe of time, many of the ridiculous con¬
ceits of the alchemifts,
Vol. IV. No. 206.
: S T R Y. 401
The oldeft trace of the divifion of the metals among
the gods, is to be found in the religious vvorlhip of the
Perfians. Origen, in his Refutation of Celius, who al-
ferted that the feven heavens of the Cliriftians, as well as
the ladder which Jacob law in his dream, had been bor¬
rowed from the myfteries of Mithras, fays, “ Among the
Perfians the revolutions of the heavenly bodies were re-
prefented by feven ftairs, which conducted to the fame
number of gates. The firft gate was of lead ; the fecond
of tin ; the third of copper; the fourth of iron ; the fifth
of a mixed metal ; the fixth of filverj and the feventh of
gold. The leaden gate had the flow tedious motion of
Saturn ; the tin-gate the luftre and gentlenefs of Venus;
the third was dedicated to Jupiter; the fourth to Mer¬
cury, on account of his ftrength and fitnefs for trade ;
the fifth to Mars ; the fixth to the Moon ; and the lalt
to the Sun. Here, then, is an evident trace of metailur-
gic aftronomy, as Borrichius calls it, or of the alchemical
or mythological nomination of metals, though it differs
from that ufed at prefent. According to this arrange¬
ment, tin belonged to Jupiter, copper to Venus, iron to
Mars, and the mixed metal to Mercury. The conjec¬
ture of Borrichius, that the tranferibers of Origen have,
either through ignorance or delign, tranfpofed the names
of the gods, is highly probable : for if we reflect that in
this nomination men, at firft, differed as much as in the
nomination of the planets, and that the names given
them were only confirmed in the courfe of time, it mult
be allowed that the caufes afligned by Origen for his no¬
mination, do not well agree with the prefent reading, and
that they appear much jufter when the names are dif-
pofed in the fame manner as that in which we now ufe
them. This ancient nomination of metals, appears to
have been conveyed to the Brachmans in India ; for we
are informed that a Brachman lent to Apollonius feven
rings, diftinguilhed by the names of the feyen ftars or
planets, one of which lie was to wear daily on his finger,
according to the day of the week. This can be no other-
wife explained than by fuppofing that he was to wear
the gold ring on’1 Sunday; the filver. one on Monday;
the iron one on Tuefday ; and fo of the reft. Allufion
to this nomination of the metals after the gods occurs
here and there in the- ancients. Dydimus, in his Ex¬
planation of the Iliad, calls the planet Mars the iron ftar.
Thofe who dream of having had any thing to do with
Mars, are, by Artemidorus, threatened with a chirurgi-
cal operation; for this reafon, he adds, becaufe Mars
fignifies iron. Heraclides fays alfo in his allegories, that
Mars was very' properly confidered as iron ; and we are
told by Pindar that gold is dedicated to the fun. Plato
likewife, who ftudied in Egypt, feems to have admitted
this nomination aqd meaning of the metals. We are at
leaft allured fo by Marfilius Ficinus, who lays of the
ifland Atlantis, that the exterior walls were covered with
copper, and the interior with tin, and that the walls of
the citadel were of gold. It is not improbable that Plato
adopted this Perfian or Egyptian raprefentation, as he
afligned the planets to the demons; but, perhaps, it was
firft introduced into his fyftem only by his difei pies.
They feem, however, to have varied from- the nomina¬
tion ufed at prefent; as they dedicated to Venus copper,
or brafs, the principal component part of which is in¬
deed copper; to Mercury tin, and to Jupiter eleCtrum.
The laft-mentioned metal was a mixture of gold and fil¬
ver ; and, on this account, was probably confidered to
be a diltinCt metal, becaufe, in early periods, mankind
were unacquainted with the art of fieparating thefe valu¬
able metals.
The characters by which thefe planets and metals are
vtfually exprefied, afford a ftriking example how readily
the mind may be induced to fuppole a connection be¬
tween things which in reality heave no affinity or rela¬
tion to each other. Antiquaries and aftrologers, accord¬
ing to whofe opinion the planets were firit diftinguilhed
by thefe characters, conlider them as the attributes of the
5 K deities
402 CHE
deities of the fame name. The circle in the earlielt pe¬
riods among the Egyptians was the fymbol of divinity
and perfection; and leems with great propriety to have
been chofen by them as the character of the lun, efpe-
■cially as, when furrounded by fmall itrokes projecting
from its circumference, it may form fome reprefentation
~ of the emiffion of rays. The femicircle is, in like man¬
ner, the image of the moon, the only one of the heavenly
bodies that appears under that form to the naked eye.
The character T? is fuppofed to reprefent the fcythe of
Saturn; % the thunderbolts of Jupiter; $ the lance of
Mars, together with his fliield ; 9 the looking-glafs of
Venus; and 9 the caduceus or wand of Mercury. The
expreffion by characters adopted among the ancient che-
milts, agrees with this mythological fignification only in
the character afiigned to gold. Gold, according to the
chemilts, was the molt perfeCt of metals, to which all
.others Teemed to be inferior in different degrees. Silver
approached nearell to it; but was diftinguiflied only by
■a femicircle, which, for the more perfpicuity, was drawn
double, and thence had a greater refemblance to the molt
remarkable appearance of the moon ; the name of which
this metal had already obtained. All the other metals,
as they feemed to have a greater or lefs affinity to gold or
fiver, were diflinguiffied by characters compofed of the
characters affigned to thefe precious metals. Thus, in
the character the adepts difcover gold, with a filver
colour. The crofs placed at the bottom, wdiich among
the Egyptian hieroglyphics had always a myfterious fig-
nification, expreffes, in their opinion, an unknown forne-
thing, without which quickfilver would be filver or gold.
This fomething is combined alfo with copper, the poffible
change of which into gold is expreffed by the character 9 •
The character $ declares the like honourable affinity al¬
fo ; though the femicircle is applied in a more concealed
manner; for, according to the propereft mode of writing,
the point is wanting at the top, or the upright line ought
only to touch the horizontal, and not to interfeCt it. Phi-
lofophical gold is concealed in fteel ; and, on this ac¬
count, according to the ancient chemilts, it produced
fuch valuable medicines. Of tin one-half is filver, and
the other conlilts of the fomething unknown; for this
reafon the crofs with the half-moon appears in In
lead this fomething is predominant, and a limilitude is
oblerved in it to lilver. Hence in its character Ij, the
crols Hands at the top, and the lilver character is only
fufpended on the right hand behind it. The mythologi¬
cal signification of thefe characters cannot be older than
the Grecian mythology ; but the chemical may be traced
to a much earlier period. Some, who confider them as
remains of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, pretend that they
may be difcovered on the table of Ifis, and employ them
as a proof of the high antiquity, if not of the art of
making gold, at leaft of chemiitry. We are told alfo
that they correfpond with many other charaders, which
the adepts have left us as emblems of their wifdom.
If we are defirous of deciding without prejudice re-
fpeCliDg both thefe explanations, it will be found necef-
fary to make ourfelves acquainted with the oldeft form
of the characfers, which, in all probability, like thole
ufed in writing, were fubjeCled to many changes, before
they acquired that form which they have at prefent. Sau-
maife, Du Cange, and Huet, took the trouble to colled
thefe characters ; and the following is the conclulion
which they form from them : the character of Mars, ac¬
cording to the oldeft mode of reprefenting it, is evidently
an abbreviation of the word ©ovpo?, under which the
Greek mathematicians underilood that deity ; or, in
other words, the firfl letter ©, with the lafl letter ? placed
above it. The character of Jupiter was originally the in¬
itial letter of Ztv?; and in the oldeft manufcripts of the
mathematical and allrological works of Julius Finnicus
the capital Z only is ufed, to which the laft letter ; was
afterwards added at the bottom, to render the abbrevia¬
tion more diftinCt, The fuppofed looking-glafs of Venus
CHE
is nothing elfe than the initial letter, diftorted a little,
of the word <3>wcr<ppo?, which was the name of that god-
defs. The imaginary fcythe of Saturn has been gradu¬
ally formed from the two firft letters of his name Kpovoc,
which tranfcribers, for the fake of difpatch, made always
more convenient for ufe, but at the fame time lefs per¬
ceptible. To difcover in the pretended caduceus of Mer¬
cury the initial letter of his Greek name one
needs only look at the abbreviations in the oldeft manu-
fcripts, wdiere they will find that the 2 was once written
'asC; they will remark alfo that tranfcribers, to diftin-
guiffi this abbreviation from the reft Hill more, placed the
C thus U , and added under it the next letter t. If thole
to whom this deduction appears improbable, will only
take the trouble to look at other Greek abbreviations,
they will find many that differ Hill farther from the ori¬
ginal letters they exprefs, than the prefent character 9
from the C and r united. It is poffible alfo that later
tranfcribers, to whom the origin of this abbreviation was.
not known, may have endeavoured to give it a greater
refemblance to the caduceus of Mercury. In fhort, it
cannot be denied that many other characters are real
fymbols, or a kind of proper hieroglyphics, that repre¬
fent certain atributes or circumftances, like the charac¬
ters of Aries, Leo, and other figns or fymbols ufed in
the ancient aftronomy.
CHEM'NITZ, a towm of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and marquifate of Meilfen ; containing
three churches and an liofpitnl : thirty-fix miles weft-
fouth-weft of Drefden, and thirty-two lbuth-weft of
Meilfen1.
CHEM'NITZ (Martin), a Lutheran divine, born at
Britzen, in the marquifate of Brandenburg, in 1 522. His
father was a wool- comber. After having learned the ru¬
diments of literature, he went to Magdeburg, where he
made fome progrefs in ai ts anti languages. Then he re¬
moved to Franckfort-upon-the-Oder, to cultivate philo¬
sophy under his relation George Sabinus ; and then to
Wirtemberg, where he ftudied under Philip MelanCtlion.
Afterwards he became a fchool-mafter in Pruffia ; and,
in 1552, was made librarian to the Prince. He now de¬
voted himlelf wholly to the ftudy of divinity, though he
was a confiderable mathematician, and {killed particu¬
larly in aftronomy. He removed to Brunfwick, where he
fpent the laft thirty years of his life ; and where he died in
1586. His works are, 1 . Harmonia Evangeliorum ; 2. Ex-
amen Concilii Tridentini; 3. A Treatiie a gain ft the Je-
fuits. His Examination of the Council of Trent has al¬
ways been efteemed as a mafterly performance.
CHE'MOSH. See Chamos.
CHEMO'SIS, [from ^aiia, to gape.] An inflammation,
of the eyes, where the white fwims above the black, and
gives the appearance of a gap or aperture.
CHE'MUNG, a town of United America in Tioga
county, New York. By the ftate cenfus of 1796,
eighty-one of its inhabitants were electors. It has New¬
ton weft, and Owego eaft, about 160 miles north-Weft
from New York city, meafuring in a ftraight line. Be¬
tween this place and Newton, general Sullivan, in his
victorious expedition againft the Indians, in 1779, had a
defperate engagement with the fix nations, whom he de¬
feated, The Indians were ftrongly intrenched, and it re¬
quired the utmoft exertions of the American army, with
field pieces, to dillodge them ; although the former, in¬
cluding 250 tories, amounted only to 800 men, while the
Americans were 5000 in number, and well appointed in
every refpeCt.
CHEN-IN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Corea:
thirty miles w'eft-north-weft of Tlin-tcheou.
CHEN-SI, a province of China, bounded on the eaft
by Hoang-ho, which feparates it from Chan-fi ; on the
fouth by the provinces of Se-tchuen and Hou-quang, on
the north by Tartary and the great wall, and on the welt
by the country of the Moguls. Chen-fi is one of the moft
extenfiye provinces of the empire; it had formerly three
viceroys 5
CHE
viceroys ; but at prefent it has only two, befides the go¬
vernors of So-tcheou and Kan-tcheou, which are the
ftrongeft places in the country. This province in gene¬
ral is very fertile, commercial, and rich. It produced
little rice, but the inhabitants have plentiful crops of
wheat and millet; it is, however, fubjedt to long droughts,
and clouds of locufts fometimes deftroy every thing that
grows in the fields : the Chinefe eat thofe infedls boiled.
The country abounds with drugs, rhubarb, mulk, cinna¬
bar, wax, honey, and coals, of which it contains inex-
hauftible veins ; it has alfo rich gold mines, which, for
political reafons, are not allowed to be opened : gold-
duft is waflied down in fuch abundance among the fand
of the torrents and rivers, that a number of people have
no other fubfiftence but what they gain by collecting it.
Travellers remark that the natives of this country are
more polite and affable to flrangers, and have greater
genius than the Chinefe of the other northern provinces.
This province is divided into two parts, the eaftern and
the weftern : it contains eight fou, or cities of the fir It
clafs, and a hundred and fix of the fecond and third. Si-
ngan-fou is the capital.
CHEN-YANG, or Moug-den, a city of Chinefe Tar¬
tary, and capital of a department, or diftrict, in the coun¬
try of the Mantchew Tartars, fituated on an eminence :
the Mantchew Tartars have been at great pains to orna¬
ment it with feveral public edifices, and to provide it
with magazines of arms and ftore-houfes. They confider
it as the principal place of their nation ; and fince China
has been under their dominion, they have eltablilhed the
fame tribunals here as at Peking, excepting that called
Liipou : thefe tribunals are compofed of Tartars only;
their determination is final ; and in all their adts they
trie the Tartar characters and language. It may be con-
fidered as a double city, one of which is inclol'ed within
the other: the interior city contains the emperor’s pa¬
lace, hotels of the principal mandarins, foveretgn courts,
and the different tribunals ; the exterior is inhabited by
the common people, tradefmen, and all thofe who, by
their employments or profeflions, are not obliged to lodge
in the interior: the latter is almoft a league in circum¬
ference, and the walls which inclofe both are more than
three leagues round : thefe walls were entirely rebuilt in
1631, and repaired feveral times iince : fifty-four miles
eaft-north-eaft of Peking.
CHEN-YANG, a diftridl or department of Chinefe
Tartary, comprehending what was called Leao-tong, and
extends as far as the great wall, which bounds it on the
fouth ; on the eaft, north, and weft, it is defended by a
breaft-work and pallifade.
CHENALO'PEX,/ [from yijv, a goofe, and a
fox.] The {hell-drake, named from its being of the goofe -
kind, and crafty like the fox.
CHENAY', a town of France, in the department of
the two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tridh of St. Maixent : eight miles eaft of St. Maixent.
CHEN'COUR, or Chemkon, a town of Armenia, on
the frontiers of Gurgiftan, which has a beautiful caftle,
grand caravanferas, and feveral mofques : 1 60 miles north-
eaft of Erivan.
CHEN'DI, or Chandi, a town of Africa, in the coun¬
try of Nubia, the capital of a diftridl, containing about
350 houfes. Lat. 16. 39.N. Ion. 33. 35. E. Greenwich.
CHENDOU'L, a river of Afia, in the Cabuliftan, which
runs into the Kamneh, 35 miles eaft of Paifhawur.
CHE'NE, a town of Savoy, in the Genevois : two miles
and a half eaft of Geneva. -
CHENEN'GO, a river of United America, in the ftate
of New York, which runs into the Sufquehana, two miles
fouth of Chenengo.
CIIENEN'GO, a town of United America, in the ftate
of New York: 135 miles north-weft of New York. Lat.
(J.3.8.N. Ion. 76. V/. Greenwich.
CHENERA'ILLES, a town of France, in the depart-
-c H E 403
ment of the Cereufe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridl of Aubuffon : nine miles north of Aubuffon.
CHENE'T, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Caramania : 100 miles fouth-weft of Cogni.
CHENOCO'PRUS, f. [from y/iv, a goofe, and or,
dung.] Goofe dung. It was formerly uled as a power¬
ful refolvent, diuretic, and anti-idleric. The green was
thought the belt; it was collected in fpring, dried, and
given from 5 fs. to 3 >• for a dofe.
CHENOLE'A,/! in botany, a genus of the clafs pen-
tandria, order monogynia, natural order of holoracea:.
The generic characters are — Calyx : peiianth one-leafed,
globular, fomewhat flefiiy, five-parted; fegments bent
in. Corolla: none. Stamina: filaments five, filiform,
from upright bent in, inferted at the bafe of the calyx,
and of the fame length ; anthers minute. Piftillum: germ
fuperior; ftyle filiform, very fiiort ; ftigmas two, fnnple,
fubulate, acute, from lpreading bent back, a little longer
than the ftyle. Pericarpium : capfule round, {lightly de~
preffed, umbilicate, one-celled. Seed : fmgle, roundiih,
bifid at the tip, fmooth. — EJfential Character. Calyx, glo¬
bular, one-leafed, five-parted ; capful, one-celled, con¬
taining one fmooth feed, bifid at the tip.
There is but one fpecies, chenolea diffufa. Stems fe¬
veral, radical, filiform, herbaceous, diftufed, fimple, and
branched, covered with leaves, purple, fmooth at bot¬
tom, fubtomentofe at top, unequal, the ends upright:
branches alternate, fcattered, few, very fiiort. Leaves
faftigiately oppofite, feflile, ovate-lanceolate, blunt with
a point, flefliy, entire, flat above, convex beneath, fre¬
quent, the uppermoft more approximating and imbri¬
cate, from upright fpreading, filvery tomentofe, longer
than the internodes. Flowers axillary, folitarv, or in
pairs, feflile in each axil, towards the tips of the branches.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope, on the low coalt.
Cultivated in 1758, by Mr. Miller; flowers in Augurt
and September.
CHENONCEfAU, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of the Indre and Loire : two leagues fouth-eaft of
Amboife.
CHENOPO'DIO-MORUS,yi in botany. SeeBLiTUM.
CHENOPO'DIUM,/ [from ynv, a goofe, and ttov;, a
foot.] The herb Goose foot ; a genus of the clafs pen-
tandria, order digynia, natural order holoraceae. The ge¬
neric characters are — Calyx : perianth flve-leaved, con¬
cave, permanent ; divifions ovate, concave, membrana¬
ceous on the margin. Corolla : none. Stamina : fila¬
ments five, fubulate, oppofite the leaves of the calyx,
and of the fame length ; anthers roundifli, twin. Piitil-
lum: germ orbiculate; ftyle two-parted, fliort; ftigmas
obtufe. Pericarpium: none; calyx clofed, five-cornered,
five-angled, (angles compreffed,) deciduous; feed Angle,
lenticular, fuperior. In fome fpecies the ftyle is obferved
to be trifid. EJfential Charailer. — Calyx, five-leaved,
five-cornered ; corolla, none ; feed one, lenticular, fu¬
perior.
Species. I. With angular leaves. 1. Chenopodium bonus
Henricus, angular-leaved goole-foot, Englifti mercury, or
allgood, good Henry, good king Harry, or wild fpinacli :
leaves triangular-fagittate quite entire; fpikes compound
leaflefsaxillary. Root perennial, branched. Stem twel veto
eighteen inches in height, at bottom round and fmooth,
upwards finely grooved, and lomewhat angular, covered
with tranfparent powdery globules, and branched.
Leaves petioled, alternate, fmooth; underneath veiny,,
paler and mealy, fomewhat waved. The female flowers
numerous among the hermaphrodites. It is gathered
while young and tender to eat as fpinach. At Bolton
in Lincolnftiire it is generally cultivated, and is there
preferred to fpinach. The young {hoots peeled, and' boil¬
ed, may be eaten as afparagus, and are gently laxative ;
the leaves are often boiled in broth ; the roots are given
to fheep that have a cough. As a medicine, this herb is
ranked among the emollients, but rarely made ufe of in
practice 3
404 C H E N O P
practice ; the leaves are applied by the common people
tor healing flight wounds, and cleanling old ulcers. It
grows in wafte places, by road-fides, about farm-yards,
&c. flowering and feeding from May to Auguil. Mr.
Miller thinks that it is not originally a native of England,
but that, having been formerly cultivated in kitchen-
gardens, the feeds have got out from them. Our oldeft
he'rbalifts- however mention it as a plant found commonly
wild.
2. Cltenopodium ufbicum, '-.or upright goofe-foot :
leaves triangular, fomewhat toothed ; racemes crowded,
very flraight, approximating to the Item, and very long.
Diitinguiflied by its very long racemes, altogether erect,
and approximating to the Item ; which is eredt and Ample.
This and all our fucoeeding wild fpecies are annual;
grow abundantly on dunghills and in watte places; and
floweftfrom July to September.
3. Cltenopodium ‘atriplicis, or orach or purple goofe-
foot : leaves deltoid, coloured beneath; item eredt.
This lias the appearance, eredl ltature, height, colour, and
leaves, of red garden orach. Found in Siberia, by Pallas.
Native of China; introduced here in 1780, by M. Thouin.
4. Cltenopodium rttbrum, or red goole-root: leaves
cordate-triangular bluutifh toothed, racemes eredt, com¬
pound, fomewhat leafy, fhorter than the item. Dr. Wi¬
thering delcribes the Item as pale green, fmootli, flightly
fcored with lines of a deeper green. No (hitting fpangles
on the leaves or calyx fo as to give the plant a white ap¬
pearance, but when held againlt a (trong light an infinite
number of Alining particles appear. Dr. Stokes lias cor-
redted the fpecific charadter thus: leaves deltoid, tooth-
flnuate, teeth acuminate; racemes eredt, compound,
leafy, fhorter than the leaf.
5. Cltenopodium murale, or wall or nettle-leaved
goofe-foot: leaves ovate Alining toothed lharp, racemes
branched naked. This fpecies is diitinguiflied by the
particular form of its racemes, which are lliort and ipread
out widely, lo as to give them a deprefled appearance',
the tops fomewhat curled in : the racemes of the- rubruni
and urbicunt, which are molt liable to be miftaken for it,
are perfedtly upright: its glofly leaves and unpleafant
l'mell contribute alfo to point it out. The whole plant
is (ometimes tinged with red. Curtis obferves that this,
and moil other fpecies of the genus, afford plenty of
feeds, for thelupport of fmall hard-billed birds.
6. . Cltenopodium ferotinum, or fig-leaved goofe-foot:
leaves deltoid finuate-toothed wrinkled fmootli uniform,
racemes terminal. The Item, fays Linnaeus, is the height
of a man, very much branched. Leaves pale green, re¬
lent bling thole of album, but broader.
7. Cltenopodium album, or cqmmon or white goofe-
foot: leaves rhomboid-triangular erofe entire behind,
uppermoft oblong : racemes eredl. Stem upright, from
one to three feet high, flightly crooked, fomewhat angu¬
lar and ftriated, folid, branched, fmootli, Toinetimes pur-
plifh : branches alternate. Leaves deeply and irregularly
indented, bluiflt green, covered efpecially underneath
with a mealy powder; the uppermofl oblong, lefs deeply
indented and even entire, liacemes axillary, upright,
forming a fpike of flowers growing in little clufters. It
is whiter than moll of the chenopodiums ; and varies ex¬
ceedingly, both when young, and in its feeding Hate.
This is the molt common of the genus, occurring in
every garden, on every dunghill, and in moll corn fields.
It is mentioned by Lightfoot and feveral other authors,
as being boiled and eaten for greens, and is known by
the name of fat-hen, or muckweed. Linnaeus affirms that
twine are extremely fond of it, and yet the murale and
ltybridum are laid to be fatal to this animal, contrary to
all probability, lince the common goofe-foots leem to be
mild and gently laxative like fpinach.
8. Cltenopodium viride, or green goofe-foot: leaves
rhomboid tooth-finuate, racemes branched fomewhat
leafy. Stem upright, green, with purplifh angles. This
fpecies is fo nearly allied to the foregoing, as to make it
2
O D I U M.
doubtful whether it be any thing more than a variety ;
accordingly Hudfon gives it merely as fuch; and Villars
confiders it in the fame light. Curtis however points
out the following diltindtions. The appearance of the
whole plant is greener ; the bright red colour at the an¬
gles of the joints is conftant; the leaf is much longer ;
though not deftitute of meal, yet this has it not in fuch
profufion as the album; when the feeds are ripe, the
tops of the ftalks are more apt to hang down ; the parts
of fructification are fmaller; the calyx is not quite 1b
much covered with little globules; the feed is fmaller,
and reticulated with imprelfed dots, whereas in the album
it is fmootli.
9. Cltenopodium ltybridum, or baftard goofe-foot:
leaves cordate angular-acuminate, racemes branching
naked. Stem .from one to two feet high, upright,
branched, angular, and perfectly fmootli. Leaves fmootli,
without any meal, veiny, fpreading, with three teeth on
each Ade large and diftant; in form refentbling thole of
the thorn-apple. This fpecies varies the lealt of any ;
the panicle of flowers is peculiarly branched and naked;
it has a ftrong and difagreeable fmell. It is not common
near London, being obferved only in Batterfea-fieids and
about Northfleet ; it lias been found alio near Ely and
Colchefter. Mr. Lightfoot enumerates it among the
Scottifh plants. If any of the chenopodiums be poilb-
nous, this muff be the fpecies. Linnaeus fulpedts it to
have arifen from the viride.
10. Cltenopodium botrys, or duller or cut-leaved
goofe-foot, or oak of Jerufalem : leaves oblong finuate,
racemes naked multifid. This fends up feveral flems
from the root, which rife about two feet high. Leaves
light green, alternate. Flowers axillary from the upper
part of the branches, in loofe racemes. They appear in
J uly, and the feeds ripen in September. The leaves emit
a very ftrong odour when bruifed, fomewhat like that of
ambrofia; and for this principally the plant is-preferved
in gardens, for the flowers have no beauty. Native of
the South of Europe. Cultivated in 1551.
11. Cltenopodium ambrofioides, Mexican goofe-foot,
or oak of Cappadocia : leaves lanceolate toothed, racemes
leafy Ample. Stem from twelve to eighteen inches high,
fometimesreddifh, round, ftriated, with finefcattered hairs.
Leaves pale green, oblong, finuated ; at the bafe of each,
peduncles an inch long, on which are feveral little heads of
flowers alternately difpofed, with a leaflet under each. It
grew firll in Plater’s garden, in the year 1619. Native of
Mexico. The leaves and flowery heads have a ftrong
and not unpleafant fmell, and a moderately aromatic
tafte, fomewhat bitterifli: on much handling them, an
undluous refinous juice adheres to the fingers. The pro¬
per menftruum of their adtive matter is rectified fpirit;
but they give it out alfo to boiling water. "The infufions,
which are not unpalatable, are faid to be of fervice in hu-
moural aftltmas and coughs, and other diforders of the
breall : they are fuppoled alio to be antilpafinodic and
antihyfteric. The feed is reckoned among the anthel¬
mintics, and the herb dried is put among clothes to
keep away moths.
12. Cltenopodium niultifidum, orBuenos-Ayres goofe-
foot: leaves multifid, fegments linear; flowers axillary
fefiile. This riles with a fhrubby (talk three or four feet
high ; with oblong leaves cut into many linear fegments*
It glows naturally at Buenos Ayres.
1 3. Cltenopodium anthelminticufti, orwormfeed goofe-
foot : leaves ovate-oblong toothed, racemes leaflets.
Stems three cubits high, Itraight, ftiff, grooved, hairy,
dividing into few branches to the middle, but above that
more branched. Leaves green on both fides, the middle
nerve only hairy. Grows at Buenos Ayres, and in Penn-
fylvania and New Jerfey, where it is called worntfeed
and Jerufalem oak. The feeds are given to children
againft the worms. It lias a difagreeable feent. Culti¬
vated by Dr. Sherard at Elthant, 1732.
14. Cltenopodium glaucum, or oak-leaved goofe-foot:
leaves
CHE
leaves ovate-oblong repand, racemes naked fimple glo¬
merate. Stem from twelve to eighteen inches high, an¬
gular, green. According to Villars, it has much affinity
to the chenopodium album; but the leaves are blunt
and quite-. white; the items are lower, and very much
branched.
IT. With fimple leaves. 15. Chenopodium vulvaria,
or itinking goofefoot : leaves quite entire rhomboid-ovate,
flowers conglomerate axillary. The whole plant is fprink-
led with a white pellucid meal. This fpecies is eafily
known by its decumbency, and its permanently difagree-
able odour of itale fait fiih, both green and dried. Com¬
mon on dry banks, and at the foot of walls and paling.
On account of its ftrong fcent, it is reckoned an ufeful
antihylleric ; fome recommend a conferve of the leaves,
others an inflation in water, others a fpirituous tinfture of
them. On fome occafions, it may perhaps be preferable
to the fetids which have been more commonly made ufe
of, as not being accompanied with any pungency or irri¬
tation, and feeming, to aft merely by virtue of its odorous
principle. It is omitted in the laft edition of the London
Pharmacopeia, and, as Allioni affirms, is not undeferv-
edly neglefted. This herb dyes a good ftrong greenifh
lemon colour.
16. Chenopodium polyfpermum, or round-leaved goofe¬
foot, upright biite, or allleed : leaves quite entire ovate,
ftem decumbent, cymes dichotomous, leaflets axillary.
This fpecies is fufficiently obvious from its fquare ltalk
generally of a bright red colour, its long extended branches,
and its reddiffi leeds which are numerous and ltrikingly
visible from being only in part covered with the calyx.
It has the appearance of a frnall amaranth. Linnteus lays
the ftem is decumbent ; Curtis makes it in general nearly
upright; according to Lightfootand Reichard it is fome-
times one, fometimes the other. Mr. Curtis remarks
that it is a troublefome weed to the gardener, but fcarcely
injurious to the farmer. Mr. Woodward, however, fays
that it is generally found in turnip-fields ; and Ray affirms
that it grows abundantly in hop-grounds, and corn-fields
where the foil is good. It is a very grateful food to fifh
in ponds.
17. Chenopodium fcoparia, or flax-leaved goofefoot,
belvedere, or fummer cyprefs : leaves linear-lanceolate
flat quite entire This is a beautiful plant, naturally dif-
pofed to grow very clofe and thick, and in as regular a
pyramid' as if cut by art. The leaves are a pleafant green ;
were it not for that, it has fo much the appearance of a
cyprefs-tree, that at fome diftance it might be taken for
it. Scopoli affirms that this plant drives away bugs. It
grows wild in Carniola, Greece, China, and Japan. Cul¬
tivated 1633.
18. Chenopodium maritinum, orfea goofefoot, or white
glaffwort ; leaves fubulate femicylindric. Grows on fea-
fhores, and in fait marffies; it is an excellent pot-herb.
It varies much in fize and appearance ; being either very
fmall and decumbent, or elfe growing up into an ereft
woody fhrub.
19. Chenopodium ariftatum, or awned goofefoot :
leaves lanceolate fomewhat flelhy quite entire ; corymbs
dichotomous awned axillary. Native of Siberia and
Virginia.
ao. Chenopodium oppofitifolium, or oppofite-leaved
goolefoot : leaves oppoiite lanceolate-fubulate very fhort.
Stem round, fomewhat woody and even. The appearance
of this is different from that of the other fpecies ; per-
perhaps it may be a polycnemum. Native of Siberia.
21. Chenopodium punftulatum, or dotted leaved goofe¬
foot: leaves dotted with white, the bottom ones rhomb-
ovate finuate, the uppermoft eliptic ; racemes lateral
fpiked leafy. Root annual; ftem ereft, two feet high,
round, ftriuted, rigid, yellowiffi at the bafe, red in other
parts with white dots lcattered all over it. The white
dots magnified, appear to be rounder oval granules, more
®r lefs flatted, dark in the middle, but lucid towards the
Vox.. IV, No. 206,
CHE 405
edge : there are many of thefe on the upper leaves, but
few on the lower. It is not a native of Europe. ,The
feeds were fent by Marligli, and the plant flowered in the
garden at Pavia on the 28th of June, 1786.
22, Chenopodium triandrum, or three-ftamened goofe¬
foot : leaves cordate-fagittate, Ipikes terminal leaflets in¬
terrupted. Found in New Zealand.
23. Chenopodium laterale, or branching oblong-leaved
goofefoot : Item-leaves lanceolate obtufe, thole of the
branches oblong ; peduncles lateral folitary one- flowered.
Introduced 1781, by P. M. A. Brouffonet, M. D.
Propagation and Culture. Moll of thefe plants are to be
eradicated as weeds rather than cultivated. Being very
fucculent and exhaufting, and abounding very much in
feeds, they fnould be carefully deftroyed, efpecially on
dunghills. Sow the feed of Englifh mercury in March,
on a deep loamy foil, prepared as for afparagus, let the
feedlings continue to grow till autumn ; about the middle
of September, taking advantage of a wet feafon, let the
plants out on a bed fimilar to that on which they were
fown, about a foot apart ; keep them clear of weeds, and
the enfuing fpring and fummer they will afford an abun¬
dant crop : the young thoots with their leaves and tops
are to be cut as they fpring up ; and being a perennial
plant it will continue thus plentifully to produce for a
great number of years. In the winter the bed is to be
covered with dung, which fbould be raked off as the
fpring advances, when the earth around the roots is care¬
fully to be dug or forked up. The feeds of all the fpecies
fucceed bell, if they are fown in autumn; for when they
are fown in the fpring, they frequently lie a whole year
before the plants come up : for which reafon where the
feeds fcatter, the plants will come up much better than
thofe which are fown by hand. See Am aranthus, II-
LECEBRIUM, POLYCNEMUM, and SaLSOLA.
CHENZI'NI, or Chinting, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Sandomirz ; near it are mines of fil.ver and
lead, and quarries of marble ; fixteen miles ealt of Ma-
lagocz.
CHEOPPNA, [from to pour out, and tnyu, to
drink.] A meafure containing fixteen ounces. Achopine.
CHE'OPS,or Cheospes, a king of Egypt, after Rhamp-
finitus, who built famous pyramids, upon which 1060 ta¬
lents were expended only in fupplying the workmen with
leeks, parfley, garlic, and other vegetables.
CHE/OU, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in the
province of Kiang-nan : 455 miles fouth of Peking. Lat.
32.34. N. Ion. 134. 9. E. Ferro.
CHE'OU-QUANG, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Chang-tong : five miles north-eaft of
Tcin-tcbeou.
CHE'OU-TCH ANG, a town of China, of the third
rank, in the province of Tche-kiang : five leagues fouth -
well of Yen-tcheou.
CHE'OU-TCHANG, a town of China, of the third
rank, in the province of Chang-tong : nine leagues north-
eaft of Po.
CHE'OU-TCHING, a town of China, of the third
rank, in the province of Fo-kien : fixty-two miles north-
eaft of Kien-nhing.
CHE'OU-YANG, a town of China, in the province of
Chan-fi : ten miles eaft of Tai-yuen.
CHEPAWA'S, or Chipeways, an Indian nation in
North America, ihhabi.ing the coafc of lake Superior and
the iflands in the lake. Other tribes of this nation inha¬
bit the country round Saguinam, or Sagan a bay and lake
Huron, bay Puan, and a part of lake Michigan, They
were lately hoftile to the United States, but, by the treaty
of Greenville, Auguft 3, 1795, they yielded to them the
ifland de Bois Blanc.
CHEPE'LIO, a fmall ifland near the coaft of America,
in the gulf of Panama, about a league in circumference s
fix leagues from Panama.
CiiEPEL'jLO, an ifland in the bay of Panama, South
5 L America?,
406 CHE
America, and in the province of Darien, three miles from
the town of Panama, which it fupplies with provifions
and fruits. Lat. 8. 46. N. Ion. 8a. 45. E.
CHEPOO'R, a fmall Spanifh town on the ifthmus of
Darien and Terra Firma, in South America, feated on a
river of the fame name, fix leagues from the fea.
CHEP'STOW, a feaport town, in the county of Mon¬
mouth, fituated near the mouth of the Wye, over which
is a bridge of ftone and timber. It Hands for the molt
part on the fide of a hill ; and the rocky cliffs on each
fide of the river have a molt beautiful and romantic ap¬
pearance. It is a large, well-built, populous, and fiou-
rilhing, town, formerly walled round, and defended by a
caftle, part of which remains. In the month of March,
1647, the caftle was garrifoned by king Charles the Firft,
and continued in the hands of the royalifts till May,
1648, when the Welch, under major Langhorne, colo¬
nel Poyer, and colonel Powell, were defeated ; Poyer was
executed, and moft of the cattles : in Wales were con¬
quered about this time. Chepftow is the port for all the
towns that ftand on the rivers .Wye and Lug. Ships of
600 tons burden are built here ; and the town of late is
become fo flourifhing, that the merchants import their
own wine from Oporto, and deals, hemp, flax, pitch, and
tar, See. from Norway and P.ulJia, as fhips of 700 tons
burden come up to the town. The tide comes in at this
place with greater rapidity than at Briftol, and fometimes
riles at the bridge: from thirty to iixty feet. In January
1768, the bridge was much damaged by an extraordinary
rife of the tide, which then flowed above feventy feet.
As half the bridge is in Monmouthfhire, and the other
half in Gloucefterfliire, it is maintained at the expence
of both counties; and, in 1790 and 1791, it underwent
a thorough repair. This port fends great quantities of
timber to Portlmouth, Plymouth, Deptford, and Wool¬
wich ; and bark, iron, cyder, & c. to feveral parts of Ire¬
land, Liverpool, and other places. There are five con-
ftant trading velfels between this port and London, which
in general go and return in two months. There is a
market-boat of feventy tons burden, that goes regularly
from this place to Briftol every Tuefday, and returns
every Thurfday. It has a market weekly on Saturday,
well fupplied with all forts of provifions ; and on the laft
Monday in every month for cattle and fvvine; alfo four
fairs, Friday in Whitfun-week, Saturday before the 20th
of June for wool, Auguft x, and Friday before St. Luke’s
day. It is three miles from Weft-ferry, five from the New
Paflage, fifteen from Monmouth, twenty-eight fouth-weft
of Gloucefter, and 134 weft-north-weft of London. Lat.
5r.42.N- Ion. 2. 36. W. Greenwich.
About four miles from Chepftow is Piercefield, deferv-
edly an objefit of every ftranger’s attention ; but it is to
be i'een only on Thurfdays. The eftate commences near
the three miles Hone, bey ond which a road leads through
the grounds up to the houfe, where the names of all vi-
iitors are regiftered. “ We enter the Ihrubbery by a wicket
at the weft end of the lawn before the houfe, from whence
we are conduced through a wildernefs to the fummer-
houfe, where a feene burfts fuddenly on our fight that
cannot fail of enrapturing every fpeftator. The town
and caftle and bridge of Chepftow are now beneath us ;
the rocks oppofite to them range themfelves fo as to ap¬
pear over the town, above which, in an intervening
fpace, we trace the Wye to its junftion with the Severn,
which exhibits an immenie fheet of water, bounded by
the Gloucefterfliire hills. The compofition of this land-
fcape and the fore-ground are well adapted for a pifture.
From hence the path, now riling, now defeending, is
continued through a wood, when, from an opening, we
are prefented with a rock-fcene, but more contracted than
that we have defcribed. The path then afeends abruptly
through a lhady walk for near a mile. From an avenue,
we look down the river and fee a beautiful hanging wood.
Above this rile the higheft rocks on the Wye. Nothing
can be grander than this feene ; but, as we ftand three
CHE
hundred and feven feet above the level of the river, we
lofe much of the eft'eCt fuch ftupendous heights mull pro¬
duce when viewed from their bales. From hence we gra¬
dually afeend to an eminence commanding the moft ex-
tenlive views. All that had before charmed us in de¬
tail, is now collected in one grand whole; rocks, woods,
hills, vales, lawns, and rivers, blended in the moft grace¬
ful con fufi on. The hi Lis of Somerletlhire, the Briftol
channel, the Denny rock in the mid-channel of the Se¬
vern, and the beautiful peninfula of Llancot, are all within
view ; and contribute to form a pi&ure, which can nei¬
ther be conceived nor defcribed, without detracting in¬
finitely from its charms.”
CHEQ^or Cherif, the prince of Mecca, who is, as it
were, high prieft of the law, and fovereign pontiff of all
the Mahometans of whatever feCt or country they be.
See Caliph. The grand fignior, fopliis, moguls, khans
of Tartary, &c. fend him yearly prefents, with vaft fums
of money, to provide for all the pilgrims during the fe~
venteen days of their devotion.
CHEQUETAN', or Seguataneio, on the coaft of
Mexico, or New Spain, lies feven miles weftward of the
rocks of Seguataneio. Between this and Acapulco, to
the eaftward, is a beach of fand of eighteen leagues ex¬
tent, againll which the fea breaks fo violently, that it is
impoflible for boats to land on any part of it ; but there
is a good anchorage for fhipping at a mile or two front
the fiiore, during the fair l'ealon. The harbour of Che-
quetan is very hard to be traced, and of great import -
ance to fuch vefl’els as cruize in thefe leas, being the molt
fecure harbour to be met with in a vaft extent of coaft,
yielding plenty of wood and water; and the ground near
it is able to be defended by a few men. When lord An¬
ion touched here, the place was uninhabited.
CHER, a river of France, which rifes near Auzance,
in the department of the Creufe, paffes by Montlugon,
Amay-le-Vieux, St. Amand, Chateauneuf, St. Florent,
Vierzon, Menetou, Villefranche, Chabris, Selles, St. Aig-
nan, Montrichard, Blere, See. and joins the Loire, a few
miles below Tours.
CHER, a department of France, bounded on the north
by the department of the Loiret, on the eaft by that of the
Nyevre, from which it is feparated by the Allier, on the
fouth by the department of the Allier, and on the weft:
by the department of the Indre and Loire, and Cher : it
takes its name from the river Cher, which crofl'es a part
of it. Bourges is the capital.
CHERAMETA,/. in botany. See Averrhoa.
CHERAS'CO, a town of Italy, in the principality of
Piedmont, and capital of a comte of the lame name, on
the borders of the comte of Afti, fituated on a moun¬
tain, at the conflux of the Stura with the Tanaro. It is
laid to have been built by lbme inhabitants of Alba,
Manzano, Miana, &c. who were driven away from their
towns by the tyranny of their refpeCtive lords : they fixed
on this Ipot, built a town, and furrounded it with walls ;
Chriftina of France, duchel's of Savoy, caufed the town
to be fortified in the modern manner, with baftions, fo fi¬
fes, and outworks. Since that time Cherafco has been
confidered as the key and boulevard of the eliates ot Sa¬
voy, being fituated on the frontiers of Piedmont, Mont-
ferrat, and the duchy of Milan-; and ftrong both by art
and nature. Cheralco was firft a republic, governed by
its particular laws, though profefiing to be dependant on
the emperors of Germany, and to obey them. This flou-
riftiing ftate continued to the year 1260, when they took
the oath of allegiance to Charles I. of Anjou, comte of
Provence, afterwards king of Naples and Sicily, and con¬
tinued fubjeCt to that crowivtill the reign of Jane I. queen
of Naples, who took no care to protect her lubjeCts from
their enemies, when the inhabitants followed the exam¬
ple of other towns, and furrendered themfelves volunta¬
rily to Amadeus VI. comte of Savoy, and Jaques de Sa¬
voy, prince of Achaia. This fituation they did not long
enjoy, for, in a few years after, they became fucceffively
fubjeCt
CHE
fuhjeft to the marquis of Montferrat ; Luchin Vilconti,
prince of Milan; a fecond time to Jane, queen ot Na¬
ples ; Galeas, and John Galeas de Vil'conti : Valentina,
the daughter of this laid prince, married Louis, duke of
Orleans, and brought with her as a portion the town of
Cherafco, and the country round : from the fucceflbrs of
this prince it came to Charles V. who gave it, in the year
1530, to Charles III. duke of Savoy, firnamed the Good,
in confideration of his marriage with Beatrice of Portu¬
gal. It was taken more than once in the fame century
by the Auftrians and the French, but reftorecl to Ema¬
nuel Philbert, fon of Charles, by the peace of Cambray,
in 1539. Vidtor Amadeus gave it the title of City, making
it the capital of a province, and refidence ot a governor.
The civil government is conducted by three fyndics,
twenty-eight counfellors, and eight matters of aecompts.
It is in the diocefe of Afti, and has f'even parifh churches,
four within the walls, and three without. The comte is
about nine miles in diameter, the land is fertile, the plains
producing great plenty of corn, and the hills, which are
fome higher, fome lower, produce wine, both good, and
in quantities for exportation : twenty miles fouth-Iouth-
eaft of Turin, fifteen miles ealt of Saluzzo. Lat. 44. 33. N.
Ion. 25. 27. E. Ferro.
CHERAW'S, a dillriCl of North America, in the up¬
per country of South Carolina. Its length is about
eighty-three miles, and its breadth fixty-three; and is
fubdivided into the counties of Darlington, Chelterfiejd,
and Marlborough. By the cenfus of 1791, there were
10,706 inhabitants, of which 7618 were white inhabi¬
tants, the reft fiaves. It fends to the ftate legillature fix
reprefentatives and two fenators ; and, in conjunction
with Georgetown dillriCl, one member to congrefs. This
diitridt is watered by Great Pedee river, and many
fmaller ftreams, on the banks of which the land is thickly
fettled and well cultivated. The chief towns are Green¬
ville and Chatham. The court-houfe in this diftridl is
fifty- two miles from Camden, as far from Lumberton, and
ninety from Georgetown. The mail flops at this place.
CHER'BURG, a lea-port town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Channel, fituated at the bottom of a large
bay, between Cape Barfleur and Cape la Hogue, contain¬
ing about 6000 inhabitants. Before the revolution, it
was the feat of a governor and an admiralty. Building
of fmall veffels, and a manufadture of woollen fluffs, form
the principal employment of the inhabitants. In the year
1758, the town was taken and plundered by the Englifh,
the port deftroyed, and the fhips burned in the harbour.
This port has always been confidered by the French as
an objedl of great importance in the navigation of the
Englifh Channel, and immenfe fums have been expended
in the eredtion of piers, deepening and enlarging the har¬
bour, and eredting fortifications. Veffels of 900 tons can
be admitted in high-water, and 250 in low: ten polls
north of Coutances, and forty-one weft-north-wefl of Pa¬
ris. Lat. 49. 39. N. Ion. 16. 2. E. Ferro.
CHERCHESF/NE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Curdiflan : fixty-two miles fouth of Kerkuk.
CHE'RCY, a town of France, in the department of the
Yonne : four leagues weft of Sens.
CHE'REM, a kind of excommunication in ufe among
the Jews. There are fome who affert that the peifons
thus devoted were afterwards put to death 5 whereof
Jephtha’s daughter is a memorable example. Judges xi.
29, &c.
CHE'REN-TABANAN', a town of Chinefe Tartary.
Lat. 41. 32. N. Ion. 1 37. 17. E. Ferro.
CHE'RI-KIA'MEN, a poll of Chinefe Tartary : fif¬
teen miles louth- eafl of Petoure Hotun.
CHE'RI-OU'JOU, a town of Chinele Tartary : eight
miles fouth of Geho.
CHE'RILUS, a Greek poet of Samos, flouriffied 479
years before Chrifl. He fung the vidlory gained by the
Athenians over Xerxes, and was rewarded with a piece
a
C H E 40;
of gold for every verfe. His poem had afterwards the ho¬
nour of being rehearfed yearly with the works of Homer.
Ho CHE'RISH, cv. a. [ckerir, Fr.] To fupport and for¬
ward with encouragement, help, and proteClion ; to IheF-
ter ; to nurfe up :
Whenever Buckingham doth turn his hate
Upon your grace, and not with duteous love
Doth cherijh you and yours, God punifh me
With hate in thole where I expeCt moll love. Shake/.
CHF/RISHER, f. An encourager; a fupporter. — One
of their greateft praifes it is to be the maintainers and
cherijhers of a regular devo.ion, a reverend worlhip, a
true and decent piety. Spratt .
CHE'RISHMENT, /. Encouragement; fupport; com¬
fort. It is now oblolete :
The one lives her age’s ornament,
That with rich bounty, and dear che/ifhmeut,
Supports the praife of noble poefie. Spenfer.
CHERLE'RIA, / [from Jo. Hen. Chenier, Ion-in-law
to John Bauhin, whom he alTilled in his hiltory.J .In bo¬
tany, a genus of the clafs decandria, order trigyriia, na¬
tural order caryophyllei. The generic characters are — -
Calyx : perianth five leaved ; leaflets lanceolate, concave*
equal. Corolla : petals none (unlels you rather call the
calyx or nectaries fo) ; neftaries five, emarginate, placed
in a circle, very fmall. Stamina: filaments ten, tubu¬
late, of which the alternate ones are affixed to the back
of the neilaries ; anthers Ample. Pillilium : germ ovate;
llyles three, fpreading ; lligmas Ample. Pericarpium :
capfule ovate, three-celled, three-valved ; feeds two or
three, kidney-fhaped. — EJ/ential Charadler. Calyx, five-
leaved ; neilaries five, bifid, refembling petals ; anthers
alternate barren; capfule one-celled, three-valved, three-
leeded. — There is only one fpecies, called cherleria fe-
doides, or (lone-crop cheleria, with leaves oppofite, li¬
near, rugged about the edge, connate at the bafe into a.
(heath. When the leaves are fallen, the (heaths remain,
with the keel of the leaves, invelting the lower part of
the Item; hence the affinity of-this with the caryophyl-
leous plants. It forms large green molly tufts. Stems
about two inches high, dole matted. Flowers from the
fummits of the branches, Angle, ereCl, on very fhort pe¬
duncles, yellowilh green: leaflets of the calyx Itreaked
on the back with three lines. NeClaries much Ihorter
than the calyx, flelhy and conneCled. Seguier defcribes
the flower as having five petals : Haller and Scopoli deny
its having any : Villars lays, that they are fo fmall, as to
require the affillance of a glafs to view them ; but they
are oblong, and cloven at the end. Found on the moun¬
tains of Dauphine, Switzerland, Savoy, the Valais, Auf-
tria, Carniola, and the Highlands of Scotland. Peren¬
nial ; flowering in July and Augull.
CHERMANSICK', a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Natolia: thirty, miles north-north-eaft of
Milets.
CHER'MES, f. in entomology, a genus of infeCls be¬
longing to the order of hemiptera. Their characters are
drawn from the fituation of the rollrum, which is placed
in the bread; and from the ffiape of the antennae, which
are longer than the thorax. The wings are four in num¬
ber, folding clofe along the fides of the abdomen ; the
feet are formed for leaping, their tarfi having two arti¬
culations. Thefe animals are found inhabiting a great
variety of different trees and plants, -upon wliich they
produce very Angular excreicences : the Linnsean names
affixed to each lpecies are, for the mod part, derived
from the particular tree upon which they feed ; that
of the fig-tree is the largell, and therefore mors eafily
examined than any of the reft of the tribe. The whole
body of this infeCt is brown above, and green beneath ;
the antennae are large, hairy, and of the fame hue with
the back. Tht wings, which are twice the length of the
abdomen-,
4©8 CHE
abdomen, are placed fo as to form a kind of roof, as if
to proteft the animal from rain. Other fpecies, of in¬
ferior fize, frequent the elm,- the afh, the cherry, and the
fir ; that which inhabits the la if of thefe trees is provided
with a {harp-pointed inftrument by which it makes punc¬
tures in the extremity of the branches, in order to depo¬
sit its young. By this means the fir-tree chermes pro¬
duces that enormous fcaly protuberance, which is often
feen at the fummit of the branches, and which is formed
by the extravafation of the juices through the wounds
thus made.
The larva chermes has fix feet: in figure, it refembles
the perfect infeft ; its fnape is oblong, and its motion
flow. In the chryfalid ftate, the form is fomewhat changed,
by two iinall protuberances upon the thorax, the rudi¬
ments of future wings. When the chryfalids are about to
undergo their laft metamorphofes, they retreat to the un -
der fide of a leaf, to which they remain attached without
.motion. On the approach of their change, the membrane
above the head and thorax is feen to fplit and open : the
perfedf infect then comes forth w'ith its wings, leaving the
ipoils of its chryfalis ft ill adhering to the leaf, and rent
on the anterior part. The empty floughs of thefe infefts
are often found in great plenty beneath the leaves of the
fig-tree. The tuber, cles railed upon the branches of trees
by the punffures of the chermes, not only become the re¬
sidence of the animal, but alio of its eggs and larva,
which are contained in thofe cells with which they a-
bound. The box-tree chermes produces no excrefcences
upon that piant : its punftures make the leaves bend in
towards each other at their extremity, where their union
forms at the fummit of the branch, a hollow' knob, in
which the larva of that in left find fhelter. Both in their
larva and chryfalid ftate, many of the chermes ejeft from
the anus a white faccharine fubftance refembling manna :
within the hollow balls formed by the box-leaves, there are
finall foft grains of this fubftance depofited ; and, in that
ftate, it is frequently feen ifluing from the anus of the in-
feft that dwells there. Dr. Gmelin, in his improved edi¬
tion of the Syftema Naturae of Linnaeus, enumerates fe-
veral new fpecies.
CHER'MES MINERAL. See Kermes.
CHE'RO, a fm all ifland of European Turkey, in the
Archipelago. Lat.36. 53. N. Ion. 43. 26. E. Ferro.
CHEROKEE1, the ancient name of Tenneffee River.
The name of Teueflee was formerly confined to the fouth-
ern branch which empties fifteen miles above the mouth
of Clinch river, and eighteen below Knoxville;
CHEROKEE'S, a celebrated Indian nation, now on
the decline. They refide in the northern parts of Georgia,
and the fouthern parts of the ftate of Tenneffee; having
the Apalachian or Cherokee mountains on the eaft, which
leparate them from- North and South Carolina, and Ten¬
neffee river on the north and weft, and the Creek Indians
on the fouth. The country of the Cherokees, extending
weftward to the Miffifippi and northward to the Six Na¬
tions, tvas furrendered, by treaty at Weftminfter, 1729,
to the crown of Great Britain. The prefent line between
them and the ftate of Tenneffee is not yet fettled. A line
of experiment was drawn in 1792, from Clinch river,
acrofs Hoifton to Chilhove mountain ; but, the Cherokee
commiffioners not appearing, it is called a line of expe¬
riment. The compleftion of, the Cherokees is brighter
than, that of the neighbouring Indians. They are robuft
and well made, and taller than many of. their neighbours ;
being generally fix feet iigh, a few are more, and fome
lefs. Their women are tall, (lender, and delicate. Two
of their chiefs vifited England in 1764, and had an audi¬
ence of his majefty. They were formerly a powerful na¬
tion ; but by continual wars in which it has been their
deftiny to be engaged, with the northern Indian tribes,
and with the whites, they are now reduced to about 1500
warriors ; and they are becoming weak and pufillanimous.
Some writers eftimate their numbers at 2500 warriors.
They have forty-three towns now inhabited.
CHE
CHE'RON (Elizabeth Sophia), daughter of a painter
in enamel, was born at Paris in 1648, and ftudied under
her father. At the age of fourteen her name was be¬
come famous. The celebrated Le Brun in 1671 pre-
fented her to the academy of painting and fculpture,
which complimented her talents by admitting her to the
title of academician. This ingenious lady divided her
time between painting and learning languages, poetry,
and mufic. She drew on a large fcale a great number of
gems, a work in which fire particularly excelled. Thefe
piftures were no lefs admirable for a good tafte in draw¬
ing, a fingular command of pencil, a fine ftyle of colour¬
ing, and a fifperior judgment in the chiaro-ofcuro. She
excelled in hiftory, in oil-colours, in miniature enamels,
in portrait painting, and efpecially in thofe of females.
The academy of Ricovrati at Padua honoured her with
the furname of Erato, and gave her a place in their fo-
ciety. She died at Paris, September 3, 1711, at the age
of fixty-three.
CHERONNA'C, a. town of France, in the department
of the Charente : fifteen miles fouth of Confolent,
CHE'ROY, a town of France, in the department of
the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriftof
Sens : ten miles weft of Sens.
CHERRONI'SO, a town of European Turkey, on the
north-eaft coaft of the illand of Negropont: twenty-five
miles eaft of Negropont. • ,
CHER'RY, f. [ cerife , Fr. cerafus, Lat.] The fruit of
the cherry-tree. It was brought out of Pontus at the
time of the Mithridatic viftory by Lucullus, in the year
of Rome 680; and was brought, into Britain about 120
years afterwards, which was A. D. 55; and was foon after
Ipread through moft parts of Europe. Miller-
CHER'RY, adj. Refembling a cherry in colour :
Shore’s wife hath a pretty foot,
A cherry lip, a palling pleafing tongue. Shakefpearei
CHER'RYCHEEKED, adj. Having ruddy cheeks :
I warrant them cherry check'd country girls. Congreve.
CHER'RYPIT, f A child’s play, in which they throw
cherry-itones into a finall hole. — What, man ! ’tis not for
gravity to play at cherrypit. Shakefpeare.
CHERRV-TREE, and Cherry-Laurel, / in bo¬
tany. See Prunus and Cordia,
CHER'RY-V AL'LEY, a poft town of America, in Ot-
fego county, New-York, at the head of the creek of the
fame name, about twelve miles north-eaft of Cooper’s-
town, and eighteen foutherly of Conajohary, fixty-one
weft of Albany and 336 from Philadelphia. There is an
academy here, which contained in 1796, fifty or fixty
fcholars. It is a fpacious building, fixty feet by forty.
The townfliip is very large, and lies along the eaft fide of
Otfego lake and its outiet to Adiquatangie creek. -By the
ftate cenfus of 1796, it appears that 629 of its inhabitants
are eledfors. This fettiement fuffered feverely from the
Indians in the Amerian war.
CHER'SO, an ifland in the Adriatic, on the coaft c.f
Croatia, about 150 miles in circumference. It is ftony
and mountainous, but yields a great deal of wood, cattle,
wine, oil, and honey. It belongs to the Venetians, who
fend a nobleman as governor every two years, with the
title of count, or captain, who refides at the capital, fitu-
ated in the centre of the ifland, which has the fame name,
and contains about 2500 inhabitants. Lat. 45. 10. N. ion.
32. 12. E. Ferro.
CHER'SON, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Ekaterinoflay, lituated on the Dnieper, built and made a
free port in the year 1774, chiefly conftru&ed of hewa
ftone. It is intended to be the principal mart for all
commodities of export and import; but if an extenfive
trade fnould take place in this quarter, the great depoiit-
ary for the merchandize will be more conveniently fixed
on fome fpot below ’the bar of the Dnieper, and about
twelve milts fouth of Cherfbn. It contains a dock for the
conftruftioa
CHE
confmu5tion of large veflels ; from which feveral men-of-
war and frigates, as well merchant ftips, have, already
launched. The humane Mr. Howard died in this town,
on the Toth of January, 1790: 128 miles fouth-weft of
Ekaterin-oflav, and 812 l'outh of Peterfburg. Lat.46.40.
N. Ion. 50. 40. E. Ferro.
CHERSONE'SUS, a Greek word, rendered by the La¬
tins Petiinfula. ; or a traft of land almoft furrounded by
the lea, but joined to the continent by a narrow neck or
ill hmus. There were many of thefe among the ancients,
of which thefe five are the moft celebrated : one called.
Peloponnefus ; one called Thracian, at the fouth of
Thrace, and weft of the Hellefpont, where Miltiades led
a colony of Athenians ; from its ilfhmus to its further
ihores, it meafured 420 ftadia. The third, called Taurica,
now Crira Tartary, w’as iituate near the Palus Mseotis.
The fourth called Cimbrica, now Jutland, is in the
northern parts of Germany ; and the fifth, furnamed
Aurea, lies in India, beyond the Ganges.
CHERT, f Petrosilux, lapis corneus, the hornjlein of
the Germans ; a fpeties of ftone clafl’ed by Cronftedt among
the ftliceous earths. See Mineralogy.
CHERT'S EY, a town cf England, in the county of
Surrey, fituated near the banks of the Thames, formerly
the refidence of fome of the Saxon kings ; and the fir ft
burial place of Henry VI. who was afterwards removed
to Windlor. Here was formerly an abbey, founded in the
years 664, of which only part of the walls now remains.
The principal manufactures are iron hoops, thread, and
bricks. It has a weekly market on Wednefdays ; and four
fairs, firft Monday in Lent, May 14, Auguft 6, and Sept.
25. It is twenty miles weft-fouth- weft of London.
CHE RUB,/, [ziiplur. Q'ma. It is fometimes written
in the plural, improperly, cherubims.J A celeftial fpirit,
which, in the hierarchy, is placed next in order to /he
feraphim. See Hierarch y. All the feveral defcriptions
which the Scripture gives us of cherubin, differ from one
another; as they are defcribed in the fhapes of men,
eagles, oxen, lions, and fometimes in a compofition of
all thefe figures put together. The hieroglyphical repre-
lentations in the embroidery upon the curtains of the Ta¬
bernacle, were called by Moles, Exod . xxvi. 1. cherubim
of cunning work. CalmeL
Heav’n’s cherubin hors’d
Upon the fightlefs courfers of the air.
Shall blow the horrid deed in ev’ry eye.
That tears (hall drown the wind. Shakeffeare.
CHERU'BIC, ad). Angelic ; relating to the cherubim :
Attentive, and with more delighted ear,
Divine inftruCtor ! I have heard, that when
■Cherubic fongs by night from neighb’ring hills
Aerial mufic fend. Milton.
CHE'RUBIN, adj. Angelical:
This fell whore of thine
Hath in her more deltruCfion than thy fword,
For all her cherubin look. Shakefpcare.
To CHE'RUP, <v. n. [from cheer ; perhaps contracted
from cheer «/>.] To chirp; to ufe a cheerful voice:
The birds
Frame to thy fong their cheerful chcruping ;
Or hold their peace for fhame of thy fweet lays. Spenfer.
CHER'VES, a town of France, in the department of
the Charente : one league north-weft of Cognac.
CHERVEU'X, a town of France, in the department
of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the
diltriCl of St. Maixent : two leagues and a half north-eaft
of Niort.
CHF.R'VIL, f. See Ch/erophyllum and Scandix.
CHE'SAPEAK, one of the largeit and fafeft bays in
V-OL.IV. No. 207.
CHE 409
the United States of America, Its entrance is nearly
eaft -north-eaft, and fouth-fouth-weft, between Cape
Charles, hit. 37. 12. and Cape Henry, lat. 37.111 Virginia,
twelve miles wide, and it extendsz7o miles to the north¬
ward, dividing Virginia and Maryland. It is from feven
to eighteen miles broad, and generally as much as nine
fathoms deep ; affording many commodious harbours,
and a fafe and eafy navigation. It has many fertile
iflands, and thele are generally along the eaft fide of the
bay, except a few folitary ones near the weftern fhore.
A number of navigable rivers and other ltreams empty
into it, the chief of which are Sufquehannah, Pataufco,
Patuxent, Potowmack, Rappahannock, and York, which
are all large and navigable. Chefapeak bay affords many
excellent fiflieries of herring and fhad. There are alio
excellent crabs and oyfters. It is the refort of fwans,
but is more particularly remarkable for a fpecies of wild
duck, called caiwajhack, whofe flefh is entirely free from
any fifty talle, and is admired by epicures for its rich—
nefs and delicacy. In a commercial point of view, this
bay is of immenfe advantage to the neighbouring Hates,
particularly to Virginia. Of that ftate it has been
obferved, with fome little exaggeration, however, that
“ every planter has a river at his door.”
CHE'SELDEN (William), an eminent Englifh furgeon
and anatomift, born at Somerby in Leicelterfhire, in 1688,.
He was placed, about 1703, under Cowper the celebrated
anatomift, in whofe houle he refided ; and ftudied fur-
gery under Mr. Feme, head lurgeon of St. Thomas’s
nofpital (whom he afterwards lucceeded), for nineteen,
years. In 1711 he was eleCted F. R.S. So early as the
age of twenty-two he read lectures in anatomy ; of which
the fyllabus -was firft printed in 1711, and afterwards an¬
nexed to his “ Anatomy of the human body,” printed im
1713, 8vo. He continued his leCtures for twenty years,
and during that period obliged the public with many cu¬
rious and fingular cafes, which are printed in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaftions, the Memoirs of the academy of
furgery at Paris, and other valuable repofitories. His
Ofteograpliy, inferibed to queen Caroline, was publifhed
by fublcriptian in a handfome folio, 1733 : a peeviih
critique on which work, was printed by Dr. Douglas, in
1735, under the title of “Remarks on that pompous
book, the Ofteograpliy of Mr. Chefelden.” It was ani¬
madverted on with more candour by the famous Haller,
who, while he pointed out what was amifs in it, yet paid
Mr. Chefelden all the praifes he deferved. Heiller, alfo,
in his “Compendium of Anatomy,” has donejuftice to
his merit. In 1722, he gained linking applaufe in cut¬
ting for the ftone; and the year after, he publifhed his
treatife on the high operation for the ftone. In 1729, he
was eleCted a correfponding member of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris; and; almoft on the inftitution.
of the Royal Academy of Surgery in that city, 1732,
had the honour of being the firft foreigner aflociated to
their learned body. In 1728, he immortalized himfelf
by giving fight to a lad near fourteen years old, who had
been totally blmd from his birth, by the clofure of the
iris, •'without the lea'fl opening for light in the pupil. His
fame was now fo fully eftablifhed, that he was efteemed
the firft man of his profeftion. He was elected head-fur-
geon of St. Thomas’s hofpital ; at St. George’s and the
Weftminfter infirmary he was chol'en confulting lurgeon;
and was alfo appointed principal furgeon to Queen Caro¬
line. Having now obtained the utmoll of his wifiies as
to fame and fortune, he fought for that moft defirable of
bleflings, a life of tranquillity; and found it, 1737, in the
appointment of head-iurgeon to Chellea hofpital, which
he held to liis death. In 1751, he was feized with a pa¬
ralytic ftroke, from which, to appearance, he was per¬
fectly recovered ; when, April 10, 1752, a hidden ftroke
of apoplexy hurried him to the grave, at the age of 64.
He was intimate with Pope, by whom he is often men¬
tioned with honour, as well as affeCtion.
5 M
CHE'SHAM,
4io CHE
CIIE'SHAM,- a market town of Buckinghamshire, fitu-
ated in a fertile vale, twenty-nine miles from London,
nine from Rickmanfworth, five from Berkhampfted, and
feven from Kernel Hempftead. The town confifts of three
ftreets, the chief of which goes almoft in a direft line
from north to fouth, in which is the market-houfe : the
market is held on Wednefdays, chiefly for corn. The
principal manufadturesare, ift, Lace, which is accounted
very good ; and large quantities are made, efpecially
black lace. 2d, Shoes; it is computed that near 1000
pair of fhoes are made per week. 3d, Wooden-ware,
which is conliderably large; in round-ware, hollow- ware,
Tunbridge- ware. See. There are three fairs annually,
viz. April 21, July 22, both for cattle, and Sept. 28 for
cattle and fervants.
CHE'SHKRE, a county palatine of England, is diftin-
guifhed in its figure by the two horns which project to
the eaft and welt of its northern fide, bounded on the
north by the rivers Merfey and Tame, which feparate it
from Lancafhire, and by a fmall point of Yorkfhire ; on
the eait by the counties of Derby and Stafford, the limits
of which are marked for the molt part by hills and
ftreams ; on the louth by Shroplhire and a detached part
of Flintlhire; and on the welt by Denbighlhire, Flint-
lhire, and the eltuary of the Dee. Its length is thirty
miles; its extreme breadth, from horn to horn, almolt
fixty ; but acrols its middle part not forty. Chelhire is
in general a fiat country. Its molt hilly part is towards
the eaftern border, where are fome confiderable eminences,
forming a chain with theDerbylhire and Stalfordlhire hills.
An interrupted ridge of high ground alfo erodes it from
north to fouth on the weltern fide, beginning with. a bold
promontory, overlooking the Merfey near Frodlham ;
then eroding that large tradt of heath called Delainere-
foreft ; appearing again in the infulated rock of Beelton,
crowned with the ruins of its Itrong caltle ; and ceafing
in the wooded Broxton hills near Malpas. The reft of
the county is nearly level : its foil in many parts light
and fandy, with much red gritty rock, on which almoft
if 11 the towns and villages are built; in others ftiff clay;
with a confiderable intermixture of uncultivated mofs
and heath. Several fmall lakes, called meres, are inter-
fperfed, particularly in the northern parts.
The rivers in this county are, firft, the Dee, a ftream
held in great veneration by our Britilli anceftors. It has
its rife, and the principal part of its courfe, in Wales, and
only vifits the weltern border of Chefnire, to which it
lerves for fome fpace as a boundary ; then, crolling over
to the city of Chefter, it flows from thence to the fea,
making a broad fandy eftuary, which feparates this county
from Flintlhire. By embankments here made, much land
has been gained from the tide, and a narrow but deepeb
channel, fitter for navigation, has been formed from
Chefter half way to the fea. The Dee is navigable from
near Ellefmere, in Shroplhire, to Chefter; but, at this
city, the continuity of the navigation is broken by a
ledge of rocks running acrofs the bed of the river, and
cauling a fort of cafcade. The Weever rifes in the north¬
ern part of Shroplhire, and, after running acrofs the
middle of Chelhire, and receiving the Dane from the
eaft, empties into the eftuary of the Merfey. It is navi¬
gable to Winsford, fome miles above Norwich. The
Merfey itfelf belongs more to this county than to Lan¬
calhire, fince it rifes juft within Yorklhire; and, coafting
firft along the fouthern fide of the eaftern horn of Che-
fhire; then crofles it, and reaches Lancalhire only above
Stockport.
Two commodities render Chelhire particularly famous,
its fait, and its cheefe. The fait- works are at the three
towns called Wyches, viz. Namptwich, Middlewicli, and
Northwich, and at Winsford and fome other places. At
molt of thefe brine is pumped up from fprings which con¬
tain the fait diflolved in the bowels of the earth, and
which is procured from the brine again by boiling. At
Northwich vaft pits of folid fait rock have been dug to a
CHE
greaf depth, from which immenfe quantities are raifed,
partly to be purified on the Ipot by re-diflblving and
boiling, and partly to be exported in its crude Hate.
Moft of the latter goes to Liverpool by means of the river
Weever; and the plenty and cheapnefs of this commo¬
dity has been a principal caule of the great foreign com¬
merce of that port. The clear annual duty received by
government for Chelhire fait amounts to 2oo,oool. The
cheefe of this county is noted for its mellownefs and
rich flavour ; and great quantities of it are confumed in
various parts of England and Scotland, as well as ex¬
ported abroad. About three-fourths of the land in Che¬
lhire is fuppofed to be paltured or mown ; and the grafs,
except what is eaten by horfes, is chiefly confumed by
milking cows, as few cattle are fattened here. The far¬
mers are lefs attentive to the beauty of their cows than
in many other parts, the milk being the great objedt : and
they keep them to a great age. More calves are fed in
Chelhire, during the months of March and April, than
in any other part of England; but the veal is killed very
young, as the milk cannot be long fpared. The dairies-
are fcattered over the whole county ; but the principal
are about Namptwich and the trad; between the Dane
and Weever, where the foil is moft clayey. The chief ma¬
nures of this county are marl and lime; the lattermoftly
gotten on the eaftern fide. Coals are in confiderable
plenty in the north-eaft; and fome are alfo dug in the
hundred of Wirral, or that peninlula which lies between
the Dee and Merfey, whence they are fent to Chefter.
The miuft of the county is principally fupplied from
Lancalhire. Stone quarries are frequent in the hilly parts.
The great canal of the duke of Bridgewater has its prin¬
cipal courfe in Chelhire, entering the county from Man-
chefter by eroding the Merfey, and then running parallel
to it, till it falls into that river at Runcorn. With this
the grand canal communicates which joins the Trent and
Merfey, and is called the StafFordlhire. This laft canaf
crolfes Chelhire, palling by Northwich and Middlewich.
There is, befides, another canal from Chefter to Nampt¬
wich, intended to promote the commerce of that city by
giving it the advantage of an exportation of fait.
Chelhire is divided into feven hundreds, which contain
lot parilhes, one city, and eleven market towns. The
proportion of the cultivated parts of the county, and
thole lie either wafte, or in a ftate of little profit, are,,
according to a general view drawn up by Mr. Wedge,
perhaps nearly as follows : arable, meadow, pafture, See.
about 615,000 acres; wafte lands, heaths, commons,
greens, but few- woods of any extent, 30,000 acres ; peat
bogs and modes 20,000 acres ; common fields, probably,
not fo much as 1000 acres ; fea lands within the eftuary
of the Dee, exclulive of what may be upon the lliores of
the river Merfey, 10,000 acres: in the whole 676,000
acres. Chelhire has formerly been celebrated as the vale
royal of England ; and, if feen from the high lands about
Macclesfield, the whole of the county to the weftward
has undoubtedly the appearance of one extended plain-
Chefter is the city ; the market towns are Namptwich,
Macclesfield, Malpas, Middlewich, Northwich, Congie-
ton, Altringham, Frodlham, Knotsford, Stockport, and
Sanbach. The yearly export of cheefe from this county
to London only, has been computed at 14,000 tons ; to
Briftol and York, down the Severn and the Trent, 8000
more, befides what is fent to Scotland and Ireland.
CHE'SHIRE, a county of New-Hamplhire, in North
America, on the eaft bank of Connedticut river. It has
the ftate of Maflachufetts on the fouth, Grafton county
on the north, and Hilllborough county eaft. It has thirty-
four townlhips, of which Charleftown and Keene are the
chief, and by the cenfus 28,772 inhabitants.
CHESHIRE, a town of America, in Berkfhire county,
Maflachufetts; famous for its good cheefe; 140 miles
north-weft from Bolton.
CHE'SHIRE, a town of America in New-Haven county,
Connedticut, fifteen miles north of New-Haven city,
and
cue s&x|e.
Znndon ,JhU>i \zs direct? July jz^idai, by J". Wi/A'cr .
CHE
and twenty-fix fouth-weft of Hartford. It contains an
epifcopal church and academy, and three congregational
churches.
CHES'LEY, a town of France, in the department of
the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Ervy : nine miles fouth-eaft of Ervy.
CHE'SNE, a town of France, in the department of
the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Vouziers, fifteen miles louth of Mezieres.
CHE'SNE (Jofeph du), Quercetanus, lord of la
Violette, and phyfician to the French king, was born at
Armagnac. After having paffed a confiderable time in
Germany, he went and p radii fed in Paris. He made
great progreis in the ttudy of chemiftry, to which he was
particularly devoted. The fuccefs that attended his prac¬
tice in this fcience, excited the fpleen of the reft of the
phyficians, and efpecially that of Guy Patin, who was
continually bringing out larcafmsagainfthim. This learn¬
ed chemift, who is called du Quefne by Moreri, died at
Paris, at a very advanced age, in 1609. He wrote in French
verfe, The Folly of the World, 1583, 4to. 2. The great
Mirror of the World, 1593, 8vo. He alfo compofed fe-
veral books of chemiftry, which had great reputation,
confidering the then obicure ftate of that fcience.
CHE'SNE (Andre du), called the father of French
hiftory, was born in Tourane, in 1584 ; and was crufhed
to death by a cart, as he was palling from Paris to his
country-houfe, in 1640. His labours, for fuch they may
be properly called, coniift of, 1. Hiftoirede Papes, a tom.
fol. 2. Hiftoire d’Angleterre, 2 tom. fol. 3. Hiltoire des
Cardinaux Francois. 4. Recueil des Hiftoriens de France.
This laft was intended to contain twenty-four volumes
in folio; the two firft of which, from the origin of the
nation to Hugh Capet, he publiftied himfelf. The third
and fourth, from Charles Martel to Philip Auguftus,
were in the prefs when he died : and his ion, Francis du
Chefne, who inherited his induftry as well as his learn¬
ing, publiftied the fifth, from Philip Auguftus to Philip
le Bel. 5. Hiltoriae Normannorum Scriptores Antiqui,
Paris, 1619, in folio. This colleftion has been much
efteemed.
CHESNUT -HILL, a town of America in Northampton
county, Pennfylvania.
CHES'NUT-TREE. See Fagus.
CHESS, f \_echecs, Fr.] By fome called the Game of
War: a very ancient and ingenious game, performed
with different figures and pieces of wood, to be moved
in various direftions on a board, divided into fixty-four
fquares called houfes. Each player is furniflted with eight
of thefe carved figures, called dignified pieces, viz. a king,
a queen, two bilhops, two knights, and two rooks ; alio
with eight common pieces, called pawns. Thefe, for the
fake of dillinftion, are painted of two oppofite colours,
white and black.
As this game appears to be of very high antiquity, fo
the honour of inventing it is claimed by different nations.
The conteft lies principally between the Hindoos, the
Chinele, and the Perfians. In fupport of the firft claim,
we are told by Sir William Jones, in the fecond volume
of his Afiatic Refearch.es, that the game of chels has been
immemorially known in Hindooftan, by the name of
Chaturanga, or .the four members of an army, viz. ele¬
phants, liorfes, chariots, and foot-foldiers. This learned
author at the fame time obferves, that though it is con¬
fidently afferted Slianfcrit books on chefs exiit, yet no ac¬
count of the game has hitherto been dilcovered in the
claffical writings of the Brahmins. The late Mr. Daines
Barrington attributes the invention of the game to the
Chinele ; and in this he is fupported by a paper publiftied
in the Tranfaftions of the Royal Irilh Academy for 1794,
vol. 5; by Mr. Eyles Irwin. It ftates, that when Mr. Ir¬
win was at Canton, a young mandarin of his acquaint¬
ance, on feeing the Englilh chefs-board on his table, re¬
cognized its fimilarlty with that ufed for a game of their
own } and, on the next day, he brought his board and
CHE
41 f
equipage for Mr. Irwin’s infpeflion, and foon afterward
gave him a manufcript extrait from a book, relating the
origin and invention of the Chinele game, called by them
cbong-ke, or the royal game. Some of the principal differ¬
ences in the Chinefe chefs are, that, inftead of a queen,
the king has a Ion on each fide for his fupport; and that
there is a piece called the rocket-boy, ftationed between
the lines of each party, who acts with the motion cf a
rocket, vaulting over a man, and taking his adverfary at
the other end of the board. This, as Mr. Irwin obferves,
is an irrefragable proof of the antiquity of the military
ule of gunpowder by the Chinefe. The manufcript ex-
traft attributes the invention of the game to a Chinefe
general (about 1965 years ago), who by its means recon¬
ciled his foldiers to palling the winter in quarters in the
country of Shenfi, the cold and inconveniences of which
W'ere likely to have occafioned a mutiny among them.
Other writers contend, that chefs is a game of Perlian
invention, fince fcah math is the Perfic term for check
mate; and fince the Perfians were fedulous in recommend¬
ing it to their young princes, as a game calculated toin-
ftruft kings in the art of war, and as the name they gave
it, Scliatrak, fignifies the game of fchah, or king. Whe¬
ther the Greeks or Romans were acquainted with this
game, is doubtful, becaufe though feveral paflages which
might be fuppofed.to have fuch a reference, relate to fome
game of Ikill, yet it is evident that chefs is not intended.
It has been attributed to Palamedes, who lived during
the Trojan war: but the line from Sophocles, on which
this opinion is founded, teaches nothing more than that
he invented lome game which was played with pebbles
or cubes. Palamedes was fo renowned for his fagacity,
that almoft every early difcovery was afcribed to him.
If we recur to the original names of the pieces with
which this game is played, we fhall readily be convinced
that it is of Afiatic original ; but whether carried from
India into Perfia, and thence into China, or <vice cvcrfa ,
feems to be of as little real importance, as it is difficult,
or impofiible, to afcertain the fa ft. The firft piece of
chefs, or king, feems always to have retained the dignity
of its character, under whatloever defignation it might
have been ufed in different countries. The fecond piece
of chefs, called the queen, has certainly undergone a great
violation of charafiter. The old French authors call it
fierce, fierche, and fierge, or fiercir. Corruptions of the
Latin fiercia, derived from the Perfian ferze or firzin, the
name of that piece in Perfic; and fignifies a minifter or
vizir. Of the word fierge, they have made, vierge virgo,
and afterwards lady or queen. The refemblance of the
words made this change very eafy, and it feemed fo much
the more reafonable, becaufe that piece is placed next to
the king, and at its firft moves, like the pawns, could only
move two fteps, which made it one of the lead confiderable
of the board, as the authors of two ancient treatifes of
the game of chefs acknowledge. This conftraint upon
the lady of chefs was difpleafing to our forefathers. They
looked upon it as a fort of flavery, more fuitable to the
jealoufy of the Eaftern people, than to the liberty which
ladies have always enjoyed amongft us. They extended,
therefore, the fteps and prerogatives of that piece, and,
in confequence of the gallantry fo natural to the weftern
people, the lady became the moft confiderable piece of
all the game. Yet there was ftill an abfurdity in this
metamorphofis of the firzim or vizier into queen, and this
incongruity remains to the prefent day, without our .
taking notice of it.
When a pawn, or a common foldier, has traverfed
through the enemy’s battalions, and penetrated fo far
as the laft line of the board, he is not allowed to return,
back, but is honoured with the Itep and prerogatives of
the queen. If the ferzin, or the fierge, be a vizir, a firft
minifter, or a general of an army, we can eafily compre¬
hend how a pawn or a fimple foldier may be elevated to
their rank, in recompence of the valour with which he
has. pierced through the enemy’s battalions. But if the
412 C H
flerge be a lady, a queen, or the king’s wife, by what odd
metamorphofis does the pawn change his fex, and be¬
come a woman that was a foldier before? And how do
they make him marry the king, in recompence of that
valour of which he has given iuch proofs? This abiur-
clity proves that the fecond piece of chefs has been mal
apropos called lady or queen.
The third piece of chefs, which we call the bifhop;
the French, fol ; the Spaniards, alferez ; and the Italian ,
al here ; lerjeanf, in the Eaft; was of the figure of an ele¬
phant, and whole name it bore. 'The knight, which is
the fourth piece, has the fame name and ‘figure every
where. The fifth piece, which we call the rook, and the
French tour, is called by the eaftern people, the rokb,
and the Indians make it of the figure of a camel, mounted
by an horfeman with a bow and arrow in his hand. The
name of rokb, which is common both to the Periians and
Indians, fignilies, in the language of the Eaft, a fort of
camel ufed in war, and placed upon the wings of their
armies by way of iight-horfe. The rapid motion of this
piece, which jumps from one end of the board to the
other, agrees fo much the better with this idea of it, as
at firft it was the only piece that had this motion. The
king, queen, and pawn, made but one (tep, the bifhop
•but two, as well as the knight, neither of them going
farther than the third fquare, including that which they
quitted. The rook alone was unbounded in his courfe,
which may agree to the lightneis of the dromedary, but
in no way to the immobility of towers, or fortrefles, the
figures which we now generally give to thole pieces. The
•fixth, and laft piece, is the pawn, or common foldier,
which has hitherto buffered no change. The Cliinefe, if
mot the inventors, certainly made great alterations in
.this game; they introduced new pieces, under the form
.of artillery. Tamerlane made yet greater changes in this
game; and, by the new pieces which he invented, and
-the motion he gave them, he increafed the difficulty of
a game already too complicated to be looked upon as a
mere amufement; but thefe additions have not been ap¬
proved of, and the ancient manner of playing, each with
fixteeen pieces only, and upon a board of fixty-four
fquares, lias taken place again. Much confufion, how¬
ever, has arifen, from the arbitrary change of the names,
as well as forms, of the cheffmen, by different nations.
Some have retained the forms, whillt they have altered
the names; and others the names, after having changed
the forms. Thus it has happened with cards; we retain
the Spnnifh name of clubs and fpades, whillt we have
adopted the French fuits.
It is faid that this game was imported from Conftanti-
nople, during the time of the crufades, fir ft into Italy
and Spain, and then into England, and other countries;
and hence arofe the general corruption and variation of
the European names of the cheftinen. With us, the queen
lias been tlilecl the old --woman, or nurfe ; but, by the French,
and after them the Englifh in the middle ages , fierca,
fievges, See. but the title queen is, neverth'elefs, of con-
fiderable antiquity. The bifhop appears to have been
termed by Englifh writers, alpbin, aufin , See. from an
Arabic word which lignifies an elephant ; the French
fometimes denominated it fol, lbmetimes an archer : by
the Germans it was called the hound or runner ; by the
Ruffians and Swedes, the elephant-, by the Poles, the priejl.
The knight has always retained this diftinftion on the
French and Englifh chefs-board; the Germans, from the
nature of their motion, give them the appellation of
leapers-, and the Ruffians call them horfes. The rook has
been confidered as a caftle or fortrefs. It is probable
that the European form of the caftle was copied in part
from fome ancient Indian piece of the elephant with a
a caftle on his back. The pawns are fuppofed to receive
their name from pedones, a barbarous Latin term for foot-
loldiers. The Germans, Danes, and Swedes, have con¬
verted them into peafants. The writers of the middle
£' S S.
ages, in 1'peaking of the cheffmen, univerfally ftile them
fdfnilue.
We next come to (peak of placing the men on the
board, and the rules by which the game is to be played.
The white Icing is to he placed on the fourth black'houfe
from the corner of the board, in the firft and lower rank ;
and the black king is to be placed on the fourth white
home, on the oppofite, or adversary's fide of the board;
the queens are to be placed next to the kings, in houfes
of their own colour. Next to the king and queen on
each hand, place the two bifhops ; next to them the two
knights; and, laft of all, on the corners of the board,
the two rooks. The pawns are to be placed, without
diflinSion, on the fecond rank of the houfe, one before
each of the dignified pieces. Having thus difpofed of
the men, the onfet is commonly begun by the pawns,
which march ftraiglit forward in their own file, one houfe
at a time, except the firft moves, when it can advance
two houfes, but never moves backwards. The manner
of their taking the adversary's men is tideways, in the
next houfe forwards ; where, having made captures of
the enemy, they move forward as before. The rook goes
forward, or croffwife, through the whole file, and back
again : the knight (kips backward and forward to the
next houfe, Cave one of a different colour, with a fidling
march, or aflope ; and thus kills his enemies that fall in
his way, or guards his friends that may be expofed on
that fide : the bifhop walks, always in the fome colour of
the field that he is placed in at firft, forward and back¬
ward, aflope, or diagonally, as far as he can : the queen’s
walk is more univerfal, as (lie takes all the lteps of the
before-mentioned pieces, excepting that of the knight ;
as to the king’s motion, it is one houfe at a time, and
that either forward, backward, (loping, or lideways. A
figure of the cheffmen and chefs-board is added, for the
better information of the reader.
King. Queen. Bifhop. Knight. Rook. Pawn*
c h :
As to the value -of the different pieces ; next to the
king, is the queen; after her, the rooks; then the bi-
fliops ; and lalt of the dignified pieces, comes the knight.
The difference of the worth of pawns is not fo great as
that of noblemen ; only it muff be obferved, that the
king’s bifhop’s pawn is the belt in the field ; and there¬
fore the fkilful gamefter will be careful of him. It ought
alfo to be obferved, that, whereas, any man may be taken,
when he falls within the reach of any of the adverfary’s
pieces ; it is otherwife with the king, who, in fucli a cafe,
is only to be laluted with the word check, warning him
of his danger, out of which it is abfolutely necefl'ary that
he move ; and, if it fo happens that he cannot move with¬
out expofinghimfelf to the like inconveniency, it is check¬
mate, and th$ game is loft. The rules of the game are as
follow :
i. In order to beginJHie game, the pawns muff be moved
before the pieces, and afterwards the pieces mult be brought
out to fupport the pawns. The kings', queens’, and bi-
fhops’, pawns (hould be moved firlt, that the game may
be well opened. The pieces mult not be played out early
in the game, becaufe the player may thereby lofe his
move; but, above all, the game {hould be well arranged
before the queen is played out. Ufelefs checks {hould
alfo be avoided, unlefs fome advantage is to be gained
by them, becaufe the move may be loft, if the adverfary
can, either take or drive the piece away. z. If the game
is crowded, the player will meet with obftrudtions in
moving his pieces ; for which reafon he {hould exchange
pieces or pawns, and caltle his king as foon as it is con¬
venient, endeavouring at the fame time to crowd the ad¬
verfary’s game, which may be done by attacking his
pieces with the pawns, if the adverfary {hould move his
pieces out too foon. To caltle the' king, is to cover the
king with a caftle; this is done by a certain move which
each player has a right to, whenever he thinks proper.
3. The men {hould be fo guarded by one another, that,
if a man {hould be loft, the player may have it in his
power to take one of the adverfary’s in return ; and if he
can take a fuperior piece, in lieu of that which he lofes,
it would be an advantage, and diftrefs the adverfary.
4. The adverfary’s king {hould never be attacked with¬
out a force fufficient ; and if the player's king {hould be
attacked without having it in his power to attack the ad¬
verfary’s, he {hould offer to make an exchange of pieces,
which may caufethe adverfary to lofe a move. 5. The board
{hould be looked over with great attention, and the men
reconnoitered, fo as to be aware of any broke that the
adverfary might attempt in confequence of his laft move.
If, by coun ti ngas many moves forward as pollible, the player
has a profpedl of fuccefs, he {hould not fail doing it, and
even facrince a piece or two to accomplilh his end. 6. No
man {hould be played till the board is thoroughly examin¬
ed, that the player may defend himfelf againft any move
the adverfary may have in view; neither {hould the at¬
tack be made till the confequences of the adverfary’s next
move are confidered ; and when an attack may with fafety
be made, it {hould be purfued without catching at any
bait that might be thrown out, in order for the adverfary
to gain a move, and thereby caufe the defign to mifcarry.
7. The queen {hould never ftand in fuch a manner before
the king, that the adverfary, by bringing a rook, or a bi-
{hop, could check the king if flie were not there ; as it
might be thelofs of the queen. 8. The adverfary’s knight
{hould never he fuff'ered to check the king and queen, or
king and rook, or queen and rook, or the two rooks, at
the fame time ; efpecially if the knight is properly guard¬
ed ; becaufe, in the two firft cafes, the king being forced
to go out of check, the queen, or the rook, muff be loft ;
.and, in the two laft cafes, a rook muft be loft, at leaft, for
a worfe piece. 9. The player (hould take care, that no
guarded pawn of the adverfary’s fork two of his pieces.
10. As loon as the* kings have caftled on different lides
of the board, the pawns on that fid« of the board (hould
be advanced upon the adverfary’s king, and the pieces,
Vol. IV. No. 207.
L S S. 413
efpecially the queen and rook, (hould be brought to fup¬
port them ; and the three pawns belonging to the king
that is caftled, muft not be moved. 11. The more moves
a player can have, as it were in ambufcade, the better;
that is to fay, the queen, biftiop, or rook, is to be placed
behind a pawn, or piece, in fuch a pofition as that, upo^r
playing that pawn, or piece, a check is difcovered upon
the adverfary’s king, by which means a piece of fome
advantage is often gained, iz. An inferior piece (hould
never be guarded with a fuperior, when a pawn would
anfwer the fame purpofe; for this real'on, the fuperior
piece may remain out at play ; neither (hould a pawn be
guarded with a piece, wrhen a pawn would do as well.
13. A well-fupported pawn, that is pafled, often cofts
the adverfary a piece ; and when a pawn, or any other
advantage, is gained without endangering the loft of the
mova, the player {hould make as frequent exchanges of
pieces as he can. The advantage of a paffed pawn is
this ; if the player and his adverfary have each three
pawns upon the board, and no piece, and the player has
one of his pawns on one fide of the board, and the other
two on the other fide, and the adverfary’s three pawns
are oppofite to the player’s two pawns, he (hould march
with his king as foon as he can, and take the adverfary’s
pawns : if the adverfary goes with his king to' fuppoft
them, the playeri {hould go to the queen with his finglo
pawns : and then, if the adverfary goes to hinder liim,
he {hould take the adverfary’s pawns, and move the others
to queen. To queen, is to make a queen; that is, t®
move a pawn into the adverfary's back row, which is the
rule at this game, when the original one is loft. 14. Whe.n
the game is near finiftied, each party having only three
or four pawns on each fide of the board, the king muft
endeavour to gain the move in order to win the game.
For inftance, when the player brings his king oppofite to
the adverfary’s, with only one fquare between, he will
gain the move. 15. If the adverfary has his king and
one pawn on the board, and the player has only his king,
he cannot lofe the game, provided he brings bis king op¬
pofite to the adverfary’s, when the adverfary is direftly
before or on one fide of his pawn, and there is only one
fquare between the kings. 16. If the adverfary has a bi-
{hop, and one pawn, on the rook’s line, and this l*i(hop
is not of the colour that commands the corner fquare
the pawn is going to, and the player has only his king,
if he can get into that corner, he cannot loft; but, on
the contrary, may win by a flak, which is, when the king
is blocked up fo as to have no move at all. 17. If the
player has greatly the difadvantage of the game, having-
only his queen left in play, and his king happens to be
in a pofition to win, as above-mentioned, he (hould keep
giving check to the adverfary’s king, always taking care
not to check him, where he can interpofe any of his
pieces that make the ficde ; by fo doing he will at laft
force the adverfary to take his queen, and then he will
win the game by being in a ftale-mate. 18. The player
(hould never cover a check with a piece that a pawn
puffed upon it may take, for fear of getting only the
pawn in exchange for the piece. 19. A player {hould
never crowd his adverfary up with pieces, for fear of giv¬
ing a ftale-mate inadvertently ; but always {hould leave
room for his king to move.
Though this game {hould ever be played with the ut-
moft degree of forefigbt and caution, yet it is necefl'ary
to warn a player againft playing a timid game. He
{hould never be too much afraid of lofing a rook for an
inferior piece ; becaufe, although a rook is a better piece
than any other, except the queen, it feldom comes into
play to be of any great ufe till the end of the game ; for
which reafon it is often better to have an inferior piece
in play, than a fuperior one to ftand (till, or moving to no
great purpofe. If a piece is moved, and is immediately
drove away by a pawn, it may be reckoned a bad move,
becaufe the adverfary gains a double advantage over the
player, in advancing at the fame time the other is made
5 N t®
CHESS.
A « +
to retire. Although the firft move may not feem of con-
fequence between equal players, yet a move or two more
loit after the firft, makes the game fcarcely recoverable.
Many indifferent playeis think nothing of the pawns,
whereas three pawns together are ftrong ; but four, which
conftitute a fquare, with the affiftance of other pieces, well
managed, make an invincible ftrength, and, in all proba¬
bility', may produce a queen, when very much wanted.
It is true, that two pawns, with a fpace between, are no
better than one; and if there fhould be three over each
other in a line, the game cannot be in a worfe way. This
thews the pawns to be of great confequence," provided
they are kept clofe together. Some players are apt to
rifque lofmg the game, in order to recover a piece : this
is an error ; for it is much better to give up a piece, and
attack the enemy in another quarter; by fo doing, the
player has a chance of thatching a pawn or two from, or
gaining fome advantage over, the adverfary, whilft his
attention is taken up in purfuing this piece.
If the queen and another piece are attacked at the
fame time, and that by removing the queen, the piece
mud be loft; if two pieces can be gained in exchange
for the queen, the queen fhould be given up, it being the
difference of three pieces, and confequently more than
the value of the queen. By lofing the queen, the game
is not thrown into that diforder which it would other-
wife have been •. in this cafe it is judicious to give the
queen for a piece, or a pawn or two; it being a well-
known faff amongft good players, that he who begins the
attack, ar,d cannot maintain it, being afterwards obliged
to retire, generally lofes the game. A player fhould never
be fund of changing without reafon ; becaufe the adver¬
fary, if lie is a good player, will ruin his fituation, and
gain a confiderable advantage over him ; but rather than
lofe a move, when a player is ftronger than his adverfary,
it is good play to change, for he thereby increafes his
ftrength. When the game is almoft drawn to a conclu-
fion, the player fhould recollect, that his king is a capi¬
tal piece, and confequently fhould keep him in motion ;
by fo doing he generally gets the move, and often the
game. As the queen, rook, and bifhop, operate at a dif-
tance, it is not always neceflary in the attack to have
vhem near the adverfary’s king. If a man can be taken
with different pieces, the player fhould take his time,
and confider which of thofe pieces is the heft to take it
xvith. If a piece can be taken almoft at any time, the
player fhould not be in a hurry about it, but try to make
a good move elfewhere before he takes it. A player fhould
be cautious how he takes his adverfary’s pawn with his
king,, as it often happens to he a fafeguard to it.
The laws of the game are: i. If a player touches a
man, he muft play it; and if he quits it, lie cannot re¬
call it. 2. If, by mifhke, or otherwife, a fa He move is
played, and the adverfary takes no notice of it till lie
has played his next move, it cannot be recalled by either
of the parties. 3. If a player milplaces the men, and he
plays two moves, it is at the option of the adverfary to
permit him to begin the game or not. 4. If the adver¬
fary plays, or difcovers a check to a player’s king, and
gives no notice of it, the player may let him ftand ftill
till he does. 5. After the king is moved, a player can¬
not caftle. Wc fliall give an example of playing the game
from Mr. Philidor, whofe celebrity as a chefs-player in
this, and other countries, is already well known. He
moves, iff. White. The king’s pawn two fteps. Black.
The fame, — ad. W. The king’s biftiop at his queen’s bi¬
ftiop’s fourth fquare. B. The fame. — 3d. W. The queen's
bifliop’s pawn one move. B. The king’s knight at his
bifliop’s third fquare. — 4th. W. The queen’s pawn two
moves. B. The pawn takes it. — This pawn is played two
moves, for t wo very importat reafons ; the firft is, to hin¬
der your adverfary’s king’s bifhop to play upon your
king’s biftiop’s pawn ; and the fecond, to put the ftrength
of your pawns in the middle of the exchequer, which is
of great cor, fequence to attain the making of a queen,—
5th. W. The pawn retakes the pawn. — When you find
your game in' the prefent fituation, viz. one of your
pawns at your king’s fourth fquare, and one at your
queen’s fourth fquare, you muft pufii neither of them be¬
fore your adverfary propofes to change one for the other :
in this cafe you are to pufii forwards the attacked pawn.
It is to be oblerved, that pawns, when fuftjtined in a
front line, hinder very much the adverfary’s pieces to
enter into your game, or take any advantageous poft.
This rule may ferve for all other pawns thus fituated,
B. The king’s bifhop at his queen’s knight’s third fquare.
• — If, inftead of retiring his bifhop, he gives you check
with it, you are to cover the check with your bifhop, in
order to retake his bifhop with your knight, in cale lie
takes your bifhop ; your knight will then defend your
king’s pawn, otherwife unguarded. But probably he will
not take your biftiop, becaufe a^.gcod playerllrives to
keep his king’s bifhop as long as poflible. — 6th. W. The
queen’s knight at his bifhop’s third fquare. B. The king
cattles. — 7th. W. The king’s knight at his king’s fecond
fquare. — You muft not eafily play your knights at your
bithop’s third fquare, before the bifliop’s pawn has moved
two fteps, becaufe the knight proves an hindrance to the
motion of the pav/n. B. The queen’s bifliop’s pawn one
move. — 8 tli. IV. The king’s bifhop at his queen’s third
fquare. — Your bifhop retires to avoid being attacked by
the black queen’s pawn, which would force you to take
his pawn with your’s; this would very much diminifli the
ftrength of your game, and fpoil entirely the project al¬
ready mentioned, and oblerved in the firit and fecond
moves. B. The queen’s pawn two moves. — 9th. Wa The
king’s pawn one move. B. The king’s knight at his
king’s fquare. — ioth. W. The queen’s biftiop at his king’s
third fquare. B. The king’s' bif., op’s pawn one move _
He plays this pawn to give an opening to his king’s rook;
and this cannot be hindered, whether you take his pawn
or not'. — nth. W. The queen at her fecond fquare. — If
you fhould take the pawn offered to you, inftead of play¬
ing your queen, you would be guilty of a great fault, be¬
caufe your royal. pawn would then lofe its line ; whereas,
if he takes your king’s pawn, that of your queen fup-
plies the place, and you may afterwards fuftain it with
that of your king’s bifhop’s pawn : thefe two pawns will
undoubtedly win the game, becaufe they can now no
more be feparated without the lofs of a piece, or one of
them will make a queen, as will be feen by the fequel of
this game. Moreover, it is of no fma'l conlequence to
play your queen in that place, for two reafons ; the firft,
to fiupport and defend your king’s bifliop’s pawn; and,
fecondly, to fuftain your queen’s biftiop, which being
taken, would oblige you to retake his biftiop with the
above-mentioned laft pawn ; and thus your beft pawns
would have been totally divided, and of courfe the game
indubitably loft. B. The king’s bifhop’s pawn takes the
pawn. — He takes the pawn to purfue his project, which
is to give an opening to his king’s rook, and make it fit
for aftion. — 12th. W. The queen's pawn retakes it. B.
The queen’s bifhop at his king’s third fquare. — He plays
this biftiop to proteft his queen’s pawn, and with a view
to pufh afterwards that of his queen’s biftiop’s. He might
have taken your biftiop without prejudice to his fcheme,
but he chufes rather to let you take his, in order to get
an opening for liis queen’s rook, though he fuffers to
have liis knight’s pawn doubled by it ; but you are again
to obferve, that a double pawn is no ways difad vantage -
ous when furrounded by three or four otherpawns. How¬
ever, to avoid criticifm, this will be feen in the back-
game, beginning from this twelfth move, to which you
are lent after the party is over; the black biftiop will then
take your biftiop ; it will alfo be fhewn, that, playing well
on both fides, it will make no alteration in the cafe. The
king’s pawn, together with the queen’s or the king’s bi¬
ftiop’s pawn, well played, and well fuftained, will cer¬
tainly win the game. — 13th. W. The king’s knight at his
king’s biftiop’s fourth fquare,— Your king’s pawn being
as
CHESS.
as yet in no danger, your knight attacks his bifhop, in
ol der to take it, or have it removed. B. The queen at
her king’s fecond fquare. — 14th. TV. The queen’s bilhop
takes the black bifhop. — As it‘ is always dangerous to let
the adverlary’s king’s bifhop batter the line of your king’s
bifhop’s pawn; and as it is likewife the rnoft dangerous
piece to form an attack, it is not only neceflary to op-
pofe him by times to your queen’s bifhop, but you mud
get rid of that piece as foon as a convenient opportunity
offers. B. The pawn takes the bifhop. — 15th. TV. The
king caftles with his rook. — You chufe to cable on the
Ting’s fide, in order to ftrengthen and proteft your king’s
bifhop’s pawn, which you will advance two fteps as foon
as your king’s pawn is attacked. B. The queen’s knight
at his queen’s fecond fquare. — 16th. IV. The knight takes
the black bifliop. B. The queen takes the knight. —
17th. TV. The king's bifhop’s pawn two fteps. B. The
king’s knight at his queen’s bifhop’s fecond fquare. —
1 8th. TV. The queen’s rook at its king’s place. B. The
king’s knight’s pawn one move. — He is forced to play
this pawn, to hinder you from pufhing your king’s bi-
lhop’s pawn upon his queen. — 19th. TV. The king’s rook’s
pawn one move. — The king’s rook’s pawn is played to
unite all your pawns together, and pufli them afterwards
with vigour. B. The queen’s pawn one move. — noth. IV.
The knight at his king’s fourth fquare. B. The king’s
rook’s pawn one move. — He plays the pawn to hinder
your knight entering in his game, and forcing his queen
to remove ; were he to play otherwife, your pawns would
have an open field. — lift. TV. 1 he queen’s knight’s pawn
one move. B. The queen’s rook’s pawn one move. —
2id. TV. The king’s knight’s pawn two lteps. B. The
king’s knight at his queen’s fourth fquare. — 23d. TV. The
knight at his king’s knight’s third fquare. — You play
this knight to enable yourfelf to pufh your king’s bi¬
fhop’s pawn next ; it wiil be then fupported by three
pieces, the bifhop, the rook, and the knight. B. The
king’s knight at the white king’s third fquare. — He plays
this knight to hinder your projeft, by breaking theftrengtb
of your pawns, which he would undoubtedly do by pufh¬
ing his king’s knight’s pawn ; but you break his detign by
changing your rook for his knight. — 24th. TV. The queen’s
rook takes the knight. B. The pawn takes the rook. —
25th. TV. The queen takes the pawn. B. The queen’s
rook takes the pawn of the oppofite rook. — 26th, TV. The
rook at his king’s place. — You play your rook to protedl
your king’s pawn, which would remain in the lurch as
foon as you pufh your king's bifhop’s pawn. B. The
queen takefc the white queen’s knight’s pawn. — 27th. TV.
The queen at her king’s fourth fquare. B. The queen
at her king’s third fquare. — The queen returns to hinder
the check mate, now ready prepared. — 28th. TV. The
king’s bifhop’s pawn one move. B. the pawn takes it. —
29th. TV. The pawn takes again. — Were you not to take
with your pawn, your firft project, laid in the beginning
of the game, would be reduced to nothing, and you would
run the rifque of lofing the game. B ■ The queen at her
fourth fquare. — He offers to change queens, in order to
break your fcheme of giving him check-mate with your
queen and bifhop, — 30th. TV. The queen takes the queen.
B. The pawn takes the queen. — 31ft. TV. The bifhop
takes the pawn in his way. B. The knight at his third
fquare. — 32d. TV. The king’s bifhop’s pawn one move. —
You are to obferve, when your bifhop runs upon white,
you muft ftrive to put your pawn always upon black, be-
caufe then your bifliop ferves to drive away your adver-
fary’s king or rook when between your pawns ; the fame
when your bifliop runs upon black, to have then your
pawns, upon white. Few players have made this remark,
though a very eflential one. B. The queen’s rook at the
white queen’s knight’s fecond fquare — 33d. TV. The bifhop
at his queen’s third fquare. B. The king at his bifhop’'s
fecond fquare. — 34th. TV. The bifliop at the black king’s
bifhop’s fourth fquare. B. The knight at the white queen’s
bifhop’s fourth fquare, — 35th, TV, The knight at the black
415
king’s rook’s fourth fquare, B. The king’s rook gives
check. — 36th. TV. The bifliop covers the check. B. The
knight at the white queen’s fecond fquare. — 37th- TV. The
king’s pawn gives check. B. The king at his knight’s
third fquare. — As his king may retire at his bifhop’s
fquare, it is neceflary to fend you to a fecond back-ganie.
which will fhevv you how to proceed in this cafe. — 38th,
TV. The king’s bifhop’s pawn one move. B. The rook at
its king’s bifliop’s fquare. — 39th. TV. The knight gives
check at the fourth fquare of his king’s bifliop. B. The
king at his knight’s fecond fquare. — 42th. TV. The bifliop
at the black king’s rook’s fourth fquare. B. Plays any
where the white puflies to queen.
Being now driven to the firft back-game, it becomes a
continuation of the preceding game, from the 12th move.
1 2th. TV. The queen’s pawn retakes it. B. The king’s
bifliop takes the white queen’s bilhop. — 13th. TV. The
queen takes the bifliop. B. The queen’s bifliop at his
king’s third fquare. — 14th. TV. The king’s knight at his
king’s bifliop’s fourth fquare. B. The queen at her king’s
fecond fquare. — 15th. TV. The knight takes the bifhop.
B. The queen takes the knight. — if>th. TV. The king cat¬
tles his rook. B. The queen’s knight at his queen's fe¬
cond fquare. — 17th. TV. The king’s bifliop’s pawn two
moves. B. The king’s knight’s pawn one move. — iSth.
TV. The king’s rook’s pawn one move. B. The king's
knight at his fecond fquare. — 19th. TV. The king’s knight’s
pawn two fteps. B. The queen’s bifliop’s pawn one move.
— 20th. TV. The knight at his king’s fecond fquare. B.
The queen’s pawn one move. — 21ft. TV. The queen at her
fecond fquare. B. The queen's knight at his third fquare.
— 22d. TV. The knight at his king’s knight’s third fquare.
B. The. queen’s knight at his queen’s fourth fquare. —
23d. TV. The queen’s rook at its king’s fquare. B. The
queen’s knight at the white king’s third fquare. — 24th.
TV. The rook takes the knight. B. The pawn takes the
rook. — 25th. TV. The queen takes the pawn. B. The
queen takes the white queen’s rook’s pawn. — 26th. TV.
The king’s bifliop’s pawn one move. B. The queen takes
the pawn. — 27th. TV. The king’s bifliop’s pawn one move.
B. The knight at his king’s fquare. — 28th. TV. The king’s
knight’s pawn one move. B. The queen at the white
queen’s fourth fquare. — 29th. TV. The queen takes the
queen. B. The pawn takes the queen. — 30th. TV. The
king’s pawn one move. B. The knight at his queen’s
third fquare. — 31ft. TV. The knight at his king’s fourth
fquare. B. The knight at his king's bifhop’s fourth
fquare. — 32d. TV. The rook takes the knight. B. The
pawn takes the rock.— 33d TV. The knight at the white
queen’s third fquare. B. The king’s biihop’s pawn one
move, or any where ; the game being loft. — 34th. TV. The
king’s pawn one move. B. The king’s rook at its queen’s
knight's fquare. — 35th. TV. The bifhop gives check. B.
The king retires, having but one place. — 36th. TV. The
knight gives check. B. The king removes. — 37th. TV.
The knight at the black queen’s fquare difcovering
check. B. The king moves where he can. — 38th. TV. The
king’s pawn, making a queen, gives check-mate in the
mean time. There requires no animadverfions on the
moves of this back-gamej they being almoft all the fame
as in the firft game.
Being now driven to a fecond back-game , it will begin
from the 37th move.
37th. TV. The king’s pawn gives check. B. The king
at his bifhop’s 'fquare. — 38th. TV. The rook at its queen’s
rook’s fquare. B . The rook gives check at the white
queen’s knight’s fquare. — 39th. TV. The rook takes the
rook. B. The knight retakes the rook. — 40th TV. The
king at his rook's fecond fquare. B. The knight at the
white queen’s bifhop’s third fquare — 41ft. TV. The knight,
at his king’s biihop’s fourth fquare. B. The knight at
the white king’s fourth fquare. — 42d. TV. The knight takes
the pawn. B. The rook at its king’s knight’s fourth
fquare. — 43d. TV. The king’s pawn one move, and gives
check. B. The king at his bifhop's fecond fquare. — 4a.th.
W. The
.4*6 CHESS.
IK The bifliop gives check at the black king's third
fquare. B. The king takes the bifliop. — 4.5th. IK. The
king’s pawn makes a queen, and wins the game.
It is a fait, equally curious and remarkable, that this
game has been in vogue amongft the crowned heads and
nobility of almolt all the kingdoms of the earth. It is re¬
corded in the Modern Univerfal Hiftory, vol. ii. that A1
Amin, khalif of Bagdad, and his freedman Kuthar,
were playing at chefs, without the lead apprehenfion of
impending danger, when A1 Mamun's forces puttied the
liege of Bagdad with fo much vigour, that the City was
upon the point of being carried by ftorm. On this oc-
cafion he cried out, when he was warned of his danger,
“Let me alone! for I fee check-mate againft Kuthar.”
It is farther recounted of him, that he commanded the
different provinces of the empire, to fend to his court
all fuch perfons as were moft expert at chefs, to whom
be allowed penfions, and patted the moft confiderable
part of his time among them. This was about the year 808.
Ben-Ziad, khalif of Mecca, was very fond of chefs.
“ Is it not extraordinary,” faid he to the favourite he
was playing with, “that fixteen pieces, placed on fo
finall a plane as this chefs-board, fhould give me more
trouble to manage, than fo many millions of men, that
cover the immenfe furface of my empire ?”
In the chronicle of the Moorifh kings of Granada, we
find it related, that in 1396, Mehmed Baiba feized upon
the crown in prejudice of his elder brother, and patted
his life in one continued round of difafters. His wars
with Caftile were invariably unfuccefsful ; and his death
was occafioned by a poifoned veft. Finding his cafe def-
perate, he difpatched an officer to the fort of Solobrena,
to put his brother Juzaf to death, left that prince’s adhe¬
rents fhould form any obftacle to his foil’s fucceflion.
The alcayde found the prince playing at chefs with an
1 alfaque or prieft. Juzaf begged hard for two hour’s re-
fpite, which was denied him, At laft, with great reluc¬
tance, the officer permitted him to finifli his game 5 but,
before it was concluded, a mefienger arrived with the news
of the death of Mehmed, and the unanimous election of
Juzaf to the crown.
When Charles XII. of Sweden, was at Bender, Vol¬
taire fays, “forhis only amufement, he played fometimes
at chefs. If little things paint men, I may be allowed to
mention, that he always made the king march at that
game ; he made ufe of it more than any of the other
pieces, and by that means he loft every game. And
again, when he w'as befieged by the Turks, in thehoufe
in which he had fhut himfelf up, near Bender, after he
had well barricadoed his houfe, he fat down coolly to
play at chefs with his favourite Grothufen, as if every
thing had been in profound lecurity.”
Mr. Coxe fays, “ chefs is fo common in Ruflia, that
during our continuance at Mofcow, I fcarcely entered
into any company where parties were not engaged in that
diverfion ; and I very frequently obferved in my paffage
through the ftreets, the tradefmen and common people
playing it before the doors of their (hops orhoufes. The
Ruffians are efteemed great proficients in chefs ; with
them the queen has, in addition to the other moves,
that of the knight, which, -according to Philidor, fpoils
the game ; but which certainly renders it more compli¬
cated and difficult, and of courfe more interefting. The
Ruffians have alfo another method of playing the game of
chefs, namely, with four perfons at the fame time, two
againft two; and for this purpofe, the board is larger
than ufual, contains more men, and is provided with a
greater number of fquares. I was informed that this
method was more difficult, but far more agreeable than
the common game.”
In a battle between the French and Englifh, in the
year 1117, an Englifh knight feizing the bridle of the
French king, and crying to his comrades, the king is
taken ; the prince ftruck him to the ground with his
fword, faying, Ne fats tupas qu'uux echecs on ne prendpas
z
le roi ? — “Doft thou not know that at chefs the kings are
never taken?” The meaning of which is this : At the
game of chefs, when the king is reduced to that pafs
that there is no way for him to elcape, the game ends,
becaufe the royal piece is not to be expofed even to an
imaginary affront.
John Frederick, Ele&orof Saxony, having been taken
prifoner by Charles V. was condemned to death : the
decree was intimated to him while at chefs withErneftof
Brunfwick, his fellow-prifoner. After a fhortpaufe, and
making fome reflexions on the irregularity of the empe¬
ror’s proceedings, he turned to his antagonift, whom he
challenged to finilh the game. He played with his ufual
ingenuity and attention, and, having beat Erneft, expreff-
ed all the fatisfaflion that is commonly felt on gaming
fuch viftories. He was not, however, put to death, but
fet at iiberty after five years confinement.
King Charles I. was at chefs, when news was brought
of the final intention of the Scots to fell him to the Eng¬
lifh ; but fo little was he difcompofed by this alarming
intelligence, that he continued his game with the utmoft
compofure, fo that no perfon could have known that the
letter he had received had given him information of any
thing remarkable.
King John was playing at chefs, when the deputies
from Rouen came to acquaint him that their city W'as
befieged by Philip Auguftus, but he would not hear
them until he had finifhed his game.
Carte, the hiftorian, mentions a chefs-match in the
year 1087, between our Henry I. before he was king, and
Louis le Gros, fon to Philip king of France. Louis
having loft feveral games, and much money, was fo irri¬
tated, that he threw the cheflmen at Henry’s head ; in
return for which, Henry ftruck the French prince with
the board, laid him bleeding on the floor, and would
have killed him, had it not been for timely interpofition.
Daines Barrington is however unwilling to allow, either
to England or France, fo early an acquaintance with
chefs, as this relation afligns : he rather fuppofes the
game to have been drafts.
The late Dr. Franklin has made fome veiy ingenious
and applicable comparifons between the game of chefs
and the common affairs of human life. He fays that life
is a kind of chefs, in which we have often points to gain,
and competitors or adverfaries to contend with, and in
which there is a vaft variety of good and ill events, that
are, in fome degree, the eftefts of prudence or the want
of it. By playing at chefs, then, we may learn, ift. Fore¬
fight , which looks a little into futurity, and confiders the
confequences that may attend an ablion : for it is conti¬
nually occurring to the player, “ If I move this piece,
what will be the advantage of my new fituation ? What
ufe can my adverfary make of it to annoy me ? What
other moves can I make to fupport it, and to defend my-
felf from his attacks.” 2d. CircumfpeBion, which furveys
the whole chefs board, or fcene of aftion, the relations
of the feveral pieces, and fituations, the dangers they
are refpeftively expofed to, the feveral poffibilities of
their aiding each other, the probabilities that the ad¬
verfary may take tiffs or that move, and attack this
or the other piece, and what different means can be
uled to avoid his ftroke, to turn its confequences
againft him. 3d. Caution, not to make our moves too
haftily. This habit is beft acquired by obferving
ftribtly the law's of the game, fuch as, “If you touch
a piece, you muft move it lomewhere ; if you fet [it
down, you muft let it ftand and it is therefore beft
that thefe rules fhould be obferved, as the game thereby
becomes more the image of human life, anci particularly
of war 5 in which, if you have incautioufly put your-
felf into a bad and dangerous pofition, you cannot ob¬
tain your enemy’s leave to withdraw your troops, and
place them more fecui’ely, but you muft abide all the con¬
fequences of your rafhnefs. And laftly, we learn by
chefs the habit of not being difcouraged by prefent bad
appearances
CHE
appearances in the ftate of our affairs, the habit of hop¬
ing for a favourable change, and that of perfevering in
the fearch of refources. The game is fo full of events,
there is fuch a variety of turns in it, the fortune of it
is fo fubjefl to fudden viciffitudes, and fo frequently, after
long contemplation, one difcovers the means of extricat¬
ing onefelf from a fuppofed infurmountable difficulty,
that we are encouraged to continue the conteft to the
laft, in hopes of victory by our own fkill, or at leaft of
giving a ftale-mate by the negligence of our adverfary.
And whoever confiders, what in chefs lie often fees in-
flances of, that particular pieces of fuccefs are apt to pro¬
duce prefumption, and its confequent inattention, by
which the lofs may be recovered, will learn not to be too
much difcouraged by theprefent fuccefs of his adverfary,
nor to defpair of final good fortune, upon every little
check he receives in the purfuit of it.
CHESS-BOARD, f The board or table on which
the game of chefs is played :
And cards are dealt, and chefs-boards brought
To eafe the pain of coward thought. Prior.
CHESS-MAN, f. A puppet for chefs. — A company
of cbefs-men Handing on the fame fquares of the chefs-
board where we left them, we fay they are all in the fame
place, or unmoved. Locke.
CHESS-PLAYER, f. A gamefter at chefs. — Thus,
like a fkilful chefs-player, he draw's out his men, and makes
liis pawns of ule to his greater perl’ons. Dryden.
CHESS-PLAYER artificial j fee Automaton, vol.
ii. p. 579.
CHESS-TREES, in ffiip-building. See Naval Ar¬
chitecture.-
CHES'SOM, f. Mellow earth. — The tender cbejfom
and mellow earth is the bell, being mere mould, between
the two extremes of clay and fand ; efpecially if it be not
loomy and binding. Bacon.
CHES'SY, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhone and Loire: four leagues north-weft of Lyons.
CHEST, f. [cyyt, Sax. cijia, Lat.] A box of wood,
or other materials, in which things are laid up :
But more have been by avarice oppreft,
And heaps of money crouded in the chejl. Dryden.
A cheft of drawers, a cafe with moveable boxes or
drawers. The trunk of the body, or cavity from the
flioulders to the belly. — Such as have round faces, or
broad chejfs , or fhoulders, have leldom or never long-
necks. Brown.
To CHEST, <v. a. To repofite in a cheft ; to hoard.
CHEST-FOUN'DERING, f. A difeafe in horfes. It
comes near to a pleurify, or peripneumony, in a human
body. See Farriery.
CHF.ST'ED, adj. Having a cheft ; as, broad-chefted,
narrow-chefted, &c.
CHES'TER, a very ancient city, the capital of Chefhire,
fituated on the river Dee, about twenty miles from the Irifh
fea, a confiderabie time the ftation of the twentieth Roman
legion, the command of which was given to Julius Agri¬
cola, by the emperor Vefpafian, and of courle muft have
been builtbefore his time, but probably not many years,
though fanciful writers have dated its antiquity to a remote
period indeed. It is feated on the vveltern fide of the coun¬
ty, diftant about twenty miles eaft from Denbigh ; forty
north from Shre wfbury ; forty-fix north- weft from Stafford ;
feventy-fix north-welt from Derby ; andleventy-five fouth
from Lancafter. Lat. 530 15'N. Ion. 30 2/ W. from Lon¬
don ; its diftance from the latter city being 182 miles. Mr.
Pennant very concifely defcribes it in the following words:
“ The city is of a fquare form; which evinces the origin
to have been Roman, being in the figure of their camps,
with four gates facing the four cardinal points, four
principal ftreets, and a variety of Idler, crofting the others
at right angles, dividing the whole into Idler fquares.
The walls are built on a foft free-ftone rook, high above
Vol. IV. No. 207.
the circumjacent country and are faid to have been
built by the Mercian lady Ethelfleda. “ The ftru6ture
of the tour principal ftreets is without a parallel ; th6y
run dire6t from eaft to weft, and north to fouth, and were
excavated out of the earth, and funk many feet beneath
the furface. The carriages are driven far below the le¬
vel of the kitchens, on a line with ranges of {hops, over
which paffengers walk in galleries, which the inhabitants
call the row's, fecure from wet or heat. In the rows are
ranges of fhops,” and fteps to defcend into the ftreet.
Such is the antiquity of Chefter, that the Arranger, who
can pafs through without bellowing on it fome little
ffiare of attention, muft have an incurious eye indeed. — >
The exploring hand of time has, at different periods, pre-
fented to the antiquarian fome valuable treafures : among
thefe, is a Roman altar, erefted by Flavius Longus, tri¬
bune of the victorious 20th legion, and his fon Longinus,
in honour of the emperors Dioclefian apd Maximinian j
another, difcovered in 1653, (now at Oxford,) infcribed
to Jupiter; alfo, a ftatue of Mithras, and a beautiful al¬
tar, with other Roman antiquities, found in the yacht
field in 1779; the coins of Vefpafian, Conftantius, Tra¬
jan, Adrian, See. have at different times been found ; and
there is little doubt but Chefter is flill rich in records of
antiquity, which the refearclies of pofterity may pofftbly
difeover.
The city contains nine parifli churches, a Roman Ca¬
tholic chapel, and fix places of worfhip for Diffenters of
different perfuafions. It is faid to have been firlt erected
into a corporation in 1242, and is now governed by a
mayor, recorder, aldermen, fheriffs, common council-
men, &c. The city walls are kept in repair by an officer,
called a Murenger, and a rate called murage, on all im¬
ports by perfons not free of the city. The cultody of the
gates of Chefter was committed to very confiderabie no¬
blemen : Eaft-gate, to the earl of Oxford ; Bridge-gate,
to the earl of Shrewfbury ; Water-gate, to the earl of
Derby; and North-gate, to the mayor. The principal
manufafture is gloves : and its fairs are reforted to three
times a year by a great concourle of the Irifli linen mer¬
chants. The caftle is a noble ft ru 61 ure, having a tower
aferibed to Julius Caefar, and bearing his name, which*
as well as its workmanfhip, prove it to have been origi¬
nally built by the Romans, though the prefent w-alls are
evidently Norman. The number of inhabitants, includ¬
ing the fuburbs, is eftimated at 15,000. Here Henry II.
and Malcolm IV. of Scotland, had an interview in 1259,
and the latter ceded the three counties of Northumber¬
land, Cumberland, and Weftfnoreland, formerly wrefted
from the Englifti crown. Richard II. in his 12th year,
converted Chefter into a principality, annexing it to the
caftle of Holt, the lordffiip of Bromtield and Yale, Chirk-
land, and feveral other places in Wales and on the bor¬
ders, ena6fing that it fliould be given only to the king’s
eldeft foil. But Henry IV. relcinded an a6i that en¬
croached fo much on the dignity of his fon as prince of
Wales. The king’s eldeft is, however, created earl of
Chefter. The fweating ficknefs deftroyed here, in 1506,
ninety-one houfeholders in three days, and only four
women ; and was followed, in 1 517, by a dreadful pefti-
lence. A more grievous one viiited it in 1647, after it
w'as taken by the parliament forces, under fu- Wiiliam
Brereton, having held out a twenty weeks liege, and fur-
rendered February 3d, 1645-6, on terms that did honour
to the fpirit of the befieged. The markets are xept on
Wedneldays and Saturdays. The fairs on the laft
Thurfday in February for cattle ; July 5, and Oflober
10, for cattle, cloth, hardware, hops, and Manchefter
goods.
The Exchange is a large handfome pile, fupported by
five columns in the centre. It is 126 feet long, and for¬
ty-fix broad; and has a row of fhops on the weft, fide.
The year 1698 was the time of its ere6tion, in the mayor¬
alty of colonel Robert Whitley. The quarter feffions,
and the annual ^eftion of city officers, are held here in ».
jj 0 Large
4x8 CHE
large commodious common-hall. The exchange alfo
contains a manfion-houfe, for the occaiional entertain¬
ment of the corporate body.
The Cathedral hands on the eaftfideof the Northgate-
ftreet ; the reigns of Henry VI. VII. and VIII. are men¬
tioned as the periods in which the greater part of this
Jacred edilice was ereiSled. Simon Ripley, chosen abbot
in 1485, built the broad-aide. The abbey, which gave
birth to this fee, was of fuch antiquity as to have been a
nunnery more than eleven hundred years- ago. The
neatnels of the choir, and the Gothic appearance of the
tabernacle-work, have a pleafing effe£t on the eye. The
bifnop’s throne, which is fuperbly ornamented, is laid to
have been the ancient fhrine of St. Werberg. There are
in this lee two archdeaconries, Chefter and Richmond ;
it is a fuffragan to York; and the diocefe includes Che-(
fliire and Lancafhire, a part of Cumberland, Weftmore-
land, FJintfliire, and Denbighfhire. It contains 256 pa-
rifhes, ior of which are impropriate. The bifhopric is
valued in the king’s books at 420k is. 8d. and the tenths
of the clergy amount to 435I. 12s. per annum. Thefirll
bifhop of Chefter was John Bird, in 1541.
The church of St. John Baptill Hands without the
walls, in a moll delightful lituation, on the ealt lide of
the city ; it was once collegiate, and was founded by king
Ethelred, in 6 89, in confequence of a vifionary admoni¬
tion, to build it on the fpot where he fliould find a white
hind. The welt fide of the fteeple now prelents an im¬
perfect figure of this legend. The church is a magnifi¬
cent pile, and evidently of Saxon origin; there are no
remains of the north and fouth tranfepts, and a great
part of the ealt end is deinplifiied by the tall of the cen¬
tre tower. The chapels above the old choir (now the
parifn church) prefent melancholy pictures of the ravages
of time ; to the eye of the antiquary, thele ruins are a
rich fealt. Here is. an anchorite’s cell, where Harold,
after his defeat at Haltings, is faid to have doled his eyes.
Among the many public charities which dilvinguilli
this city, there is an excellent foundation for thirty de¬
cayed freemen, to each of whom is allowed the firm of
4I. annually, and a gown every third year. Here are
thirty alms-houles, exclufive of fix behind the Bluecoat-
fchool : namely, ten in St. Michael's parilli ; four in St.
John’s ; fix in Commonhall-lane ; fix in St. Olave’s parilh ;
and four in Trinity.
Four miles from the city is Eaton-hall, the fine feat of
Earl Grol'venor, and the 1'pacious forell of Delamere.
They fay here was formerly an old city, now called the
Chamber on the Foreif, .probably fome fort or camp to
fecure the road. From hence is a fine profpeCl of the VVelfh
mountains.
The jurifdiftion court of the county palatine of Chefter,
is under the magiftracy of the city. Where felony is
committed by any inhabitant of the palatine of Chefter,
in another county, procefs lhall be made to the exigent
•where the offence was done, and, if the offender then fly
into the county of Chefter, the outlawry lhall be certified
to the officers there. 1 H. 4. c. 18. The feffions for the
county palatine of Chefter, is to be kept twice in the
year, at Michaelmas and Ealter : and juftices of peace
in Chefter lhall be nominated by the Lord Chancellor.
Stats. 32 H. 8. c. 43. 33 H. 8. c. 13. Recognifances of
ftatutes-merchant may be acknowledged, and fines levied
before the mayor of Chefter, for lands lying there. 2 & 3
Ed. 6. c. 31. But no writ of protection lhall be granted
in the county palatine.
CHES' TER, a town of the American States, in Lunen¬
burg county, Nova Scotia, onMahonebay, fettled origi¬
nally by a few families from New-England. From Windior
.it is twenty-five miles.
CHES'TER, a town of the American States, in Hamp¬
shire county, Maflachufetts, adjoining Weftfield on the
ealt, and about twenty miles north-well of Springfield.
It contains 1119 inhabitants.
CHES'TER, a large, pkafant, and elegant town of
CHE
the American States, in Rockingham county, Neyv-Hamp-
fhire. It is twenty-one miles in length ; and on the weft
fide is a large lake, which fends its w'aters to Merrimack
river. It was incorporated in 17 22, and contains 1902
inhabitants, who are chiefly farmers. It is lituated on
the ealt fide of Merrimack river, fourteen miles north-
weft of Haverhill, as far weft of Exeter, thirty-five weft
by fouth of Portimouth, fix northerly of Londonderry,
and 306 from Philadelphia. From the compact part of
this town there is a gentle defcent to the lea, which, in
a clear day,- may be feen from thence. It is a poll town,
and contains a congregational church. Rattleihake bill,
in this townfhip, is a great curiolity : it is half a mile in
diameter, of a circular form, and 400 feet high. On the
fouth fide, ten yards from its bale, is the entrance of a.
cave, called the Devil’s Den, which is a room fifteen or
twenty feet fquare, and four feet high, floored and cir¬
cled by a regular rock, from the upper part of which
are dependent many excrefcences, nearly in the form and.
fize of a pear, which, when approached by a torch,
throw' out a fparkiing luftre of almoft every hue. It is a.
cold, dreary place, of which many frightful ftories are
told by thole who delight in the marvellous.
CHES'TER, a town of the American States, in Wind-
for county, Vermont, weft of Springfield, and eleven
miles weft by fouth of Chaiieftown, in New-Hamplhire,
and contains 981 inhabitants.
CHES'TER, a borough and poft town of the Ameri¬
can States, in Pennlyl vania, and the capital of Delaware
county, pleafantly fituated on the weft fide of Delaware
river, near Marcus Hook, and thirteen miles north-eaft
of Wilmington. It contains a court lioufe and a goal.
From Cheiter to Philadelphia is twenty miles by water,
and fifteen north-eaft by land ; here the river is narrowed
by illands of marfh, which are generally banked, and
turned into rich and valuable meadows. The firft colo¬
nial aflembly was convened here, the 4th of December,
1682. The place aifords genteel inns and good enter¬
tainment, and is the refort of much company from the
metropolis, during the fummer feafon. It was incorpo¬
rated in December, 1795, and is governed by two burgelfes,
a conllable, a town-clerk, and three affiltants.
CHES'TER, a county of the American States, in
Pennfylvania, Vveft of Delaware county, and fouth-wefl
of Philadelphia ; about forty-five miles in length, and
thirty in breadth. It contains thirty-three townfliips,
of which Weft-Chefter is the (hire town, and 27,937 in¬
habitants. Iron ore is found in the northern parts,
which employs fix forges. Tliefe manufacture about
1000 tons of bar-iron annually.
CHES'TER, a town of the American States, in Shan-
nandoali county, Virginia, fituated on the point of land
formed by the junction of Allen’s or North River, and
South River, which form the Shannandoah ; fixteen.
miles fouth by well of Winchefter. Lat. 39. 2. N, Ion.
78.22. W.
CHES'TER, a county of the American States, in
Pinckney diftrifl, South Carolina, on Wateree river,
containing 6866 inhabitants. It lends two reprefenta-
tives, but no fenator, to the (late legiflature.
CHES'TER, a town of the American States, in Cum¬
berland county, Virginia, fituated on the louth-weft bank
of James river, fifteen miles north of Biandford, and
fix louth of Richmond.
CHES'TER-RIVER, a navigable water of the eaftern
ffiore of Maryland, which rifes two miles within the line
of Delaware ltate, by two fources, Cyprus and Andover
creeks, which unite at Bridgetown ; runs nearly louth
weftward ; after palling Cheiter it runs louth nearly three
miles, when it receives fouth-eaft creek, and fifteen miles
farther, in a louth-weft direction, it empties into Chela-
peak bay, at Love point. It forms an ifiand at its mouth,
and by a channel on the ealt lide of Kent Ifle, commu¬
nicates with Eaftern bay.
CHES'TER le STREET, an ancient tcwn, in the
county
CHE
county of Durham, through which runs the great
polt-road from London to Edinburgh, fix miles north
from the city of Durham, and nine miles fouth
from Newcaltle-upon-Tyne. It is pleafantly fitruated in
a valley, upon the well tide of the river Wear. It de¬
rives much benefit from the great number of coal-mines
carried on in its neighbourhood. The town confills of
only one llreet, about three quarters of a mile long,
running nearly north and fouth. Camden informs us,
that it was a Roman Ration, and the firft wing of the
Allures lay there in garrifon. It was. called Chejler on the
Street, from its being on the Roman caufeway. The
Saxons called it Concejlcr, or Conkchejier, from a rivulet
called Cone, which runs through the north end of it,
over which is a fmall itone bridge of three arches, no¬
ticed by Leland in his Itinerary. In the year 882, Ear-
dulph, bilhop of Lindisfarn, or Holy Ifland, fled to this
place with his clergy and the remains of St. Cuthbert,
as a place of fafety from the cruelty of the Danes, who
had pillaged Holy Ifland, and were carrying all before
them with fire and fword. After railing a church of
wood, the fee was fixed here, which continued for 113
years, in a fucceflion of eight bifhops : and from hence
it was removed in 995, by Aldhunus the lall bilhop, to
Durham. Egelrick, the fourth bilhop, took down this
church of wood and railed one of Hone 5 in digging the
foundation of which, he found fuch a large fum of mo¬
ney (buried, as was fuppofed, by the Romans), that he
gave up the bilhopric, and returned to the monallery of
Peterborough, where he had been abbot. The church
•was dedicated to St. Mary and St. Cuthbert, and was a
redlory till 1286, when Anthony Beck, then bifhop of
Durham, made it a collegiate church, with a dean, feven
prebendaries, five chaplains, three deacons, and other
minifters. The church, though low, is well built, and
the infide is very neat. In the north aifle, is a very fine
arrangement of monuments of the ancient and noble fa¬
mily of the Lumleys, beginning at Liulphus in the time
of the Conqueror, down to the reign of queen Elizabeth,
eredled, by John lord Lumley, in 1595. There is a fine
fpire on this church, fuppofed to be the neatell in the
north of England.
About a mile eall, on the oppofite fide of the Wear, on a
moll delightful riling ground, Hands Lumley Callle, the
ancient feat of the Lumleys, but now of the right hon¬
ourable lord Scarborough. An anecdote of James I. has
been handed down here with much pleafantry, and is re¬
garded as authentic. The king, with the bifhop of Dur¬
ham, paid a vifit to lord Lumley, 'at this callle, when
his lordlhip entertained his majelly with Ihewing him a
very beautiful, long, and uninterrupted, pedigree of his
family. The king, wearied with its length, defired his
lordlhip to allow him to digelt what knowledge he had
got j “ for by my faul (exclaims his majelly) I did na ken
that Adam’s name was Lumley.”
CHES'TER RIDGE, a mountain of United America,
in the ftate of Pennfylvania, in which iron and lead ores
are found : 140 miles weft-north-well of Philadelphia.
CHES'TERFIELD, the chief town in the beautiful
and fertile vale of Scarfdale, and the fecond confiderable
town in the county of Derby, is pleafantly fituated be¬
tween two rivulets, the Hyper and Rotlier, in a prolific
foil. The Saxon name of Chejler proves it to be a place
of antiquity. It contains, in the town and neighbour¬
hood immediately adjoining, near 1000 houfes and about
50 co inhabitants, and is a very flourilhing and increafing
place. It has a filk and a cotton-mill, a manufadtory of
worked and cotton llockings, carpets, &c. Ten potteries
are eflablifhed here ; and near the town are large iron
foundries, the ore and coal for which are dug in the
neighbourhood. Large quantities of lead are fent from
Cheiterfield by the new canal, cut from this place to the
river Trent, which it joins below Gainlborough. This
conveyance alio lerves for the iron and other heavy
CHE 4 r 9
goods; much corn, groceries, &c. are alfo brought up,
to the great benefit of the town and neighbourhood.
Cheiterfield was formerly an ancient demefne belong¬
ing to the crown. King John made it a free borough,
and in the 6th year of his reign gave it his great favourite, '
William Biiever; he likewile granted it the lame privi¬
leges as were enjoyed by the towns of Nottingham and
Derby. By his charter he eftsblilhed a fair during eight
days, beginning a^the Exaltation of the Holy Croi's ; and
two weekly markets, on Tuefdays and Saturdays, the
former of which has been long dilcontinued. In the year
1294, a guild; of merchants was granted to the town,
with all privileges appertaining thereto, and it was go¬
verned by an alderman and twelve brethren, until the
reign ol Queen Elizabeth, who firft incorporated it under
the name of the mayor, fix aldermen, fix brethren, and
twelve capital burgeffes, who are alllfted by a town-
clerk. It gives title of earl to the family of Stanhope.
The church is a large handfome ftru&ure, with eight
bells, built in the form of a cathedral, and dedicated to
All Saints. The fpire, which rifes to the height of 230
feet, is covered with lead ; and, by its extraordinary ap¬
pearance, (for, on whatever fide you view it, it appears
not only twilled, but to lean,) furprizes every lpedlator.
The free-fehool was founded in the reign of queen
Elizabeth, and was formerly one of the largeft in the
north of England. The mailer and ulher are both cler
gymen. Here are feveral alms-houfes ; fix iituated within
the Saltern-gate, and five others fituated in the church¬
yard..
Cheiterfield has more than once been vifited by that
dreadful calamity the plague. It began in October 1586,
and was called the great plague, to diftinguilh it from a
lefs fatal infection which broke out in 1608-9. That ve¬
nerable antiquary, Dr. Pegge, has given a particular ac¬
count of this ; and has traced the Roman road called the
Iknild, or Rignell-llreet, to the very fuburbs of the town,
He has alfo given a particular account of the battle fought
at Chefterfield in the reign of Henry III. in 1266, and
publilhed feveral antiquities of the neighbourhood, which
may be feen in the Archasologia.
The market, which is on Saturdays, is large, and well
fupplied with corn, provifions, &c. and the fairs are on
January 27 * February 28, the firft Saturday in April,
May 4, July 4, September 25, Nand November 25. Chef¬
terfield is diilant from Sheffield twelve miles, Derby
twenty-fix, Buxton twenty-three, and 149 from London,
Hardwick-Hall and Chatfworth, two noble feats be¬
longing to the duke of Devonlhire, are in the neighbour¬
hood of Chefterfield.
Bolfover- Callle, the feat of the duke of Portland, is
fix miles from this town; it Hands on a riling ground,
and commands one of the finell profpefts in England,
At the diftance of two miles, is Whittington, where the
earl of Devonlhire, the earl of Danby, and their coad¬
jutors, uied to meet and confult on the means of bring¬
ing about the glorious revolution. The room called the
plotting-parlour, and the chair in which the earl of De¬
vonlhire ufed to fit, is Hill to be feen.
CHES'TERFIELD, a town of the American States,
in Hamplhire county, Maffachulets, fourteen miles welt
of Northampton. It contains, by the cenfus, 1183 inha¬
bitants.
CHES'TERFIELD, a town cf the American States, in
Chelhire county, New-Hamplhire, on the eall bank of
Connecticut river, having Weftmoreland north and Hinf-
dale fouth. It was incorporated in 175a, and contains
1905 inhabitants. It lies about twenty-five miles fouth
by weft of Charleftown, and 100 welt of Portfmouth.
About the year 1730, the garrifon of fort Dummer was
alarmed with frequent explofions and with columns of
fire and fmoke emitted from Weft-river mountain, in this
townlhip, and four miles diilant from that fort. The
like appearances have been oblerved at various times
fincej
4*0 C H E
fined; particularly one in 1752, was the molt fevere of
any. There are- two places, where the rocks bear traces
of having been heated and calcined, and evident marks
of an approaching volcano.
CHESTERFIELD, a county of the American States,
in South Carolina, in Cheraws diftridh, on the north Ca¬
rolina line. It is about thirty miles long, and tiventy-
nine broad.
CHESTERFIELD, a county of the American States,
in Virginia, between James and Appamatox rivers. It
is about thirty miles long, and twenty-five broad ; and
contains 14,214 inhabitants.
CHESTERFIELD Inlet, on the weft fide of Hud-
fon’s-bay, in New South Wales, upwards of 200 miles in
length, and from ten to thirty in breadth ; fuil of iflands.
. CHESTER'FIELD (earl of). See Heraldry, and
Stanhope.
CHES'TERTOWN, a poll; town of the American
States, and the capital of Kent county, Maryland, on
the weft fide of Chefter river, fixteen miles fouth-weft of
Georgetown, thirty-eight eait by fouth from Baltimore,
and eighty-one fouth-weft of Philadelphia. It contains
a college, court-houfe, and gaol. The college was in¬
corporated in 1782, by the name of Walhington. It is
under the direction of twenty-four trullees, who are
empowered to lupply vacancies and hold eftates, whofe
yearly value fliall not exceed 6000I. currency. In 1787,
it had a permanent fund of 1250I. a year fettled upon it
by law. Lat. 39. 12. N. Ion. 75. 57. W.
CHESTNUT, f [ ebafaigne , Fr. cafatiea, Lat.] The
fruit of the cheltnut tree :
A woman’s tongue.
That gives not half fo great a blow to th’ ear,
As will a chef nut in a farmer’s fire. Sbakefpeare.
The name of a brown colour:
Merab’s long hair was glofly chejhiat brown. Cowley.
CHESTNUT, f. in botany. See Fagvs.
CHESTNUT, Horse, f. in botany. See AEsculus.
CHE'TA, a river of Siberia, which runs into the
Chstanga. Lat. 70.20. N. Ion. 125. 15. E. Ferro.
CHE'TA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Enifei.
Lat. 69. 40. N. Ion. 103. E. Ferro.
CHETE'CAN Head, a cape on the weft coaft of the
ifland of Cape Breton. Lat. 46.40. N. Ion 60. 45. W.
Greenwich.
CHETI'MACHAS, a lake of North America, in Loui-
fraiva, near the mouth of the Miffiftippi, twenty-four miles
long, and nine broad. Lake de Portage, which is thir¬
teen miles l-ong, and one and a'half broad, communicates
with this lake at the northern end, by a ftraita quarter
of a mile wide. The country bordering on th tie lakes,
is low and flat, timbered with cyprefs, live and other
kinds of oak ; and on the eaftern fide, the land between
it and the Chafalaya river is divided by innumerable
ftreams, which occafion as many iflands. Some of thefie
ft reams are navigable. A little diltance from the fouth
eaftern ftiore of the lake Chetimachas, is an ifland where
perfons pafling that way generally halt as a refting place.
Nearly opposite this ifland, there is an opening which
.leads to the fea. It is about 150 yards wide, and has fix¬
teen or feventeen fathom water.
CIIET'TENHAM, a town of the American States, in
Montgomery county, Pennfiylvania.
CHETRAN, a town of Arabia : fix miles fouth of
Kalaba.
CHE'VAGE, f [ chevagium , Lat. from the Fr. chef,
head. ] A tribute or film of money, formerly paid by fueh
as held lands in villenage to their lords, in acknowledg¬
ment, and was a kind of head or poll money. Of which
B radio n, lib. 1. cap. 10, fays thus ; Chevagium dicitur re-
.cognitw in fignionfubjeElionis & dominii de capite fuo. Lam-
bard writes this word chivage ; but it is more properly
chief age,: and anciently the Jews, whilft they were ad-
s
CHE
milted to live in England, paid chevage or poll-money
to the king, as appears by 8 Edvu. 1. It feems alfo to
be ufed for a lum of money, yearly given to a man of
power for his protedlion, as a chief head or leader: but
Lord Coke fays, that in this fignification, it is a great
mifprifion for a lubjedl to take fums of money, or other
gifts yearly of any, in name of chevage, becauie they take
upon them to be their chief heads or leaders, Co. Lit. 140.
Spelman in v. Chevagium fays, it is a duty paid in Wales,
pro filiabus maritandis.
CHEVA'GNES, a town of France, in the department
of the Allier, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift
of Moulins : nine miles eaft of Moulins.
CHEVALIER',/, [chevalier, Fr.] A knight 5 a gallant
ftrong man :
Renowned Talbot doth expedt my aid ;
And I am lowted by a traitor villain,
And cannot help the noble chevalier. Sbakefpeare.
CHEVALIER', with horfemen, is when a horfe in paf-
faging upon a walk or trot, his far fore-leg erodes or over¬
laps the other fore- leg every time or motion.
CHEVAN'CY le CHATEAU, a town of the Nether,
lands, in the duchy of Luxemburg, about three miles
from Montmedy.
CHE'VAUX de Frise,/ [Fr. The lingular Ckeval de
Erife is feldom ufed.] The Friefland horfe, which is a
piece of timber, larger or fmaller, and travelled with
wooden fpikes, pointed with iron, five or fix feet long;
ufed in defending a pafiage, flopping a breach, or making
a retrenchment to Hop the cavalry. It is alio called a
turnpike or tourniquet.
CHE'VEN, f. [ cbevefne , Fr.] A river filh, the fame
with chub.
CHE'VERIL, / [ ckevereau , Fr.] A kid ; kid-leather.
Obfolete. — O, here’s a wit of cbeveril, that ftretches from
an inch narrow to an ell broad. Sbakefpeare.
CHE'VERNY, a town of France, in the department
of the Loire and Cher : leven miles fouth of Blois.
CHEVIL'LY, a town of France : five miles fouth of
Paris.
CHE'VIOT HILLS, are hills in the county of North¬
umberland, near which was a free chace called Cheviot ,
corruptly Chevy Chace , the feat of the encounter between
the Percies and the Douglafles, celebrated in the ancient
popular fong : fix miles from the borders of Scotland,
and eighteen Youth of Berwick.
CHEVI'RE, a town of France, in the department of
the Mayne and Loire : five miles north-weft of Bauge.
CHE'VISANCE,/ [from cbevir, Fr. i. e. Venir a chef de
quelque chofe, to come to the head or end of a bufineis.]
An agreement or compofition made ; an end or order fet
down between a creditor or debtor; or fometimes an in¬
direct gain in point of ulury, &c. In fome ancient lta-
tutes it is often mentioned, and feems commonly ufed
for an unlawful bargain or contiaft. In the flat. 13 Eliz.
c. 7, it is ufed limply, in the fenfe explained by Dufrefne,
for making contracts.
CHEVREAU' (Urban), was born at Loudun, in
France, in 1613. His inclination led him to the lludy of
the belles lettres, in which he made fo considerable pro-
greis, that he obtained a diftinguilhed rank among the
learned. His application to letters however did not un¬
qualify him for bufinefs ; for he was a man of great ad-
drefs and knowledge of the world, and on that account
advanced to be fecretary to Chriftina queen of Sweden.
The king of Denmark engaged him alio at his court.
Several German princes entertained him, and among the
reft the elector palatine Charles Lewis, father to the
duchefs of Orleans. At his return to Paris, he was made
preceptor and afterwards fecretary to the duke of Mayne.
Then lie retired to Loudun, where he died in 1701, al-
nioft 88 years of age. He was the author of an Univerfal
Hiftory, which Was much efteemed.
CHEVRE'GNY, a town of France, in the department
of
CHE
of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt
of Laon : five miles fouth of L'aon.
CHE/VRES, a town of France, in the department of
the Charente: eighteen miles ealt of Angoulefme.
CHEVREU'SE, a town of France, in the department
of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrifl of Verlailles : eight miles fouth-weft of Ver-
failles.
CHEVRON', f [French.] One of the honourable or¬
dinaries in heraldry. It reprefents two rafters of a houfe
fet up as they ought to (land.
CHEUX, a town of France, in the department of Cal¬
vados, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of Caen :
two leagues weft of Caen.
To CHEW, ru.a. [ceopyan, Sax. hauwen, Dutch. It
is very frequently pronounced chaw, and perhaps pro¬
perly.] Togrind with the teeth ; to mafticate. — By chew¬
ing, folid aliment is divided into f’mall parts : in a human
body, there is no other inftrument to perform this^adfion
but the teeth. By the adiion of chewing , the Ipittle and
mucus are fqueezed from the glands, and mixed with the
aliment ; which adiion, if it be long continued, will turn
the aliment into a fort of chyle. Arhuthnot. — To meditate j
or ruminate in the thoughts :
While the fierce monk does at his trial Hand,
He chews- revenge, abjuring his offence ;
Guile in his tongue, and murder is his hand.
He ftabs bis judge, to prove his innocence. Prior.
To tafte without fwallowing ;
Heaven’s in my mouth,
As if I did but chew its name. Shakefpeare.
Some books are to betafted, others to be fwallowed, and
fome few to be chewed and digefted : that is, fome books
are to be read only in parts ; others to be read, but not curi-
oufly ; and fome few to be read wholly,with attention. Bacon.
To CHEW, v. n. To champ upon ; to ruminate :
Old politicians chew on wifdom paft,
And blunder on in bufinefs to the laft. Pope.
CHEYNE (George), a phyfician of great learning and
abilities, born in Scotland in 1671, and educated at Edin¬
burgh under Dr. Pitcairn. He palfed his youth in clofe
fludy, and with great temperance; but coming to Lon¬
don, when about thirty, and finding the younger gentry
and free-livers to be the moll Cafy of accefs and mod fuf-
ceptible of friendfhip, he changed on a Hidden his for¬
mer manner of abiteminous living, in order to force a
trade, having obferved this method to lucceedwith fome
others. The confequence was, that he grew daily in
bulk, and in intimacy with his gay acquaintance; dwel¬
ling to fuch an enormous fize, that at length he exceeded
thirty-two Hone weight; and was forced to have the
whole fide of his chariot made open to receive him. He
grew fhort breathed, lethargic, nervous, and fcorbutic ;
fio that his life became a burden to him. In this deplora¬
ble condition, after having tried all the power of medicine
in vain, he refolved to try a milk and vegetable diet ; the
good effects of which quickly appeared. His fize was
gradually reduced, and he recovered his ftrength, activity,
and cheerfulnefs, with the perfect ufe of all his faculties.
In fhort, by a regular adherence to this regimen, he lived
to a mature age, dying at Bath in 1740, aged 72. He
wrote feveral treatifes that were well received ; particu¬
larly an Effay on Health and Long Life, and The Englifh
Malady, or a Treatife of Nervous Difeafes ; both the re-
fult of Jiis own experience. In fhort, he had great reputa¬
tion in his own time, both as a pradlitioner and as a writer ;
and moft of his books paffed through feveral editions.
He is to be ranked among thofe phyficians who have ac¬
counted for the operations of medicines, and the morbid
alterations which takes place in the human body, upon
mechanical principles. A fpirit of piety and of benevo-
Vol. IVo No.. 208.
C H I 421
lence, and an ardent zeal for the interefts of virtue, are
predominant throughout his writings.
CHE'ZE (La), a town of France, in the department
of the North Coafts, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridt of Loudeac : one league and a half fouth-eaft of
Loudeac.
CHE'ZERY, a town of Savoy, ceded to France in
the year 176c.
CHE'ZY l’ABBAYE, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diltribt of Chateau Thierry : one league and a half
louth-fbuth-weft of Chateau Thierry.
CHI-HING, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Quang-tong : fix leagues fouth-weft of
Nan-yong.
CHI'A, f. [from Xio;, an ifland where they are propa¬
gated], A fweet fig of the ifland of Chio or Scio. Alfo
an earth from that ifland, formerly uled in fevers, but
long fince difcontinued.
CHIABRE'RA (Gabrielo), an Italian poet, born at
Savone in 1552. He went to ftudy at Rome, where
Aldus Manutius and Muretus gave him their friendftiip,
and aided him with their counfels. Urban VIII. and the
princes of Italy, honoured him with many public marks
of elleem. In 1624, Urban, himfelf a poet, as wel! as
a protestor of poets, invited him to Rome for the holy
year; but Chiabrera excufed himfelf, on account of old
age and infirmities. He died at Savone in 1638, aged
86. As he was one of the greateft wits, fo he had ano¬
ther Angularity, which was, to be one of the uglieft men
in Italy. He left heroic, dramatic, paftoral, and lyric,
poems, which were collebled and publifhed at Rome, in
1718, 8vo. by the abbe Paolucci. His lyrics are faid to
be the moft efteenied.
CHIAMET'LAN, a maritime province of Mexico, in
North America, with a town of the fame name, faid to
be thirty-feven leagues either way, from north to fouth
or from eaft to weft. It is very fertile, contains mines
of lilver, and produces a great deal of honey and wax.
TThe native Indians are well made and warlike. The ri-
Ver St. Jago empties into the fea here, norfh-weft from
the point of St. Bias. The chief town is St. Sebaftian.
CHIAMET'LAND-ISLANDS, a duller of linall
iflands in the Pacific Ocean, near the coaft of Mexico.
Lat. 22. 20. N. Ion. 86. 40. W. Ferro.
CHIAM'PA, a country of Afia, bounded on the north
by the defert of Cochinchina, on the eaft and fouth by
the Indian Sea, and on the weft by Cambodia. It is little
known.
CHIA'NA, a river of Italy, which joins the Tiber,
about ten miles fouth of Orvieto.
CHIAN'NI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany;
fixteen miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Leghorn.
CHIANT'LA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Chiapa: 100 miles fouth-eaft of Chiapa dos Elpagniolos.
CHI'AOUS,y!a word in the original Turkifh, fignifying
“ envoys,” are officers to the number of 5 or 600 in the
grand fignior’s court, under the command of a chiaous
bafchi. They frequently meet in the grand vifier’s pa¬
lace, that they may be in readinefs to execute his orders,
and carry his difpatches into all the provinces of the em¬
pire. The chiaous bafchi aflifts at the divan, and intro¬
duces thofe who have bufinefs there.
CHIA'PA, a river and inland province of Mexico or
New-Spain, in the audience of Mexico. This province
is bounded by Tobafco on the north; by Yucatan north-
eaft; by Socunufco fouth-eaft; and by Vera Paz on the
eaft. It is eighty-five leagues from eaft to weft, and about
thirty where narroweft, but fome parts are near too. It
abounds with woods of pine, cyprefs, cedar, oak, walnut,
wood-vines, aromatic gums, balfams, liquid amber, taca-
mahaca, copal, and others, that yield pure balfams ; alfo
with corn, cocoa, cotton, and cochineal; pears, apples,
quinces, &c. IJere they have achiotte, which the natives
5 P mi#
422 CHI
mix with their chocolate to give it a bright colour,
Cbiapa abounds with cattle of all forts ; it is famous for
a fine breed of horfes, fo valuable, that they fend their
colts to Mexico, though 500 miles diftant. Bealls of prey
are herein abundance, with foxes, rabbits, and wild hogs.
In this province there is variety of fnakes, particularly
in the hilly parts, fome of which are faid to be twenty
feet long, others of a curious red colour, and ftreaked
with white and black, which the Indians tame, and put
them about their necks. The Chiapefe are of a fair com¬
plexion, courteous, underftand mulic, painting, and me¬
chanics, and are obedient to their fuperiors. The prin¬
cipal river is that of Chiapa, which running from the
north through the country of the Quelens, falls into the
fea at Tabalco. It is well watered 5 and by means of
Chiapa river, they carry on a brilk trade with the neigh¬
bouring provinces, which chiefly confifts in cochineal
and filk ; in which laft commodity the Indians employ
their wives for making handkerchiefs of all colours,
which are bought up by the Spaniards and lent to Eu¬
rope. Though the Spaniards reckon this one of their
pooreft provinces in America, as having no mines of gold
or filver, nor any harbour on the South Sea, yet in ilze
it is inferior to none but Guatimala. Befides, it is a place
of great importance to the Spaniards, becaule the ftrength
of all their empire in America depends on it ; and into
it is an eafy entrance by the river Tabafco, Puerto Real,
and its vidinity to Yucatan.
CHIA'PA, the name of two towns in the above pro¬
vince; the one is fometimes called Cividad Real, or the
Royal city, and the other Cbiapa de los Indos, inhabited
by Spaniards. Cividad Real is a bifhop's fee, and the
feat of the judicial courts. It is delightfully lituated on
a plain, furrounded with mountains, and almoft equally
diftant from the north and fouth feas, and 100 leagues
north-weft from Guatimala. The bifhop’s revenue is
8000 ducats a year. It has feveral monafteries ; and the
cathedral is an elegant ftrudure. This city is governed
by magiftrates cliolen amongft the burgefles of the town,
by a particular privilege granted them by the king of
Spain. Lat. 17. N. Ion. 96. 4.0. W.
The other town, called Chiapa de los Indos, that is, as
belonging to the Indians, is the largeft they have in this
country, and lies in a valley near the river Tabafco, which
abounds with fifh, and is about twelve leagues north-weft
of Chiapa, or Cividad Real. The celebrated Bartholomew
de las Cafas, the friend of mankind, was the firft bilhop
of Chiapa and, having complained to the court of Ma¬
drid of the cruelties of the Spaniards here, procured the
people great privileges, and' an exemption from flavery.
This is a very large and rich place, with many cloifters and
churches. On the river they have feveral boats, in which
they often exhibit fea-fights and lieges. In the environs
are feveral farms well ftocked with cattle, and fome fugar
plantations.
CHIAREN'ZA, or Clarence, a town of European
Turkey, on the weft coaft of the Morea, near the Medi¬
terranean, near the river Sillus, once a confiderable place,
but now almolt ruined : eighty-four miles fouth-weft of
Livadia, and eighty weft of Corinth.
CHIA'RI, a town of Italy, in the Breflan, between
Brefcia and Crema, where the Imperialifts obtained a vic¬
tory over the French in 1701 : twelve miles weft of Brefcia.
CHIA'RI (Jofeph), a celebrated Italian painter, was
the difciple of Carlo Maratti ; and adorned the churches
and palaces of Rome with a great number of fine paint¬
ings. He died of an apoplexy in 1727, aged 73.
CHIAROMON'TE, a town of Sicily, in the Valley of
Noto : twenty-five miles weft of Syracufe.
CHIAS'CIO, a river of Italy, which runs into the Ti¬
ber, near Torfciano.
CHIASEL'LIS, a town of Italy, in the country of Fri¬
uli, belonging to the ftate of Venice ; feven miles weft
«f Palma-la-Nuova,
C H I
CHIAVA'N, a town of Perlia, in the province of Ghi*
lan : 120 miles north-weft of Relhd.
CHIAVA'RI, a town of Italy, in the ftate of Genoa:
fifteen miles weft-north-weft of Brugneto.
CHIAVEN'NA (County of), a country of Swifierlancf,
in alliance with the Grifons, fituated at the foot of the
Rbetian Alps, to the north of the lake of Como, about
eight leagues long, and fix wide. The country is for
the molt part fertile in wine and paftures. The inhabi¬
tants raife a good deal of filk ; but not corn fufficient for
their wants ; this they obtain of their neighbours for cat-
tie, wine, and filk. The inhabitants are Catholics, and
depend on the bifhop of Como for fpiritual matters. It
came under the Grifons at the fame time with the Valte-
line, and is governed by a commiflary.
CHIAVEN'NA, a town of Swiflerland, and capital of
the county of the fame name. It is fituated at the foot
and upon the fide of a mountain, and contains about
3000 fouls. The inhabitants carry on but little commerce.
The principal articles of exportation are ftone pots, cal¬
led lavezzi, and raw filk. The whole country produces
about 3,600 pounds of the laft commodity. A manufac¬
ture of filk ftockings, the only one in the town, has been
lately eftablifhed. The neighbouring country is covered
with vineyards; but the wine is of a meagre fort, and
only a fmall quantity is exported. The great fupport of
Chiavenna is the tranfport of merchandize, this town
being the principal communication between the Milanefe
and Germany. From hence the goods are fent either by
Coire into Germany, or through Pregalia and the Enga-
dinas into the Tyrol. There is a duty laid by the Grifons
upon all the merchandize which palles through Chiaven¬
na ; but this duty is fo fmall, that the whole cuftoms, in¬
cluding thofe in the Valteline, are fanned for 17,000 flo¬
rins, or about 1260]. per annum. The principal objed
of curiofity in the environs of Chiavenna is the fortrefs
in ruins, feated upon thefummit of a rock, which over¬
looks the town, and celebrated in the hiftory of the Gri¬
fons for its almoft impregnable ftrength. Thirty-eight
miles north of Como, and thirty-five fouth of Coire. Lat.
46. 12. N. Ion 9. 31. E. Greenwich.
CHIAUL'SA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Tlafcala : twenty miles fouth-weft of Puebla de los An¬
gelos.
CHIAVORO'TO, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Carinthia : eight miles fouth of Tarvis. In March,
1797, the Auftrians w'ere defeated by the French repub¬
lican army, near this town.
CHIBA'RA t a 1 Kiamen, a poll of Chinefe Tartary:
fix leagues north of Geho.
CHI'CACOLE, a circarin theeaftern part of Hindoof-
tan. Its length, from the borders of Rajahimmdry to
Chilka lake, is 270 miles. A fmall pait of this circar is
in cultivation ; the reft confifts of woods, waters, towns,
and barren waftes.
CHI'CACOLE, a city of Hindooftan, the ancient Co -
cala, formerly the capital of the circar, and refidence of
the rajah, forty miles from Vizigapatam.
CHICA'NE, /. [ chicane , Fr. derived by Menage from
the Spanilh word cbico, little.] The art of protrading a
conteft by petty objedion and artifice. — His attornies
have hardly one trick left ; they are at an end of all their
(bicane. Arbuthnot. — Artifice in general. This fenfe is
only in familiar language :
Unwilling then in arms to meet.
He ftrove to lengthen the campaign,
And fave his forces by chicane . Prior.
‘To CHICA'NE, nj. n. \_chicaner, Fr.] To prolong a
conteft by tricks.
CHICA'NER, /. [chicaneur, Fr.] A petty fophifter ; a
trifling difputant ; a wrangler. — This is the way to dil-
tinguilh the two molt different things I know, a logical
chicaner from a man of re a Ion, Locke .
CKICA'NERY,
C H I
CHICANERY, f. [, chicanerie , F tv] Sophiftry ; mean
arts of wrangle. — His anger caufed him to deftroy the
greateft: part of thefe reports ; and only to preferve fuch
as difcovered molt of the chicanery and futility of the
praflice. Arbutbnot.
CHIC'AN'GA, or Chacanga, a kingdom of Africa,
which was formerly a part of the country of Monoma-
tapa, rich in gold mines. It is called Manica, from the
rincipal town, which is fituated on the river Sofala.
at. zo. 13. S. Ion. 28. E. Greenwich,
CHICAPE'E, or ChjckaBEE, a river of North Ame¬
rica, in Malfachufetts, which rifes from feveral ponds
in Worcefter county, and running fouth-weft unite with
Ware river, and fix miles further empties into the Con¬
necticut at Springfield, on the eaft bank of that river.
CHI'CAS, or Tarija, a diftrift or jurifdi&ion of South
America, in the country of Buenos Ayres ; the province
is extenfive, and affords food to numerous herds of cattle;
the capital is St. Jago de Colayata.
CHICCAMOG'GA, a large creek of North America,
which runs north wefterly into Tennelfee river. Its
mouth is fix miles above the Whirl, apd about twenty-
feven fouth-weft from the mouth of the Hiwaflee. The
Cliiccamogga Indian towns lie on this creek, and on the
bank of the Tenneflee-
CHI'CHAR, [aaa, Heb. In general what is of a fiat
round form ; as, a loaf of bread, a level tra£l of land en-
compaffed with hills, a round piece of lead, a round mafs
of fil ver or gold.] A talent. — A talent of filver, according
to Dr. Cumberland, weighed 3000 fhekels, and was, in
our money, 3 5 3I . is. iod. The talent of gold was of the
fame weight, and, in our money, 5075I, 15s. 7d. Taylor’s
Hebrew Concordance.
CHICHE', a town of France, in the department of the
Two Sevres, a chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Chatillon fur Sevre : fix miles fouth-eaft of Breffuire.
CHI'CHELY (Henry), archbilhop of Canterbury, was
born at Higham Ferrers in Northamptonlhire. After be¬
ing educated at Winchefter college, he became fellow of
New college in Oxford (where he took the degree of
LL. D.) and chaplain to Robert Medfprd, bifliop of Salif-
bury, who, about 1402, made him archdeacon of Salis¬
bury. This preferment he exchanged two years after,
for the chancellorlhip of that diocefe. Henry IV. fent
him to congratulate Gregory XII. on his advancement
to the papacy, who conferred on Chichely the bifhopric
of St. David’s, which fell vacant during his abfence from
England in 1407. In 1409, he was deputed by the fynod
of London, to the general council held at Pila, for heal¬
ing the fchifm of the church. In 1414, upon the death
of Arundel, he w'as tranflated to the fee of Canterbury.
A fubfidy being demanded this year of the parliament,
the commons addreffed the king to feize the revenues of
the clergy, and apply them to the public fervice. To
ward off this blow’, Chichely advifed the clergy to make
a voluntary offer of a large fubfidy, and to engage the
king to affert his title to the crown of France ; that, being
embroiled in a foreign war, his attention might be diverted
fromdomeftic affairs. This expedient fucceeded. In 1416,
he gave a Angular proof of his juftice and fteadinefs.
Lord Strange, with his lady and fervants, coming to St.
Dunftan’s church to vefpers, and meeting fir John Truf-
fel there, had long been at variance with lord Strange,
the fervants of the latter drew their fwords in the church,
wounded fir John, his fon, and others, and killed one
who had interpofed. The archbilhop, being informed of
the affair, interdicted the church, as being polluted with
blood, and publicly excommunicated the authors and
accomplices of the crime. And lord S trange and his lady,
having, purfuant to a fummons, appeared before him at
St. Paul’s, and implored the church's pardon, he impofed
on them this penance, that their fervants who were the
immediate offenders, fhould in their Hurts and drawers
only, and he and his wife with tapers in their hands, walk
from St. Paul’s to St. Dunftan’s, with which they com-
C H I 423
plied j and when the archbilhop purified St. Dnnftan’s
church, lady Strange filled the vefiels with W’ater, and
both the and her lore! were commanded to offer a pyx and
an altar-cloth. About 14243110 founded in Higham Fer¬
rers, his college for eight fellows, -four clerks, fix choril-
ters, and a mailer; he alio ereCted 31 fpacious hofpital,
for the poor of that place. In 1439, he founded and en¬
dowed All-Souls college in Oxford; and he likewife con¬
tributed to the building of Croydon church, and Rochef-
ter bridge. He died April 12,. 1443, having enjoyed the
archiepilcopal fee tw’enty-nine years, and was buried in
the cathedral of Canterbury.
CHl'CHESTER., a very neat and opulent city, the
metropolis of Suflex, fituated on a healthy and pleafant
plain, diftant fixty-three miles from London, eighteen
from Portfmouth, ajid thirty-fix from Winchefter. The
feite of Chichefter is a gentle elevation, of which the
crofs is nearly in the centre. The Lavant, forming here
a femi-circle, encompaffes it on part of the eaft; fide, the
whole of the fouth, and the greateft part of the weft.
From the crofs proceed four ftreets at right angles, whole
direction is towards the four cardinal points, from which
each of. them is named. The city is furrounded by a
ftonewall, in which, formerly, were four gates opening
into the four principal ftreets : but they were taken down,
as well to enlarge the profpeCt, as to admit the free circu¬
lation of air. The ftreets are handfome, broad, airy, and well
paved. There are within the walls fix pari fh- churches
St. Peter the Great, (which is within the cathedral,)
St. Peter the Lefs, St. Olave’s, St. Martin’s, St. Andrew’s,
and All Saints. Without the eaft gate is a church dedi¬
cated to St. Pancraft ; and without the weft gate is the
parifh of St. Bartholomew, which has only a burying-
ground, the church having been entirely demolifhed, to¬
gether with that of St. Pancrafs, without eaft gate, in
1642, when the city was befieged and taken by Sir Win.
Waller. There is alfo a chapel in St. Martin’s-lane, de¬
dicated to the virgin Mary. This was formerly a nun¬
nery, founded by William dean of Chichefter, in the
reign .of Henry II. It is now converted into an hofpital
or charitable foundation, for fix men, and fix women,
under the patronage of the dean and chapter, having fe¬
veral valuable eftates held under it. The cathedral is
built on the feite where the church of St. Peter the Great
flood before the fee was removed from Selfea ; and, tko’
not large, is yet a very elegant Gothic ilruCture. The
fpire is of very curious workmanftiip, and 300 feet in
height. The choir is extremely neat, having been lately
repaired and beautified at a confiderable expence. The
great tower, 1 "he north-weft of the chu-rch, was built
by Robert Raymond, at what time we cannot afeertain.
Camden calls him R. Riman, and fays, that “.lie built
it with the very fame Hones he had provided to build him
a caltle at Appledram, hard by where he lived.” It is a
curious Gothic ItruCture, and contains a muiical ring of
eight bells. Ralph Nevile (lord chancellor of England)
was a great benefaCtor to this church. He gave his noble
alace, which at that time flood where Lincoln’s-inn now
ands, to his fucceffors, the bilhops of Chichefter, for
ever; where feme of them lived when they repaired to
London : he alfo gave to them the eftate called Chichef-
ter-rents, in Chancery-lane, being the only part now re¬
maining of that great benefaction. During the civil wars
in this kingdom, in the unhappy reign of king Charles I.
the church of Chichefter did not efcape that defolating
fury of the puritans, which fell fo heavy on all the ca¬
thedral churches in England, and difgraced the annals
of this country. The prefent chapter confifts of the dean,
and four prebendaries called to refidence, and therefore
called canons refident. Formerly the bifliop, the dean,
the chanter, the chancellor, the treafurer, and two arch¬
deacons (of Chichefter and Lewes) dignitaries, and the
thirty-two prebendaries, compofed the chapter. The fer¬
vice of the choir is performed by four minor-canons,
called vicars choral. The church, as it now ftands, was
rebuilt
424 CHIC H
rebuilt by Seffrid, (the fecond of that'name, and the fe-
venth bilhop of Chichefter,) together with the palace,
the cloifters, and the common houfes ; and finilhed the
whole within the fpace of fourteen years.
Though it is certain that Chichefier is an opulent, po¬
pulous, and flourilhing, city, yet it is undeniable that
there has been no manufactory in it till very lately, and
that the trade of it is but fmall : its fituation upwards of
two miles from the quay, being unfavourable for exten¬
five trade. In the reign of James I. an a£l of parliament
was Obtained to remedy this inconvenience, by making
the Lavant navigable up to the city j but it was never
put in execution. A manufactory of baize, blankets,
and coarie cloths, has lately been eftabliflied. There
was a confiderable manufactory of needles here, but which
is now nearly annihilated. In this city, which is diftin-
guilhed for the multiplicity of its charities, is an excel¬
lent difpenlary for the relief of the Tick poor, fupported
by voluntary fubfcription. The arm of the fea, near
which the city Hands, is fpacious, well fheltered, and ca¬
pable of receiving drips of great burthen. Many of its
banks are fteep ; where wharfs and warehoufes might be
■ereCted. at a fmall expence. The entrance lies at a place
called Cock Budi, near Weft Wittering, (where it is lup-
pofed Ella firft landed,) and a fmall illand on the oppofite
fide called Hayling. The channel is not difficult ; but
there are fand -banks off the mouth of the harbour, which
render it impoffible for fliips of heavy burthen to come
in ulilefs at fpring tides. Merchant veffels are frequently
built and repaired here, and fometimes drips of war. The
prefent flourifhing ftate of the city is owing to feveral
caufes; the principal of which is its fituation, being in
•the midft of a fruitful and opulent country for many
miles round ; whofe wealth, if it does not finally center
here, at leaft circulates through it, and, by a conftant and
regular influx, feeds and invigorates that trade, which
without firch a l'upply, would foon droop and decay.
Another great advantage it derives from the falubrity of
its air ; being fheltered from the north by a long ridge of
adjoining hills, and refrefhed from the fouth by the breezes
from the fea; and Handing on fomething of an elevation,
it is free from fogs and damps ; whence it is frequented
and inhabited by many people of independent fortune.
The corporation confifts of a mayor, high-fteward, al¬
derman, common council, &c. The mayor has a court
of requeft for the recovery of fmall debts. In his public
capacity he is attended by four ferjeants at mace, with a
crier, &c. For the. city there are four juftices of the
peace, chofen out of the aldermen. Five annual fairs
are held in this city and its fuburbs, viz. St. George’s-
day, Whit-Monday, St. James’s-day, Michaelmas-fair at
that term, and Sloe-fair, which is ten clear days after.
The weekly markets are on Wedneldays and Saturdays,
which are plentifully fupplied from the country for many
miles round, with all kinds of provifion, efpecially fifh of
various kinds. Every Wednelday fortnight there is a
large market for (heep and black cattle.
On the Broil, near the city, is the veftige of a Roman
camp, in the form of an oblong fquare, being about half
a mile in length, and half as much in breadth. It is fur-
-rounded by a ftrong rampire inward, and a Angle graff
•outward ; which, confidering the nature of the foil, being
a hard gravel, mult have been a work of much labour.
As it is well-known that Vefpafian refided long among
the Belgian Britons in the reign of Claudius, antiquari¬
ans are of opinion, that it was he who railed this camp
for the l'ecurity of his forces, as the country was then in
a very unfettled condition. Four miles north of Chichef-
teris Goodwood, the noble feat of the duke of Richmond.
It is very agreeably fituated in a fpacious park, and com¬
mands an extenfive and delightful profpech Goodwood
formerly belonged to the family of Percy ; but was pur-
.ehafed by the prefent duke’s' anceHors, who pulled down
the pljd Gothic ftrudtyre, and erefied a very neat manlion
ESTER.
on its feite. His grace, the prefent duke of Richmond,
however, is now erecting a very noble and extenfive man-
fion-houfe, the expence of which is eftimated at 6o,oool.
The walls are cafed with flint, and the four angles or cor¬
ners of t he building are finiflied with round towers, which
have all together a very majeflic and elegant appearance.
The ftabling is a very fine building, inferior to few, if
any, in England. The fea, and the Iile of Wight ter¬
minates the fouth profpeft, and St. Roche’s-hill covers it
from the north.
Eight miles fouth of Chichefier, is the pleafant penin-
fula of Selfea, improperly called ijland, where the fee of
Chichefler was firlt founded. Bede derives the name of
it from feals — eia, fignifying, in the ancient Saxon, the
Ifland of Seals. The fame author fays, “it is furrounded
on all fides by the fea, except on the north-weff, where
there is an entry into it of about a Hone’s throw (jattus
funda ) over.’’ When Adelwach gave this place to Wil¬
fred, it contained eighty-feven families, which, reckoning
fix perfons to a family, amounted to upwards of 500 fouls.
The prefent church is a flately Gothic firufture, fituated
at the north-eafi end of the parifti. By the munificence
of the fouth Saxon kings, a monafiery was founded here ;
but which, with the ancient pity of Selfea, was fwallovved
up by the ocean, fome remains of the monafiery, and
alfo of the city, Camden fays, “ are vilible at low water,
the fea having encroached confiderably upon the land
here.” Though we are of the fame opinion with this
learned author, yet it is difficult to fix upon the exadt fpot
where the city Hood ; as, about half a mile out at lea,
there are feveral places having the ruins of buildings un¬
der water. The belt anchoring ground off the ifland is
to this day called the Park ; and the rocks between the
ifland and the flioals farther out bear the name of the
Streets ; where, we have been told, a tomb-Hone, with an
infeription thereon, was fome years ago drawn up by the
filhermen. The fame author mentions Selfea as being fa¬
mous for “ producing moll excellent wheat, and the bed'
cockles in England to which we may add, that the
belt prawns are caught here, the greateft part of which
are fent to London by land carriage.
About five miles fouth-wefi of Chichefier, on the con¬
fines of Hamplhire, is Bofenham, or Bolharn ; where it
is faid, a daughter of Canute the Great was buried; and
where Harold, Ion of earl Godwin, (the mofi powerful
fubjeft that ever was in England,) had a manfion of re¬
tirement. We are informed from Tefia de Nevil (which
was the inquifion of lands made in king John’s time),
that the conqueror. “ gave Bofeham to William Fitz- Au-
cher, and his heirs, in fee-farm, paying out of it yearly
into the exchequer forty pounds of filver, tried and
weighed : and afterwards William Marlhall held it as his
inheritance.” The church of Bolham is a fpacious, ve¬
nerable, Gothic edifice, built at the foie expence of
William Warlewafi, bilhop of Exeter, about the year
1 1 19 ; in the reign of Henry I. it was made collegiate for
a dean and prebendaries, and endowed with many privi¬
leges which it enjoyed till the general dilfolution, when
it was made parochial. The Hails lor the prebendaries
are Hill Handing, and over them are carvings of great an¬
tiquity.
Stanflead, the elegant and rural feat of Mr. Barwell,
is four miles difiant from Chichefier. It was formerly
the feat of the earl of Scarborough, afterwards of the
earl of Halifax, who left it by his will to his daughter,
(Mrs. Donaldfon,) fince Mrsj. Archdale. Stanfiead is
confeffedly fituatein one of the mofi delightful fituations
in the kingdom : the houfe has been lately rebuilt by
its prefent munificent poffeffor in thefirfifiile of elegance,
and commands a complete view of Portfmouth, the Me
of Wight, the fhips at Spithead, together with an ex¬
tenfive profpedt of the fea. The gardens are delightful,
the walks in the park extremely rural, and the many vif-
tas in them, which terminate in fome agreeable profpeft
1 lb
C H I
fo judicioufly planned, that, though art has conduced
the whole procefs, fhe lies concealed, and only nature
ftrikes the eye.
CH I'C HESTER, a town of the American States, in
Rockingham county, New-Hampflfire, about thirty-five
miles north-weft of Exeter, and forty-five from Portf-
mouth. It lies on Suncock river and was incorporated
in 1727.
CIII'CHESTER, Upper and Lower, two towns of
the American States, in Delaware county, Pennfylvania.
CHI'CINCE, a town of Lithuania: eight miles north
of Rohaczovv.
CHICK, or Chicken, / [cicen, Sax. kiecken, Dutch.
Chicken is the old plural of chick, though now ufed as a
lingular noun.] The young of a bird, particularly of a
hen, or fmall bird. — Having the notion that one laid the
egg out of which the other was hatched, I have a clear
idea of the relation of dam and chick. Locke. — A word of
tendernefs. — A term for a young girl :
Then, Chloe, ftill go on to prate
Of thirty-fix and thirty-eight;
Purfue your trade of fcandal-picking,
Your hints, that Stella is no chicken. Swift.
“ Though the fox runs, the chicken has wings.” That is,
as wife as the deceitful may think themfelves, innocence
is feldom fo unguarded, but it has fome defence or protec¬
tion; and if no other, always that of providence. “ To
reckon one’s chickens before they are hatch’d.” Lat. Ante
< vittoriam encomium cancre, PI. in Lyf. (to fing triumph be¬
fore the vidtory;) and fo the French, Chanter le triomphe
avant la vidoire. The Germans fay, Ih rufft haafe, ehe
dann er im netsze liegt, (You cry out hare, before he is in
the net.) To be too forward in one’s dependance.
CHICK-PEA, / in botany. See Cicer.
CHICKAHO'MINY, a navigable river in Virginia. At
its mouth in James river, thirty-feven miles from Point
Comfort, in Chefapeak bay, is a bar, on which is only
twelve feet water at common flood tide.
CHICKAMA'GES, a part of the Cherokee nation of
Indians, known by this name, inhabit five, villages on
Tenneflee river.
CHICKASAW', on the eaftern bank of the Mifllflippi,
within the territories of the American States, in lat. 35.
N. The Spaniards eredted here a ftrong ftockaded fort,
with cannon, and furnilhed it with troops, all in the fpace
of twenty-four hours, in the month of June, 1795. It
has fince been given up to the American States, accord¬
ing to the treaty of 1796.
CHICKASAW', a river of North America which emp¬
ties into the Mifllflippi on the eaft fide, 104 fifties north
from the mouth of Margot, and fixty-feven fouth-weft of
Mine-au-fer. The lands here are of an excellent quality,
and covered with a variety of ufeful timber, canes, &c.
This river may be afcended, during lfigh floods, upwards
of thirty miles, with boats of feveral tons burden.
CHIKAS AW'S, a famous nation of American Indians,
who inhabit the country on the eaft fide of the Mifllflippi,
on the head branches of the Tombigbee, Mobile, and
Yazoo, rivers, in the north-weft corner of the ftate of
Georgia, and north of the country of the Chadtaws.
Their country is an extenfive plain, well watered from
fprings, and of a good foil. They have feven towns, the
central one of which is in lat. 34. 23. N. Ion. 89. 30. W.
In 1539, Ferdinand de Soto, with 900 men, befides fea-
men, failed from Cuba with a delign to conquer Florida.
He travelled northward to the Chickafaw country, about
lat. 35. or 36. and three years after died, and was buried
on the bank of Mifllflippi river.
CHICKENHEART'ED, adj. Cowardly ; timorous ;
fearful :
Now we fet up for tilting in the pit.
Where ’tis agreed by bullies, chickenhearted ,
To fright the ladies firft, and then be parted.
Prologue to Spanijh Fry at,
Vol. IV. No. 298.
C H I 425
CIIIC'KENPOX, f. An exanthematous diftemper, fo
called from its being of no very great danger. See Me¬
dicine.
CHICK'WEED, / in botany. See Alsina and Are-
naria. Baftard, lee Bufonia. Water, fee Callt-
trighe,
CHICLA'NA, a town of Spain, in the province of La
Mancha : twenty-two miles north of Ubeda.
CHICOMUZE'LO, a town in the province of Chiapa,
in New Spain, having a cave very narrow at the entry,
but fpacious within, with a ftagnant lake, which is, how¬
ever, clear, and is two fathoms deep towards the banks.
CHICOYNEAU' (Francois), firft phyfician to the
French king, was born at Montpellier in 1672. Having
obtained his doctor's degree, he was fent to flop the pro-
grefs of the plague then raging at Marfeilles, by the duke
of Orleans, regent of the kingdom. The boldnefs and
confidence with which he entered that city, where every
one feemed only waiting for death, had a ftriking effedt
on their fears. He encouraged the inhabitants, and
quieted their alarms by his prefence ; hope feemed to re¬
animate every breaft, and his fuccefs was beyond expec¬
tation, His fervices were rewarded by marks of honour
and a penfion from the king. In 1731 he was called to
court to be phyfician to the royal children, by the iri-
tereft of Chirac, whofe daughter he had married ; and
after whofe death he was made firft phyfician to the king,
counfellor of ftate, and fuperintendant of the mineral
waters of the kingdom. He died at Verfailles in 1752,
aged near eighty. The molt curious of his works is that
wherein he maintains that the plague is not contagious ;
Lyons and Paris, 1721, imio.
To CHIDE, <v. a. preter. chid or chode, part, chid or
chidden-, [ciban, Sax.] To reprove; to check ; to corredl
with words : applied to perfons :
Above the waves as Neptune Ihew’d his face,
To chide the winds, and lave the Trojan race. Waller.
To drive with reproof. — To blame; to reproach ; applied
to things :
Winds murmur’d through the leaves your long delay.
And fountains, o’er the pebbles, chid your ftay. Drjd.
To CHIDE, ru. n. To clamour; to fcold :
The mother feream’d, the father chid.
Where can this idle wench be hid ? Swift .
To quarrel with ; to make a noife :
As does a rock againft the chiding flood,
Should the approach of this wild river break,
And Hand unfhaken yours. Shakefpeare.
“ Woe to the lioufe where there is no chiding." Where
the matters or heads of families, or parents of children.,
are fo remifs as never to find fault or correct, libertinifm
will gradually creep into and get the upper hand ; and
in fuch families woe will as certainly enfue.
CHI'DER,/. A rebuker ; a reprover :
Not her that chides, fir, at any hand, I pray.—
I love no chiders, fir. Shakefpeare.
CHIEF, adj. \_chef, the head, Fr.] Principal; moft emi¬
nent ; above the reft in any refpeft. — Thefe were the chief
of the officers that were over Solomon’s works. 1 Kings.
Your country, chief in arms, abroad defend ;
At home, with morals, arts, and laws, amend. Pope.
Eminent ; extraordinary — A froward man foweth ftrife,
and a whifperer feparateth chief friends. Proverbs. — Ca¬
pital ; of the firft order ; that to which other parts are in¬
ferior, or fubordinate, — I came to have a good general
view of the apoftle’s main purpofe in writing the epiftle,
and the chief branches of his difeourfe wherein he profe-
cuted it. Locke. — It is ufed by fome writers with a fuper-
lative termination ; but improperly, as the comparative
ebisfer is never found:
5 Q» We
■4*6 C H I
Ws befeech you, bend you to remain
Here in the cheer and comfort of our eye,
Our chief eft courtier, coufin, and our foil. Shakefpeare.
CHIEF,/ A military commander ; a leader of armies ;
a captain :
A wit’s a feather, and a chief a rod ;
A n honeft man’s the nobleit work of God. Pope.
A prudent chief not always muff difplay
His pow’rs in equal ranks, and fair array ;
But with th’ occasion and the place comply,
Conceal his force, nay, fieem fornetim.es to fly. Pope.
In Spenfer it feems to fignify fomewliat like achievement ;
a mark of diftindlion :
Where be the nofegays that (lie dight for thee ?
The coloured chaplets wrought with a chief,
The knottifli rufh-rings, and gilt rofemary. Spenfer.
In heraldry. — The chief is fo called of the French word
chef, the. head or upper part : this poflefles the upper third
part- of the elcutcheon.
CHIEF-RENTS, the rents of freeholders of manors
often fo called, i. e. reditus capitales. They are all'o de¬
nominated quit-rents, quiet i reditus ; becaule thereby the
tenant goes quit and free of all other fervic.es. 2 Com. 42.
CHIEF-TENANTS, tenants in capite, holding imme¬
diately under the king, in right of his crown and dig¬
nity. See Capite, and Tenure.
CHIEFfDOM, / Sovereignty. Not in ufe. — Zephyr us
being in love with Chloris, and coveting her to wife,
.gave her for a dowry the chief !om and fovereignty of all
flowers and green herbs. Spenfer.
CHIEF'LESS, adj, Wanting a head; being without a
leader :
And chief efs armies doz’d out the campaign.
And navies yawn’d for orders on the main. Pope.
CHIEF'LY, adv. Principally; eminently; more than
common. — Any man who will confider the nature of an
epic poem, what actions it defcribes, and what perfons
They are chiefly whom it informs, will find it a work full
of difficulty. Dryden.
CHIEF'RIE, f. A fmall rent paid to the lord para¬
mount. — Would the referved rent at this day be any more
than a. fmall chief rie? Swift.
CHIEF'TAIN,/ Captain; a leader; a commander;
the head of a clan. — It broke and abfolutely fubdued all
the lords and chieftains of the Irilhry. Davies.
CHIELEFA', a town of European Turkey, in the Mo-
rea, near the gulf of Coron. It was taken by the Vene¬
tians in 1685.
CHIEMSE'E, a lake of Germany, in the circle of Ba¬
varia; it contains feveral iflands, particularly Herren-
werd and Frawenwerd, the former of which is the fee of
a bifliop, fuffragan of Saltzburgh, founded in the thir¬
teenth century.
CHIEN'TO, a river of Italy, in the ftate of the Church,
which runs into the Adriatic, between Fermo and Re-
canati.
CHIE'RI, a town of Piedmont, fituated on the decli¬
vity of a hill, in an agreeable country, the air foft and
healthy : the hills to the north and eaft are covered with
vines, while thofe to the weft and fouth are covered with
fruit-trees of different kinds; the land is fertile, and the
inhabitants induftrious : they have manufaStures of cloth
and filk. Its ancient name was Cherium, or Carium, and
is called by the French Sluiers. It was burned by the
emperor Frederic Barbarolfa, in the year 1154, but was
foon after rebuilt. It is furrounded by an ancient wall
defended by towers, with a foffe : and had formerly a
foitrefs, named Rochetta, demolifhed in the fixteenth
century. It has fix gates, and four grand fquares or pa¬
laces, many churches, and religious houfes, though only
two parifhes within the walls, and one without : fix miles
-eaft of Turin, Lat. 44. 45. N. Ion. 25. 25. E. Ferro.
CHI
CHIE'RS (La), a river of France, which runs into the
Meufe, between Mouzon and Sedan.
CHIE'SA (La), a river of Italy, which runs into the
Oglio, at Caneto, in the Mantuan.
CHIE'TI, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and capital of the. province of Abruzzo Citra, the fee of
an archbifhop, erefted by pope Clement VII. feventy-five
miles eaft-north-eaft of Rome. Lat. 42. 22. N. Ion. 31. 46,
E. Ferro.
CHIET'TA (La), a town of France, in the department
of the Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the diltridt of
Orgelet: eleven miles 'fiorth-eaft of Orgelet.
CHIE'VANCE,/ [probably from acbevance, Fr. pur-
chafe.] Traffic, in which money is extorted ; asdifcount.
No iv ohfolete. — There were good laws againft ufury, the
baftard ufe of money; and againft unlawful chievances
and exchanges, which is baftard ufury. Bacon.
CHIE'VRES, a town of the Netherlands, in the county
of Hainaut : four miles fouth of Ath.
CHIEU'TI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Capitanata : thirteen miles fouth-fouth-
eaft of Termola.
CHIFTLET (John James), a phyfician, born at Be¬
fangon, a town of Franche Comte, in 1588. He was de-
fcended from a family, which had greatly diftinguifhed
itfelf by literary merit. He was educated at Belangon,
and then travelled through feveral parts of Europe, where
he became acquainted with all the men of letters, and
made his way into the cabinets of the curious. At his
return he applied himfelf to the pra&ice of phyfic ; but
being fent by the town of Befangon, where he had been
conful, on an embafly to Elizabeth Clara Eugenia, arch-
duchefs of the Low Countries, that princefs. prevailed on
him to continue with her in quality of phyfician in ordi¬
nary. Afterwards he became phyfician to Philip IV. of
Spain, who honoured him .very highly, and treated him
with great kindnefs. Chifflet imagined, that thefe boun¬
ties and honours obliged him to take up arms againft
all who were at variance with his mafter ; and this in¬
duced him to write his book, intituled, “ Vindicia? Hif-
panicae,” againft the French. He-wrote feveral pieces in
Latin, which were both ingenious and learned. He died
very old, and left a fon, John Chifflet, who afterwards
made a figure in the republic of letters, and particularly
for his knowledge of the Hebrew. He had another fon,
called Julius Chifflet, well fkilled in languages and in
the civil law, and who had the honour to be invited to
Madrid by the king of Spain in 1648, where he was made
chancellor of the order of the golden fleece. There were
alfo Philip Chifflet, canon of Befangon ; Laurence and Pe¬
ter Francis Chifflet, jefuits ; all men of high reputation in
the learned world.
CHIGGERON', a river of Afia, which rifes in Perfia,
and runs into the Cafpian Sea , a little to the north of
Amol.
CHI'GI, (Fabio), or pope Alexander VII. was born at
Sienna in 1599. In 1655 he was elected pope, by the votes
of all the fixty-four cardinals who were in the conclave s
an unanimity of which there are but few inftances in the
election of popes. There is a volume of his poems ex¬
tant. He loved the Belles-Lettres , and the converfation
of learned men. He was extremely fond of lfately build¬
ings : the grand plan of the college Della Sapienza, which
he finifhed, and adorned with a fine library, remains a
proof of his tafte in architefture. He died in 1667.
CHIGNEC'TO, a town of Nova Scotia, on the coaft
of the bay of Fundy, near which was a fmart adfion be¬
tween the Britifli troops, under, the command of major
Lawrence, with home French and Indians, in 1749, mid
another between the Britifh, under the command of lieu¬
tenant Scott, and the fame enemies, in 1756.
CHI'GY-sur-VARME, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of the Yonne; two leagues and a half eaft-louth-
eaft of Sens
CHIHMECG'MET ISLAND, or Chickminock-cu-
minock.
£
C H I
miNOCk, on the coaft of North Carolina, lies between
Roanoke ifland and the northern entrance into Pamlico
found.
CHIHOHOE'KI, an Indian nation of America who
were confederates of the Lenopi or .Delawares, and inha¬
bited the weltern bank of Delaware river, which was an¬
ciently called by their name. Their fouthern boundary
was Duck creek, in Newcatlle county.
CH1LAPAN', a town in New Spain, in the country of
the Coluiixeas. Between this and Tcoiltylan is an entire
mountain of loadftone.
CHILA'RE, a river of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
which runs into the Candelaro.
CHIL'BLAINS, f Sores made by froft.— Chilblains
are occafioned by exceflive cold flopping the motion of
the blood in the capillary arteries. For the cure, fee the
article Medicine.
CHIL'CA, a town in the jurifdiftion of Canette in
Peru, South America, celebrated for its excellent falt-
petie, of which gunpowder is made in the metropolis. It
abounds with plenty of fifh, fruits, pulfe, and poultry, in
which it carries on a considerable trade with Lima, ten
leagues diftant. Lat. 12.31. S. Ion. 76. 5. W.
CHILD,/ in the plural children ; [cilb, Sax. ] An in¬
fant, or very young perfon. — The Stroke of death is no¬
thing : children endure it, and the greateft cowards find
it no pain. IVake. — We (hould no more* be kinder to one
child than to another, than we are tender of one eye more
than of the other. L'Eflrange.
In age, to wilh for youth is full as vain,
As for a youth to turn a child again. Denham.
One in the line of filiation, oppofed to the parent :
He, in a fruitful wife’s embraces old,
A long increale of children's children told. Addifon.
The defendants of a man, how remote foever, are called
children ; as the children of Edom, the children of Ifrael.
In the language of lcripture : One weak in knowledge.
1 Corinth. — Such as are young in grace. 1 John. — Such as
are humble and docile. Matthe-w. — The children of light,
the children -of darknels ; who follow light, who remain in
darknefs. The eleft, the blelfed, are alfo called the chil¬
dren of God. — How is he numbered among the children
of God, and his lot is among the faints ! WiJ'dom. — In the
New Teftament, believers are commonly called children
of God. — Ye are all the children of God, by faith in Jefus
Chrift. Gal. iii. 26. — Any thing the produft or effeft of
another :
Macduff, this noble pafiion.
Child of integrity, hath from my foul
Wip’d the black fcruples. Shahefpeare.
“ Children are certain cares, uncertain comforts.” The
truth of this proverb, it is to be feared, is but too well
grounded.
To be with CHILD. To be pregnant :
If it mult Hand (till, let wives with child
Pray that their burthen may not fall this day,
Left that their hopes prodigioufiy be croft. Sfoakef.
‘To CHILD, <v. n. To bring children :
The fpring, the fununer,
The childing autumn, angry winter, change
Their wonted liveries. Shahefpeare,
Mr. Derham computes, that marriages, one with another,
produce four children, not only in England, but upon the
fame average in every part of the world. In the genea¬
logical hiftory of Tufcany, wrote by Gamarini, mention
is made of a nobleman of Sienna, named Pichi, who of
three wives had 1 50 children ; and that, being lent am-
baflirdor to the pope and the emperor, he had forty-eight
of his fons in his retinue. In a monument in the church-
C H I ^427
yard. of St. Innocent, at Paris, ereded to a woman who
died at eighty- eight years of age, it is recorded, that fhe
might have feen 288 children diredly iffued from her.
This exceeds what Hakewell relates of Mrs. Honeywood,
a gentlewoman of Kent, born in 1527, and married at
fixteen to her only hulband R. Honeywood, of Charing,
efq. and died in her ninety-third year. She had fixteen
children of her own body; of which three died young,
and a fourth had no iflue : yet her grandchildren, in the
fecond generation, amounted to 1 14 ; in the third, to 228 ;
though, in the fourth, they fell to nine. The whole
number Ihe might have feen in her. life-time, being 367.
16 + 1144-228-1-9=367.
With regard to the duties of children to their parents,
they arife from a principle of natural juftice and retri¬
bution. To tiiofe who gave us exiftence, we naturally,
owe fubjeftion and obedience during our minority,,
and honour and reverence ever after : they who pro¬
tected the weaknefs of our infancy, are intitled to onr
protection in the infirmity of their age; they who, by
fuftenance and education, have enabled their offspring to
profper, ought, in return, to be liipported by that ofr~
fpring, in cafe they Hand in need of afliftance. Upon, this
principle proceed the duties of children to their parents,
w'hich are enjoined by all laws human and divine. As
the vexations which parents too often receive from their
children, fallen the approach of age, and double the force
of years, i'o the comforts which they reap from them, are
balm to all other lorrows, and difappoint the injuries eft
time. Parents repeat their lives in their offspring, and
their concern for them is fo fenfible and acute, that they
feel all their fufferings, and talte all their enjoyments.
Hence arife the comforts and bleflings which parents de¬
rive from dutiful and affectionate children !
C’HILD'BEARING, part.fubf The aft of bearing chil¬
dren. — The timorous and irrefolute Sylvia has demurred
till file is paft childbearing. Addifon.
CHILD'BED,/ The flate of a w'otnan bringing a child,
or being in labour :
Yet thefe, tho’ poor, the pain of childbed bear. Dry den.
CHILD'BIRTH,/ Travail; labour; the time of bring¬
ing forth; the aft of bringing forth. — In the w'hole fex
of women, God hath decreed the fharpeft pains of child¬
birth ; to fliew, that there is no flate exempt from for-
row. Taylor.
CHILD'ED, adf Furnifiied with a child:
How light and portable my pain feerns now,
When that which makes me bend, makes the king bowf j
He childed as I father’d. Shahefpeare.
CHIL'DERMAS DAY, f. The day of the week,
throughout the year, anfwering to the day on which tfte
feaft of the Holy Innocents is folemnized, which weak
and fuperftitious perfons were wont to think an unlucky
day. — To talk of hares, or fuch uncouth things, proves
"as ominous to the fifherman, as the beginning of a voy¬
age on the day when childermas-day fell, doth to the ma¬
riner. Car&w.
CHILD'HOOD, f. [cilbhab, Sax.] The ftate of chil¬
dren ; or, the time in which we are children : it includes
infancy, but is continued to puberty. — The fame autho¬
rity that the aftions of a man have with us in our child¬
hood, the fame, in every period of life, has the praftice of
all whom we regard as our fuperiors. Rogers. — The time
of life between infancy and puberty. — Infancy and child¬
hood demand thin, copious, nourifhing, aliment. Arbuth-
not. — The properties of a child :
Their love in early infancy began,
And rofe as childhood ripen’d into man. Dryden.
CHILD'ISH, adj. Having the qualities of a child; tri¬
fling} ignorant} Ample.— Learning hath its infancy, when
428 C I-I I
it is but beginning and almoft childi/b : then its youth,
when it is luxuriant and juvenile. Bacon.— Becoming only
children; trifling; puerile:
When I was yet a child, no childif) play
To me was pleating ; all my mind was fet
Serious to learn and know. Milton.
CHILDTSHLY, ad<v. In a childifli trifling way ; like
a child. — Some men are of excellent judgment in their
own profelflons, but childifhly unfldlful in any thing be-
lides. HaynvarJ.
CHILD'ISHNESS,/! Puerility; triflingnefs. — The ac¬
tions of childijhnefs, and unfafhionable carriage, time and
age will of itlelf be lure to reform. Locke. — Harmleflnefs :
Speak, thou, boy ;
Perhaps thy childijhnefs will move him more
Than can our reafons. Sbakefpeare,
CHILD'LESS, adj. Without children ; without ofFr
fpring. — As thy fword hath made women childlefs, fo Ihall
thy mother be childlefs among women, s Samuel.
CIIILD'LIKE, adj. Becoming or befeeming a child. —
Who can owe no lels than childlike obedience to her that
hath more than motherly care. Hooker.
CHILD'WIT, f. [Sax.] A fine or penalty of a bond-
woman unlawfully begotten with child. Cowel lays, it
lignifieth a powder to take a fine of your bond-woman got¬
ten with child without your confent : and, within the
manor of Writtle in Com. Eflex, every reputed father of
a bafe child pays to the lord for a fine three Ihillings and
four-pence, where it feems to extend as well to free as to
bond-women ; and the cuftom is there called childwit to
to this day. See Bastard.
CHI'LI, an extenfive country of South America, ex¬
tending from Peru on the north, to the country of Ma¬
gellan on the fouth ; bounded on the eaft by immenfe
deferts, which divide it from Paraguay and other parts
of South America, and on the weft by the Pacific Ocean.
The incas of Peru had prevailed upon great part of the
inhabitants of that vaft region to fubmit to their laws,
and were preparing to fubdue the whole, when it became
their lot to be invaded and conquered by the Spaniards ;
by whom it was afterwards left to invade and explore
the country of the Chilefians.’
The firlt attempt of the Spaniards upon this country,
was made by Don Diego d’Almagro, in 1535, after he
and Pizaro had completed the conqueft of Peru. He fet
out on his expedition to Chili with a confiderable body
of Spaniards and auxiliary Indians. For 200 leagues he
was well accommodated with every neceflary by the In¬
dians, who had been fubje6fs of the incas of Peru : but,
reaching the barren country of Charcas, his troops be¬
came dilheartened through the hardlhips they fullered ;
which determined d’Almagro to climb the Cordilleras,
in order to get the fooner into Chili ; being ignorant of
the invaluable mines of Potofi, contained in the province
of Charcas, where he then was. The Cordilleras were
covered with fnow, the depth of which often obliged him
to dig his way through. The cold made fuch an impref-
lion on his naked Indians, that it is computed no lefs
than 10,000 of them perilhed on the mountains, 150 of
the Spaniards {haring the fame fate; while many of the
furvivors loft their fingers and toes through the excefs of
cold. At laft, after encountering incredible difficulties,
d’Amalgro reached a temperate and fertile plain, on the
oppofite fide of the Cordilleras, where he was received
with great kindnels by the natives. Thefe poor favages,
taking the Spaniards for deputies of their god Virachoca,
immediately collected for them an offering of gold and
filver worth 290,000 ducats : and foon after brought a
prelent to d’Almagro worth 300,000 more. Thefe offer¬
ings only determined him to conquer the whole country
as foon as poflible. The Indians, among whom he now
was, had acknowledged the authority of the Peruvian
e hi
incas, or emperors, and confeqnently gave d’Almagro
no trouble. He therefore marched againft thofe who had
never been conquered by the Peruvians, and' who inha¬
bited the fouthern parts of Chili. Thefe favages fought
with great refolution, and difputed every inch of ground t
yet in five months the Spaniards had made fuch progrefs,
that they muft have reduced the whole province in a very
little time, had not d’Almagro returned to Peru, in con-
fequence of orders fent him from Spain.
In 1540, Pizaro having overcome and put d’Almagro
to death, fent into Chili, Baldivia or Valdivia, who had
learned the rudiments of war in Italy, and was reckoned
one of the beft officers in the Spanifh fervice. As he pe¬
netrated fouthwards, he met with much oppofition ; the
confederated caziques frequently gave him battle, and
difplayed great courage and refolution; but could not
prevent him from penetrating to the valley of Mafiocho,
which he found fertile and populous. Here lie founded the
city of St. Jago ; and, finding gold mines in the neigh¬
bourhood, he forced the Indians to work in them ; at the
fame time building a caftle for the fafety and protection
of his new colony. The natives, exafperated at this (la-
very, took up arms and attacked the fort. They fet fire
to the outworks, which contained all the provifions of
the Spaniards. Nor were they difcouraged, though they
were defeated, but ftill continued to carry on the war
with vigour- At laft, Valdivia, having overcome them
in many battles, forced the inhabitants of the vale to
fubmit ; upon which he again fet them to work in the
mines of Quilotta. This redoubled the fury of thofe who
remained at liberty. Their utmoft efforts, however, were
as yet unable to flop Valdivia’s progrefs. Having crofted
the large rivers Maulle and Hata, he traverfed a vaft
traCt of country, and founded the city La Conception on
the South Sea coaft. He ereCted fortreffes in feveral parts
of the country, in order to keep the natives in awe; and
built the city called Imperial, about forty leagues to the
fouthward of Conception. The Spanifh writers fay, that
the neighbouring valley contained 80,000 inhabitants of
a peaceable difpofition, who fuflered Valdivia to parcel
out their lands among his followers. About fixteen leagues
to the eaftward of Imperial, the Spanifh general laid the
foundations of the city Villa Rica, fo called on account
of the gold mines he found there. But his ambition and
avarice had now involved him in difficulties from which
he could never be extricated : he had extended his con-
quefts beyond what his ftrength was capahle of maintain¬
ing. The Chilefians were ftill as defirous as ever of re¬
covering their liberties. The horfes, fire-arms, and ar¬
mour, of the Spaniards, at firft appeared dreadful to them j
but in the courfe of the war they had difcovered, that
Spaniards were vulnerable and mortal men like them-
felves ; they hoped, therefore, by dint of their fupe-
riority in numbers, to be able to expel the ufurpers.
They role to a man, and chofe Capaulican, a renowned
chief, for their leader. Valdivia received notice of their
revolt fooner than they intended he fhould ; but, before
he could march to oppofe them, 14,000 of the Chilefians
were affembled under Capaulican. He attacked them
with his cavalry, and forced them to retreat into the
woods ; but could not obtain a complete victory, as they
kept continually fallying out and haraffing his rear. At
laft Capaulican, having obferved that fighting with fuch
a number of undilciplined troops only ferved to contri¬
bute to the defeat and confufion of the whole, he divided
his forces into bodies of xooo each. Thefe he directed
to attack the enemy by turns ; and, though he did not
expeCt that a Angle thoufand would put them to flight,
yet he enjoined them to make as long a Hand as they
could ; when they were to be relieved and fupported by
another body ; and thus the Spaniards would be at laft
wearied out and overcome. The event fully anfvvered his
expectations. The Chilefians maintained a fight for feven
or eight hours, until the Spaniards, growing faint, retired
precipitately,,
c h :
precipitately. Valdivia ordered them to poflefs a pafs at
fome diltance from the field, to Hop the puffuit; but, this
defign being clifcovered to the Chilefians, the Spaniards
were furrounded on all Tides, and cut in pieces. Valdivia
was taken and put to death ; fome fay he bad melted
gold poured down his throat; and the Indians made
flutes and other inliruments of his bones, and preferved
liis Ikull as a monument of their viftory, which they ce¬
lebrated by an annual feftival. The city of Conception,
being now abandoned by the Spaniards, was taken and
deftroyed : but the Indians were forced to raife the fiege
of Imperial ; and their progrefs was at length Hopped by
Garcia de Mendoza, who defeated Capaulican, took him
prifoner, and put him to death. No defeats, however,
could difpirit the Chilefians. They continued the war for
fii'ly years ; and to.this day they remain unconquered.
Their rnofl irreconcileable enemies are the inhabi¬
tants of Arauco and Tucapel, thofe to the fouth of
the river Bobio, or who extend towards the Cordille¬
ras. Their manners, which bear a greater refem-
blance to thofe of the favages of North America than to
thofe of the Peruvians their neighbours, render them
confequently more formidable. When they go to war,
they carry nothing with them, and want neither tents
nor baggage. The fame trees from which they ga¬
ther their food, fupply them with lances and darts. As
they are fure of finding in one place what they had in
another, they willingly refign any country which they are
unable to defend. All places are equally indifferent to
them. Their troops, being free from all incumbrance of
provifions and ammunition, march with l'urprifing agility.
They expofe their lives like men who fet little value on
them ; and, if they lofe the field of battle, they are not
at a lofs for magazines and encampments wherever there
is ground covered with fruits. They fometimes invite
their neighbours to join them lo attack the common ene¬
my, and this they call throwing the arrow, becaufe this
call flies as fwiftly and filently as an arrow from one ha¬
bitation to another. A certain night is immediately fixed
upon, in the dead of which, the time they always chufe
for the commencement of hoHilities, they fall upon the
next village where there, are Spaniards, and from thence
proceed to others. They murder all the inhabitants, ex¬
cept the white women, whom they always carry off. Be¬
fore the enemy has time to colled! his forces, they all
unite in one body. Their army, though more formidable
from their numbers than from their difcipline, is not
afraid of attacking the poHs that are mofl Hrongiy forti¬
fied. This fury often fucceeds, becaufe they are fo con-
flantly fupplied with reinforcements that they are not
denfible of their lofles. If thefe are fo confiderable as to
oblige them to defifi, they retire to the diflance of a few
leagues, and five or fix days after fall upon fome other
place. Thele Indians never think they are beaten un-
lefs they are furrounded. If they can take poffefiion of
a place difficult of accefs, they think they are conque¬
rors. The head of one Spaniard, which they carry off
in triumph, comforts them for the death of a hundred
Indians. The country is of fuch confiderable extent,
that, when they find theinfelves in danger from the ene¬
my, they forlake their poffeflions, and remove into fome
impenetrable forefl. Recruited by other Indians, they
loon return into the parts they had before inhabited ; and
this alternate fucceflion of flight and refifiance, of bold-
nefs and fear, is the circumflance that renders them un¬
conquerable. War is to them a kind of amufement. As
it is neither expenfive nor inconvenient to them, they
have nothing to apprehend from its continuance ; and it
is a conHant rule with them never to fue for peace. The
pride of Spain muH always condefcend to make the fir ft
overtures. When thefe are favourably received, a con¬
ference is held. The governor1 of Chili and the Indian
general, attended by the mod difiinguifhed captains on
both fides, fettle the terms of accommodation at a con¬
vivial meeting. The Spaniards are always obliged to
Vol. IV. No. 2o8»
L I. 429
purchafe peace by fome prefents, and, after a variety of
fruitlefs attempts, they have been forced to give up ail
thoughts of extending their conquefi, and reduced to
cover their frontiers by erecting forts at proper diftances.
Thefe precautions are taken to prevent the Indians, who
have fubmitted, from joining the independent favages,
and likewife to repel the inroads of the latter into the
colonies.
Thefe colonies are difperfed on the bord ers of the South
Sea ; they are parted from Peru by a defert that meafures
eighty leagues, and bounded by the ifland of Cbiloe, at
the extremity next the Straits of Magellan. On that
great length of coaft there are no fettlements, except-thofe.
of Valdivia, Conception, Valparaifo, and Coquimbo, or
La Serena, which are all fea-ports. In the inland coun¬
try St. Jago is the capital. There is no culture or habi¬
tation at any diftance from thefe towns. The buildings
are all very low, made of unburnt brick, and nioflTy
thatched. This practice is obferved on account of the
frequent earthquakes, and is properly adapted to the na¬
ture of the climate, as well as the indolence of the -inha¬
bitants. They are robuft and well-fliaped men, but few
in number. In all that large fettlement there are not
20,000 white men, and not more than 60,000 negroes, or
Indians, able to bear arms. The military eftablifliment
amounted formerly to 2000 men ; but the maintaining of
them was found too expenfive, and they are now reduced
to 500. If Chili is uninhabited, it is not owing to the
climate, which is one of the moft wholefome in the world.
The vicinity of the Cordilleras gives it fuch a delightful
temperature, as could not otherwile be expefted in that
latitude. There is not a more pleafant province in ail the
mother country. The gold W'as formerly brought over
in bullion; but, ever fince the year 1749, is coined in
the mint fet up at St. Jago. The excellent copper mines
of Coquimbo fupply the whole kingdom of Peru. A more
certain fource of wealth, though lefs pleafing to the pof-
feflors, is the prodigious fertility of the foil. The horfes
and mules of Chili are in great efteem, particularly the
former. Prodigious numbers of oxen, goats, and Iheep,
are fattened in the luxuriant paftures of this province;
and, indeed, it is the only part of hulbandry to which the
inhabitants pay any confiderable attention. An ox well
fattened may be purchafed for four dollars. Turkeys,
geefe, and all kinds of poultry, are found here in the
fame profufion. The coafts abound with many excellent
fifli ; there are alfo vaft numbers of whales and fea-wolves.
The European fruit-trees are obliged to be propped to
enable them to fufiain the weight of the fruit. Orange-
trees are in bloom, and bear fruit, throughout the year.
Olives alfo, and almond-trees, thrive exceedingly well;
and the inhabitants prefs a kind of mufcadine wine from,
the grapes, which far exceeds any of the kind made in
Spain. Mines of gold, filver, copper, tin, quickfilver,
iron, and lead, abound in this country. Vaft quantities
of gold are waihed down from the mountains by brooks
and torrents; the annual amount of which, when manu¬
factured, is eftimated at no lefs than 8,000,000 dollars.
The corn-harveft is reckoned a bad one when it does not
yield a hundred fold. With all thefe advantages, Chili
has no direC intercourfe with the mother-country. Their
whole trade is confined to Peru, Paraguay, and the In¬
dians on their own frontiers. The inhabitants of Chili
fell their moft ordinary and lefs valuable commodities to
thefe favages for oxen, horfes, and their own children,
whom theyarereadytopartwith for the^oft trifling things.
Spirituous liquors were fold, till the year 1724, to thefe
people, who, like moft other favages, are exceflively fond
of them. When they were intoxicated, they ufed to take
up arms, maffacre all the Spaniards they met with, and
fuddenly attack the forts and ravage the country near
their dwellings. Thefe outrages were fo often repeated,
that it was found neceffary ftrictly to forbid this danger¬
ous traffic. The good effefts of the prohibition are daily
felt. The commotions of thefe people are lefs frequent
5 R and
430 CHI
and lefs dangerous, and their peaceable behaviour has
brought on a vifible increafe of intercourfe with them.
Chili fupplies- Peru with great plenty of hides, dried
fruit, copper, falt-meat, horfes, hemp, lard, wheat, and
gold. In exchange for thele articles, Peru fends tobacco,
lugar, cocoa, earthen ware, woollen cloth, linen, hats
made at Qffito, and every article of luxury that is brought
from Europe. The (hips lent from Callao on this traffic
were formerly bound for Conception bay, but now come
to Valparailo. Chili fends to Paraguay iome woollen
ftuffs called ponchos, which are ufed for cloaks. It alfo
fends wines, brandy, oil, and chiefly gold; and receives
in return wax, a kind of tallow fit to make foap, the herb
of Paraguay, European goods, and as many negroes as
Buenos Ayres can furnilh. Chili is a Hate entirely dif-
tinft from Peru, and is governed by a chief, who is ab-
folute in all political, civil, and military, affairs, and in¬
dependent of the viceroy, who has no authority, except
when a governor dies, to appoint one in his room for a
time, till the mother-country names afucceffor.
CHI'LIAD,/ [from «$.] A thoufand; a collec¬
tion or fum containing a thoufand ; whence tables of lo¬
garithms are called chiliads. — We make cycles and pe¬
riods of years, as decads, centuries, chiliads, for the ufe of
computation in hiftory. Holder.
CHILI AE'DRON,/ [fcMx, a thoufand, and bafe.]
A figure of a thoufand fides. — In a man, who fpeaks of a
chiliacdron, ora body of a thoufand lides, the idea of the
figure may be very confufed, though that of the number
be very di Hindi. Locke.
CHPLIARCH,/ of and Gr.]
a governor, a commander of a thoufand men, a colonel.
CHILI'ASTS, in church-liiltory. See Millen arians.
CHILPFACTIVE, adj. That which makes chile. —
Whether this be not effedled by fotne way of corroiion,
rather than any proper digeftion, chilifaStvve mutation, or
alimental converfion. Brown.
CHILIFAC'TORY, adj. That which has the quality
ol making chile.— We Ihould rather rely upon a chilifac-
lory menllruUm, or digellive preparation drawn from fpe-
ties or individuals, whole ftomachs peculiarly difiblve la-
pideous bodies. Brown.
C H I L I F IC Ay T i O N-, f. The a 61 of making chile. — Nor
will we affirm that iron is indigefted in the fiomach of the
oltrich ; but we llifpebt this effeft to proceed not from
any liquid redudlion, or tendence to chilification, by the
power of natural heat. Brown.
CHILISQUA'QUE, a town of the American States, on
Sufquehannah river, in Pennfylvania.
CHIL'KA, a lake of Hindooftan, on the fea-coaft of
the province of Cattack, on the north-w'eft fide of the
bay of Bengal. This lake feems the effedl of a breach of
the fea over a flat fandy fhore, extending about thirty-fix
miles in length, and from ten to thirteen in breadth, with
many inhabited iflands in it. It is called the Great Lake,
and affords a molt agreeable profpebl, diverfified with
woods, iflands, and mountains, and fmall veffels perpe¬
tually in motion. It forms the divifion between the dr¬
ears and the province of Cattack, the molt fouthern in
the kingdom of Orifia. Here begins the wildeft part of
the valt forefts which lpread along the back of the circar
mountains, and the unknown parts of Berar.
CHILL, adj. [cele, Sax.] Cold ; that which is cold to
the touch :
And ail my plants I lave from nightly ill
-Of noifome winds and blafting vapours chill. Milton.
Cold ; having the fenfation of cold ; {hivering with cold :
My heart and my chill veins freeze with defpair. Rowe.
Dull; not warm; not forward : as, a chill reception.
Deprefied ; dejeiled ; difeouraged. Unaffedtionate ; cold
of temper.
CHILL, f. Chilnefs : cold. — I very well know one to
have a fort of chill about his prascordia and head. Verb.
c h r
7a CHILL, w. a. To make cold s
Now no more the drum
Provokes to arms ; or trumpet’s clangor fln ill
Affrights the wives, or chills the virgin’s blood. Philips.
To deprefs ; to dejedl ; to difeourage. — Every thought on
God chills the. gaiety of his fpirits, and awakens terrors
which he cannot bear. Rogers. — To blaft with cold :
The fruits perilh on the ground,
Gr foon decay, by fnovvs immoderate chill'd.
By winds are blafted, or by lightning kill’d. Blackmore.
CHIL'L AKOTHE, an Indian town on the Great Mi-
ami, which was dellroyed in 1782 by a body of militia
from Kentucky. General Harmar fuppofes this to be the
Engliflr Tawixtwi, In Hutchins’s map. Here are the
ruins of an old fort, and on both fides of the river are
extenfive meadows. This name is applied to many dif¬
ferent places, in honour of an influential chief who for¬
merly headed the Shawanoes. See Tawixtwi.
CHIL'LAN, or Chilan, a town of South America, in
the country of Chili, and capital of a diftridl; it is chiefly
inhabited by Indians: feventy-five miles north-ealt of
Conception.
CHILLEI'ROS, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Eftramadura : four leagues and a half north-well of
Lifbon.
CHILLEU'RS, a town of France, in the department of
the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the.diftrift of
Neuville-aux-Bois : fourteen miles north-eaft of Orleans.
CHIL'LINESS,yi A fenfation of ffiivering cold. — Ilf
the patient furvives three days, the acutenels of the pain
abates, and a chiliinefs or (hivering aftedls the body. Arbuth.
CHIL'LINGWORTH (William), an eminent divine
of the church of England, born at Oxford in 1602, and
bred there. He made early proficiency in his ftudies,
being of a very quick genius. He was an expert mathe¬
matician, an able divine, and a good poet. Study and
converlation at the univerfity turning upon the contro-
verfy between the church of England and that of Rome,
on account of the king’s marriage with Henrietta, daugh¬
ter to Henry IV. king of France, Mr. Chillingvvorth for-
look the church of England, and embraced the Romilh
religion. After a fliort trial of a few months, in the fe-
minary at Douay, Mr. Cbillingworth was again tormented
with religious fcruples: he returned home, refumed his
ffudies, unravelled his miflakes, and delivered his mind
from the yoke of fuperltition. His new creed was built
on the principle, that the Bible is our foie judge, and pri¬
vate reafon our lole interpreter; and he ably maintains
this principle in the Religion of a Proteftant, a book
which, after ftartling the dodlors of Oxford, is Hill efteem-
ed the mod folid defence of the reformation. The learn¬
ing, the virtue, the recent merits, of the author, now en¬
titled him to preferment. Sir Thomas Coventry, lord-
keeper of the great-leal, therefore promoted him to the
chancellorlhip of the diocefe of Salilbury, with the pre¬
bend of Brixworth, in Northamptonfhire, annexed. Mr.
Cbillingworth was zealoufly attached to the royal caufe 5
and, in Auguft 164.3, was ptefent in the royal army at'
the fiege of Gioucelter, where he advifed and direbled the
making certain engines for aflaulting the town. Soon af¬
ter, having accompanied lord Hopton, general of the
king’s forces in the weft, to Arundel caftle in Suffex, he
was there taken prifoner by the parliamentary forces un¬
der the command of fir William Waller, who obliged the
caftle to furrender. But his illnefs increaling, he obtained
leave to be conveyed to Chichelter, where he was lodded
at the bilhpp’s palace; and. after a fhort ficknels, died in
1644. He left feveral excellent works behind him.
CHILLO'AS, a jurifdiftion in the bifiiopric of Trux-
illo, in South America.
CHILTON, a town of Swifferland, in the canton of
Bern : five miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Vevai.
CHILTY, adj. Somewhat cold ;
A chilly
C H I
A chilly fweat bedews
My fhudd’ring limbs. Philips.
CHILLY, a town of France, in the department of the
Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriCf of Lons
le Saunier : one league fouth-wett of Lons le Saunier.
CHIL'MARK, a town in the American Hates, on
Martha’s Vineyard Ille, Duke’s county, Maffachufetts,
containing 771 inhabitants: ninety-nine miles fouth by
call of Bolton.
CHIL'MARY, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Bengal : 1 10 miles north-eaft of Moorlhedabad.
CHIL'MINAR. See Persepolis.
CPIIL NESS,yi Coldnefs ; want of warmth :
This while he thinks; he iifts aloft his dart,
A generous chilnefs feiz.es ev’ry part,
The veins pour back the blood, and fortify the heart.
Dry den.
CHT'LO, a Spartan philofopher, who has been called
one of the feven wife men of Greece. He died through
excels of joy, in the arms of his fon, who had obtained a
viflory at Olympia, B. C. 597.
CHI'LOE, a coniiderable ifland in the South Pacific
Ocean, on the coaft of Chili. The fouth part of it is di¬
vided from the continent by a narrow lea, which forms
a bay. This coaft is fubjeft to tempeftuous weather, ef-
pecially in March, when winter begins. The Spaniards
have but one little fort in this ifland called Chacao, and
the town of Caftro. This ifland produces all neceflary re-
frelhments and provifions, except wine ; and much am¬
bergris is found here. About this ifland are many more,
all which together form a jurifdiftion called the Jurifdic-
tion ofChiloe. The iflands of Chiloe are reputed bar¬
ren;. but their foil is not really fo. The nature of the
climate is fuch, that it rains almoft all the year; fo that
only maize, or other fuch grains, can ripen, that want
not much fun. The diet of the natives is moftly of a root
called papayas , which grows bigger in this ifland than in
any .other place. The cedar trees grow to an amazing
fize. Lat. 43. S.
CHI'LOK, a river of Siberia, which runs into the Se¬
lenga, near Selenginlk.
CHIL'QUES, a jurifdiftion of South America, in Pe¬
ru, fubje£t to the bilhop of Cufco, eight leagues fouth-
eaft from that city. Its commerce confifts in woollen ma¬
nufactures, grain of all kinds, cows, fheep, &c.
CHIL'TERN, a ridge of hills, which crofles the county
of Bucks, a little to the fouth of the center, reaching
from Tring, in Hertfordlhire, to Henley, in the county
of Oxford. To thefe hills, called the Chiltern hundreds,
is annexed the nominal office of ffeward under the crown,
the acceptance of which, of confequence, enables a mem¬
ber of the Britifli parliament to vacate his feat.
CHIMAYRA, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated mcn-
fter, fprung from. Echidna and Typhon, which had
three heads, that of a lion, a goat, and a dragon, and
continually vomited flames. The fore parts of its body
were thole of a lion, the middle was that of a goat, and
the hinder parts were thole of a dr-agon. It generally
lived in Lycia, about the reign of Jobates, by whole or¬
ders Bellerophon, mounted on the horfe Pegafus, over¬
came it. This fabulous tradition is explained by the
recolle&ion that there was a burning mountain in Lycia,
whofe top was the refort of lions, on account of its de¬
folate wildnefs ; the middle, which was fruitful, was
covered with goats ; and at the bottom the marfhy ground
abounded with lerpents. Bellerophon is laid to have
conquered the Chimasra, becaufe he firft made his habi¬
tation on that mountain. Plutarch fays, that it is the
captain of fome pirates, who adorned their (hip with the
images of a lion, a goat, and a dragon.
CHIM^ER'A,_/i in ichthyology, the chimera, a genus of
fillies belonging to the order of (Jhondropterygii. The ge»
neric character is conftitutedby onefpineon the back. The
body is long ; the head ends in a point ; but the mouth
z
CHI 43 1
is underneath, and each jaw has two cutting-teeth.
I here is one aperture on each fide for refpiration. The
tail ends in a briftle, like a fmall painting-brulh, and is
longer than all the reft of the body. There are only two
fpecies, called by La Cepede, (Hilt. Nat. des Poilfons,
1798.) the arBic and antarBic, names expreflive of the
part of the globe which they inhabit ; and it is worthy
of remark, that the only two fpecies perhaps which re-
femble each other in fliape and habits of this extraordi¬
nary natuie, fhoukl be feparated by the greateft poflible
diftance ; the one inhabiting the midft of thole leas which
environ the north pole, while the other is found only in
the waters about the antarctic circle, and particularly in
that part of the fouth fea which lies neareft to that pole.
Thefe fillies feem to have divided the freezing zones be¬
tween them ; as they very rarely approach the temperate
climes ; but appear to delight in mountains of ice, and in
thofe tempeftuous hurricanes, frightful to mankind,
which almoft conftantly blow in the polar regions. If
the antanftic chimera advances through the waves of the
fouth fea much nearer the tropics than does the arffic
one amid the rough waves of the north fea, it mult be
remembered that the feuthern liemifphere furnilhes a
colder temperature at an equal diftance from the equa¬
torial line ; and that the antardfic chimera finds in that
liemifphere, though nearer to the torrid zone, the fame
degree of cold, the fame kind and plenty of food, and
the fame conveniences for the fecundation of her ova, as
in the northern liemifphere.
1. Chimasra monftrofa, the ardtic chimera; the fpeci-
fic charadlerof which is, the porous wrinkles or tubercles
about the fnout. The remarkable conformation of this
fifli has gained it the name of chunter a , to which monflrofa
has been added by Linnaeus ; and, from its manners and
habits, Gefner, Johnfton, andRuyfch, called it Jimia ma¬
rina, the fea-ape. 'Idle agility and wantonnefs of its mo¬
tions, the flexibility of its long thin tail, its manner of
Ihewing its teeth, and contradling its muzzle into diftor-
tion, have brought to the mind of the obferver the gef-
tures and grimaces of thofe monkeys which are more com¬
monly known. On the other hand, every one knows
that the ancients bellowed on the formidable animal they
called chimera, the head of a lion, and the tail of a fer-
pent. Now the long tail of this fifli may eaflly call to
mind that of a reptile ; and the iituation as well as place
of the firft rays of the dorfal fin might reprelent, though
imperfefllv, a kind of mane behind the head, which is
very large, as in the lion : and a tuft of thin filaments
riles upon the head of the male: this tuft or crown oc-
cafioned the peafants of Norway to call it “ the king of
fillies.” Daubenton, in the Encyclopedic methodique,
lately publiftied, calls it “king of the herrings,” proba¬
bly becaule it feeds on herrings. The different parts of
this animal exhibit proportions very rarely found among
other fifties, and give it, at firft fight, the appearance of
a monlter. At a diftance it looks like a flunk. The bo¬
dy is long, and laterally compreffed. The head is broad,
and ends fomewhat in the fliape of a noi’e ; with feveral
foramina, from which a vifeous matter is exprefled.
The mouth opens acrofs, and underneath; it is fmall,
with two large cutting-teeth in each jaw. At the upper
jaw there are fome railed lines, feemingly compoied of
dots ; the upper lip is divided like a hare’s. The ncftrils
are direftly over the mouth ; the Ikin of the head is
wrinkled or plaited. The eyes are large ; the pupil fea-
green, the iris white, and they lhine like cats eyes,
which in fome countries has gained them the name of
fia-cat. Below and above the eye is a curved line, which
unites with the lateral line. The lateral line is continu¬
ed from the head quite to the end of the tail ; it is white
with a black border on each fide ; and, being very link¬
ing to the eye like that- of the haddock, the peafants of
the north account it a variety of that fifli, and according¬
ly call it fpicl-Jlrengbyfe ; but it is to be oblerved, that tlie
Norwegians have not lefs than twelve or fourteen differ¬
ent
432 CHI
ent names for this chimera, which occafions much confu-
lion in the accounts of various authors. It is of a clear
filver colour on the belly, clouded or mottled with '
brown on the back and fides, which has gained it the
name of filver-fifh among the Norwegians ; they call it
alfo gold-fifh, filver lea-dog, gold haddock, &c. The
anus lies between the ventral fins ; the tail is as long as
the body, and as it ends very taper and thin, it has occa-
iioned another appellation among the Norwegians, name¬
ly, fea-rat , The pectoral fins are large, the ventrals
fmall; the fecond and third dorfals narrow; the firlt
dorfal is of a triangular fliape, lecured by a veiy ltrong
fpine, which is lerrated inwards, and forms the generic-
character : the lecond begins near to the firft, and is ve¬
ry long ; the third is oppofite to the anal fin. All the
fins are of a brown colour. La Cepede obferves, that
the intervals 'between the three dorfal fins are lb very
fmall as fometimes not to be fufceptible, fo that he conft-
ders this fpecies as having properly but one dorfal fin.
This fpecies is found in the North Sea ; four feet in
length, and one in circumference, are the ufual dimen-
lions ; it lives moftly on (liell-filli, which are found tritu¬
rated in the ltomach. It is caught in nets when filhfug
for the cod ; but it is not u led for food, becaufe the fielh
is rank and hard. The Norwegians make cakes with the
eggs ; and they extraft oil from the liver, which they
uie in diforders of the eyes, and as a balfam for wounds.
This extraordinary animal rarely approaches thelhore;
the feafon of coupling is almolt the only time it quits the
main ocean ; it generally remains in deep water, and
1’eldom riles to the furface but by night, as its large ten¬
der eyes cannot endure the light of the day reflefted from
■mountains of ice: Yet it has been leen to attack and
purfiue the innumerable Ihoals of herrings which appear in
the North Sea at certain l'eafons of the year, and to devour
numbers of them.
The ltomach is long and round, and the inteltinal ca¬
nal fhort and broad. Infide the navel, in the females,
there is an aperture to each matrix; the matrices com¬
municate with the ovaries by means of the ovidudls.
Before the ventral fins in the males are two appendices,
or clai’pers, with nails, to confine the female in the a£l of
copulation. The chimera couples therefore like the
fharks and the rays ; the eggs are fecundated in the body
of the female, and are probably molt frequently hatched
there, as in thofe rifh : but what is molt worthy of re¬
mark, and which fhewsthe connection between this clais
of fillies and the ferpent-kind, is, that, differing from all
the finny race hitherto known, eggs appear to be fecun¬
dated during aCtual and clofe contact, and by real
intromillion. Several authors have written that the male
has a kind of double penis ; and certain it is that
the female has a double aperture within the navel,
which communicate with a double matrix, and fepa-
rate ovidufts: if this double aperture Ihould have any
oher office than that of receiving the male organ, it
will ffiew that this extraordinary animal is Hill farther
removed from the ufual conformation of the female of
fillies in general.
2. Chimera callorhinchus, the antarftic chimera ; the
fpecific character of wliichis a long appendage to the muz-
,zle. This fpecies, which inhabits the fouthern hemif-
phere, particularly the feas round the coall of Chili and
of New Holland, has much refiemblance, in its habits and
conformation, to ttie preceding fpecies ; yet it differs in
many particulars, as appears from an individual which
was a female brought from South America by Dombey.
The filament of the tail is Ihorter, and the three dorial
fins are quite diltinCt. The lateral line is but juft dif-
cernible ; and the branches from it which run about the
head, are not hollowed out in furrows, nor diipoled in
the fame manner as the preceding. But the principal
and fpecific diftinCtion is, that the end of the lhout, or
rather the upper lip, terminates in a cartilaginous ap¬
pendage, which comes out in front, and then bends in
C H I
towards the mouth. This production, which fome have
fancied to referable a cock’s comb, lias gained it the
name cock-jifh ; while others have compared it to a trunk,
and hence named it the elephant-fijh. This is wholly of
a filvery colour, unclouded with any kind of itripes or
fpots. Its flefli is infipid, but it is fometimes eaten; it
grows about three feet long.
CHIMAR/RHIS, f [lb named by Jacquin, ceiro rou
Xtiputfov, becaule it ufually grows by torrents.] In bo¬
tany, a genus of the clafs pentandria, order monogynia.
The generic characters are — Calyx : perianth margin en¬
tire, crowning the germ, permanent. Corolla : one-pe-
talled, funnel-form; tube very ffiort ; border five-cleft;
fegments ianceolate, concave, blunt, hirfute below with
a longitudinal line running along the middle, and lpread-
ing. Stamina ; filaments five, Tubulate, hiriute at the
bale, below the divifions of the border, the length of
the corolla; anthers oval, ereCt. Piftillum : germ round-
iffi> inferior; ltyle filiform, the length of the ftamens ;
ftigma bifid, obtufe. Pericarpium : capfule fubovate,
obtufe, crowned, two-celled, two-valved; the valves
bifid at the tip ; feeds folitary. — EJjfential CharaBer. Co¬
rolla : funnel-form, with a very ffiort tube ; capfule in¬
ferior, obtule, two-celled, two-valved, the valves bifid at
the tip ; feed one in each cell.
But one lpecies, chimarrhis cymofa. It is a lofty tree,
with a handfome head, and the boughs fpreading out
horizontally. Leaves ovate, acuminate at both°ends,
quite entire, fhining, petioled, oppofite, a foot long,
commonly eight or ten at the end of each twig. Flow¬
ers numerous, fmall, with white corollas, and without
Icent, difpofed in cyinole racemes half a foot in diame¬
ter;- thofe in the axils oppofite and folitary, thofe at the
end ulually four together. Capfules iinall. Wood
white and ufed for beams, rafters. &c. It is called in.
Martinico, where it is common, hois de riviere.
CHIMAY7, a town of the Netherlands, in the county
of Hainaut, often ruined by wars, and as often rebuilt.
It was ceded to France by the treaty of Ratffbon, in
1684, and reftoredto the Spaniards by the peace of Ryfi-
wick; near it are mines of iron, with founderies and
forges : ten polls and a half eaft-north-eaft of Cambray,
and fifteen and a half fouth-eaft of Lille.
CHIIVF.BE, a town of South America, and capital of
a jurildiftion, in the province of Quito. The town
contains about eighty families, Spaniards and Indians,
and the whole diltririt about 800 inhabitants.
CHIMBORA'ZO, in the province of Quito, in South
America, is the highell point of the Andes, and the
highelt mountain as yet known in the world ; being,
according to Condamine, 19,200 feet; according to
others, 20. 60S feet, above the level of the lea. It lies
nearly under the line, being in 1 . 41 . 40. S. lat. yet its
fmfimit is covered with ice and fnow, and the country is
often pierced with intolerable cold and cutting winds.
CHIME, f. \jiime , Dutch.] The end of a barrel ortub.
CHIME, ]'. [The original of this w'ord is doubtful.
Junius and Minlhew fuppofe it corrupted from cimbal ;
Skinner from gamme, or gamut ; Henlhaw from chia-
raare, io call, becaufe the chime calls to church. Per¬
haps it is only foftened from chirme or churm, an old
word for the found of many voices, or inllruments mak¬
ing a noife together.] The confonant or harmonic
found of many correfpondent inllruments :
The found
Of inllruments, that made melodious chime,
Was heard of harp and organ. Milton.
The correfpondence of found :
Love firft invented verfe, and form’d the rhyme,-
The motion meafur’d, harmoniz’d the chime. Drjden.
The found of bells, not rung by ropes, but ftruck with
hammers. In this fenfe it is always ufed in the plural,
(himes. See the article Clock.
To
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C H I
C H I
*1 o CHIME, rj. n. To found in harmony or confonance :
To make the rough recital aptly chime ,
Or bring the fum of Gallia’s lols to rhime. Prior.
To correspond in relation or proportion. — Father and
fort, hufband and wife, and fuch other correlative
terms, do belong one to another; and, through cuftom,
do readily chime , and anfwer one another, in people’s
memories. Locke. — To agree; to fall in with. — He not
only fat quietly and heard his father railed at, but often
chimed in with the difcourfe. Arb'uthnot. — To fuit with,
to agree. — Any fed, whofe reafonings, interpretation,
and language, I have been ufed to, will, of courfe, make
eW-chime that way. Locke. — To jingle; to clatter.
But with the meaner tribe I’m forc’d to chime.
And, wanting ftrength to rife, defcend to rhyme. Smith.
To CHIME, <v. a. To ftrike a bell with a hammer.
To move, or ftrike, or caufe to found harmonically., or
with juft confonancy :
With lifted arms they order ev’ry blow,
And chime their founding hammers in a row :
With labour’d anvils ALtna groans below. Dryden.
CHIMEPANIPES'TICK, a river of Canada, which
runs into the river. St. Laurence. Lat. 50. 5. N. Ion. 61.
25. W. Greenwich.
CHIME'RA, f [ Chitnara , Lat.] A vain and wild
fancy, as remote from reality as the exiftence of the po¬
etical Chimaera, above defcribed :
In fhort, the force of dreams is of a piece,
Chimeras all, and more abfurd, or lefs. Dryden.
CHIME'RA, a town and fortrefs of European Tur¬
key, capital of a diftriCt, in the province of Abania, fi-
tuated on a rock near the fea coaft, oppoiite the ifland of
Corfu: eighteen miles fouth of Valona. Lat. 40. N.
Ion. 36. 48. E. Ferro.
CHIME'RICAL, adj. [from chimera.'] Imaginary ;
fanciful; wildly, vainly, or fantaftically, conceived ; fan-
taftic. — Notwithftanding the finenefs of this allegory
may atone for it in fome meafure, I cannot think that
perfons of fuch a chimerical exiftence are proper actors in
an epic poem. Spectator.
CHIME'RICALLY, ad-v. [from chimerical.] Vainly;
wildly; fantaftically.
CHI'MIN, f. [ chetnin , Fr.] In law, road or way ; which
is of two forts ; the king’s highway, and a private way.
The king’s highway, ( cbiminus regius,) is that in which
the king’s fubje&s, and all others under his protection,
have fi ee liberty to pafs ; though the property of the
foil where the way lies belongs to fome private perfon.
A private way is that in which one man or more have
liberty to pafs, through the ground of another, by pre-
.fcription or charter ; and this is divided into chimin in
grofs, and chimin appendant. Chimin in grofs, is where
a perfon holds a way principally and folely in itfelf. Chi¬
min appendant, is that way which a man hath as appur¬
tenant to fome other thing : as if he rent a clofe or paf-
ture, with covenant for ingrefs and egrefs through fome
other ground in which otherwife he might not pafs.
Kitch. 1 1 7. Co. Lit. 56. See Highway, Trespass, &c.
CHI'MINAGE,/. [ chiminagium , Lat.] Toll due by cuf¬
tom for having a way through a foreft ; and in ancient
records it is fometimes called pedagium. Co. Lit. 56.
CHIM'NEY, f. [ cheminee , Fr.] The paflage through
which the fmoke afcends from the fire in houfes:
Chimnies with fcorn rejecting fmoke. Swift.
The turret raifed above the roof of the houfe, for con-
veyance'of the fmoke:
The night has been unruly ; where we lay,
Our chimnies were blown down. Shakefpeare.
The fire-place.— The fire, which the Chaldeans worfhip-
ped for a god, is crept into every man’s chimney, Raleigh.
Vol. IV. No. 209. 6 '
433
Notwithftanding the high perfeflion to which the
Greeks and Romans had carried their improvements in
architecture, it does not appear, from the refearches of
profeffor Beckmann, that either of thefe claflical nations
were acquainted with the conflruCtion of chimneys.
This valuable improvement in the comforts and conve¬
niences of dwelling-houfes, did not take place much
earlier than the thirteenth century. Previous to that
time, it feems that the fmoke iffued from rooms wherein
fires were kindled, either through pipes or apertures in
the roofs or walls ; and which, from the fimilarity of their
ufe, appear to have been confounded with the more mo¬
dern term chimney. It fhould feera that both the Greek
and Roman kitchens were ufually detached from their
dwelling-houfes, and w-ere conftru&ed either fquare or
round, with covered roofs, terminating in a hole or flue
in the centre, and fometimes with holes or flues in the
walls all round ; fo that the fmoke might be carried off in
whatever direction the wind blew. The fire-place w’as
in the centre, in the fame manner as in the military or
camp kitchens, admitting of many diftinCt fires, round
which the fervants and cooks couid walk without diffi¬
culty or impediment. Hence the directions we find given
by Columella, to build their kitchens fo high that the
roofs may not catch fire, was a precaution of the utmoft
importance. Had there been chimneys in the Roman
houfes, Vitruvius certainly would not have failed to de-
fcribe their conflruCtion, which is fometimes attended-
with confiderable difficulties, and which is intimately
connected with the regulation of the plan of the whole
edifice. He does not, however, fay a word on this fub-
jeCt ; neither does Julius Pollux, who has collected with
great care the Greek names of every part of a dwelling-
lroufe ; and Grapaldus, who in latter times made a like
collection of the Latin terms, has not given a Latin word
expreftive of a modern chimney. And we might add,
that in the late elegant and elaborate work of Stuart and
Revett, there is not, among all their collections of the
remains of the ancient buildings at Athens, the fihalleft
traces or mention of a chimney.
The complaints often made by the ancients refpeCting
fmoke, ferve alfo to confirm the opinion that they had
no chimneys. Vitruvius, where he fpeaks of ornament¬
ing and fitting-up apartments, fays exprefsly, that there
ought to be no carved work or mouldings, but plain cor¬
nices, ip rooms where fire is made and many lights burn¬
ed, becaufe they will foon be covered with foot, and will
therefore require to be often cleaned. On the other hand,
he allows carving in fummer apartments, where the ef¬
fects of fmoke are not to be apprehended. And, howe¬
ver imperfeCt may be the information which can be col¬
lected from the Greek and Roman authors refpeCting the
manner in which the ancients warmed their apartments,
it neverthelefs fhews that they commonly ufed for that
purpofe a large brazier or portable Hove, in which they
kindled their fires, or filled them with live coals. As in
Perfia, and other countries of the eaft, no ftoves made in
the European manner are ufed at p refen t ; and as it is
certain that the manners, cuftoms, and furniture, of the
early ages have been retained there almoft without va¬
riation, we have reafon to fuppofe that the methods em¬
ployed by the inhabitants for warming themfelves, are
the fame as thofe ufed by the ancients. They agree per¬
fectly with the defcriptions given by the Greek and Ro¬
man authors, and ferve in fome meafure to illuftrate
them. We fhall therefore infert the account given by
De la Valle, as it is the cleareft and moft to the purpofe.
“The Perfians,” fays he, “make fires in their apart¬
ments, not in chimneys as we do, but in ftoves in the
earth, which they call tennor. Thefe ftoves confift of a
fquare or round hole, two lpans or a little more in depth,
and in fhape not unlike an Italian calk. That this hole
may throw out heat fooner, and with more ftrength,
there is placed in it an iron veffelof the fame fize, which
is either filled with burning coals, or a fire of wood and
5 S other
434 C H I M N E Y.
other inflammable fubdances is made in it. When this
is done, they place over the hole or dove a wooden top,
like a {mail low table, and fpread above it a large cover¬
let quilted with cotton, which hangs down on all Tides to
the floor. This covering condenfes the heat, and caufes
it. to warm the whole apartment. The people who eat or
conveyfe there, and Tome who deep in it, lie down on the
floor above the carpet, and lean, with their flioulders
againft the wall, on l'quare cufnions, upon which they
fbmetimes alio lit; for the tennor is condrufted in a
place equally dillant from the walls on both Tides.
Thofe who are not very cold only put their feet under
the table or covering ; but thofe who require more heat
can put their hands under it, or creep under it altoge¬
ther. By thefe means the Hove diffufes over the whole bo¬
dy, without caufing uneafinels to the head, fo penetrating
and agreeable a warmth, that I never in winter experi¬
enced anything more pleafant. Thofe, however, who require
Jefs heat let the coverlet hang down on their flde to the
floor, and enjoy, without any inconvenience from the
Hove, the moderately heated air of the apartment.
They have a method alfo of dining up or blowing the fire
when necelfary, by means of a finall pipe united with
the tennor or ltove under the earth, and made to project
above the floor as high as one choofes, fo that the wind
when a perfonbiows into it, becaufe it has no other vent,
aits • immediately upon the fire like a pair of bellows.
When there is no longer occafion to ufe this ltove, both
holes are clofed up, that is to fay, the mouth of the
Hove and that of the pipe which conveys the air to it,
by a fiat ltone made for that purpofe. Scarcely any ap¬
pearance of them is then to be perceived, nor do they
occafion inconvenience, efpecially in a country where it
5s always cultomary to cover the floor with a carpet, and
where the walls are plaiftered, In many parts thefe ovens
are ufed to cook victuals, by placing kettles over them.
They are employed alfo to bake bread, and for this pur¬
pofe they are covered with a large broad metal plate,
on which the cake is laid : but if the bread is thick and
requires more heat, it is put into the Hove itfelf.” We
may add, that the jews ufed fuch (loves in their houfes,
and the prielts had them alfo in the temple. That the
Greeks and Romans adopted a (imilar method, is ex¬
tremely probable ; for it is certain that no traces of
chimneys were found in the newly difcovered city of
Herculaneum, as defcribed by the abbe Winckeimann.
That there were no chimneys in the twelfth and thir¬
teenth centuries, Teems to be proved by the ignhegium,
or pyritegium, the curfeu-bell of the English, and couvre-
feu of the French. In the middle ages, as they are
termed, people made fires in their houfes in a hole or pit
in the centre of the floor, under an opening formed in
the roof ; and when the fire was burnt out, or the family
went to bed at night, the- hole was lhut by a cover of
wood. In thofe periods a law was almoll every where
cltablilhed, that the fire Ihould be extinguifhed at a cer¬
tain time in the evening; that the cover Ihould be put
over the fire-place ; and that all the family Ihould retire
to reft, or at lead be at home. The time when this
ought to be done was fignified by the ringing of a bell.
William the Conqueror introduced this law into Eng¬
land in 1 068, and fixed the ignitegium at feven in the
evening, in order to prevent no6turnal alfemblies ; but
this lav/ was abolilhed by Henry I. in 1100. The oldell
certain account of chimneys, occurs in 1347, in an in-
Icription (till exiiting at Venice, which relates, that at
the above period a great many chimneys (molti camini)
were thrown down by an earthquake. This circum-
ltance is confirmed by John Villani, the hillorian, who
died at Florence in 1348, and who calls the chimneys fu-
majuoli. Galeazzo Gataro, who in the Dictionary of
Learned Men is named De Gataris, and who died of the
plague in 1405, fays in his Hitlory of Padua, that Fran-
celco da Carraro, lord of Padua, came to Rome in 1368,
and finding no chimneys at the iun where he lodged, be¬
caufe at that time fire was kindled in a hole in the mid¬
dle of the floor, he caufed two chimneys, like thofe which
had been long ufed at Padua, to be confirufted, and
arched by mafons and carpenters whom he had brought
along with him. Over thefe chimneys, the firjl ever fee n
at Rome, he affixed his arms, which were Hill remaining
in the time of Gataro. An evident and fatisfaftory proof
that chimneys are but of modern date.
Of the- great inconveniences which the ancients la¬
boured under for want of this accommodation, thofe
will bed judge who are annoyed with fmoky chimnies.
Modern invention, however, and the progrefs of the
arts, feem to have overcome this deleft. Sir Benjamin
Thompfon, now count Romford, by detefting the caule,
appears to have found a radical cure. One of the philo¬
sophical principles, on which this improvement is founded,
is a dillinftion in the form under which heat generated
by combuftion exilts. This the count aflerts to have at
lead two perfeftly didinft modifications : viz. that of
heat combined with the fmoke and vapour flying off from
the fuel ; and that of heat uncombined, or at lead com¬
bined only with light, which he calls radiant heat. It is
on the converfion of the greated part of the former into
the latter, that he depends for the improvements which
he fuggeds. Praftically, his contrivances chiefly confill
in narrowing the throat of the chimney, and in condruft-
ing the Tides of the fire-place in fuch a manner as to
throw forwards, by reflection, as many as polfible of the
rays of heat and light. We need only add that their
efficacy has been proved in the alterations that have been
made, under the count’s direction, in the fire-places
of many houfes of perfons of dillinftion in and near
London, infomuch that almod every mafon, aware of its
great utility,' is now qualified to alter chimneys, and
let grates, upon count Rumford’s plan. This circum-
fiance has induced feveral ingenious perfons to co-operate
in the views of the above able philofopher, by condruft-
ing grates, with an apparatus of vents and tubes, adapt¬
ed to the principles laid down by the count for curing
fmoky chimnies. Some of thele are the invention or’
Mr. James Burns, of Glafgow, fanftioned by letters
patent, dated November 3, 1799, the plan and proper¬
ties of which the reader will find under the article
Grate. An improvement of a limilar nature, protect¬
ed likewife by letters patent, has been lately made to the
kitchen-range, and dove, by Mr. George Stratton, of
Cheaplide, London ; as well to fave fuel, as to cure
fmoky chimnies. We think, however, that fmoky
chimneys might in general be prevented, by twidingo’r
bending the flue in an oblique or zigzac direftion, when
they are fird conilrufted. Many able architects, with
whom we have conferred on this iubjeft, allure us, that
not one dack of chimnies which they have had erefted
with twilled flues, have been ever known to fmoke.
The reafon is obvioully this ; that as the parallel line is
broken, the weight of the incumbent atmoiphere loles
its preffure, and the fmoke is not impeded in iffuing
from the aperture of the chimney. For the condruftion
and proportion of chimneys, fee Architecture, vol.
ii. p. 107.
A theory of chimneys and fire-places, has been lately
pubiilhed, by Mr. Dauforth, of the Harvard Univerfity,
at Cambridge, in America, which pofledes great im¬
provements on count Rumford’s plan ; with a mecha-
nifm, whereby in cafes of fire, either in Ihips or in dwei-
ling-houles, the fame may be fpeedily got under and
extinguidied., with certainty and eafe. This propofed
improvement feems to be no other than the weli-known
expedient of efiablilhing a communication by a tube or
flue, between the external air and the back part of the
fit e place. The propofed mode of e'xtinguidung fires
depends on a fyltem of tubes carried from an outlide
wail, to each apartment in the divelling-iioule, and ter¬
minating in the centre of the ceiling, in a hollow globe
pierced lull of holes, whereby a dream of water might
i
C H I
be Tent by an engine dire£tly to the fpot on which it is -
•wanted, or where the flames are moll violent, and thrown
in the form of a copious (hower on the burning- matter.
This is confefledly an ingenious device, but not likely,
we conceive, to be put in practice.
CHIM''NEY, a town of the bland of Ceylon : ninety-
four miles fouth-eaft of Cauda.
CHIM'NEY-MONEY, otherwife called hearth-money ,
A duty to the crown impofed by flat. 14. Car. 2. cap 2. of
as. for every hearth in a houfe ; but long fince repealed.
CHIM'NEY-PIECE, f. The ornamental piece of wood
or Hone, that is fet round or oyer the fire-place.
CHIM'NEY- SWEEPER, /. One whole trade it is to
clean foul chimneys of the foot :
The little chwincy-fvjeeper llalks along,
And marks with looty Itains the heedlefs throng. Gay.
Our prefent exifting laws with refpect to chimney-fweep-
ers, are as follow: By flat. 28 Geo. 3. c. 48. churchwar¬
dens and overfeers, with the content of two juftices, may
bind boys of eight years old or upwards ; and who,
themfelves or their parents are chargeable to the parilh,
or who lhall beg; or with the confent of their parents j
to be apprentices to chimney-iweepers until they are fix-
teen years old. The form of the indenture is fettled by
a fchedule annexed to the flatute. In that the mailer
covenants to find the bey with decent cloathing ; to per¬
mit him to attend public worflrip; and to oblerve the lla-
tute in the leveral particulars mentioned. All other in¬
dentures and agreements are' delated void ; and any
c h i m n ey-fw eeper keeping an apprentice under eight
years old is to forfeit not more than jol. nor lefs than
5I. for each. One juftice is authorifed to fettle all com¬
plaints of ill ulage by the mailers, or ill behaviour in .the
boys. No cbimney-fweeper lhall keep more than fix ap¬
prentices at once; the mailer’s name and place of abode
are to be inferibed on a brafs plate in the front of a lea¬
thern cap to be provided by the mailer for each appren¬
tice, to be worn by the boy when on duty. For every
apprentice above fix, and for neglecting to provide their
caps, the mailer is to forfeit not exceeding 10I. nor lefs
than 5I. If the mailer lhall mis-ule or evil- treat his ap¬
prentice, or be guilty of the breach of any of the cove¬
nants in his indenture, he lhall forfeit, not more than
jol. nor lels than 5I. The flatute containing the fore¬
going and other humane regulations, was obtained by
the exertions of the benevolent Mr. Jonas Hanway ; to
whom the public and the poor are indebted for many
laudable charities.
CHIMPAN'ZEE,/. a fpecies of ape. See SlMlA.
CHIN,/ [cinne, Sax. kinn, Germ.] The part of the
face beneath the under lip. — All the words I could get
of her, was wrything her waill, and thrufting out her
chin. Sydney.
CHl'NA, the moll powerful and extenfive empire on
the continent of Afia, called by the Chinefe Tchong-koue ,
or The Middle Kingdom. The Wellern Moguls called
it Catay ; the Mantchew Tartars, Nican-courou ; the Ja-
panele, Thau-, and the people of Cochin-china and Siam,
Cin. It is probably from this lall appellation that the
word China is derived. The Chinefe hiltory relates, that
the firlt imperial family who carried their arms towards
the weft, aflumed the name of Tfin, or Tai-tfin. The
armament, which the emperor Tfin-chi-hoangfent as far
as Bengal, mull have made the people of India acquainted
with the name of Tfin, whofe formidable power had been
felt at fo great a diftance. This name, palling afterwards
from India to Perfia and Egypt, might perhaps reach Eu¬
rope. This is the mo.lt probable account we can give of
the origin of the name by which this vail empire is ge¬
nerally-known. China, properly lb called, comprehends
from north to fouth eighteen degrees ; its extent from
eaft to weft is fomewhat lels. The adjacent countries fub-
jeblecl to the Cbinele government, fuck as the Iflands of
Haman and Formola, Leatong and Tartary, are not in-
C H I 435
eluded iu this eftimation ; for, if we reckon from the
moll fouth ern point of the ifland of Hainan, to the nor¬
thern extremity of Tartary, which is under the dominion
of the emperor of China, we lhall find that the territories
of this prince are more than 900 leagues in extent from
north to fouth, and about 1500 from eaft to well, reck¬
oning from the Ealtern Sea as far .as the country of Cafg-
har, conquered by the Chinefe in 1759. China is bounded
on the north by Tartary, from which it is feparated by
the great wall, 500 leagues in length ; on the eaft by the
Indian ocean ; on the weft by lofty mountains and de¬
ficits ; and towards the fouth by the ocean, the kingdoms
or Tong-king, Laos, and Cochin-china. It is divided
into fifteen provinces; which are Pe-tcheli, Kiang-nan,
Kiang-fi, Fo-kien, Tche-kiang, Hou-quang, Ho-nan,
Chan-tong, Chan-fi, Shen-fi, Se-tchuen, Quang-tong,
Quang-fi, Yun-nan, and Koei-tchou. Each of thefe pro¬
vinces is deferibed, from the latefl accounts of them,
under its refpeftive name, in the alphabetical arrangement
of this work.
The Chinefe empire is of fucli antiquity and extent,
the laws and cultoms of the people fo lingular, and the
populoufnefs of the country fo great, that ever fince the
13th century, when it was vifited by Marco Paulo the
Venetian traveller, it has defervedly attracted the notice
and enquiry of many eminent European hiltorians. Every
nation feems more or lefs inclined to aflume to itfelf too
high an antiquity ; but in this refpeft the Chinefe have
exceeded all realonable bounds, contending that their
firll emperor was the firfl human being created upon the
earth, and that from- his progenitors the whole world
was peopled. It feems indeed admitted, that no nation is
more exact in keeping records of every memorable tran-
fiaCtion, than that of the .Chinefe; yet fuch is the genius
of this people for fuperlljtion and fable, that they have
converted every legendary tale of their anceftors into re¬
ligious tenets, which they hold in the higheft veneration.
What contributes molt to the uncertainty of their early
hiltory is, that about 213 years before Chrilt, the then
reigning emperor caufed all the books in the empire to
be burnt, except thole written by lawyers and phyficians.
And the more effectually to deltroy the memory of every
thing contained in them, he commanded a great number
of learned men to be buried alive, left from their me¬
mories, they (hould commit to writing fomething of the
true origin of the empire. The inaccuracy of the Chi-
nefe annals is complained of even by their moll refpeCted
author Confucius, who alio affirms, that before his time
many of the oldelt records had been deltroyed.
According to the legendary accounts of the Chinefe
hiltorians, the firll monarch of China was called Puon-ku.
This, according to fome, fignifies the firll man ; but ac¬
cording to Bayer and Menzelius, two very able critics in
Chinefe literature, the term implies Amply the higheji an¬
tiquity. Puon ku was fucceeded by T iene-hoang, which
denotes the emperor of heaven. They call him alfo the
intelligent heaven, the fupreme king of the middle hea¬
ven, &c. According to fome of their hiltorians, he was
the inventor of letters, and of the cyclic characters by
which they determine the place of the year, and calculate
their time. Tiene-hoang was fucceeded byTi-hoang (the
emperor of the earth), who firll divided the day and
night, appointed thirty days to make one moon, and fixed
the winter folltice to the nth moon. Ti-hoang was fuc¬
ceeded by Gine-hoang (fovereign of men), who with his
nine brothers ffiared the government among them. They
built cities, and furrounded them with walls; made a
diftinCtion between the lbvere.ign and liibjeCts ; inftituted
marriage, &c. The reigns of t.hefe four emperors make up
one of what the Chinefe called ki, ages or periods, of which
there were nine before Fohi, whom their moll learned,
people acknowledge to be the founder of their empire.
The hiltory of the fecond ki contradicts almolt every
thing faid of the firlt ; for though we have but juft now
been told that Gine hoang and his brethren built cities
furrounded
43& C H ]
furrounded with walls ; yet, in tlie fucceeding age, the
people dwelt in caves, or perched upon trees as it were
m nefe Of the third hi we hear nothing ; and in the
fourth we are told that men were then only taught to re¬
tire into the hollows of rocks. Of the fifth and fixth
we have no accounts. Thefe fix periods, according, to
fome writers, contained 90,000 years : according to others,
1,100,750. In the feventh and eighth hi, they tell us
over again what they had faid of the firlt ; namely, that
men began to leave their caves and dwell in lioufes, and
were taught to prepare clothes. Tchine-fang, the firft
monarch of the eighth hi, taught his fubjedls to take off
the hair from fkins with rollers of wood, and cover them-
felves witli the fkins fo prepared. He taught them alfo
to make a kind of web of their hair, to ferve as a cover¬
ing to their heads againft rain. They obeyed his orders
with joy, and he called his fubje<5ls/>e«//r clothed with fkins.
His reign lafted 350 years ; that of one of his fucceffors,
alfo, named Yeou-tfao-chi, lafted more than 300; and
his family continued for 12 or 18,000 years. But what
is very furprifing, all thefe thoufands of years had elapfed
without mankind having any knowledge of fire. This
was not difcovered till towards the clofe of this period,
by one Souigine. After fo ufeful a difcovery, he taught
the people to drefs their victuals ; whereas before, they
devoured the flefii of animals quite raw, drank their
blood, and fwallowed even their hair and feathers. In
the ninth period we find the invention, or at leaft the
origin, of letters, attributed to Tfang-hie, who received
them from a divine tortoife that carried them on his fhell,
and delivered them into the hands of Tfang-hie. During
this period alfo, mufic, money, carriages, merchandize,
commerce, &c. were introduced. There are various cal¬
culations of the length of thefe hi or periods. Some make
the time from Puan-ku to Confucius, who flourilhed
about +79 years before Chrift, to contain 279,000 years;
others, 2, 276, 000 ;fome, 2,759, 86oyears 5 others, 3,276,000;
and fome no lefs than 96,961,74.0 years. Thefe extrava¬
gant accounts are thought by fome to contain obfeure and
imperfect hints concerning the cofmogony and creation
of the world. Puon-ku, the firft; emperor, they think,
reprefents eternity preceding the duration of the world.
Theffucceeding ones, Tiene-hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-
hoang, they imagine fignify the creation of the heavens
and earth, and the formation of man. The ten hi, or
ages, nine of which preceded Fo-lii, mean the ten gene¬
rations preceding. Noah. This may very polfibly be the
cafe; for about 300 years before Chrift, fome Jews tra¬
velled into China, who might have made the Mofaic
writings known there.
What we have now related, contains the fubftance of
that part of the Chinefe hiftory which is entirely fabulous.
After the nine hi, or ages above-mentioned, the tenth
commenced with Fo-lii; and the hiftory, though ftill ob¬
feure and fabulous, begins to grow fomewhat more con¬
fident and intelligible. Fo-hi was born in the province
of Shen-li. His mother, walking upon the bank of a
lake in that province, law a very large print of a man’s
foot in the fand 5 and, being furrounded by an iris or
rainbow, became impregnated. The child was named
Fo-hi-, and, when he grew up, was by his countrymen
eledled king, on account of his fuperior merit, and ltyled
Tyent-tfe, “ the fon of hqaven.” He invented the eight
qua, or fymbols, confiding of three lines each, which,
differently combined, formed fixty-four characters that
• were made ufe of to exprefs every thing. To give thefe
the greater credit, he pretended that he had feen
them inferibed on the back of a dragon-horfe (an animal
fhaped like a liorfe, with the wings and feales of a dra¬
gon), which arofe from the bottom of a lake. Having
gained great reputation among his countrymen by this
prodigy, he is faid to have created mandarins or officers,
under the name of dragons. Hence we may affign a rea-
fon why the emperors of China have always borne a dra-
[ N A.
gon in their banners. Having eftablilhed a prime minif-
ter, he divided the government of his dominions among
four mandarins, and died after a reign- (5 f 115 years. Af¬
ter Fo-hi, followed a fucceffion of emperors, of whom no¬
thing remarkable is recorded, except that in the reign of
Yay, the feventh after Fo-hi, the fun did not fet for ten
days, fo that the Chinefe were afraid of a general confla¬
gration. This event the compilers of the Univerfal Hif¬
tory take to be the fame with that mentioned in the book
of Joffiua, when the fun and moon flood ftill for about
the fpace of a day. Fo-hi they will have to be the fame
with Noah. They imagine, that after the deluge,' this
patriarch continued fome time a,t the head of his defen¬
dants ; but on their combination to build the tower of
Babel, he feparated himfelf from them, ’with as many as
he could perfuade to go along with him ; and that, ftill
travelling.eaftward, he at length entered the fertile coun¬
try of China, and laid the foundation of that vaft em2
pire. In refutation of this fabled detail of the origin of
the Chinefe empire, the late learned and accompliflied
writer, Sir William Jones, appears to have taken infinite
pains, by inveftigating the earlieft records of the Afiatic
languages and literature. He allows the Chinefe empire
to be very ancient, w'hen compared with the oldeft Eu¬
ropean ftate, yet he is decidedlyof opinion, that it was
not founded at an earlier period than the rath century
before the Chriftian era; and that the people, fo far from
being Aborigines, are a mixed race of Tartars and Hin¬
doos. He begins hisinveftigations withalking, “Whence
came the Angular people, who long had governed China,
before they were conquered by the Tartars ? On this pro¬
blem, fays he, four opinions have been advanced, and all
rather peremptorily afferted, than fupported by argument
and evidence. By a few writers, it has been urged, that
the Chinefe are an original race, who have dwelt for ages,
if not from eternity, in the land which they now pollefs.
By others, and chiefly by the miffionaries, it is infilled
that they fprung from the fame ftock with the Hebrews
and the Arabs. A third affertion is that of the Arabs
themfelves, and of M. Pauw, who hold it indubitable,
that they were originally Tartars, defeending in wild
clans from the fteeps of Imaus : and a fourth, that of the
Brahmans, who decide, that the Chinas (for fo they are
named in Sanfcrit) were Hindoos of the military call,
who, abandoning the privileges of their tribe, rambled
in different bodies to the north-eaft of Bengal ; and, for¬
getting by degrees the rites and the religion of their an-
ceftors, eltabliflied feparate principalities, which were af¬
terwards united in the plains and valleys which are now
poffeffed by them. Of thefe opinions, Sir William havino-
refuted the firlt three, proceeds to eftabliffi the fourth^
which he confiders interefting as well as new in Europe.
Iji the Sanfcrit inftitutes of civil and religious duties, re¬
vealed, as the Hindoos believe, by Menu the fon of
Brahma, we find, lays he, the following curious paffage :
‘Many families of the military clals, having gradually-
abandoned the ordinances of the Veda, and the company
of Brahmans, lived in a ftate of degradation ; as the peo¬
ple of Pundraca and Odra, thole of Draviraand Camboja,
the Yavanas and Sacas, the Paradas and Pahlavas, the
Chinas, and fome other nations.’ This record would in
a great meafure decide the queition, could we be fure that
the word China fignifies a Chinefe. Of this faft Sir William
Jones took the very bell methods to be latisfied. He con-
fulted a number of Pandits feparately, who all affured
him that the word China has no other fignification in Sanf¬
crit ; that the Chinas of Menu fettled in a fine country to
the north-eaft of Gaur, and to the eaft of Camarup and
Napal ; that they had long been, and ftill are, famed as
ingenious artificers ; and that they had themlelves feen
old Chinefe idols, which bore a manifeft relation to the
primitive religion of India. He then laid before one of
the bell informed pandits a map of Alia ; and, when his
own country was pointed out to him, the pandit imme¬
diately
C H I
diately placed his finger on the north -weftern provinces
of China, as the place where he faid the Chinas of Menu
firft eftablifbed thenvfelves.
In the opinion of Sir William Jones, this is complete
evidence that the Chinefe are -really defcended from an
Indian race j but he does not believe that the Chinefe
empire, as we now confider it, was formed when the laws
of Menu were firft collected. By an accurate companion
of ancient Sanfcrit writings, he has beeirable to fix the
period of the compilation of thofe laws at between 1000
and 1500 years before Chrilt j but by the evidence of Con¬
fucius, he proves, that, if the Chinefe empire was then
formed, it could be only in its cradle in the 12th century
before our era. In the fecond part of the work, inti tied
Liin Yu, Confucius declares, that “ although he, like
other men, could relate, as mere leffons of morality, the
biftories of the firft and fecond imperial houfes, yet, for
want of evidence, he could give no certain account of
them.” Now, lays Sir William, if the Chinefe themfelves
do not pretend that any hiftorical monument exifted in
the age of Confucius preceding the rife of their third
dynafty, about 1100 years before the Chriftian epoch, we
may juftly conclude, that their empire was then in its in¬
fancy, and did not grow to maturity till fome ages after¬
wards. Nay, he is inclined to bring its origin ftill lower
down. It was not, fays he, till the eighth century before
the birth of our Saviour, that a final l kingdom was erected
in the province of Schen-fi, the capital of which flood
nearly in the 35th degree of northern latitude, and about
five degrees to the weft of Si-gan. That country and its
metropolis were both called Chin ; and'the dominion of its
princes was gradually extended to the eaft and weft. The
territory of Chin, fo called by the old Hindoos, by the
Perfians, and by the Chinefe, gave its name to a race of
emperors, whofe tyranny made their memory fo unpopu¬
lar, that the modern inhabitants of China hold the word
in abhorrence, and fpeak of themfelves as the people of
a milder and more virtuous dynafty: but it is highly pro¬
bable, that the whole nation defcended fron the Chinas
of Menu, and mixing with the Tartars , by whom the
plains of Honan and the more fouthern provinces were
thinly inhabited, formed by degrees the race of men
whom w'e now fee in poffeflion of the nobleft empire in
Alia.
In fupport of this opinion, which the accomplifhed au¬
thor oilers as the refuit of long and anxious inquiries,
he obferves, that the Chinefe have no ancient monuments
from which their origin can be traced, even by plaufible
conjecture ; that their fciences are wholly exotic ; that
their mechanic arts have nothing in them which any fet
of men, in a country fo highly favoured by nature, might'
not have difcovered and improved; that their philofophy
feems yet in fo rude a Hate as hardly to deferve the ap¬
pellation ; and that their popular religion was imported
from India in an age comparatively modern. He then in-
ftitutes a comparifon between the mythology of the Chi¬
nefe and that of the Hindoos ; of which the refuit is,
that the former people had an ancient fyltern of ceremo¬
nies and fuperllitions, which has an apparent affinity with
fome parts of the oldeft Indian worfhip. “ They believed
in the agency of genii or tutelary fpirits, preliding over
the liars and the clouds ; over lakes and rivers, moun¬
tains, valleys, and woods; over certain regions and town's ;
over all the elements, of which, like the Hindoos, they
reckoned live; and particularly over fire, the moll bril¬
liant of them. To thofe deities they offered victims on
high places. And the following palfage from one of their
facred books, fays Sir William, is very much in the ftyle
of the Brahmans : ‘ Even they who perform a facrifice
with due reverence, cannot perfectly allure themfelves
that the divine l'pirits accept their oblations ; and far lefs
can they, who adore the gods withlangour and ofcitancy,
clearly perceive their facred illapfes.’ Thefe (continues
the prefident) are imperfeCt traces indeed, but they are
traces, of an affinity between the religion of Menu ami
Vol.IV. No. 209.
N A. 437
that of the Chinas, whom he names among the apoftates
from it ; and befides them, we difcover many other very
lingular marks of relation between the Chinefe and the
old Hindoos. This relation, he thinks, appears in the
remarkable period of 432,000, and the cycle of fixty
years; in the predilection for the myltical number nine ;
in many fimilar falls and great feftivals, efpecially at the
folftices and equinoxes ; in the oblequies, confining of
rice and fruits offered to the manes of their anceftors ; in
the dread of dying childlefs, left fuch offerings Ihould be
intermitted ; and perhaps in their common abhorrence
of reef objeCls, which the Indians carried fo far, that Menu
himlelf, where he allows a Brahman to trade, if he can¬
not otherwile fupport life, abfolutely forbids his trading
in any fort of red cloths, whether linen, or woollen, or
made of woven bark. In a word, fays Sir William
Jones, all the circumftances which have been mentioned
leem to prove (as far as fuch a queition admits proof),
that the Chinefe and Hindoos were originally the fame
people ; but having been feparated near 4000 years, they
have retained few ftrong features of their ancient confan-
guinity, efpecially as the Hindoos have preferved their
old language and ritual, while the Chinefe very loon loft
both; and the Hindoos have conftantly intermarried
among themfelves, while the Chinefe, by a mixture of
Tartarian blood from the time of their firft eftablifhment,
have at length formed a race diftinCl in appearance both
from Indians and Tartars.”
Sir George'' Staunton, who accompanied the earl of
Macartney on his late embaffy to China, does not indeed
direClly controvert this reafoning; yet he gives to the
Chinele a much higher antiquity than Sir William Jones
is inclined to allow them. Taking it for granted that
their cycle is their ' own, and that it is not the offspring of
aftronomical fcience, but of repeated oblervations, he
feems to give credit to many of thofe annals of the em¬
pire, which fome other writers have confidered as fabu¬
lous. “ Next to the ftudies which teach the economy of
life, the Chinefe, fays he, value moll the liiftory of the
events of their own country, which is, to them, the globe ;
and of the celeftial movements which they had an oppor¬
tunity of obferving at the fame time.” In regard to the
former, he tells us, tliat “ from about three centuries be¬
fore the Chriftian era, the tranfablions of the Chinefe
empire have been regularly, and without any intervening
chafm, recorded both in official documents and by private
contemporary writers. Nowhere had hiltory become fo
much an objebl of public attention, and nowhere mere
the occupation of learned individuals. Every conlider-
able town throughout the empire was a kind of univer-
fity, in which degrees were conferred on the proficient in
the hiltory and government of the date. Hiftorical works
were multiplied throughout. The accounts of recent
events were expofed to the correction of the witneffes of
the fads, and compilations of former tranfaftions to the
criticifms of rival writers.” In regard to the latter, the
movements of the heavenly bodies, he thinks that in no
country are there ftronger inducements or better oppor¬
tunities to watch them than in China; and hence lie in¬
fers, that the cycle of fixty years is of Chinele forma¬
tion. “ In a climate (fays he) favourable to aftronoiny,
the balance of hours beyond the number of days during
which the fun appeared to return oppofite to, and to ob-
feure, or to mix among, the fame' fixed liars, might be af-
certained in a fhort time ; and occafioned the addition of
a day to every 4th year, in order to maintain regularity in
the computation of time, in regard to the return of the
feafons ; but many ages mull have palled before a period
could have been difcovered, in which the unequal returns
of the fun and moon were lo accurately adjulted, that at
its termination the new and full moons Ihould return,
not only to the lame day, but within an hopr and a half
of the time they had happened, when the period com¬
menced. The knowledge of fuch a period or cycle could
be obtained only by a multiplicity of careful and accu-
S T rate
438
CHINA.
rate obfervations. Many revolutions of thofe great lu¬
minaries mult have been completed, and numberlefs con¬
junctions have paffed over, before their returns could be
afcertained to happen in the fame day, at the end of nine¬
teen years. Tlte fmall difference of time between the
returning periods of this cycle, was partly lelfened by the
intervention of another of lixty years, or of 720 revolu¬
tions of the moon, which, with the fettled intercalations
of twenty-two lunations, were atfirft fuppofed to bring a
perfeCt coincidence of the relative politicns of the fun and
moon : but even according to this period, every new year
was made conftantly to recede, in a very fmall degree,
which the Chinefe corrected afterwards from time to time.
This cycle anfwered a double purpofe, one as an era for
chronological reckoning, and the other as a regulating-
period for a luni-folar year. Each year of the cycle is
diitinguilhed by the union of two characters, taken from
Inch an arrangement of an unequal number of words
placed in oppofite columns, that the lame two characters
cannot be found again together for lixty years. The firlt
column contains a leries of ten words, the other twelve;
which lalt are, in faCt, the fame that denote the twelve
hours or divifions of the day, each being double the Eu¬
ropean hour. The firlt word or character of the firlt feries
or column of ten words, joined to the firlt word of the
fecond feries or column of twelve, marks the firlt year of
the cycle ; and fo on until the firlt feries is exhaulted.
when the eleventh word of the fecond feries, combined
with the firlt of the firlt feries, marks the eleventh year
of the cycle ; and- the twelfth or lalt of the fecond feries,
joined with the fecond of the firlt feries, ferves for denot¬
ing the twelfth year. The third of the firlt feries becomes
united in regular progreflion with the firlt of the fecond
feries, to mark the thirteenth year; and proceeding by
this rule, the firlt character in the firlt and in the fecond
feries cannot come again together for fixty years, or until
the firlt year of the fecond cycle. The • Chriltian year
3797, anlwers to the 54th year of the 68th Chinele cycle,
which afcertains its commencement to have been 2277
years before the birth of Chrilt ; unlefs it be fuppoied
that the official records and public annals of the empire,
which bear teliimony to it, Ihould all be falfified, and that
the cycle when fiift eltablilhed Ihould have been antidat¬
ed; which is indeed as little probable as that the period,
for example, of the Olympiads Ihould be afierted to have
commenced many ages prior to the firlt Olympic games.”
This is a very llrong argument againlt the opinion of
a man whole talents and knowledge of oriental learning,^
were fucli as to give to his decisions on fuch fubjeCts the
greatelt weight. If the ftatements and reafonings of Sir
George Staunton be accurate, the Chinefe empire mult
have fubfilted at lealt 3000 years before the Chriltian era ;
for he fays exprefsly, that many ages mult have elapfed
before the commencement of that cycle, which, accord¬
ing to him, commenced 2277 years before the birth of
Chrilt.- Upon evidence fo equally fupported, and by men
of fuch fuperior ability, we by no means think ourfelves
qualified to decide. The queltion will probably remain
for ever at iffue, unlefs lome very decilive documents
Ihould be hereafter difcovered, whereby thefe two argu¬
ments might be reconciled ; or the one or other of them
proved to be in fa£t, what they now only appear to be in
conjecture. We therefore proceed to give that part of
the Chinele hiltory which, Itands upon a furer bafis. The
whole of the Chinefe emperors abltrafting from thofe
who are faid to have reigned in the fabulous times, are
comprehended in twenty-two dynallies, viz.
t. Ilya, containing .
Emperors.
Before Chi
. . 17 . .
. . 2207
2. Shang, or Ing . •
. . 28 . .
. . 1766
3. Chew .....
. . 1122
4. Tfin ....
. . 4 • •
. . 248
Han ....
. . 206
Empero
6. Hew-han . •
2
*
220
7. Tlin . . .
15
«
465
8. Song . .
8
220
9. Tfi . . . .
5
479
10. Lyang . .
ft
502
11. Chin
ft
557
12. Swi ....
13. Twang. . .
3
20
618
14. Hew-lyang
2
907
15. Hew-tang .
a
923
16. Hew-tfin . .
2
936
17. Hew-han . .
2
94-7
18. Hew-chew
3
95*
19. Song . . .
18
960
20. Iwen . . .
9
1280
21. Ming . ' .
16
•
1368
22. Tfing . .
•
1645
After Chrilt'
This table is formed according to the accounts of Du
Halde, and is commonly reckoned to be the molt authen¬
tic ; but according to the hypothefis of the compilers of
the Univerfal Hiftor)', who make Yau contempoj-ary with
Jofhua, the dynalty of Hya did not commence till the year
before Chrilt 1357 ; and, to accommodate the hiltory to
their hypothefis, great alterations mult be made in the du¬
ration of the dynalties.
The molt interelting particulars of the Chinefe hiftoiy
relate only to the incurlions of the Tartars, w'ho finally-
conquered the whole empire, and who Hill continue to
hold the lovereignty ; though by transferring the feat
of the empire to Peking, and adopting the Chinefe lan¬
guage, manners, &c. Tartary would feein rather to have
been conquered by China, than China by Tartary.
In the tenth century of the Chriltian era,' the Kitan
Tartars firlt got a footing in China. The Kitan were a
people of ealtern Tartary, -who dwelt to the north and
north-eaft of the province of Pecheli in China, lying with¬
out the great wall. Thefe people having fubdued the
country between Korea and Kalhgar, became much more
troublelome to the Chinele than all the other Tartars.
Their empire commenced about 916 of the Chriltian era,
and in the fourth year of the 14th Chinefe dynalty, called
Hew lyang. In 946, Mingt-fong, fecond emperor of the
15th dynalty, being dead, Sheking-tang his lon-in-law
rebelled againlt Mmgt-fong, his Ion and fucgelfor, whom
he deprived ot his crown and life. This he accomplished
by means of an army of 50,000 men, fnrnilhed by the
Kitan Tartars. Fi-ti, the fon of Mingt-fong, being un¬
able to refill: the ufurper, fled to the city Ghey-chew j
where (hutting himfelf up with his family and all his, va¬
luable elfiedts, be let fire to the palace, and was burnt to
allies. On his death, Sheking-tang affirmed the title of
emperor; founded the 1 6th dynalty; and changed his
name to that of Kaut-fu. But the Kitan general refufing
to acknowledge him, he was obliged to purchafe a peace,
by yielding up to the Tartars lixteen cities in the province
of Pe-tche-li, befides a yearly prefent of 300,000 pieces
of lilk. This fubmiflion ferved only to inflame the avarice
and ambition of the Kitan Tartars. In 959, they broke
the treaty, invaded the empire, and continued their in-
curfions from time to time with various fuccefs, until the
year 1 1 17, when Whey-tfong, at that time emperor, being
able neither to bear their ravages, nor to put a flop to theni^
refolved upon a remedy, which feems to have proved worfe
than the difeafe. This was to call in the Ealtern Tartars,
orNu-che, to deftroy the kingdom of the Kitan. From
this he was difluaded by molt of his ownminifters; but, dis¬
regarding their advice, he joined his forces to thofe of the
Nu-che. The Kitans were now every where defeated ; and
reduced to fuch extremity, that thofe who remained were
obliged to fly to the mountains of the weft. Thus the
empire of the Kitan w.as totally deftroyed, but not to the
advantage of the Chinefe 5 for the Tartar general, elated
with
C H I
■with his conquell, gave the name of Kin to his new do¬
minion, and a (Fumed the title of emperor. Irle then in¬
vaded the provinces of Pe-tche-li and Shen-fi, and made
himfelf mailer of the greater part of them. Whey-tfong,
finding himfelf in. danger of lofing his dominions, made
feveral propofals to the Tartar ; who, feeming to comply
with them, invited him to come and fettle matters by a
perfonal conference. The Chinefe monarch complied;
but, on his arrival, he was l'eized by the Tartar, and kept
a prifoner during the remaining part of his life, which
ended in 1126, in the defert of Shamo, having nominated
his elded l'on Kin-tfong to fucceed him.
The Kin Tartars in the mean time purfued their con-
queds without oppofition : they eroded the Yellow River,
and marching direftly towards the imperial city, took
and plundered it. Then feizing the emperor and his
confort, they carried them away captives : but many of
the principal inhabitants, preferring death to an igno¬
minious bondage, killed themfelves. The Kin being in¬
formed by the emprefs Meng that die had been divorced,
they left her behind. This proved the means of faving
the empire; for, by her wildom and prudence, five got the
crown placed on the head of Kau-tfong, ninth fon of the
late emperor. Kau-tfong fixed his court at Nanking,
but foon after was obliged to remove it. He made feve¬
ral efforts to recover fome of his provinces from the Kin,
but without effeft. Iii-tfong, the Kin monarch, in" the
mean time endeavoured to gain the elteem of his new
Chinefe lubjefts, by paying a regard to learning and
learned men, and honouring the memory of Confucius.
Some time after, he advanced to Nanking, and took it :
but receiving advice that the general of the fouthern
Chinele was advancing to the relief of that city, they let
fire to the palace, and retired northward. In a few years
afterwards the Chinefe emperor fubmitted to become tri¬
butary to the Kin Tartars, and concluded a peace with
them.
From this time to the year 1210, nothing remarkable
occurs in the Chinefe Hillory ; but this year the famous
jenghiz-khan, chief of the weflern Tartars or Moguls,
quarrelled with Yong-tfi, emperor of the Kin; and at
the fame time the king of Hya, difgufted at being refufed
affillance againft Jenghiz-khan, threatened him with an
invafion 011 the wellern fide. Yong-tfi prepared for his
defence; but, in 1211, receiving news that Jenghiz-khan
was advancing fouthward with his whole army, he was
feized with fear, and made propofals of peace, which
were rejefted. In 1212, the Mogul generals forced the
great wail; or, according to fome writers, had one of
the gates treacheroufly opened to them, and made incur-
fions as far as Peking, the capital of the Kin empire. In
autumn they laid fiege to the city of Tay-tong-l u, where
Jenghiz-kJian met with confiderable refinance. Having
loll a number of men, and being himfelf wounded by an
arrow, he was obliged to raife the liege and retire into
Tartary , after which the Kiri re-took feveral cities. The
next year, however, Jenghiz-khan re-entered China; re¬
took the cities which the Kin had reduced the year be¬
fore ; and overthrew their armies in two defperate battles,
in one of which the ground was ftrewed with dead bodies
for upwards of four leagues.
In 1 224, the Kin emperor died ; and was fucceeded by
his fon Shew, who made peace with the king of Hya:
but next year that kingdom was entirely deltrayed by
Jenghiz-khan. In 1226, Oktay, fon to Jenghiz-khan,
marched, into Honan, and befieged Kay-fong-fu, capital
of the Kin empire; but was obliged to -withdraw into
Shen-fi, where he took feveral cities, and cut in pieces
an army of 30,000 men. In 1227, Jenghiz-khan died,
after having defired his fons, Oktay and Toley, to purfue
his conquelts. After the death of that great emperor,
the war was carried on with various fucceis ; but though
the Moguls took above fixty important polls in the pro¬
vince of Shen-fi, they found it impofiible to force Ton-
quan, which it was neceflkry for them to do, in order to
N A. 439
penetrate into Honan. In April, 1231, they took the ca¬
pital of Shen-fi, and defeated the Kin army which came
to its relief.. Here one of the officers defired prince To¬
ley to demand a paflage from the Song through the coun¬
try of Han-cliong-fu. This propolal Toley communi¬
cated to his brother Oktay, who approved of it as being
conformable to the dying advice of their father. Here¬
upon Toley, having afiembled all his forces, fent a mef-
fenger to the Song generals to demand a paflage through
their territories. This they not only refufed, but put the
meflenger to death ; which fo enraged Toley, that he
forced the paflages, and put to the fword the inhabitants
of two cities in the dill rift of Han-chong-fu. Then hav¬
ing cut down rocks to fill up deep abyfles, and made
roads through places almoft . inacceffible, he at length
came and befieged the city of Han-chong-fu. The in¬
habitants fled to the mountains on his approach, and
more than 100,000 of them perifhed. After this, Toley
divided his forces, confining of 30,000 horfe, into two
bodies. One of thefe went wellward to Myen-chew ,
from thence, after opening the paflages of the mountains,
they arrived at the river Kyaling. This they eroded on
rafts; and then, marching along its banks, dellroyed
more than 140 cities, towns, or fortrefles, before they re¬
turned to the army. On the other fide, Oktay advanced
towards Pu-.chew, a city of Shan-fi ; which being taken
after a vigorous defence, he prepared to pnfs the Yel¬
low River. Toley, after furmounting incredible diffi¬
culties, arrived on the borders of Honan, and made a
fhew as if he defigned to attack the capital of the Kin
empire. On his appearance in. Honan, through a paflage
fo little fufpefted, every body was filled with terror and
confternation ; fo that he proceeded for fome time with¬
out oppofition. At lalt the emperor ordered his generals,
Hota, Ilapua, and others, to march againll him. Toley
boldly attacked them ; but was obliged to retire, which
he did in good order.
In January 1232, Oktay encamped in the diftrift of
Kay-fong-fu, capital of the Kin empire, and fent his ge¬
neral Suputay to hefiege the city. At that time the place-
was near thirty miles in circumference : but having only
40,000 foldiers to defend it, as many more from the neigh¬
bouring cities, and 20,000 peafants, were ordered into it ;
while the emperor publifhed an affefting declaration, ani¬
mating the people to defend it to the lalt extremity, Ok¬
tay, having heard with joy of his brother Toley ’s entrance
into Honan, ordered him to fend fuccours to Suputay.
On the other hand, the Kin generals advanced with
150,000 men to relieve the city; but being obliged to
divide their forces in order to avoid in part the great
road which Toley had obdrufted with trees, they were
attacked by that prince at a difadvantage, and after a
faint refillance, defeated with great (laughter, and the
lofs of both their generals, one killed and the other taken.
The emperor now ordered the army at all the fortified
places to march to the relief of Kay-fong-fu. They af-
fembled accordingly, to the number of 110,000 foot and
1 5,000 horfe ; and were followed by vail numbers of peo¬
ple, who expefted by their means to be protefted from
the enemy. But many of thefe troops having deferted;
and the reft being enfeebled by the fatigues of their
march, they dil’perfed on the approach of their purfuers,
who killed all they found in the highways. After this
the Moguls took Ton-quan, and fome other confi¬
derable polls; but were obliged to raife the fiege of
L.oyang, by. the bravery of the governor. Kyang-fhin,
governor of Loyang, had only three or 4000 foldiers un¬
der him, while his enemies were 30,000 ftrong. He placed
his worfl foldiers on the walls, putting himfelf at the
head of 400 brave men ; whom he ordered to go naked,
and whom he led to all dangerous attacks. He invented
engines to call large Hones, which required but few hands
to play them, and aimed fo true as to hit at 100 paces
dillance. When their arrows failed, he cut tliofe (hot
by the enemy into four pieces j pointed them with pieces-
of
440 C H
of brafs coin ; and difcharged them from wooden tubes
with almofl as much force as bullets from a mufket. Thu$
he harafled the Moguls for three months fo grievoufly,
that they were obliged, notwithftanding .their numbers,
to abandon the enterprize.
Oktay, at laft, notwithftanding his fucceffes, refolved
to return to Tartary ; and offered the Kin emperor peace,
provided he became tributary, and delivered up to him
twenty-feven families which he named. Thefe offers were
very agreeable to the emperor, and a peace was concluded.
But, in afhorttime,twounlucky accidents occafioned a re¬
newal of the war, which put an end to the empire of the
Kin Tartars. Gan-yong, a young Mogul lord, having af-
fumed the government of fome cities in Kyang-nan, and
killed the officer lent to take pofteffionof them, declared for
the Kin. The emperor unwarily took Gan-yong into his
fervice, and gave him the title of Prince. Upon this Ok¬
tay lent an envoy, attended by thirty other perfons, to
inquire into the affair ; but the Kin officers killed them
all, without being punilhed by the emperor. Suputay,
having informed his matter of all thefe proceedings, was
ordered to continue the war in Honan. Shew-fu now
commanded his officers to unite their troops for the de¬
fence of the capital ; but, before his orders could be obey¬
ed, they were attacked and defeated by the Moguls. This
obliged him to raife foldiers from among the peafants,
for whofe fubfillence the people were taxed three-tenths of
the rice they polfeffed. The city began now to be diftrefled
for want of provifions ; and as it was but in a bad pollute
of defence, the emperor marched with an army againft the
Moguls. His expedition proved unfortunate ; for, fend¬
ing part of his army to befiege a city called Whychew,
it was totally cut in pieces, and Suputay a fecond time
fat down before the capital, which was foon after de¬
livered up by treachery, and Suputay put all the males
of the imperial race to death ; but, by the exprefs com¬
mand of Oktay, he fpared the inhabitants, who are faid
to have amounted to 1,400,000 families. The unhappy
monarch now retired to Juning-fu, a city in the fouthern
part of Honan, attended only by 400 perfons. Here he
flattered himfelf with the vain hopes of being in fafety ;
but the enemy’s army foon arrived before the city, and
invefted it. The garrifon were terrified at their approach^
but were encouraged by the emperor, and his brave ge¬
neral Hu-fye-hu, to hold out to the laft. As there was
not in the city a fufficient number of men, the tvomen,
drelfed in men’s clothes, were employed to carry wood,
Hones, and other necelfary materials, to the walls. All
their efforts, however, were ineffectual. They were re¬
duced to fuch extremities, that for three months they fed
on human flefhj killing the old and feeble, as well as
many prifoners, for food. This being known to the Mo¬
guls, they made a general affault in January 1234. The
attack continued from morning till night, when the af-
failants were repulfed. In this aftion, however, the Kin
loft all their belt officers; upon which the emperor re-
figned the crown to Cheng-lin, a prince of the blood. Next
morning, while the. ceremony of invefting the new em¬
peror was performing, the enemy mounted the walls, and
attacked the interior city. They were oppofed by Hu-
fye-hu ; who, with 1000 loldiers continued to fight with
amazing intiepidity. In the mean time Shew-fu, feeing
every thing irreparably loft, lodged the feal of the empire
in an apartment of the palace, and then caufing fheaves
of ftraw to be fet round it, ordered it to be let on fire as
foon as he was dead. After giving this order he hanged
himfelf, and his commands were executed by his domef-
tics. Hu-iye-hu, who ftill continued fighting with great
bravery, no fooner heard of the tragical death of the em¬
peror, than he drowned himfelf in the river, as did alio
500 of his mofl refolute foldiers. The fame day the new
emperor, Cheng-lin, was (lain ; and thus a total end was
put to the dominion of the Kin Tartars in China.
The empire of China was now to be (hared between the
Song, or fouthern Chinefe, and the Moguls. It had been
2
: n a.
agreed upon, that the province of Honan fliould be de¬
livered up to the Song as foon as the war was finifhed.
But, the Chinefe, without waiting for the expiration of
the term, or giving Oktay notice of their proceedings,
introduced their troops into Kay-fong-fu, Lo-yang, and
other confiderable cities. On this the Mogul general re¬
folved to attack them; and repairing the Yellow river,
cut in pieces part of the garrifon of Lo-yang, while they
were out in fearch of provifions. In 1236, the Moguls
ftill made great nrogrefs, took feveral cities, and put vaft:
numbers to the l'word. Prince Kotovan forced the paf-
fages into the diftrift of Hang-chong-fu, in the province
of Shen-li, which he entered with an army of 500,000
men. Here a terrible battle was fought between the vaft
army of the Moguls and the Chinel'e troops,- who had
been driven from the paffages they defended. The latter
confifting only of 1 0,000 horfe and foot, were ahnoft en¬
tirely cut off; and the Moguls loft fuch a number of
men, that the blood is laid to have run for two leagues
together. After this victory the Moguls entered Se-
chwen, which they almolt entirely reduced, committing
fuch barbarities, that, in one city, 40,000 people chole
rather to put an end to their exiftence, than fubmit to
fuch cruel conquerors. In 1237, the Moguls received a
confiderable check before the city of Gantong in Kyang-
nan, the fiege of which they were obliged to raife with
lofs. In 1238, they befieged La-chew, another city in
the fame province. They furrounded it with a rampart
of earth and a double ditch ; but the Chinefe general
ordered their intrenchments to be filled with immenfe
quantities of herbs fteeped in oil, and then fet on fire,
while he fhowered dowm Hones upon them from a tower
feven ltories high. At the fame time a vigorous fally was
made ; and the Mogul army, being thrown into the ut-
moft diforder, w’ere obliged finally to abandon the fiege,
and retire northwards. In 1255, they re-entered the
province of Se-chwen ; but ftill met with vigorous oppo-
fition.
In 1259, they undertook the fiege of Ho-chew, a ftrong
city to the weft of Peking, defended by Vang-kyen, an
able officer, who commanded a numerous garrifon. The
fiege continued from February till Augull : during which
time the Moguls loft an immenfe number of men. On
the 10th of Auguft they made a general affault in the
night. They mounted the walls before the governor had
intelligence ; but were repulfed with the utmoft fury.
The Mogul emperor, Meng-ko, himfelf came to the fca-
lade ; but his prefence was not fufficient to overcome the
valour of Vang-kyen. At the fame time the fcaling-lad-
ders of the Moguls were blown down by a ftorm ; upon
which a terrible (laughter enfued, and amongft the reft
fell the emperor himfelf. Upon this difafler the Mogul
generals railed the fiege, and retired towards Shen-fi.
On the death of Meng-ko, Hupilay, who fucceeded him,
laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu, a city not far'diftant from the
capital of the Song empire. At this the Chinefe emperor
being greatly alarmed, diftributed immenfe furas among
his troops ; and, having raifed a formidable army, march¬
ed to the relief of Vu-chang.-fu. Unfortunately the com¬
mand of this army was committed to the care of Kya-tfe-
tau, a man without courage or integrity; who being
overcome with fear, and not daring to take any effectual
llep for its relief, made propofals of peace. A treaty was
accordingly concluded, by which Kya-tl'e-tau. engaged to
pay an annual tribute of about 50,0001. fterling, and as
much in filk ; acknowledging like wile the fovereignty of
the Moguls over the Song empire. In confequence of
this treaty, the Moguls repafl'ed the Ky-ang ; but, 170
of them having (laid on this fideof the river, were put to
death by Kya-tfe-tau. This wicked minifter totally con¬
cealed from the emperor his having made fuch a fhame-
ful treaty with the Moguls; and the 170 foldiers maffa-
crea by his order, gave occafion to a report that the ene¬
my had been defeated ; fo that j:he Song court believed
that they had been compelled to retreat by the fuperior
valour
C H
valour and wifdomof Kya-tfe-tau. This proved the fub-
verfion of the empire j for, in t26o, the Mogul emperor
fent Hauking to the Chinefe court to execute the treaty,
according to the terms agreed on with Kya-tfe-tau. The
minifter, dreading the arrival of this envoy, imprifoned
him near Nanking; and took all poffible care that/ nei¬
ther Hupilay, nor Li-tfong, the Chinefe emperor; Ihould
ever hear any thing of him. It was impoffible fuch trea¬
cherous conduit could fail to produce a new war. Hu-
pilay’s courtiers incelfantly prelied him to revenge him-
lelf on the Song ; and he loon publilhed a manifefto againft
them, which was followed by a renewal of hoftilities in
1268. The Mogul army amounted to 300,000 men ; but,
notwithftanding their numbers, little progrefs was made
till the year 1271. Syan-yang and Fan-ching, cities in
the province of Se-chew, had been long befie^ed ineffec¬
tually ; but this year an Igur lord advifed Hupilay to fend
for fome engineers from the weft, who knew how to call
ftones of 150 pounds weight out of their engines, and
which made excavations in the ftrongeft walls. Two of
thele engineers were accordingly lent for; and, after
giving a fpecimen of their art before Hupilay, were fent
to the army in 1272. In the beginning of 1273, they
planted their catapultas againft the city of Fan-ching,
and prefently made a breach in the walls. After a bloody
connibl the l'uburbs were taken ; and loon after the Mo¬
guls' made themfelves mailers of the gates of the city.
Neverthelefs, a Chinefe officer, with only 100 foldiers, re-
folved to light from llreet to ftreet. This he did with the
greateft obftinacy, killing vaft numbers of the Moguls ;
and both parties 'are laid to have been fo much overcome
with thirft, that they drank human blood to quench it.
The Chinefe fet fire to the houfes, that the great beams,
falling down, might embarrafs the way of their purfuers ;
until wearied out, and filled with defpair, they put an end
to their own lives. After the taking of Fan-ching, all
the materials which had ferved at the fiege were trans¬
ported to Seyen-yang. The two engineers polled theni-
fielves againft a wooden retrenchment railed on the ram¬
parts. This they quickly demoliffied ; and the befieged
were fo intimidated by the nolle and havock made by
the ftones call from their engines, that they immediately
Surrendered.
Notwithftanding the progrefs of the Moguls, vaft ter¬
ritories Hill remained to be fubdued before they could
become mailers of the Chinefe empire. On the death of
Twon-tfong, the Chinefe emperor, the mandarins railed
to the throne his brother, named Te-ping, at that time
but eight years of age. His army confilted of 200,000
men; but being void of difcipline, and ignorant of war,
they were defeated by 20,000 Mogul troops. Nor was
the fleet more luccefsful ; for being put in confufion by
that of the Moguls, and the emperor in danger of falling
into their hands, one of the officers taking him on his
fhoulders, jumped with him into the lea, where they were
both drowned. Moll of the mandarins followed this ex¬
ample, as did alio the emprefs and minifter, all the ladies
and maids of honour, and multitudes of others, info-
much that 100,000 people are faid to have perilhed on
that day. Thus ended the Chinefe race of emperors ;
and the Mogul reign, or dynafty, known by the' name of
Ywen, commenced.
Though no race of men that ever exifted, were more
remarkable for cruelty and barbarity than the Moguls ;
yet it doth not appear that the emperors of the Ywen
dynafty were in any refpebt worfe than their predecef-
fors. On the contrary, Hupilay, by the Chinefe called
Ski-tfu, found the art of reconciling the people to his
government, and even of endearing himfelf to them fo
much, that the reign of his family was ftiled by the Chi¬
nefe, the wife government . On his firft acceffion to the
crown, he fixed his refidence at Tay-ywen-fu, the capi¬
tal of Shen-fi ; but he afterwards removed it to Peking.
Here, being informed that the barks which brought to
court the tribute of the fouthem provinces, and carried
Vox,. IV. No, 209,
N A. 441
on the trade of the empire, were obliged to come by fea,
and often fullered fhipwreck, he caufed that immenfe ca¬
nal to be made, which is one of the wonders of the Chi¬
nefe empire. By this canal above 9000 imperial barks
tranfport with eafe, and at linall expence, the tribute of
grain, rice, filks, &c. which is annually paid to the court.
In the third year of his reign, he formed a defign of re¬
ducing the iflands of Japan, and the kingdoms of Tonk -
quin and Cochin-china. Both tliele enterprifes ended
unfortunately, but the firft remarkably lo; for out of
100,000 perl’ons employed in it, only four or five efcaped
with the melancholy news of the dellruftion of the reft,
who all perilhed by Ihipwreck. Shi-tfu reigned fifteen
years, died in the eightieth year of his age, and was fuc-
ceeded by his grandlbn. The throne continued in the
Ywen family till 1367, when Shud-ti, the lafl of that dy¬
nafty, was driven out by a Chinefe named Chu. During-
this period the Tartars had become enervated by long
profperity ; and the Chinefe had been roufed into valour
by their fubjeblion. Shun ti, the reigning prince, was
funk in lloth and debauchery ; and the empire was op-
preffed by a wicked minifter named Ama. In June 1355,
Chu, who was a Chinefe of mean extraction, and the head
of a fmall party, fet out from How-chew, palled the Ky-
ang, and took Tay-ping. He then allbciated with fome
other malcontents, at the head of whom he reduced the
town of Tu-chew. Soon after he made himfelf mailer
of Nanking, having defeated the Moguls who came to its
relief. In December 1356, he was able to raife too, 000
men, at the head of whom he took the city U-chew ; and
here, affembling his generals, it was refolved neither to
commit violence, nor to plunder. The moll formidable
enemy he had was Chen-yew-lyang , ftiled “ emperor of the
Han.” This prince being grieved at the progrefs made
by Chu, equipped a fleet, and railed a formidable army,
in order to reduce Nan-chang-fu, which his antagonill
had lately made himfelf mailer of. The governor, how¬
ever, found means to inform Chu of his danger; upon
which that chief caufed a fleet to be fitted out at Nan¬
king, in which he embarked 200,000 foldiers. As foon
as Chen-yew-lyang was informed of his enemy’s ap¬
proach, he railed the fiege of Nan-chang-fu, and gave
orders for attacking Chu’s naval force. An engagement
enfued between a part of the fleets, in which Chu was
victorious ; and next day, all the fquadrons having come
to a general engagement, Chu gained a fecond victory,
and burnt 100 of the enemy’s veffels. A third and fourth
engagement followed, in all of which Chu came off vic¬
torious. Chen-yew-lyang was killed, his fon taken pri-
foner, and his generals obliged to furrender at difcretion.
In January 1364., Chu’s generals propofed to have him
proclaimed emperor ; but this he declined, and contented
himfelf with the title of king of U. In February he made
himfelf mailer of Vu-chang-fu ; where, with his ufual
humanity, he relieved thole in diftrefs, encouraged the
literati, and would allow his troops neither to plunder
nor deftroy. This wile condudl procured him an eafiy
conqueft both of Kyang-fi and Hu-quang. The Chinefe
readily lubmitted to him, and profefled the greateft vene¬
ration for his perfon and government. All this time
Sliun-ti, with an unaccountable negligence, never thought
of exerting himfelf againft Chu, but continued to employ
his forces againft the rebels who had taken up arms id
various parts of the empire; fo that now Chu thought
himfelf in a condition to affume the title of emperor.
This he cliofe to do at Nanking, on the firft day of the
year 1368. After this his troops entered the province of
Honan, which they prefently reduced.^ In the third
month, Chu, who had now taken the title of Hong-hjuf
or Tay-tJ'u, reduced the fortrefs of Tong-quan; after
which his troops entered Pe-tcheli from Honan on the
one fide, and Shan-tong on the other. Here his general's’
defeated one of Shun-ti’s armies; after which they
took the city of Tong-chew, and then prepared to’
attack the capital, from which they were now but twelve
5 U miles
442 C H
miles diftant. On their approach the emperor fled with
all his family beyond the great wall, and this put an end
to the dynafty of Ywei*. In 1370 he died, and was l'uc-
ceeded by his Ton, whom the fuccefl'or of Hong-vu drove
beyond the Kobi or Great Defert, which feparates China
from Tartary.
The 2. i ft dynafty of Chinefe emperors, founded in 1368
by Chu, continued till the year 1644, when they were
again expelled by the Tartars. The laft Chinefe empe¬
ror was named Whay-tfong, and afcended the throne in
i6a 8. He w as a great lover of the fciences, and a favourer
of the Chriftians; though much addifted to the fuperlti-
tions of the Bonzes. He was engaged in a war with the
Tartars, and with a number of rebels in different pro¬
vinces.
In 1636, the Tartars and rebels above-mentioned com-
poied four great armies, commanded by as many generals;
which armies, however, were loon reduced to two, com¬
manded by Li and Chang. Tliefe two generals agreed
to divide the empire between them; Chang taking the
weltern provinces, and Li the eaftern. The latter leized
on part of Shen-fi, and then of Honan, whole capital,
named Kay-fong-fu, he laid fiege to, but was repull’ed
With loft. He renewed it fix months after, but without
iuccefs ; the belieged chufing rather to feed on human
flelh than l'urrender. The Imperial forces coming foon
after to its afliftance, the general made no doubt of be¬
ing able to deftroy the rebels at once, by breaking down
the banks of the Yellow River ; but they efcaped to the
mountains, while the city was rapidly overflowed, and
300,000 of the inhabitants pei ilhed. After this difafter,
Li marched into the provinces of Shen-fi -and Honan;
where lie put to death numbers of the mandarins, ex¬
acted great fums from the officers in place, and (hewed
no favour to any but the populace, whom he freed from
all taxes : by this means he drew fo many to his intereft,
that he thought himfelf ftrong enough to affume the title
of emperor. He then advanced towards the capital, which,
though well garrifoned, was divided by factions. Li had
taken care to introduce before hand, a number of his
men in difguife, and by tliefe the gates were opened to
him the third day after his arrival. He entered the city
in triumph at the head of 300,000 men ; wdiilft the em¬
peror kept himfelf Ihut up in his palace, bulled only with
liis fuperllitions. It was not long, however, before he
found himfelf betrayed : and, under the greateft con¬
firmation, made an effort to get out of the palace, at¬
tended by about 600 of his guards. He was Hill more
furprifed to fee himfelf treacheroully abandoned by them,
and deprived of all hopes of elcaping the infults of his
fubjeCts. Upon this, preferring death to the difgrace of
falling alive into the hands of his enemies, he retired
with his empreft, whom he tenderly loved, and the prin-
cefs her daughter, into a private part of the garden. His
jjriyf was fo great that he was not able to utter a word;
hut Hie foon underftood his meaning, and, after a few
filent embraces, hanged herfelf on a tree in a filken fixing.
Her hufband (laid only to write thefe words on the bor¬
der Of his veil : “ I have been balely deferted by my fub¬
jeCts ; do what you will with me, but fpare my people.”
He then cut off the young princefs’s head with his fcy-
mitar, and hanged himfelf on another tree, in the feven-
teenth year of his reign, and thirty-fixth of his age. His
minifters, women, ahd eunuchs, followed his example ;
and thus ended the Chinefe- monarchy ufurped by, Chu,
to give place to that of the Tartars, which hath continued
ever fince.
It was fome time before the-body of the unfortunate
monarch was found. At laft it was brought before Li,
and ufed with the utmoft indignity ; after which he caufed
two of Whey-tfong’s fons to be beheaded; but his eldeft
foil efcaped by flight. The w'liole empire now lubmitted
to the authority of Li, except prince U-fan-ghey, who
commanded the imperial forces in the province of Lyau-
tong. This brave prince,, finding himfelf unable to tope
N A; -
With Li, invited the Tartars to his afliftance ; and Tfong-
te their king immediately joined him with So, 000 men.
Upon this Li marched to Peking; but not thinking him¬
felf fafe there, he plundered and burnt the palace, and
then fled with the immenfe treafure he had collected.
What became of him afterwards we are not told ; but
the young Tartar monarch was immediately declared
emperor of China, his father Tfong-te having died almoft
as foon as he let his foot in that empire. This new em¬
peror, named Slmn-chi, or Xun-chi , the firft of the
Man-clioo Tartar race, began his reign with reward¬
ing U-fan-ghey, by conferring upon him the title of
King; and afiigned him the city of Si-gnan-fu, capi¬
tal of Shen-fi, for his lefidence. This, however, did not
hinder U-fan-ghey from repenting of his error in calling
in the Tartars, or, as he himfelf ufed to phrale it, “ in
fending for lions to drive away dogs.” In 1674, he form¬
ed a ltrong alliance againft them, and would probably
have prevailed, if his allies had been faithful; but they
treacheroully deferted him, which broke his heart, and he
died foon after. In 16S1 Hong-wha, Ion to U-fan-ghey,
who continued his efforts againft the Tartars, was reduced
to fuch difttefs, that he put an end to his own life.
During this fpace, there had been fome reliftance made
to the Tartars in many of the provinces. Two princes
of Chinefe extraction had at different times been pro¬
claimed emperors; but both of them were defeated and
put to death. In 1682, the whole fifteen provinces were
fo effectually fubdued, that the emperor Kang-lii, fuc-
celfor to Shun-chi, determined to vilit his native
dominions of Tartary. He was accompanied by an
army of 70,000 men, to attend him in taking the di-
verfion of hunting. This he continued to do for fome
years; and in his journies took father Verbeift, thejefuit
miflionary, along with him ; by which means we have a
better delcription of thefe countries than could poflibly
have been otherwife obtained. This prince was a great
encourager of learning, and of the Chriftian religion ; in
favour of which he publiflied a decree, dated in 1692. In
1716, however, he revived fome obfolete laws againft the
Chriftians ; nor could the miffionaries, at leaft for a time,
preferve the footing they had got in China. The caufe
of this hafty periecuting fpirit in fo good and wife a
prince, has been varioufly reprefented by different au¬
thors. The true caufe, was the jealoufy of the bonzes
or priefts of Fo, who, working on the prejudices and
palfions of fome of the mandarins in their intereft ; they,
in their turn, impofed on the emperor, by mifreprefen-
tations of the purfuits ahd practices of the Chriftian
converts, which not only led to the revival of edicts
againft them, but againft the movers of all new fed s, or
novel doftrines, left they Ihould effeCt the tranquillity of
the ftate. Many of the milfionaries were however re-
ftored, pnd fuffered to penetrate through the different
provinces of China, for fome time before the death of
Kaung-hi, which happened after a long and profperous
reign, in the year 1722. He was lucceeaed by his fon
Yong-tchien, who, though a moderate and peaceful em¬
peror, not only gave no encouragement to the mifliona-
ries but perfecuted all Chriftians, of what country or de¬
nomination foever. He at firft limited the milfionaries
to the province of Quang-tong; but, in 1732, upon
iome mifunderftanding or difturbance between the Eu¬
ropeans and Chinefe in the city of Canton, they were
finally banilhed to the ifland of Macao, which had been
given to the Portuguele.
In 1736, Yong-tchien died, and was fucceeded by his
fon Tchien-lung, furnamed the Great Emperor. It was
to this prince, that the celebrated embally under the
direftion of the earl of Macartney, was fent by his Biit-
tanic majefty ; and it was during his reign, that the
Chinefe people and nation began to grow into higheftr-
matioh with the commercial kingdoms of Europe.
Tchien-lung foon after his acceffion to the throne, re¬
called the nrilfionaries, and retained the moit diftinguilhed
C H 1
of them in his fervice, by giving them appointments of
trull and confidence about his perfon and court at Pekin.
He gave encouragement (o artifts and fcientific emi¬
grants from all countries, with a -view to the general im¬
provement of the Chinefe empire. We lhalJ not, in this
place, enter into any farther particulars of his reign,
becaulethefe will be iufficientiy (hewn in our account of
the embafly. After a calm and profperous reign, ex¬
tended to the unufual length of lixty- three years, he
died in March 1799, in the ninetieth year of his age,-
and was fucceeded by his fon Ka-hing, the prefent reign¬
ing emperor; who, adopting the policy of his anceitors,
appears, like them, averfe to any foreign intercourfe or
donnedlion.
The extenfive country over which this monarch holds
the ablolute (way, is thus emphatically depifted by fir
William Jones •• “Though I do not pretend (fays he)
to fet limits to this vaft empire, yet I might confider it
as embraced on two fides by Tartary and India, while
the ocean feparates its other fides from various Afiatic
ifles of great importance in the commercial iyftem of Eu¬
rope : annexed to the immenfe traft of land in China, is
the peninfula of Corea, which a vaft oval bafon divides
from Nifon or Japan, a celebrated and imperial ifland,
bearing in arts and in arms, in advantage of iituation, but
not in felicity of government, a pre-eminence among
eaftern kingdoms, analogous to that of Britain among
the nations of the weft. So many climates are included
in lb prodigious an area, that, while the principal empo¬
rium of China lies nearly under the tropic, its metropolis
enjoys the temperature of Samaikand j i'uch, too, is the
diverfity of foil in its fifteen provinces, that, while fome
of them are exquiiitely fertile, richly cultivated, and ex¬
tremely populous, others are barren and rocky, dry and
unfruitful, with plains as wild, or mountains as rugged,
as any in Scythia, and thofe either wholly deferted, or
peopled by lavage hordes, who, if they be not Hill inde¬
pendent, have been but very lately lubdued.”
Although the term China be well known to that peo¬
ple, it is not the name by which they chufe to denomi¬
nate their country: they call it fometimes Chujn-cue, or
the Central Kingdom; and, at other times, they diftin
guilh it by the words Tien-hia, or, ‘ What is under Hea¬
ven,’ meaning, ‘ All that is valuable on earth.’ To an
implicit. confidence in which opinion, might be juftly at¬
tributed that fovereign contempt in which they hold all
other nations of the earth ; and hence the caule of their
declining the fmalleft intercourfe with foreign powers.
Their own country certainly produces all that is necef-
fary to make a people rich and happy. Even fome of
their mountains are covered with foreits of tall, ftraight,
and large, trees, fit for building, for mails, and for (hip-
tirnber. The emperor fometimes procures from thele
mountains enormous trunks, which he caules tobetranf-
ported to the dittance of more than three hundred
leagues, by land and water, to be employed in public
works. Other mountains furnilh quickfilver, iron, tin,
copper, gold, filver, and precious ftones, Political fore¬
fight has however prevented many of the latter from
being opened. The chiefs of the early dynafties, aware
that artificial riches could not form a folid balls for the
happinefs of Hates, were afraid of opening thefe fources
of luxury, left the people Ihould be induced to negleft
the natural riches of their foil, by applying to other la¬
bours than thofe of agriculture. About the commence¬
ment of the fifteenth century, the emperor Tching-tfou
caufed a mine of precious ftones to be (hut up, which
had been opened by a private individual. “Uielefs la¬
bours,” faid he, “ produce fterility ; a mine of precious
llones does not furnifh Corn.”
The country of China derives every convenience of
fertility and tree intercourfe with its own interior, by
means of its abundant lakes, rivers, and canals. Its prin¬
cipal lakes are the Tong-ting-hou, fituated in the pro¬
vince of Hou-quang, which is more than 2^0 miles in
N A. 44 jf
circumference; the Tai-hou, part of which extends into
Kiang-nan ; the Hong-tfe, and the Kao-yeou, of the
province of Kiang-nan; and the Poy-ang-hou, formed
in Kiang-fr, by the confluence of four confiderable
rivers, Which, like the fea, is lirbjefit to tempefts and
ftorms. This laft is near 300 miles in length. Among
the rivers that water this vaft kingdom, there are two
particularly celebrated. The firft is the Yang-tfe-kiang,
or Son of the Sea. It has its fource in the province of
Yun-nan, traverfes Hou quang and Kiang-nan, and,
after having watered four provinces,, through an extent
of twelve hundred miles, it falls i^ito the eaftern fea,
oppofite the ifle of Tfong-ming. This river, at the
diltance of more than ninety miles from its mouth, is a
mile and a half broad. The navigation of it is dan¬
gerous, and numbers of veftels are loft in it. It flows
with- great rapidity, and forms in its courfe feveral
iflands, which are beneficial to the province, on account
of the multitude of reeds, from ten to twelve feet in
height, which they produce, and which are ufed for fuel
in all the neighbouringcities. When this river is (welled
by torrents from the mountains, it becomes fo impetuous
that it overflows and carries away part of thefe iflands,
and often forms others from their wrecks. Another
great river of China is the Hoang-ho, or yellow river,
the Chinefe give it this name, becaule the clay and iapd
which it waihesdovvn, efpecially in time of rain, make its-
water appear of a yellow colour. It rifes in the moun¬
tains which border the province of Te-tchuen on the
weft, and, after a courfe of nearly 1800 miles acrofs Tar¬
tary and China, difcliarges itfelf into the eaftern fea, not
far from the mouth of the Yang-tfe-kiang. It is very
broad and rapid ; but fo (hallow, that in fome places it
is fcarcely navigable. It often, like the Nile, overflows,
and buries whole villages; fo that it has been found
necelfary to raife long and ftrong banks, in order to con¬
fine it. Superior to thefe rivers is the- celebrated canal
which reaches from Canton to Pekin, and which forms a
communication between the fouthern and northern pro¬
vinces. In this canal a number of others terminate,
which ftretch out into the country, and form a commu¬
nication between the neighbouring cities, towns, and
villages. Near to Chao-hing and Ning-po there are two
canals, the waters of which do not comm unica te, and which
differ ten or twelve feet in their level. To render this
place paflable for boats, they have conftru<5led a double
glacis of large ftones, or rather, two inclined planes,
which unite in an acute angle at their upper extremity,
and extend on each fide to the furface of the water. If
the bark is in the lower canal, they draw it up the plane
of the firft glacis, by means of feveral capftans, until it
is railed to the angle, when, by its own weight, it glides
down the fecond glacis, and precipitates itfelf into the
water of the higher canal, with a confiderable velocity.
This principle of the inclined plane, has been lately a-
dopted in Europe. See the article Canal, vol.Iii. p. 699.
A great part of the gold which is procured in China,,
is collected from the lands of the rivers and torrents
which fall from the mountains, fituated on the weftern
boundaries of the provinces of Se-tchuen and Yun-nan.
As the Chinefe gold is not coined, it is employed in com¬
merce, and becomes merchandize. It is never ufed there
but in gilding, or for flight ornaments: the emperor
being the only perfon who poflefl'es any quantity of gold
plate. Iron, lead, and tin, mines are common, and thefe
metals are fold at a low rate. The copper-mines of the
provinces of Yun-nan and Koei-cheou have furnifhed,
for a great number of years, all the finall coin that is
ltruck in the empire. The Chinefe have a kind of cop¬
per which they call f e-tong, or white copper, fo pure and
fine, that in brilliancy it nearly approaches to filver.
This copper is naturally white when taken from the mine 5
and when broken into grains, it is found dill whiter in
the interior part than on the furface. Quarries and coal¬
mines are abundant in every province. Lapis lazuli is
found
CHINA.
444
found in feveral’ cantons of Yun-yan, in the province
of Se-tchuen, and in a diltriCt of-Chan-fi, called- Tai-
tong-foo; it differs nothing from that imported into Eu¬
rope. Chan-fi furnilhes a molt beautiful kind of white
jafper much relembling agate; it is tranfparent when po-
lilhed, and fometimes diverfified with fpots; the Chinefe
call it Yu-che.
; .The irioft beautiful rock cryftal of China is dug from
the mountains of Tchang-tcheou-foo, and Tchang-pou-
ftein, in the province of Fo-kien The artifts of theie
two cities are very expert in cutting it, forming thereof
buttons, feals, figures of animals, and other trinkets.
Yun-nan furnilhes fome real rubies, but they are mo.ftly
final 1. Quarries ofmarble are very common in China,
elpecially in the province of Fo-kien. There are alfo
feveral kinds of fonorous ftones, of which the Chinele
make mufical inffruments. They differ confiderably
from one another in beauty and in the ftrength and du¬
ration of their tone; but what is very furprizing, this
difference of tone cannot be dilcovered either by the
different degrees of their hardnels, weight, finenefs of
grain, or any other qualities which might be fuppoled to
determine it. Some are remarkably hard, which are ve¬
ry fonorous ; others exceedingly loft, yet have an excel¬
lent tone ; fome extremely heavy, emit a very melodious
found ; and others, as light as pumice-ftone, have alfo an
agreeable found. Thefe ftones have different names
' given them by the Chineie.y They are chiefly found in
channels made' by torrents, and in the rivers which flow
at the bottom of the mountains of Yu-nan, Koei cheou,
Shen-fi, Y-ly and Yo-quen. See Mineralogy.
■The Chinefe have lately dilcovered a new fubftance
proper to be employed in the compoiition of porcelain.
It is a fpecies of chalk, called hoa-che, from which the
pbyficians of China prepare a kind of draught, faid to
be deterfive, aperient, and cooling. The manufacturers
of porcelain have thought proper to employ this material
inftead of kao-lin. It is called boa, becaufe it is glu¬
tinous, and has a great refemblance to foap. Porcelain
made with hoa-che, is much dearer than any other. It
has an exceeding fine grain, and, with regard to the
painting, if it be compared with that of the common por¬
celain, it appears to furpafs it in a very confiderable degree.
China produces molt of the fruits which we have in
Europe, as well as other kinds peculiar to that country.
They have feveral kinds of olives, though they do not
extra £1 oil from them ; on what" account we know not,
whether it be that this fruit in China is not proper for
that purpofe, or that they are ignorant of the . art of
making it. When they want to gather their olives,
they bore a hole in the trunk of the tree, which, after
having put fonie fait into it, they flop up, and, at the
end of a few days, the fruit drops of itfelf. Oranges
were firft brought to Europe from China; for which we
are indebted to the Portuguefe. Of this fruit, the Chi¬
nefe have a great number of kinds. They have alfo
lemons and citrons in abundance: but, as roots and
greens are the principal nourifhment of the Chinefe, they
ipare no labour to procure them good. They cultivate
even the bottom of their waters ; and the beds of then-
lakes, ponds and rivulets, produce crops that to us are
unknown. Their induftry has found out refo.urces in a
number of aquatic plants, feveral of which, as the pi-tfi,
or water-chefnut, and the lien-wha, or Nymphea ne-
lumbo of Linnaeus, are the greateft delicacies of a Chi¬
nefe table. The government has caufed this latter plant
to be cultivated in all the lakes, ma.rlhes, and walle
grounds covered with water, which belong to the ftate.
And the late emperor ordered all the canals which
ornament his gardens, to be planted with it. It is
exceedingly wholefome, and has a moll delicate, tafte.
It is givenLo fick people to chew, being very cooling for
the mouth.
■ Among the moll remarkable of the botanical produc¬
tions of China, are the following; the .tallow-tree, or
Croton febiferum of Linnaeus, from the pulp of the
berries of which they prepare their tallow, and mould
their candles. The varnifh-tree, or Rhus, from which
the Chinefe procure that,excellent varnifh, which gives
fo much luftre and beauty to their manufactures. The
iron-tree, or Sideroxylum, which is fo hardandheavy
that it finks in water, admits edged tools to be made of
it, and from which the Chinefe manufacture molt of their
anchors. The bamboo, or Arundo, a fpecies of reed
which grows to fuch a iize, that of its trunk they make
their pipes and Ihoots for conveying water; and with its
leaves they cover the joinings of their tea-chefts. The
role-wood, or Genista, ‘with which the Chinefe make all
their elegant furniture. The camphor-tree, oi-Laurus,
from which they produce large quantities of camphor for
commerce. The pine, the cedar, the cyprefs, and all the
molt famed oriental trees, grow here in the utmolt per¬
fection, and in immenle forelts ; but the molt valuable
of all their vegetable productions, is the tea-tree, or
The a, from which they derive fuch an immenfe revenue,
and which forms one of the molt prominent articles of
commerce of our Ealt India company. - Next to this in
point of value is their cotton-tree, the Gossypium,
which they cultivate in fuch quantities, as to render cot
ton the univerfal wear of both fexes of the common
people throughout China. Ail the rich fruits, the moll
lhperb flowers and flowering Ihrubs, and moll of the
aromatic vegetables, are natives of China. The rhubarb
or Rheum; the ginfeng, or Panax ; the comfrey, or
Symphytum, with many other of the molt valuable
medical plants, abound here, infomuch that a pound of
the belt rhubarb in China is laid to colt only two-pence.
For particulars of all the forementioned trees and plants,
fee under their reipeCtive generic names, in this work.
The mountains and valt forelts of China abound with
every lpecies of wild animals, fuch as the rhinoceros,
elephants, leopards, tygers, bears, wolves, foxes, buffkr
loes, camels, wild liorfes, &c. but they have no lions.
Beavers and ermines are found in the northern provinces ;
but the Ikins which they furnifh are much inferior ta
thole procured from Siberia. Game alfo abounds in
China. The markets of Pekin, in winter, are filled with
different heaps of volatile, terreltrial, and aquatic, ani¬
mals, hardened by cold and perfectly lecure againlt all
corruption. Prodigious quantities of elks. Hags, deer,
goats, wild boars, hares, rabbits, fquirrels, and wild rats,
geefe, ducks, partridges, pheafants, and quails, are feen
there, as are alfo feveral kinds of game, not to be found
in Europe.
The Chinele liorfes have neither the ftrength, beauty,
nor iwiftnefs of ours; and the inhabitants of the country
have not the art of breaking them properly : but the
Tartarian horfes are in general high bred and very fine.
Camels, both wild and domeftic, are found in the north-
ealt part of China; and the fat, which is produced from
the bunches of the wild camels, and named bunch-oily is
much ufed in Chinefe medicine.
There are feveral lpecies of apes in China. A fpecies
of. orang-outang, named fm-fm, differs from the reft in
iuperiority of lize, being equal to the bulk of an ordi¬
nary man. They walk with facility on their hind legs ;
and all their aCtions have a fingular conformity to thole
of the human fpecies. The molt beautiful quadruped
of China is a Hag, which is about the fize of an Italian
grey-hound. It is probably the cervus guineenlis. See
Cervus. The princes and mandarins buy them at an
exceflive price, and keep them as curiolities in their
gardens. They have alio another fpecies, of a very fu-
perior iize, which they call the horfe-Jlag. They .have
alfo the mulk-deer, or as the Chinefe call it, the biang-
tcbang-tfe.
The Jefuits inform us, that in the thick forelts of Tar¬
tary, to the north of the great wall, there is found a‘
lpecies of flying-fox. They deferibe his wings as being
only thin membranes, which extend from one foot to
another,
CHINA.
445
aether, and reach to his tail. This animal never flies
but by darting from the top of one tree to another,
which is lower : he has not the power of railing himfelf,
and of flying as he mounts. A kind of flying rat they
fay is a lib feen near Keou-ouai f it is larger than a com¬
mon rat, and has wings like thole of the fox already
mentioned ; it is pretty evident that thefe are nothing
more than flying fquirrels.
China has birds of almoft every genus : eagles, fal¬
cons, pelicans, birds of paradife, fwans, ftorks, parrots,
and paroquets, which are not inferior to thole of the
Weft-Indies, either in the variety or beauty of their
plumage, or in the facility with which they learn to fpeak.
Indeed we might with truth affirm, that the birds and
flowers of China, feem abundantly to furpafs thofe of
all other climes, in richnefs and brilliancy of colours.
Infers of almoft every kind are found in China, and
the butterflies or rather moths found on the mountain
Le-feou-chan, fituated in the province of Quang-tong,
are fo much prized, that they are fent to court. They
are of a much greater fize than thofe of Europe, their
wings are much broader, their colours are variegated in
an extraordinary manner, and they have a furp riling
brightnefs. Thefe moths and butterflies remain motion-
lefs on the trees in the day-time, and they fuffer them-
felves to be taken without difficulty. In the evening,
they begin to flutter about, almoft in the fame manner
as bats, which fomeof them equal in fize. The Chinefe
boaft much of the butterflies found on the mountains
Si-chan, in the province of Pe-tcheli ; but they are
Email, and not fo much valued by naturalifts as thofe of
the mountain Lo-feou-chan.
The filk infefls are found in great numbers on the
trees and in the fields of the province of Chang-tung.
They propagate in vaft quantities, and feed indifcrimi-
nately on the leaves of the mulberry, and on thole of
other trees. They do not fpin their filk circularly and
in the fame manner as common filk-worms, which form
theirs into balls : they produce it in filaments and long
threads, which, being carried away by the wind, are
caught by the trees and bullies : the Chinefe collect thefe
threads, and make a kind of ftuff of them, called kien-
tcheouy inferior in lull re to thofe manufactured of com¬
mon filk ; it might be taken at firft fight, for coarfe
•woollen ftuff or drugget: it is, however, much efteemed
in China, and fold there fometimes for more than the
richeft fattin. This ftuff is clofely woven, it never cuts,
endures long, walhes like linen, and, when manufactured
with care, is fcarcely fufceptible of being fpotted, even
with oil. The infeCts which produce this kind of filk
are of two kinds ; one larger and blacker than common
filk-worms, called tfouen-kien ; the other fmaller, and
known by the name of tiao-kien. The filk of the firft
fpecies of thefe worms is of a reddilh grey ; that of the
fecond is blacker, and the cloth' made of them partakes
of both thefe colours.
It is impoflible to give a lift of the different kinds of
filh to be found in the lakes, rivers, and leas, of China,
The miflionaries, to whom we are indebted for the
greater part of the knowledge we have concerning this
empire, have not thrown fumcient light upon any one
branch of natural hiftory. They, however, allure us,
that they obferved in China moll of the different kinds
feen in Europe; befides which there is a filh called tcha-
kia-yu, or the filh in armour, (the Cataphractus of
Bloch,) which the Chinefe elleem as food. They give
it this name, becaufe its body is defended by lharp fcales,
ranged in llraight lines. The fielh is white, and taftes
almoft like veal. In certain feafons they catch another
kind of filh, fimilar to the. filver whiting, fo extremely
white, that it is called the jlour-fijh. It is, above all,
remarkable for its black eye-balls, which appear as if let
in two circles of the moll brilliant filver. This filh is
Vol. IV. No. zio.
foun$ in fuch abundance on the coaft of the province of
Liang-nan, that four hundred pounds weight of them
are /bmetimes taken at one haul with a net. The coalls
of the province of Tche-kiang fwarm with a fpecies of
cod : an incredible quantity of them is confumed on the
fea coaft of Fo-kien, befides what are falted on the fpot,
to be tranfported to the interior parts of the country.
They are taken from the nets, and Itowed in the holds
of tlurveflels, between layers of fait ; and, notwithftand-
ing the exceffive heats, they are thus tranlported to the
remote!! provinces of the empire.
The well-known Chinefe filh, called gold and filver
filh, are kept for ornament in linall ponds in their gar¬
dens and courts. In warm countries thefe filh multiply
fall, provided care is taken to colleft their fpawn, which
floats on the water, and which they will themfelves de¬
vour. This fpawn the Chinefe put into a particular vef-
fel expofed to the fun, and preferve there until vivified
•by the heat : gold filh, however, feldom multiply when
they are kept in clofe vafes, becaufe they are then too
much confined. To render them fruitful, they mull be
put into refervoirs of confiderable depth, and conftantly
l'upplied with frelh water. At a certain time of the year, a
prodigious number of barks are feen on the great river
Yang-tfe-kiang, which go thither to purchafe the fpawn
of thefe fifties. Towards the month of May, the neigh¬
bouring inhabitants Ihut up the river in feveral places
with mats and hurdles, and leave only a fpace in the
middle fufficient for the pallage of barks. The fpawn of
the filh, which the Chinele can diltinguilh at firft fight*
although a llranger could perceive no traces of it in the
water, is Hopped by thefe hurdles. The water mixed with
the Ipawn is then drawn up ; and, after it has been put
into large veffels, it is fold to merchants, who convey it
to every part of the empire, and difpofe of it by meafUre
to thofe who are delirems of Hocking their ponds and re¬
fervoirs.
One of the moll incredible fafls relative to China, in
the eftimation of an European, is its altonilliing popula¬
tion. Father Amiot took great pains to invelligate this
fubjeft, and fixed the population of China, in 1743, at
two hundred millions. By another enumeration, taken
from the accounts of the tribunal of lands, received in
France in 1779, the population of China, in 1761, was-
as follows :
Province of Pe-tcheli, including Leao-tong
*5>89ri79*
Kiang-nan, two divifions
-
45,922,439
Kiang-fi -
-
1 1,006,640
Fo-kien ...
8,063,671
Tche-kiang
-
15,429,69^
Hou-quang
-
8,829,320
Ho-nan, two divifions -
-
24,413,11®
Chang-tong -.
-
25,180,734/
Chaii-fi -
-
9,768,189
• Chen-fi, including Kan-fou
-
14,699,457
Se-tchuen
-
2,782,976
Quang-tong
--
6>797’597
Quang-fi ...
-
3,947,414
Yun-nan -
p*
2,078,802
Koei-tcheou
-
3,402,722
Total
-
198,214,553
This regilter was accompanied with a comparative
llatement of the population in the preceding year, 1760,
in which the numbers were Hated at 196,837,977; there
was therefore an increafe of 1,376,576, in the courfe of
one year only. Upwards of thirty years elapfed from the
epocha of this numeration to the date of that obtained
by fir George Staunton in 1793, which is literally as
follows :
5 X fjabk
446 C H I
Ipble of the 'Population and Extent of China Proper, nvithin
the Great Wall. Taken in round Numbers from the State¬
ments of Cbow-ta-Zbin.
v— - -
Provinces.
Population.
Square Miles.
Acres.
Fe-tcbeli
Firing -nan
38,000,000
l
58> 949
37,727>36°
59.495-040
2 diftridts
> 32,000,000
92,96 1
Ki.ang-fi
T9,000;000
72,176
46,192,640
Tche-kring -
2? ,000,000
39-1 5°
25,056,000
Fo-kien
Hou-pe
1 5^000,000
1
53>48°
34,227,200
Hou-nan
Hou-quang
1 diftridts
( 14,000,000
13,000,000
| 144,770
92,652,800
Ho-nan
25,000,000
65,104
4t, 666, 560
Chan-mng . -
24,000,000
65>io4
41 ,666,560
Chan-fi
Shen-fi
27,000,000
/ 1 3, 000, 000
f 12,000,000
55,268
35-37 *>520
Kan-fou
2 diftridts
[ 154,008
98,56 5,120
Se-chuen
27,000,000
166,800
106,752,000
Quang-tong -
2 1 ,000^000
79>456
50,851,840
Quang-fi
10,000,000
78,250
50,080,000
Yunnan
8,000,000
107,969
69,100,160
Koei-cheou -
9,000,000
64,554
41-314,560
333, c)oo, 000
1
y5297>999
83°-7I9-36o
Over this imraenie tradt of country, and over the lives
and fortunes of fuch a multitude of lubjedts, no monarch
in the world pofieffes fo unlimited a controul as the em¬
peror of China. All authority is veiled in him alone;
and no fentence of death, pronounced by any of the tri¬
bunals, can be executed without his content. Every ver-
didl in civil affairs is fubjedt to the fame revifion ; and no
determination is of any force, until it has been confirmed
by his afi’ent. On the other hand, whatever fentence he
palfes is executed without delay. His edidts are refpedted
throughout the whole empire, as though they proceeded
from a divinity, and are publilhed and regiltered without
the leaft delay. This abfolute power in the head of the Chi¬
nefe empire, appears to be as ancient as the empire it-
felf; and all the revolutions which have taken place have
tended to confirm it.
The emperor alone has the difpofal of all the offices of
Hate : and thole who hold them are wholly dependent on
his pleafure. No employment is purchaled in China ;
merit, for the molt part, taifes to preferment, and rank is
attached to preferment only ; thus, whatever may be the
defpotic power of the emperor, the government has an
eminent advantage over molt; of the political fyltems of
Europe : the offices and honours of which are, for the
molt part, as faleable as their mercantile commodities.
On this principle, of merit only qualifying for office, the
emperor has the right of choofing a fuccetlbr either from
among his own children, from the reft of his family, or
from among any of his own fubjedts; thus Chun, prime
minifter of the emperor Yao, was chofen by that mo¬
narch to fucceed him, on account of his fuperior abili¬
ties. Should the lucjceltor thus named by the emperor,
be wanting in that refpedtful fubmiffion which he con¬
ceives is due to him, or manifelt fome natural weaknefs
of which he was not before fufpedted,. the fame hand that
made him heir apparent to the throne, can remove him
from his exalted llation. In fuch cafe another fucceffor
5s chofen, and the former is entirely forgotten. The em¬
peror Kaung-hi, grandfather of the emperor Tchien-
lung, thus excluded his eldeltfon from the throne, though
he had once nominated him his fuccelfor. Yet a prince
of the blood is held in high efteern in China, .notwith¬
standing the emperor can prevent thofe from aftuming
that title who have a natural right to it; and if they are
permitted to enjoy their rank, they have neither influ-
i
N A.
enc® nor power : they pofiefs a revenue proportioned to
their dignity, and have a palace, officers, and court ; but
they have lefs authority than the loweft of the man¬
darins.
The mandarins in China, compofe ejcadtly what are
called in Europe the nobility. There are -only two ranks
in China, the nobility, and the people ; but the former
is not hereditary. Thefe mandarins may, in cafes of
neceffity, remonftrate with the emperor, either individu¬
ally, or in a body, upon any adtion or omiffion on his
part, which may be thought contrary to the interefts of
the empire. Their remonftrances are feldom ill received,
but the emperor referves to himfeif the right of paying
that attention to them which lie thinks they delerve.
From this view of the l'overeign authority, it is evident
that nothing limits its power; but the emperors find,
even in this extent of power, the ftrongeft motives for
not abufing it. Their private intereft, and that of the
nation, are infeparably united ; and one cannot be con-
fulted without the other. The Chinefe confider their
monarchy as a large family, of which the emperor, who
ought to govern with parental affedtion, is the head. Tne
prince himfeif, in his education, imbibes the fame prin¬
ciples; and it mult be admitted, that no country was
ever ruled by more good princes, or ever produced fewer
bad. Such are the fruits of the education they receive,
and fuch is the leffon which this nation holds out to
every monarchical form of government.
Huttner, who accompanied the Britiffi embaffy in the
charadter of preceptor to fir George Staunton’s (bn, and
who publilhed a German account of it at Berlin, in 1797,
defines the word mandarin, as follows : Mandarin is a
Portuguele word, from mo.ndare ; and denotes every pub¬
lic officer in the Chinefe empire, whether his dignity be
great or final 1, military or civil. This term, however, is
never ufed by the people of China ; thejr word for it is
quang, or quangfu .” The rank of the mandarinate is as
various, as the various dignities in lo extenlive an em¬
pire muft certainly be. The precedence, or Icale of dig¬
nity, is known by the colour of the button or ball which
the mandarins wear on the middle of their hat: red is
the firll or higheft; then follows white, blue, and gilded.
Red and blue have alfo fubordinate diftindtions, in opake,
and tranfparent. China contains about fifteen thoufand
mandarins of letters, and a ftill greater number who af-
pire to that title. Their intereft muft be very powerful,
lince it triumphed over the Tartars, who conquered
China, who lubmitted to the laws and cultoms, and,
what is ftill more, adopted the charadter and genius, of
the people whom they had lubjedted. To arrive at the
degree of mandarin of letters, it is necefiary to pafs
through leveral others; fuch as that of bachelor (fie, or
tfai,) of licentiate ( kin-gin ,) and of dodtor, (tfing-ffee.)
The two firft, however, are only abfolutely necefiary ;
but even thole on whom the third is conferred, obtain
for a time only the government of a city of the fecond 01-
third lize or clafs.
There are eight orders of mandarins in China. The
firft is that of the calao. Their number is not fixed ; but
wholly depends on the will of the prince. Minifters of
ftate, preiidents of the fupreme courts, and all the fupe¬
rior officers of the militia, are chofen from among this
order, the chief of which is named ckeou-Jiang, or the
great calao, and is prefident or prime minifter of the em¬
peror’s council. From the fecond order of the manda¬
rins; called ts-hiofe, are feledled the viceroys and prefi-
dents of the fupreme councils of the different provinces.
Tchong clmeo , or fchool of jnandarins, is the title given to
the third order; one of the principal fundtions of which
is to adt as fecretaries to the emperor. The mandarins
of the fourth order, it'\\ed y-tebuen-teto, when no particu¬
lar government is entrufted to them, or when they belong
to no fixed tribunal, have to keep in repair the harbours,
royal palaces, and the barks of which the emperor is pro¬
prietor, in their diftridts. The fifth order , ping-pi-tao,
have
C H
have the inf]re£lion of the troops. The fixth, tun-tien-
hao , have the care of the highways. Tire feventh, or bo-
tao, have the fuperintendance of the rivers ; and the
eighth, fliled bai-taa, that of the fea-coafls. In fhort, the
whole adminillration of the Chinefe empire is entrufted
to the mandarins of letters ; from among whom are chofen
the governors of provinces, of cities of the (lift, fecond,
and third, clals, and the prefidents and members of all
the tribunals. The homage which the people pay to
every mandarin in office, is nearly equal to that paid to
the emperor. For as it is the received opinion of the
Chinefe, that their monarch is the father of the whole
empire, lo it is their opinion that the governor of a pro¬
vince is the father of that province, and that the man¬
darin who is governor of a city, is alfo the father of that
city.
The mandarins of arms are never indulged with the
Ifnalleft fhare in the government of the ftate ; even the
Inipedtian of the troops, as we have before obferved, be¬
longs to a clafs of the mandarins of letters : however, to
be admitted to the rank of mandarine of arms, it is alio
aieceflary to have palled through three degrees. Strength
of body, agility in performing the different military ex-
ercifes, and a readinefs in comprehending and executing
orders, are all that is required ; and in thefe conlilt the
various examinations which candidates are obliged to
undergo before they can be admitted to that rank. The
mandarins of arms have alfo tribunals, the members of
which are feledted from among their own chiefs. The
principal of thele tribunals is fixed at Pekin, and is com-
pofed of five different clafl’es. The firft, named Heou-
fou, formed from the mandarins of the rear-guard. The
fecond, called Tla-fou, formed of the mandarins of the
left wing. The third, named Yeou-fou, formed of the
mandarins of the right wing. The fourth, called Tchong-
fou, compoled of the mandarins of the advanced main-
guard. The fifth, called Tfien-fou, confifls of the man¬
darins of the advanced-guard. Thefe are lubordinate to
a fupreme tribunal of war, likewife eftablifh'ed at Pekin,
called Iong-tching-fou, the prelident of which is one of
the great lords of the empire, whole authority extends
over all the officers and foldiers of the army. This pi e-
fident has a mandarin of letters, who is a fuperintendant
of arms, for an afieflbr. He has alfo for counsellors two
infpeftors named by the emperor. When thefe four per-
fons have agreed upon any meafure, their relblution mud
be fubmitced to the revilion of another fupreme court,
called Ping-pou, which is entirely of a civil nature. And
fuch is the.jealoufy occafioned by military power, that
the Ping-pou lias under its jurifdidion the whole militia
pf the empire.
The power of the chief mandarin of arms in the field
is equivalent to that of our commanders in chief. Under
him he has a certain number of others who aft as lieute¬
nant-generals ; 1 other mandarins difcharge the. duty of
colonels; others that of captains; and others that of
lieutenants and enfigns. There are reckoned in China
between, eighteen and twenty thoufand mandarins of war:
their number confequently is fuperior to that of the
mandatins of letters; but the importance of the latter
makes them confidered as the peers or principal nobility
of the empire.
The military eflablifhment of China, according to fir
George Staunton, amounts to a million of infantry, and
eight hundred thoufand cavalry. Of thefe troops, efpe-
cially the cavalry, by far the greateft part are Tartars,
who have a higher pay than their Chinefe fellow-foldiers.
The principal officers of confidence in the army are Tar¬
tars alfo. None of either nation are received into the
fervice, but fuch as are healthy, (hung, and lightly. The
pay and allowance of- a Chinefe horfeman are three Chi¬
nefe ounces, heavier than European ounces, and three-
tenths of an ounce, of filver, and fifteen meafures, or ra¬
tions, (the weight not mentioned,) of rice every month.
A 1 artar horlemaa feven fimilai^ ounces of filver, and
N A. 447
twenty meafures of rice, for the fame period. A Chinefe
foot-foldier has one ounce and fix-tenths of an ounce of
filver, and ten meafures of rice; and a Tartar of the fame
dei'cription has two ounces of filver, and ten meafures of
rice, every lunar month. The emperor furniflies the
arms, accoutrements, and the upper garment, to all the
foldiers. Befide their ordinary pay and allowances, they
all'o receive donations from the eirtperor on particular
occafions ; as, when they marry, and when they have
male children born. On the death of their parents, they,
obtain “ a gift of confolation ;” as do their families when
the foldiers themfelves die. A military life feerns much
more the bent of a Tartar, than of a Chinefe. The hardy
education, the rough manners, the aftive fpirit, the wan¬
dering difpofition, the loofe principles, the irregular con¬
duct of the former, fit him better for the profeflion, prac¬
tice, and purfuits, of war, than the calm, regulated, do-
meftic, moral, habits of the latter. It was the finking,
contrail between the fupinenefs and inaftivity of a Chi¬
nefe emperor, compared with the high fpirit and intre¬
pidity of the invader his country, which begat the pro¬
verb, that “ he had caught a Tartar.”
At every review their arms are carefully infpe&ed ;
and if any of thefe are found in bad condition, or in the
lead rulled, the negleft is puniflied by thirty or forty
blows with a Hick, if the culprit be a Chinefe: or with
as many ladies, if he be a Tartar. Befldes the fuperior
officers of thefe troops, whom we have already mention¬
ed, there are twenty- four captains-general, and as many
colonels of horfe, created by the Tartars, as a kind of
infpe&ors appointed to watch over the condudl of the
Chinefe officers.
Though there is reafon to believe that the invention,
of gunpowder and the ufe of artillery is very ancient in.
China, yet it appears to have been totally loll about the
beginning of the feventeenth century. Three or four
ancient cannons were to be feen at the gates of Nan-kin
but not a fingle Chinefe at that period was to be found,
who knew how to ufe them. In 1621, when the Portu-
guefe city of Macao made a prefent of three pieces of
artillery to the emperor, it was found neceffary to fend'
three men alfo to load and fire them. The Chinele were
then made fenfible that artillery might be employed with
great fuccels againfl feme Tartars, who, having advanced
as far as the bottom of the great wall, had been quickly
difperfed by the three cannons fent from Macao. The
mandarins of arms therefore gave it as their opinion, that
cannons were the bell arms they could ufe againll their
enemies; but the difficulty was in procuring them, as
the Chinefe fcarcely knew how to point and fire a great
gun; and much leis the art of calling them. F. Adam
Schaal, a Jefuit mifllonary, however, rendered them this
fervice. And fome time after, fatlierVerbiefl, another Jefuit
miffionary, undertook, by order of the emperor, to cafl a
new fet ; and, it is faid, that he railed the Chinefe artil¬
lery to the number of three hundred and twenty pieces ;
he alfo taught them the method of fortifying towns, ofJ
conftrudling fortrelfes, and of erefting other edifices, ac¬
cording to the rules of modem architefture. The JefuitSj,.
for the moll part, were not only zealous miffionaries, but
their zeal was united with talents which procured them
admiffion to the center of an empire, tili that time fhut
againfl every llranger.
There are reckoned in China more than two thoufand
places of arms, divided into fix different, claffes ; viz. fix
hundred of the firft; five hundred and upwards of the
fecond ; three hundred of the third ; about an equal,
number of the fourth ; an hundred and fifty of the fifth ;
and three hundred of the lall. To thefe may be added
about three thoufand towers and caflles, difperfed through¬
out the whole empire, all of which are defended by gar-
rifons. The fortreffes of China derive their principal
flrength from their fituation, which, in general, is well
chofen. They have, befides a rampart, a brick-wall, tow¬
ers, and a ditch filled with water. Nature hath fortified,.
44* c H
a great extent of the frontiers of this empire : the fea bor¬
ders fix of the provinces ; but it is fo (hallow towards the
fhore, that large vefiels cannot approach it: inacceflible
mountains cover it on the weft, and the remaining part
is defended by the great wall.
This ftupendous monument of human art and induf-
try, exceeds every thing that we read of in ancient or
modern hiftory. The pyramids of Egypt are little, when
compared with a wall which covers, three large provinces,
ftreeehes along an extent of fifteen hundred miles, and is
of fuch an enormous thicknefs, that fix horfemen may
ride a-breaft upon it. It is flanked with towers, two
bow-fhots diftant one from the other, which add to its
ftrength, and render it much eafier to be defended. One-
third part of the able-bodied men of China were em¬
ployed in conftrudiing this wall, and the workmen were
ordered, under pain of death, to place the materials of
which it is compofed fo clofely, that the leaft entrance
might not be left for any inftrument of pointed iron.
This precaution contributed much to the folidity of the
work, which is ftill in a great meafure entire, though
built upwards of two thoufand years ago. This cele¬
brated wall is not only carried through the low lands
and vaileys, but alfo over hills, and up and over the fteep
brows of the higheft mountains. Sir George Staunton
allures us, that one of the molt elevated ridges, over
which the great wall is carried, has been afcertained to
meafure five thoufand two hundred and twenty-five feet.
The execution of this work mult have colt immenfe la¬
bour, fince it is often neceffary to tranfport the materials
through a defert country, and to convey them to emi¬
nences inacceflible to horfes or carriages. Father Mar¬
tini, in his Chinele Atlas, fays that this wall begins at
the gulf of Leao-tong, and reaches to the mountains
near the city of Kin, on the- Yellow River; and that,
between thele two places, it meets with no interruption,
except to the north of the city of Suen, in the province
of Pe-tcheli, where it is intercepted by a ridge of craggy
inacceflible mountains, to which it is clofely united, and
by the river -Hoang-ho, which partes through it in its
courfe to the fea. He adds, that for other rivers of in¬
ferior fize, arches have been conftruiled, like thole of a
bridge, through which the waters, and their inland na¬
vigations, find a paffage. It has no kind of fupport but
■what is ufually given to ordinary walls, and it is almoft
of the lame form, not only where it ftretches acrofs plains,
which are very rare in that country, but even where it is
carried over high mountains. An intelligent traveller
(Mr. Bell,) who, in 1719, accompanied captain Ifmail of
in his embafi'y to Pekin, tells us, that it is carried acrofs
rivers, and over the tops of the higheft hills, without the
leaft interruption, keeping nearly along that circular ridge
of barren rocks which inclofes the country; and, after
running about twelve hundred miles, ends in impaflable
mountains and landy deferts. According to his account,
the foundation confifts of large blocks of fquare ftones
laid in mortar; but all the reft is conftru&ed of brick.
The whole is fo ftrong and well built, that with mode¬
rate repairs, in fuch a dry climate, it may remain in
nearly the fame condition for many ages. When carried
over fteep rocks where no horfe can pafs, it is about fif¬
teen or twenty feet high, and broad in proportion; but,
when running through a valley, or crofting a river, you
behold a ftrong wall, about thirty feet high, with fquare
towers at certain intervals, and embrafures at equal dis¬
tances. The top of the wall is flat, and paved with cut
ftone ; and where it riles over a rock or eminence, there
is an afeent by eafy ftone flairs. He adds, “ This wall
was begun and completely finilhed in the Ihort (pace of
five years ; and it is reported the labourers flood fo clofe
for many miles, that they could hand the materials from
one to another. This I am the more inclined to believe,
as the rugged rocks among which it is built mult have
prevented all ule of carriages; and neither clay for making
I N A.
bricks, nor any kind of cement, could be found among
them." This barrier, however, fince the re-union of the
Tartars and Chinele, is almoft become ufelefs. Lord
Macartney, in palling this great wall with the Britilh
embaffy, on its journey from Pekin to Zhe-hol in Tar¬
tary, found it nearly in the ftate of prefervation as de-
feribed above.
The Tartars, who have now, perhaps, loft fome of their-
military ardour, ftill form the ftrongeft and braveft part
of the Chinefe militia. Every Tartar bom in the ordi¬
nary clafs, is enrolled from his cradle; and, when of age
to carry arms, he muft be ready to take the field on the
Ihorteft notice. The emperor’s Ions, and every Tartar of
diftinftion, muft be acquainted with the management of
a horfe, know how to handle a bow and arrow, and to
perform, at leaft, the elementary evolutions of the army.
The following is a lift of the chief military officers of
China, their number, rank, and falary, as lately given by
fir George Staunton.
A Lif of the chief Military Officers of China, their Number^
Rank, and Salaries.
Rank. Tahels.
Eighteen tou-tous, each - - 4
Sixty-two zun-pings - - 2
One hundred and twenty-one fou-ziens ]
One hundred and fixty-rive tchou-ziens
Three hundred and feventy-three giou-zis
Four hundred and twenty-five tou-tzes
Eight hundred and twenty-five feiou-fous
One thoufand lix hundred and eighty
zien-zuns - -
Three thoufand fix hundred and twen¬
ty-two pa-zuns -
Forty-four commiflaries of corn and pro¬
visions of the firft rank, lciou-zun
Three hundred and thirty commiflaries
of corn and provifions of the lecond
rank, zien-zun - - - -
Tahels.
A rough Calculation of the tota
Eftabliiliment of China.
,000
= 72,00 0
,400
148,800
,300
i57,3oo
800
132,000
600
223,800
400
170,000
320
264,000
160
268,800
130
470,870
320
14,080
160
52,800
ary
1,974,45°
1,000,000 infantry, at two ounces,
or tahels of filver each permonth,
provifions included - - 24,000,000
800,000 cavalry, at four ounces
each, provifions included - 38,4.00,000
If 800,000 horfes coft, at twenty
ounces each, — 16,000,000 oz.
the annual wear and tear at ten
per cent, will be 1,600,000
Uniforms for 1,800,000 men, once
a year, at four ounces each - 7,200,000
Yearly wear and tear of arms, ac¬
coutrements, contingencies, &c.
at one ounce per man, 1,800,000
men ----- 1,800,000
- * 1 73,000,000
y 74,974,450
The civil government of China confifts of a fupfeme
tribunal, called the emperor’s grand council ; of fix fu-
perior judicial courts, and of three tribunals of equity;
the heads or prefidents of all which, with the minifters of
ftate, and fecretaries of the emperor, conftitute the mem¬
bers of the fupreme or grand council. This grand coun¬
cil is never alfembled but on affairs of the greateft im¬
portance; for, in ordinary cafes, the emperor’s private
council is fubftituted for it:
The fix other fuperior courts of China are eftablifhed,
like the preceding, at Pekin, under the general denomi¬
nation of leou-pou. The firft is called lii-pou. This tri¬
bunal furniihes mandarins for the different provinces.
watches
C H
watches over their conduit, keeps a journal of their tranf-
ailions, and informs the emperor of them ; who puniffies
or rewards according to its report. This tribunal is fub-
divided into four others. The firft: has the care of feleit-
ing perfons who, by their learning, talents, and morals,
are proper for filling the different offices under govern¬
ment. The fecond lias the examining of the conduit of
the mandarins. The third affixes afeal to all public aits,
gives to each of the mandarins the feals belonging to his
dignity and employment, and examines the feals of the
different difpatches addreffed to the court. The fourth
inquires into the merit and conduit of the grandees of
the empire, as well princes of the imperial blood, as
others on whom titles merely honorary are conferred.
The principal objeit of the Chinefe government in this
eftablifhment is, that the different departments be pro¬
perly infpeited, every tranfadlion thoroughly inveftigated,
l'uitable rewards given to the deferving, and puniftiment
infliiled on the guilty adequate to their crimes.
Hou-pou is the name of thefecond court. This tribu¬
nal has the fuperintendance of all the finances of the Hate.
It is the guardian of the treafures and domains of the
emperor: it keeps an account of his revenues and ex-
pences, gives orders for the payment of peniions and fe-
laries annexed to certain offices, and for the delivery of
■rice, pieces of filk, and money, which are diftributed
among the great lords, and mandarins of the empire.
The coining of money, the management of public ma¬
gazines and cullom-houfes, and the collection of the du¬
ties, are all under its inipeCtion ; it likewife keeps an ex-
aft regifter of the families that compofe this valt empire.
This court has toaffiit it fourteen other inferior courts,
which are difperled throughout the different provinces of
China.
The third court, called Li-pon, is the court of ceremo¬
nies. Ceremonies form, in part, the bafis of the Chinefe
government. It is the duty of this tribunal, therefore,
to fupport and enforce the obfervance of them; the arts
and fciences are alfo placed under its infpeftion, and it
takes charge of the repairs of temples, regulates every
■thing that relates to the annual facrifices offered up by
the emperor, and even fo the entertainments which the
emperor gives : he alio c'onfults it when he is about to
grant favours, or confer honours. This tribunal alfo
receives, lodges, treats, and difmiffes, amballadors ; and
takes care to preferve tranquillity among the different
religious fefts tolerated in the empire. It has four fu-
baltern tribunals to aflilt it.
The tribunal of arms, called Piug-peU , forms the fourth
fovereign court. It comprehends in its jurifdiftion the
whole militia, and all the fortrefies, arfenals, magazines,
and ftorehoufes of every kind; it infpefts all the manu¬
factories of arms, examines and appoints officers of every
rank, and is compofed of mandarins of letters only, as
are the four tribunals dependent on it. The fifth lupe-
rior tribunal, named Hong-pou, is the criminal bench, or
general court for all the criminal affairs of the empire.
Fourteen other tribunals are appointed for its affiltance;
but they are all fubordinate, and under its infpeftion.
The fixth fovereign court, named Cong-pbu, or the tribu¬
nal of public works, has the charge of furveying and
keeping in repair the palaces of the emperor, princes, and
viceroys ; the buildings where the tribunals are held, the
temples, tombs of the lovereigns, and all other public mo¬
numents. It has, likewife, the fuperintendance of the
llreets, public highways, bridges, lakes, rivers, barks,
and every thing that relates to navigation ; and alfo of
the towers deemed neceffary for maintaining peace and
lafety in the interior parts of the empire. It has four in¬
ferior tribunals for ailiffants in the difeharge of its duty.
The firft, forms defigns and draws plans of public works;
the fecond, has under its direction all the woiklhops in
the different cities of the empire ; the third, furveys
caufeways, roads, bridges, canals, rivers, & c. and the
fourth, takes care of the emperor’s palaces, gardens, and
Yol. IV. No. 210.
[ N A. , 449
orchards, and receives their produce. The members
which compole all thefe different inferior tribunals are
half Chinefe and half Tartars; and each has two prefi-
dents, one of which is always a Tartar born. None of
thefe tribunals have abfolute power in their own jurif-
diCtion : the decificns of one can have no effeCt without
the concurrence of fome other tribunal, and fometirnes
of feveral. Thus the tribunal of war has under its direc¬
tion the whole troops of the empire ; the fecond is en-
trufted with the payment of them ; and to the fixth be¬
longs the care of the arms, tents, (tores, & c. neceffary for
military operations. Nothing, therefore, that relates to
any of thefe can be put in execution without the concur¬
rence of thofe three tribunals.
Every fuperior tribunal has alfo its cenfor, an officer
merely paffive, who decides upon nothing, but watches
overall. He a (lifts at all affemblies, reviles ali their afts,
and makes no mention to the tribunals of any irregularity
he has obferved, but immediately acquaints the emperor.
He informs him alfo of the faults committed by the man¬
darins, either in the public adminiftration of affairs, or
in their private conduft. Thefe cenfors hold their places
for life ; and this fecurity gives them courage to fpeak
out, when they obferve any impropriety or abufe. Their
accufation is fufficient to fet on foot an enquiry, which
generally leads' to a proof ; the accufed is then dilcharged
from his office, were he even one of the firft: men in the
empire; and the coinmoneft perfon is afterwards held in
as much eftimation as he. It is, however, fomething re¬
markable, that the complaints of thefe cenfors are referred
to the very tribunals of which the accufed are members.
Thefe cenfors form a court or tribunal of equity, named
Tou-che-yven, which has the infpeftion of the v/hole em¬
pire : its members have the power of remonftrating with
the emperor, whenever the intereft of the public, or that
of the prince, renders it neceffary. Their infpeftion ex¬
tends alfo over ali lawyers and military men in publiq
employments, and over every clafs of citizens. In (hort,
they are, ftriftly (peaking, placed between the prince and
the mandarins; between the mandarins and the people ;
between the people and families ; between families and in¬
dividuals ; and they unite, generally fpeaking, to the im¬
portance of their office, the mod: uncorruptible probity
and invincible courage. The fovereign may, if he pro¬
ceeds to rigour, take away their lives ; but many of them
have patiently fuffered death, rather than betray the
caufe of truth, or wink at abufes. It is not therefore
fufficient to get rid of one, in order to gain a point ; they
muff all be treated in the fame manner, for the laft would
tread with the feme refolution in the fteps of thofe who
had gone before him.
There is another tribunal of equity, which exifts, vve
believe, no where but in China; it is the tribunal of
princes, and is coinpofed of princes only. Some of the
ordinary mandarins, indeed, belong to it as l'ubalterns,
whofe bufmefs it is to draw out cafes and other writings
necelfery for determining any fuit. The names of the
children of the imperial family are inlcribed, as foon as
they are born, in the regifters of this tribunal ; and to it
are configned the dignities and titles which the emperor
confers upon them. This tribunal is the only court
where they can be tried; and, irr cafes of accufation, it
abfolves or pu nifties them, according to its pleafure.
All the privileges of princes of the blood, confift in
certain rights of reprefentation, and in being tried by
their peers only. They cannot depend upon that dil-
tinftion which is conferred by riches, or annexed to place.
Every thing in this methodical empire is fubmitted to
an examination. The yellow girdle only is what thefe
princes inherit by birth; and this right belongs only to
thofe who are deicended in a right line from the reign¬
ing dynalty. The names of their children, whether girls
or boys, the year, month, and day, of their birth, are in-
feribed in a large yellow book, particularly appropriated
for this purpofe. An orange girdle is, the diltinguiffiing
5 Y mark
CHINA.
45°
mark of collateral princes 5 and the names of their
children are regiftered in a red book. The emperor alone
determines the fur names of princes of the reigning
branch. When the princes* and princelfes of the lalt
clafs have attained to the age of fifteen, they prefent a
petition to the emperor, requeuing permiffion to marry.
Princes of the direft line may omit this formula ; but, if
they are defirous of being connected by marriage with
any of the Mogul or Kalka princes, they mult firft ob¬
tain the emperor’s eonfent. The rank even of the em¬
peror’s fons, except of his immediate fuccefi'or, dimi-
nilhes one degree every generation. At the feventh,
the eldelt of thefe branches only has a title to wear the
yellow girdle; the reit find themfelves funk to the rank
of plain citizens. «An hereditary fovereignty pafles, with
all its rights, from one eldelt fon to another, unlefs the
pofl'eflbr forfeits his title by being guilty of fome crime.
In fucll a cafe, the .emperor appoints to the fuccefiion,
cither one of his younger brothers, or a coufin ; but
thefe mult be chol'en from the fame branch, as the lawful
branch cannot be deprived of this right, unlefs all thofe
are condemned who compofe it. Whoever infults any
prince of the imperial family, who is decorated with the
yellow girdle, is put to death vrithaut remilfion. But
this is not the cafe if the prince has omitted or negledted
to put on his yellow girdle : the affair then becomes a
cafe between citizen and citizen ; and the aggrdfor ef-
capes with a baflinading.
Another equitable tribunal, no lefs peculiar to China
than the two preceding, but betterknown than either is the
Tribunal of Hiftory, Han-lin-y-ven. Itiscompofed of the
greateft geniufes and of men of the molt profound eru¬
dition in the empire; to this tribunal is entrufted the
education of the heir apparent to the throne, and the
compilation and arrangement of the general liiltory of
the empire. This laft part of their office makes them
formidable even to the emperor himfelf ; for his attempts
to opprels, or feduce them, would be configned to hif¬
tory, in fpite of all his efforts to the contrary. From this
body are generally chofen the calao, or mandarins of the
firft clafs, and the prefidents of the fupreme tribunal's.
The Chinefe have taken rnoft of their civil laws from
their canonical books of morality, and filial piety is their
bafis. Some decrees of the emperors, refpefting the ob-
fervance of certain ceremonies, which cuftorn has efta-
blifhed, form the reft of the code. Every mandarin,
tvho is a governor of a province or city, is obliged, twice
a month, to inftrudl the people affembled round him, and
to recommend to them the obfervance of the following
articles. 1. You muft putin praftiCe the duties prefcribed
by filial piety, and obferve that deference which is due
from a younger to an elder brother. By thefe means
only can you learn to fet a proper value upon thofe ob¬
ligations which nature impoies on all men. 2. You muft
always preferve a refpe&ful remembrance of your ancef-
tors ; hence will refult conrtant peace and union in your
family. 3. Let harmony and concord reign throughout
every village : by this, quarrels will be banifhed, and
law-fuits prevented. 4. Let thofe who cultivate the
earth, and breed (ilk-worms, be efteemed and refpefted,
you will then want neither grain for your nourifhment,
nor clothing to cover you. 5. Let frugality, tempe¬
rance, modefty, and prudent economy, become the ob¬
jects of your refle&ion, and regulate your condudf. 6.
Let the public fchools be carefully maintained ; and,
above all, let youth be inftrufted early in the duties of
life, and formed to good morals. 7. Let every one at¬
tend to his own buiinefs, and to the duties of his office :
they will then be better difcharged. 8. Let religious en-
thufiafts be carefully extirpated as loon as they (pring
up;, it might be too late afterwards. 9. Let the terror
of the penal laws be often held up to the people. For
rude and untradlable minds can be reftrainecl by fear
only. 10. Endeavour to acquire a perfect knowledge
of the rules of civiiity and politenefs: thefe tend to
maintain concord, n. Let the education of childrerft
and particularly of younger Ions, be the principal objedt
of ybur attention. 12. Avoid Hander, and abttain from
malicious accufations. 13. Conceal none of thofe cri¬
minals who, on account of their crimes, have been ba-
niftied from fociety, and condemned to a wandering life :
by concealing them, you become their accomplices. 14.
Be pundtual in paying the duties and taxes impofed by
the prince : this will free you from the opprelfion of
thofe who colledl them, and from vexatious lawfuits.
1 5. Be careful to adt in concert with the magiftrates of
the diftridt to which you belong, and to fecond their ef¬
forts in difeharging the duties of their office : by thefe
means, they will be enabled to detedf the guilty, and to
prevent robbery and theft. 16. Reftrain every fudden
emotion of paffion; and you will avoid many dangers.
From the manner in which thefe ordinances are deliver¬
ed, it is evident that the fovereigns of China give even
to their laws and regulations the form of maxims and
precepts. Every law in Europe is preceded by a pream¬
ble, letting forth the reafon of enabling it; but in Chi¬
na the law invariably precedes the explanation of the
motive.
Their laws concerning marriage, are very extenfive. A
Chinefe can have only one lawful wife ; and it is necef-
fary that her rank and age Ihould be nearly equal to
his own ; but be may have feveral concubines, without
any formality whatever, except firft paying to their pa¬
rents, if they have any, a certain fum of money, and en¬
tering into a written engagement to treat their daughters
well. Thefe concubines are totally dependant on the
lawful wife, their children are confidered as hers ; they
addrefs her as mother, and give this title to her only.
After her death, they are obliged to wear mourning for
three years, and to abfent themfelves from public exa¬
minations, but the death of their natural mother fub-
jedts them to the obfervance of none of thele regulations.
A widower, or a widow, may enter a fecond time into
the matrimonial ftate without paying much attention to
any of the preceding regulations.
A widow who has children becomes abfolute miftrefs
of herfelf : her parents can neither compel her to marry
again or to remain in a ftate of widowhood. Widows
do not enjoy the fame privilege when they have no male
children. The parents of their firft hufband can again
place them in marriage, without their eonfent, or know¬
ledge. They are authorifed by the law to do this, to in¬
demnify themfelves for the money they have colt their
former liulbands. This, ftridtly fpeaking, is felling them :
however, if they are left with child, this traffic is fuf-
pended ; and it cannot take place if they bring forth a
fon. To this law there are two exceptions: the firft
when the parents of the widow affign her a proper main¬
tenance, and reimburfe thofe of the deceafed liuftund ;
the other, when the widow embraces a religious life, and
becomes a bonzefs.
Divorces are granted in China, in cafes of adultery, mu¬
tual diflike, incompatibility of tempers and difpofitions,
indiferetion, jealoufy, ablolute difobedience, fterility, or
hereditary and infedfious difeafes. A hufband cannot
fend away or feli his wife, until a divorce has been le¬
gally obtained. If this regulation is not ftridHy ob-
lerved, the buyer and feller become equally culpable.
If a wife, acknowledged as lawful, withdraws from her
family, the hufband lues; fentence is pronounced, and
he may fell the fugitive, who by this lentence ceales to
be his wife, and becomes his flave. The law prote&s
alfo the wife who is abandoned by her hufband. If he
abfents himfelf for three years, (he is at liberty to lay
her cafe before the mandarins, who can authorife her to
take another hufband, but if fhe anticipates their con-
fent, fhe is expofed to the moft rigorous puuifhment.
If a young woman has been betrothed to a young man,
and if prelents have been given and received by the pa¬
rents of the intended liufband and wife, that young wo-
maa
C H
man can have no other hufband, and, if (lie marries ano¬
ther, the law declares luch marriage null. If, in the
room' of a young woman (hewn to the female confidant
whole bulinefs is to make up the match, another be lub-
(fituted ; or if the daughter of a free man marry his (lave ;
or if any one gives his (lave to a free woman, ,and per-
fuades her parents that he is his Ion or relation ; the mar¬
riage is null and void; and all thole who have had any
(hare in carrying on the fraud are leverely punilhed.
Every mandarin of letters is forbid to marry into any
family refiding in that province or city of which he is
governor. The marriage is not valid if he trefpaffes
againft this law. It is unlawful for a Chinefe youth to
marry while he wears mourning either for a father or
mother. If promiles have been made prior to the death
of his parent, every engagement ceales upon that event,
and the man is obliged to give information of it to the
parents of his intended bride. Marriage is alfo fufpend-
ed when a family experiences any fevere misfortune ;
fuch as a relation being thrown into prifon; but this re¬
gulation may be fet afide, provided he gives his confent.
Two brothers cannot efpoufe two fillers ; a widower is
not at liberty to marry his foil with the daughter of the
widow whom he efpoufes, nor is he permitted to marry
any of his own relations, however diftant the degrees of
confanguinity may be between them.
Every father of a family in China is refponfible for the
conduit of his children and doinellics. All faults are
imputed to him, which it was his duty to prevent. No
mother in China has the right of making a will. Adop¬
tion is authoriled by law, and the adopted child enters
into all the rights of a lawful Ion, affumes the name of
the perfon who has adopted him, wears mournirig if he
happens to die, becomes his heir, and has a fhare of his
money and effeifs, if any are left, as well as the reft of
his children : a right only is referved to the father of
making a few difpofitions in their favour. Children,
whether adopted or not, fucceed to the eftates of the fa¬
ther, but not to his dignity or titles : the emperor alone
can continue or confer theie.
Cuftom feems now to have rectified among citizens of
the higher and middling dalles, a law in China which
authorized a father to fell his fon ; and the fale of
children is at prefent rather tolerated than authorized
among people of inferior rank, who are forbid to fell
them to comedians, or to thole of mean and profligate
lives. A fon is always a minor during the life of his fa¬
ther, who is abfolute mailer of whatever he has inherited
from his anceftors, or acquired by his own indullry. A
ion is liable for the debts contracted by his father, thofe
of gaming only excepted. A father’s laft will cannot be
fet aftde on account of any error in the form.
Slavery is authorifed in China in certain cafes among
themfelves ; inafmuch as a man may fell himfelf to dif-
charge a debt to the crown, to affllt a father in diftrefs,
or to bury his parent or relative in due form. If his
conduft in fervitude (hould be unimpeadiable, he is en¬
titled to his liberty at the end of twenty years ; if other-
wife, he continues a Have for life; as do his children, if
he had included them in the original agreement. But
the power of the mailer is entirely confined to what
concerns his fervice. He would be punilhed with death,
were it proved, that he had taken advantage of his
power, to debauch the daughter or wife of his (lave.
And no hulbandman can be harraffed for the payment of
taxes, after he has begun to till the earth ; that is from
about the middle of (pring, to the beginning of harvelt.
Such are, in general, the eftablifhed laws in China, re¬
lative to civil affairs. With regard to certain temporary
ediCls iffued by different emperors, it can only be faid
many of them have difcovered wifdom and an attention
to the public welfare ; and others would certainly never
have appeared, in a country where the perfons molt in-
terefted had poffeffed any (hare in the- government.
The mode of procedure in criminal cafes among the
I N A. ' 451
Chinefe, is exceedingly (low ; and this, as the accufed
perlon is kept conftantly in prifon during the whole pro-
cels, is a great evil ; yet this llownefs becomes often the
lateguard of thofe who are unjuftly accufed ; and time
frequently unveils the truth, which mull always be unfa¬
vourable to the guilty. The; Chinefe prilons are not
dungeons; they are fpacious, and have a degree of con¬
venience not generally found in fuch places. A manda¬
rin is obliged to infpeCl them, and to fee prifoners, when
ill, properly treated, to fend for phyficians, and to fupply
them with remedies at the emperor’s expence. If a pri-
l’oner dies, the mandarins mull inform the emperor, who
often orders fome of the higher mandarins to examine
whether lie has faithfully dilcharged his duty.
The feverity of the Chinefe punilhments is regulated
by the different degrees of delinquency. Some of them
however, are exceedingly rigorous. The flighted: of all
their punilhments is tire baltinado, ufed only for chaf-
tifing trivial faults. The criminalty of the offender de¬
termines the number of blows which he receives, but
the loweft number is twenty.
The emperor orders this punifhment to be infliCled
upon fome of his courtiers; but this does not prevent
them from being afterwards received into favour. The
baton, or pan-1 fee, ufed for this punifhment, is a piece of
bamboo, a little flatted, broad at the bottom, and poljlh-
ed at the upper extremity. Every mandarin has autho¬
rity to ufe it at pleafure, when any one 'forgets to falute
him, or when he adminillers public juftice. On fuch oc-
calions, he fits gravely behind a table, upon which is a
bag filled with thefe bamboo Hicks, while a number of
petty officers (land round him, each furniffi.ed with fome
of thefe pan-tfees, and waiting only for his lignalto make
ufe of them. The mandarin takes from the bag one of
thole (licks which it contains, and throws' it into The
hall of audience. The culprit is then feized, and ftretch-
ed out, with his belly towards the ground ; his breeches
are pulled down to his heels, and an athletic fellow ap¬
plies five fmart (trokes with his pan-tfee ; another fuc-
ceeds, and bellows live more, if the mandarin draws an¬
other baton from the bag ; and thus, by gradation, un¬
til he is pleafed to make no more lignals. The offender,
who has undergone this challifement, mull then throw
liimfelf on his knees before the judge, incline his body
three times to the earth, and thank him for the care
which he takes of his education. It is difficult to con¬
ceive how a people, not the dupes of the moll abject fla-
very and fuperllition, can be brought quietly to fubmit
to this arbitrary exertion of power.
The punilhment of the wooden collar is alfo ufed in
China. This is compofed of two pieces of wood, hol¬
lowed out in the middle, which when put together, leave
fufficient room for the neck of the culprit. They are laid
upon the (boulders of the criminal, and joined together
in fuch a manner as to prevent his feeing liis feet, or put¬
ting his hands to his mouth ; he is thus rendered inca¬
pable of eating without the afiiftance of another, and is
obliged to carry his burthen night and day. The weight
of this collar is heavy or light, according to the magni¬
tude of the crime. For robbery, having broken the
peace, diilurbed a family, or being a notorious gambler,
the duration of this puniffiment is generally three
months. The criminal is not at liberty to take (belter ’in
his own lioufe : he is Rationed in fome public fquare, at.
the gate of a city or temple, or of the tribunal in which
he was condemned. When the term of liis^puniffiment
is expired, he is taken before the mandarin, who exhorts
him in a friendly manner to amend his life, and, after he
has received twenty blows, he is difcliarged.
Other crimes, of an inferior nature to homicide, are
punifhed by banifliment into Tartary, by condemning
the guilty to drag the royal barks for three years ; or
marking the cheeks with a hot iron. Robbery between
relations is more leverely punilhed than when committed
on a llranger. If any one gives information againft his "
1 • father.
452 C H I
father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, uncle, or
eldeft brother, he is condemned to receive an hundred
blows of the pan-tfee, and to be banifhed for three years,
even if the acculation is full ; but if it prove fali'e, he is
ftrangled.
Criminal intercourfe between relations of different
fexes, is punifhed in proportion to the degrees of confan-
guinity between them. Deficiency of duty to a father,
mother, grandfather, or grandmother, is condemned by
the law, and punifhed by an hundred blows of the pan-
tfee ; if abufive language is ufed, the offender is ftrangled ;
if he lifts his hand againft his parent or progenitor, he is
beheaded; and if he wounds or maims them, his flefli is
torn from his bones with red-hot pincers. If a younger
brother abufes his elder, he is condemned to receive an
hundred blows of the pan-tfee. If he ftrike him, he is
condemned to exile.
The burying-place of every family in China is facred,
unalienable, and cannot be feized. The trees growing
upon it cannot, on pain of death, be cut, except when
they are decayed ; and even then, not until a mandarin
has inlpefted them, and attefled their condition. Rob¬
bery of thefe burying-places, even of the fmalleft of their
ornaments, is punifhable as facriiege.
The man who in an accidental quryrel happens to kill
his adverfary, is ftrangled without remiflion. A rope,
about fix or feven feet in length, with a running noofe,
is thrown over the criminal’s head ; a couple of execu¬
tioners belonging to the tribunal pull it in different di¬
rections, then on a full den quit it ; a few moments after,
they give a fecond pull, which generally finifhes thebufi-
nefs. In certain parts of China, the operation is per¬
formed with a kind of bow. The criminal is placed on
his^ knees, the ftring of the inftrument is put round his
neck, which being ftrongly compreffed by the elafticity
of the bow, he is inltantly ftrangled when the executioner
gives it a fmart pull towards him. Beheading is con-
ftdered by the Chinefe as the moft disgraceful of all pu-
nifhments. It is referved for the moft defperate affafiins
only, or for thofe crimes equally atrocious as murder.
To be cut in a thoufhnd pieces, is a puniftiment we
believe unknown but in China. It is deftined for ftate
criminals, in cafes of high treafon, (imilar to our fen-
tence of drawing apart or quartering the body, in Eng¬
land. The criminal is tied to a poll ; the executioner
icalps the (kin from bis head, and pulls it over his eyes ;
lie afterwards tears the flefli from different parts of his
body, and never quits tli is horrid lab&fir until fatigue
renders him unable to proceed. He then abandons what
remains of the body to the ferocity of the people, who
finifli what he has left undone. Much has been written
in Europe againft the torturing of criminals, either in
the common or extraordinary ’manner; and the cuftom
is in general happily fuppreffed ; but they are both prac-
tifed in China.
With refpeft to the internal police, every city in China
is divided into different divifions. An officer is appointed
for each divifion, who is anfwerable for every thing that
paffes contrary to good order ; and if he negledls to make
proper enquiry into any ito any irregularities, or to in¬
form the mandarin governor, he is fubjefted to the fame,
punifhment as thofe who are refrafitory. Every city is
furniftied with gates, and all the ftreets are barricadoed as
foon as night commences. Centinels are pofted at pro¬
per intervals, who flop all thofe who walk abroad in the
night-time ; and a numb.er of horfemen are generally fta-
tioned on the ramparts, who go the rounds for the fame
purpofe. Seldom, however, do people of any character
expofe themfelves to the danger of falling into the hands
of the police. “ Night,” fay the Chinefe magiftrates, “ is
tlefigned for repofe, and the day for labour.” Watch is
likewife kept in the day-timfc at every city, to obferve
thofe who enter: for this purpofe a guard is ftationed at
each gate ; paffengers are carefully examined, and if they
are difcovered to be ftrangers, they are immediately car-
N A.
ried before a mandarin, and detained until the will of the
governor is known. The averfenefs of the Chinefe to
admit ftrangers among .them, arifes from a fuppofition,
that 'in procels of time, an alteration of manners, cuf-
toms, and ceremonies, might refult from fuch an inter¬
courfe, and give birth to quarrels, party difputes, and (e-
dition, which may at length overturn the government.
None but military people are permitted to wear arms
in public, and thofe only during aftual war : at other
times they mull appear like plain citizens, except when
they attend a review, mount guard, or accompany a man¬
darin. Proftitutes are not permitted to remain within
the walls of any city, but they may refide in the iuburbs,
though they tnuft not keep a houfe of their own. Some
individual is exprefsly authorifed to afford them lodging;
he mull watch over and obferve their condu6l ; and if
there arifes any noife*dr quarrel in his houfe, he alone is
refponhble, and is punilhed for it.
Every city of China, and fometimes even an ordinary
town, has an eftablilhment, called by the Chinefe Tang-
pou, where money may be borrowed upon pledges. No
preliminaries are neceffary, the tranlaftion is concealed,
and the borrower may remain unknown. Ifhechufes
to tell his name, it is written down ; if he does not, no
further quellions are alked him. Thofe who belong to
thefe offices take an exaft defcription, when the cafe re¬
quires it, of the figure of the perlon, that they may be
able, in any event, to give an account to the police. The
ufual intereft of money in China is faid to be thirty per
cent, which is a proof that coin is very l'carce. At this
rate money may be borrowed at the Tang-pou. Every
pledge is marked with a number when left at the office,
and the office mull be anfwerable for it; but it is for¬
feited the very day after the term mentioned in the note
of agreement is expired.
The public roads in China are in general broad; they
are paved in all the fouthern, and in fome of the northern,
provinces. Vallies have been filled up, and paffages have
been cut through rocks and mountains, in order to make
highways, and to prefeive them as nearly as pofflble on
a level. On all the great roads covered feats are erected
at proper diftances, where the traveller may Ihelter him-
iell from the inclemency of winter, or the heats of fum-
mer, which are often exceffive. Temples and pagodas
are alio frequently to be met with, to winch admittance
is always granted in the day-time, though often refufed
in the night, the mandarins only having the right of reft-
ing in them as long as they think proper. The inns are
fpacious and lufficiently numerous on the principal road%;
but they ate badly l'upplied with provifions, and paffen¬
gers who have no beds with them mud deep on a plain
mat. The Chinefe government has publifhed an itine¬
rary of the whole empire, which comprehends every road
and canal from the city of Pekin to the remoteft extremi¬
ties of China.
On all the great roads there are towers, on the tops of
which watch-boxes are conftrufiled for the convenience
of centinels, and flag-ftaffs raifed in order that they may
make certain fignals in cafe of any alarm. Thefe towers,
which are fquare, and generally built of brick, feldom
exceed twelve feet in height. They, however, have bat¬
tlements when they are built upon any of the roads which
conduit to court, and they are alfo provided with very
large bells of call iron. They ferve alfo as polt-houfes,
and the foldiers convey the letters on horfeback from
one to the other, guarded by fix other horfe foldiers.
Conveyance of every kind is eafy in China ; and travellers
find little difficulty in getting their baggage tranfported
from one place to another. In every city there are num¬
bers of porters affociated under a common chief, who re¬
gulates their engagements, fixes the price of their labour,
receives their hire, and is refponfible for every thing they
carry. This eftablilhment is diredled by the general po¬
lice of the empire. On all the great roads the traveller
finds in every city feveral offices of this kind, that have a
fettled
CHINA.
fettled correfpondence with the next through which he
intends to purfue his route. Before his departure, he
carries to one of thefe offices a lilt of thofe things he
wants removed, which is immediately infcribed in a
book; and if he has occafion for two, three, or four,
hundred porters, he immediately obtains them. Every
thing is weighed by the chief, and the hire is five-pence
per hundred weight for one day’s carriage. An exabf re-
gilter of every article is kept in the office, and the traveller
pays the money in advance, after which he has no occa-
fion to give himlelf any trouble; on his arrival at the
next city he finds his baggage at the correfponding of¬
fice, where it is delivered to him with the molt fcrupu-
lous fidelity.
The following is the official ftatement of the permanent
revenue of China, as given by fir George Staunton.
Account of Revenue received into the Imperial Treafury at
’Pekin, from the d'fferent Provinces of China Proper. Taken
from the Statements of Chovj-ta-Zhin,
Provinces.
Tahels, or Ounces,
of Silver.
Total Tahels.
Meafures of
Rice and
other Grain.
Pe-tcheli
2,520,000 Land
437,000 Salt
79,000 other Tax
j- 3,036,000
None.
Kiang-nan
5,200,000 Land
2,100,000 Salt
910,000 Taxes
8,210,000
1,440,000
Kiang-fi
1,900,000 Land
220,000 Taxes
2,120,000
795,000
Tche-kiang
3,100,000 Land
520,000 Salt
190,000 Taxes
3,810,000
780,000
Fo-kien
1,1 10, poo Land
87,000 Salt
8o,oooTaxes
j- *>277,000
None.
!Hou-pe
Hou-nan
Hou-quang
1,300,000 Land
io,oooTaxes
^ 1,310,000
100,000
1,310,000 Land
35,000 Taxes
I 1,345,000
100,000
Ho-nan
3,200,000 Land
13,000 Taxes
| 3,213,000
230,000
Chan-tung
3,440,000 Land
130,000 Salt
30,000 Taxes
3,600,000
360,000
Chan-fi
3,100,000 Land
510,000 Salt
1 !2,oooTaxes
^ 3,722,000
None.
Shen-fi
x, 660, 000 Land
40,000 Taxes
O
O
O
o'
0
tw.
H
None.
Kan-fou
!
300,000 Land
40,000 Taxes
^ 340,000
220,000
'Se-chuen
640,000 Land
30,000 Taxes
^ 670,000
None.
|
Quang-tong
1,280,000 Land
50,000 Salt
10,000 Taxes
1,340,000
None.
Quang-fi
420,000 Land
50,000 Salt
30,000 Taxes
0
0
0
o'
0
None.
Ymi-nan
210,000 Land
2,10,000
220,000
Koei-cheou
120,000 Land
10,000 Salt
1 c.oooTaxes
^ *45>°op
None.
Tahels -
36,548,000
4,245,000
The greater part of the taxes in China are paid in
commodities. Thofe who breed filk-wonns pay their
Vcl. IV. No, 210.
453
taxes in filk, the huffiandmen in grain, and the gardener®
in fruits, &c. This mode of impofing taxes is far from,
detrimental to the government or the people ; as in every
province there are in its fervice numbers of mandarins,
officers, fokliefs, and penfioners, of different kinds, who
are furniffied with every neceffary for f<j>od and clothing,
fo that the articles collected as taxes, are nearly all con-
fumed in thole provinces in which they are levied. If
any thing remains, it is fold oh account of the empe¬
ror, and the amount is depoftted in the imperial treafury.
The taxes paid in money, arife principally from the fale
of fait, which belongs exclufively to the emperor; from
the duties paid by veffels on entering any of the ports ;
from the cuitoms and other imports on various branches
of manufafture. Thefe excepted, the trader contributes
little towards the exigencies of the Hate, and the me¬
chanic Hill lefs. The weight of the permanent and per-
l'onal taxes therefore falls on the hufbandman.
The annual expences of government are immer.fe , and
the emperor diredts them as he thinks proper : thefe ex¬
pences, however, are regulated in fuch a manner as never
to be augmented but in cafes of the utmoft neceffity. In¬
deed, the adminiftration often make great faving.s, which
lerves to increafe the general treafures of the empire, and
prevents the impofition of new taxes when war becomes
unavoidable, or unforefeen calamities defolate the em¬
pire.
The current coin of China confifts only of one kind ;
it is denominated a caxee, and is made of copper. It is
of a round figure, and about nine-tenths of an inch in
diameter, has a fmall .fquare hole in the middie, and is
infcribed with two Chinefe words on the one fide, and
two Tartar words on the other. Silver has no proper
figure, its value is regulated by weight only.
In this vaft empire there is kept a regifter or general
enumeration of all the people by families, diftridts, and
provinces, comprehending every individual, without re¬
gard to age, lex, or rank. Befides this, there is a l'econd,
which is partial, containing only the lower claffes of peo¬
ple, from fixteen to fifty. This laftro.ll ferves to regulate
every thing relating to vafialage, to facilitate public l'ur-
veys, and to aflilt the operations of the police, &c. By
means of thefe regifters, a fpeedy and certain method is
always found of afeertaining the fituation of families or
individuals in all circumftances, in which government or
private perlons may be interelled. They alio enable the
government to judge what number of people have pe-
rilhed by inundations or epidemical diiiempers ; to de¬
termine what fuccours are neceffary in years of fcarcity ;
to know the ftate of agriculture ; how far manufadtures
can be extended ; and what number of military people
each canton can furnifh. The government has alfo an
accurate and minute account of all the lands in each
diftridt, of their different degrees of fertility, and what
is cultivated in them. Public magazines and granaries,
furniffied with every kind of provifion .neceffary for re¬
lieving the ditlreffes of the people, in cafe of public cala¬
mities, or unforefeen difalters, are eredted in the dif¬
ferent provinces. A dm ini fixation are always provided
agaihff every event; and as they are acquainted with the
minuteff expence neceffary to be incurred, every thing is
done in proper fealon with dignity, and without embar-
raffment.
The Chinefe government determines, in the minuted:
manner, the diefs for each l'eafon, and likewife the price
of thofe dreffes for every age and condition. The em¬
peror himlelf is not excepted in thefe regulations: his
dreffes of ceremony are more or lefs fumptuous according
to the religious, political, or domertic, ceremonies, for
which he ufes them. The particular drels for each clafs
is to accurately deferibed in the fumptuary code, as to
dirtinguiffi, on the firrt view, the rank and condition of
thefe who wear it.
Of palaces the emperor has a great number. Each ca¬
pital of a province contains one, which is made the refi-
5 Z dehce.
CHIN A.
4i4
dence of the viceroy. There are Tome alfo in cities of
inferior note, which are appropriated for the ufe of thofe
mandarins who enjoy places under government. Bridges
have been multiplied in China in proportion to the num¬
ber of its canals and rivers: they con, ift of three, five,
or feven, arches; the centre is from thirty to forty feet
wide, and railed very high, that barks' may e.tfily pafs
••without lowering their malts.
Agriculture is the principal refource of the Chinefe,
who confider it as the firlt and molt honourable of all
prcfeffions. The people are allowed to ufe a portion of
the grain of every crop, for the purpofes of brewing and
diftillation ; but, if the harveft happens to be bad, an or¬
der is ilfued for the l'ufpenfion of thefe operations. The
Chinefe emperors do not coniine themfelves to the-pub-
lifliing of regulations refpefting agriculture, but they en¬
courage it by their own example ; of this the celebrated ce¬
remony, in which the emperor tills the earth with his own
hands, has been often mentioned, and may be coniidered
us a proof. This ceremony is as follows : Spring begins
in China always in the. month of February, but not re¬
gularly on the fame day. This epocha is determined by
the tribunal of mathematics. That of ceremonies an¬
nounces it to the emperor by a memorial, in which every
thing neceffary to be done by the prince on that occafion
is mentioned with the moll: Scrupulous minutenefs. He
firlt names twelve of the mod illuitrious perfons in his
court to accompany him, and to hold the plow after he
lias performed his part of the ceremony. Thefe are al¬
ways three princes of the blood, and nine prefidents of
fupreme courts. This feitival is preceded by a facrifice
which the fovereign offers up to the Chang-ti, or fupreme
being. The emperor prepares lvimfelf by three days fad¬
ing ; and thofe who are to attend him lubmit to the fame
regulations. The place where the emperor od’ers up the
fpring facrifice, is a fmall mount, within the city of Pe¬
kin, fifty feet in height, called Sien-nang-iait, or mount
of agriculture ; this elevation is exprelsly prefcribed by
the rules of the ceremony, and cannot be difpenfed with.
The emperor, who facrifices under the title of fovereign
pontiff-, invokes the Chang-ti, and prays for abundance
in favour of his people. He then defcends, accompanied
by the princes and prefidents, who ate to put their hands
to the plow along with him. The ground let apart for
this purpofe is contiguous to the mount. Forty labourers
are ielefted to yoke the oxen, and to prepare the feeds
which the emperor mud low. Thefe. feeds are of five
different kinds,- and fuch as are coniidered as the mod
ufeful and neceffary, viz. wheat, rice, millet, beans, and
another fpecies of millet, called by the Chinefe cao-leang,
or lofty corn. Thefe are brought to the fpot in magni¬
ficent boxes, carried by perfons of the molt didinguifhed
rank. The emperor takes hold of the plow, and turns
up feveral furrows. The princes do the fame in fuccef-
fion, and after them the prefidents. The fovereign then
throws into the earth the five kinds of feed before-men¬
tioned, after which four pieces of cotton-cloth, proper
for making dreffes, are dillributed to each of the labourers
who affifted in yoking the oxen, and who prepared the
feeds. This ceremony certainly drikes the minds of the
labouring people, and greatly contributes to encourage
their indudry.
We cannot judge of the Chinefe peafantry from thofe
of Europe; elpecially in what relates to the advantages
acquired by education. Free-fchools are very numerous
in every province of China, and many of the villages are
not deditute of this -advantage. The fons of the poor are
there received as readily as thofe of the rich, and their
duties and dudies are the fame ; the attention of the maf-
ters is equally divided between them ; and from the mod
obfcure lource talents often fpring, which afterwards make
a confpicuous figure on the grand dage of life. Indeed,
nothing is more common in China, than to fee the fon of
a peafant governor of that province in which his father
long toiled in cultivating only a few acres,
a
The Chinefe have been fevefely reproached, and with
jud reafon, for permitting new-born infants, at the will
of thofe who gave them being, under a pretence that
they cannot maintain them, to be configned to a cruel
and premature death, by leaving them in the dreets and
publiS highways, or by plunging them, as loon as they
come from the womb, into the next adjoining river. Yet
it feems that this favage cudom was never fahftioned by
law, though tolerated by the government. It mud have
been the mod dire neceffity which led to this unnatural
and fhocking aft, when nrit-it wa9 committed. It is re¬
conciled, by the idolatrous worfliippers of Fo, as a facri-
fice or holy offering to the fpirit of the river in which the
infant is thrown, ufually with a gourd fufpended from
its neck, to keep it from immediate drowning. Female
infants are, for the mod part, chofen for this cruel lacri-
fice, became daughters are coniidered as more intimately
belonging to thofe families into which they pafs by
marriage, while the fons ufually continue the lupport
and comfort of their own. Thefe infants are ufually ex-
poied immediately on the birth, or before the features
become fo animated as to c;itch the affeftions rifino- in a
parent’s bread. A faint hope is generally entertained,
that they may yet be preferved from untimely death, by
the vigilance of thofe who are deputed by the govern¬
ment to look for and colleft thefe miferable objefts, for
the purpofe of providing for fuch as are found alive, and
for burying thole, at the emperor’s expence, which might
have expired. The miffionaries are likewife zealous in
this humane work. They haften to baptize all they find
alive, whom they provide for and educate at their own
expence, and bring up in the Chridian religion. One
of thofe pious fathers, who was not inclined to exagge¬
rate the evil, acknowledged to fir George Staunton, that,
in the city of Pekin alone, about two thoufand infants
were annually expofed in this inhuman manner, and of
which a great number unavoidably perifhed.
Nothing feems to be neglefted in China that has any
relation to government; even the gazette is an efiential
part of the political conditution. This gazette is printed
at Pekin, and is circulated throughout every province of
the empire. It contains an account of all thofe objefts
to which the attention of the government is direfted ;
and adminidration enter into the minuted details ; grant
fuccour in proper feafon ; reward with liberality ; and
punifh with judice. Nothing is inferted in this gazette
which has not been lubrnitted to the emperor, or which
has not come immediately from him ; and inevitable
death would be the confequence to any one who fltould
infer.t any thing falfe in this miniderial paper.
No law, or fentence, as before obferved, can be of
any force until the emperor’s feal is affixed to it. This
leal is about- eight inches fquare, of fine jafper, a pre¬
cious ftone highly valued in China. The fovereign only
is entitled to have a feal of this lubdance. Thofe which
he gives to princes are made of gold ; thofe of the vice¬
roys and great mandarins, of filver; and thofe of inferior
mandarins, or magidrates, mud be made of lead or cop¬
per; and their fize is larger or fmaller, according to the
rank which they hold as mandarins, or in the tribunals.
The authority of inlpeftors lent into any of the pro¬
vinces, is confirmed alfo by the feal of the emperor. The
duty of thefe deputies is .to examine into the conduft of
governors, magidrates, and private individuals; and if
any of them think it his duty to fummon the viceroy be¬
fore his tribunal, this great man, with all his import¬
ance, is obliged to attend. Has a fuperior behaved ill to
an inferior magidrate; the former becomes the prifoner
of the infpeftor; and, until he has declared himlelf from
every imputation, lie i is fufpended from his office. The
viceroy, on the contrary, his permitted to enjoy his, un¬
til the infpeftor’s report is made to the emperor, which
generally decides his fate.
The emperor himfelf fometimes thinks proper to dis¬
charge the duty of thefe infpeftors in lome of the pro¬
vinces 5
china;
V'nces ; and Kaung hi, one of the moil celebrated of the
Chinefe monarchs, gave, in the like Circumftance, a me¬
morable example of fevere juftice. Having retired a little
way from his attendants, he perceived an old man weep¬
ing bitterly : “ What do you weep for ?” laid the empe¬
ror. “ TVIy lord,” replied the old man, who did not know
the peribn of his fovereign, “ I had only one foil, in
whom all my hopes were centered, and who might have
become the fupport of my family: a Tartar mandarin
has . torn him from me, and carried him away by force.
I am now deprived of every affiftance, and know not
where to feek relief ; for how can a poor feeble old man
like me obtain jultice from the governor againft a power¬
ful man!” “ Your fou will be reftored,” faid the em¬
peror, without making himfelf known : “ conduft me to
the houfe of the mandarin who has been guilty of this
aft of violence.” The old man obeyed, and, after having
travelled two hours, they arrived at the mandarin’s houfe,
who little expefted fuch a viiit. The emperor’s retinue
arrived almolt at the fame time as the prince ; and the
houfe of the mandarin was foon filled and lurrounded.
As he could not deny his guilt, the emperor immediately
condemned him to lofe his head ; and this fentence was
executed upon the fpot. The emperor then turning to¬
wards the old man, with a grave tone, addreifed him thus:
“ I appoint you to the office of the criminal whom I, have
now put to death; be careful to diicharge the duties of
it with more moderation than your predeceflor, and take
warning by his crime and punilhment, left you yourfelf
become an example to others.”
A lingular regulation exifts with refpeft to degraded
mandarins in China ; every mandarin who is removed to
an inferior office, is obliged, at the head of all thole pre¬
cepts or warrants which he iflues, to mention the num¬
ber of Heps he has loft, as follows : “ I, fuch a man¬
darin, degraded three, four, or fix, fteps, according as the
cafe may be, order and command,” &c. The infpeftor
of a province has a very extenfive authority over thefe
inferior mandarins. He can, by his own power, deprive
them of their employments, if their offence be great ;
and he only confults the court in cafes where immediate
punilhment is not neceflary. The father, Ion, brother,
uncle, and grandlbn, are never admitted together into
any of the tribunals at Pekin ; and relations in the fourth
degree cannot have a leat at the fame time in any of the
provincial tribunals.
All mandarins,. whether Tartars or Chinefe, of arms,
or of letters, are obliged, every three years, to give in an
exaft account of the faults they have committed in dif-
charging the duties of their office. This c'onfeffion is
examined at court, if it comes from a mandarin belong¬
ing to any of the four firft dalles : but the confeffions of
the mandarins in the lower piaffes, mult be laid before
the provincial tribunal of the governor: government alfo
makes private inquiry to dilcover whether in this confel-
ffon drift regard has been paid to truth. Thefe informa¬
tions are addreifed to the tribunal of mandarins, and are
there carefully examined ; the merits and demerits are
carefully' weighed in the balance of jultice, and the names
of the examined mandarins are afterwards formed into
three dalles. The firft confining of thole for whom re¬
wards and preferment are intended ; the lecond, of thole
whofe conduft deferves reprehenfion, and to whom gentle
admonition, accompanied with a few oblique hints re-
fpefting their future conduft, will be given ; and the third
of thole whom it is intended to fufpend for a certain time,
or to remove for ever from their employments.
The principal military offices are held by Tartars :
this precaution is taken to maintain their conqueft, in¬
dependent of the fuperiority which they have over the
Chinele, in point of warlike genius. In times of war an
exaft journal is kept of every military tranfaftion, and
thofe are particularly mentioned, who have given proofs
of remarkable courage, or dilplayed examples of fuperior
flsill. Promotion is the consequence to thofe who have
455
fignalized themfeives, if they furvive; if not, the rewards
which they have merited are conferred on their widows,
children, or brothers. Neither the father of a numerous
family, an only Ion, nor the fon of an aged widow, is
obliged to perform military fervice, unlefs the ffate be in
great danger, or in cafes of the raoft urgent neceffity.
Government then advances money to thole who enlift ;
they alfo receive double pay; the firft for themfeives,
and the fecond for their family ; and this they enjoy till
their return.
That efteem in which military men are held in time of
danger, feems, in China, to ceale,almoft the inftant that
the danger is over. On thefe occafions government be-
itows, with a laviffi hand, diftinftions, rewards, and ho¬
nours of every kind ; and it extends its favours to the:
loweft military clafs. Does a common horfe or foot fol-
dier fall in battle, his hair, his bow, or his fabre, is tranf-
mitted to his family, to be interred, inftead of his body,
in the fepulchre of his anceftors. An eulogium, fuited
to what he has atchieved, is added, to be engraven on the
tomb in which thefe relics are depofited. A (till greater
fliare of diftinftion is bellowed on officers who have fallen,
in defence of their country. Either their wholg armour,
their allies, their bones, or their entire bodies, are con¬
veyed to their relations. Their rank, or the manner in.
which they have diftinguiflied themfeives, generally lerves
as a rule upon thefe occafions : ceremonies are performed
in commemoration of foine, and monuments are erefted
to others. The body of an officer, or the hair of a com¬
mon foldier, is thus often tranfported, to the dillance of
a thoufand or fifteen hundred leagues. The latter, as
well as the former, is mentioned with honour in the Ga¬
zette : his name thus pafies before the eyes of the public,
and thence into the general hillory of the empire.
The degradation, or difmiflion, of a fuperior officer in
China, can neither fix a ftigma on the charafter of his fon,
nor in the leaft impede his promotion. When the fon is
alked by the emperor refpefting his family, he will reply,
coolly, “ My father was difgraced for a certain offence ;
my grandfather was beheaded for fuch a crime and
yet, this acknowledgement is not in the leaft detrimental
to the perfon who makes it.
To judge of the religious fyllem of the Chinefe, the,
ancient and permanent religion of the ftate mull not be
•confounded with popular fuperllitions introduced in lat¬
ter ages. The primitive worlhip of this people has con¬
tinued nearly the fame, even to the prefent time. And
though, in religious opinions, men’sminds are unfettered
in China, every individual being at liberty to follow his
own mode of worlhip ; yet it Ihould leem extraordinary,
that, in fo extenfive an empire, and in fuch a long feriys
of years as mult have elapled from itsf£rft eftablilhment
to the prefent time, there have fprung up only two <lif-
fenting lefts, different from the ancient or eltablilhed
form: thefe are, the feB of the Fao-Jfe\ and the feB of
the god Fo. With refpeft to their ancient or original form
of worlhip, Pere Amiot, a miffionary long relident in the
country, aifures us, that “it bears every charafteriftic
'mark of the primitive doftrine of the chofen people of
Ifrael, cotemporary with Mofes ; and that it may be
traced back from age to age, without interruption, to
the renewal of the human race by the grandfon of Noah.’’
And it will appear, that this ancient or original form of
worlhip, as well as their cycle of years, ftrongly fupports
the opinion of fir George Staunton, that China was ne¬
ver peopled by a colony from India. The canonical
books of the Chinele every where imprefs the idea of a
lupreme being. They mention him under the names of
1 Tien , or Heaven ; Chang-tien, or Supreme Heaven ; Cb.nvg-
ti, or Supreme Lord : and of Hcang-chan-li, or Sovereign
and Supreme Lord. “ This Supreme Being;” fay thefe
books, “is the principle of every thing that exilts, and
the father of all living; he is eternal, immoveable, and
independent; liis power knows no bounds; his fight
equally comprehends the pall, the prefent, and the fu¬
ture,
CHINA.
456
t-ure, and penetrates even to the inmoft recefles of the
heart. Heaven and earth are under his controul : ail
events, all revolutions, are the confequences of his dif-
penfations and his will. He is pure, holy, and impartial ;
wickednefs offends his fight, but Ire beholds with an eye-
of complacency the virtuous actions of men. Severe, yet
juft, lie punifhes vice in an exemplary manner, even in
princes and rulers, and often precipitates the guilty, to
crown with honour the man who walks after his own
heart, and whom he hath raifed from obl'curity. Good,
merciful, and full of pit}', he forgives on the repentance
of tile wicked ; and public calamities, and the irregula¬
rity of the feafons, are only falutary warnings, which
his fatherly goodnefs gives to men, to induce them to
reform and amend.” Such are the charafler and attri¬
butes of the Divinity, which are declared in almoft every
page of the Cbou-king, arid other canonical books.
Hence it appears evident that the ancient Chinefe wor-
ihipped only one Supreme God, whom they coniidered
as a free and intelligent Being, and as an all-powerful,
avenging, arid rewarding, fpirit.
This religious doctrine of the firft emperors of China,
has been partly fupported and continued under the fol¬
lowing reigns to the prefent time. All thole revolutions
which ftiake thrones, and change the face of empires,
are by the Chinefe conitantly attributed' to the fupreme
direction of the Sovereign Lord of Heaven. Tcheou-kong
thus expreffes himfeif in the xiv. chap, of the Clou-king .-
“ Ye who have been minifters and officers under the dy-
nafly of Ing , give ear, and liften. The Chang-ti, incenfed
again ft your dynafty, deftroyed it; and, by an order full
of affeftion for our family, he hath given us authority to
exercife fovereign power in the kingdom of Ing: he was
defirous that we might finifh the work he had begun.
What hath palled among the people, hath fhewn us, how
formidable the Lord of Heaven is. The king of the dy¬
nafty of Hya performed no sdlion agreeable to his peo¬
ple ; for this reafon, the Lord of Heaven loaded him
with calamities, to inftrudt him, and make him fenfible
of the error of his ways : but this prince was intracta¬
ble ; he uttered words full of pride, and gave himfeif up
to every kivid of evil. Heaven, therefore, fhewed no
farther regard for him : he was deprived of his kingdom,
and puhifhed. Tchang-tang, founder of your dynafty,
was conimifiioned to execute the orders of Heaven; he
deftroyed the dynafty of Hya, and, in its Head, eftablilh-
ed a wife king, to govern the people of the empire.
‘Tclcou, the latt prince of your dynafty, negle<5led the
laws of Heaven ; he neither informed himfeif of the care
which his anceftors took to preferve their family, nor
did he imitate their zeal and diligence : for this reafon,
the Sovereign Lord abandoned him, and brought him to
punifhment. Heaven did not fnpport him, becaufe he
deviated from the paths of equity and juftice. No king¬
dom, great or fmall, can be deftroyed, unlefs fuch be the
will of Heaven.”
Vou-vang, in the fecond year of his reign, was attack¬
ed with a malady, which threatened his life ; his brother
had recourfe tothe Chang-ti, to beg, that a prince might
be fpared, whofe life was fo neceflary for the welfare and
happinefs of his people. His prayer is thus recorded.
“ Thou, O Lord ! didft place him on the throne, and
tftablifh him the father of his people. Wilt thou then
punifh us by his lofs ? If a vifilim be neceflary rofatisfy
thy juftice, I offer thee my life ; I will yield it up as a
voluntary facrifice, provided thou wilt preferve my bro¬
ther, ipy mafter, and my fovereign.”
The Chi-king informs us, what fentiments of grati¬
tude the emperor Ohao-vang entertained for the bleilings
bellowed upon him by the Chang-ti. — “Rejoice, my peo¬
ple,” laid he one day to the labourers ; “ it is now only
the end of fpring, and you are about to gather in the
fruits of autumn ; your fields, but lately fown, are alrea¬
dy loaded with an abundant crop , Let thanks, there¬
fore, be given to the Chang-ti, who enables us fo foon to
enjoy his beneficent gifts. For this reafon, I will not
wait until the end of autumn, to prefent myfelf before
him, and to thank him for fo fudden a fertility.”
Bad princes certainly intervened amonft a iucceffion of
good emperors; and a Li-vang forgot the examples of
his pious anceftors, and gave himfeif up to the caprice
of his pride. The Chi-king obferves, that “the filen’ce
of the Chang-ti appeared then to be an enigma', and it
might have been laid, that his Supreme Providence had
belied itfelf ; eveiy tiling profpered with this wicked
prince ; the people were intimidated ; even the cenfors
of the empire applauded his errors — What, then, is
there no longer juftice in heaven? Shall the impious
enjoy, peaceably, the fruit of their crimes ? Attend, and
you will foon fee, that the Chang-ti keeps his arm fo long
at reft, in order only to ilrike with redoubled force : for.
the people, harralfed by opprefiionj role up againft that
tyrant, killed the flatterers who lurrounded his throne,
and would have facrificed the prince himfeif to their fu¬
ry, had he not ef’caped by a precipitate flight.”
The emperor Yon-tching, who fucceeded Kaung-hi,,
in 1722, furnifhed abundant proofs, in his proclama¬
tions and decrees, that the fame fentiments refpe fling the
being of a God, were held in facred veneration during his
reign. And thelate emperorTchien -lung, who fucceeded
Yong-tchien in 1736, notwithllanding his encourage¬
ment of idolatry in the common people, feems, in truth,
to have the fame fentiments ; fo that this doftrine of the
exiftence and attributes of a fupreme being,- and of the
worfhip and homage due to him alone, has fubfiited in
China with little change from the remotell ages. In¬
deed, if we confult all the monuments and canonical
works of this nation, and if we fearch the ancient part of
its annals, we fliall not difeover the leatl veftige of idola¬
try, but what has been of a later date, and introduced
by the above mentioned fefls. The Chinefe hiftory, ft>
minute in its details, and fo particular in pointing out
every innovation in ellablifhed cuftoms, makes no men¬
tion of any fuperifitious rite, contradictory to the belief
and worfhip which we have attributed to the ancient
Chinefe: had there been any fuch, it would have un¬
doubtedly fpoken of them with the fame exaftnefs as
that with which it relates the eilablilliment of the left of
theTao liee, and the introdtfflion of the religion of the
idol Fo. Yet it has been aflerted, that Tchien-lung, co¬
wards the end of his long reign, had become fo far loft
to this facred dodlrine of a fupreme being, that, in the
celebration of his birth-day, lie impiouily affumed the
name of the Deity, and even fullered his people to offer
divine worfhip and adoration unto him ; and in his ah-
fence, to his throne, as the fymbol of himfeif. " Let us
charitably hope that thofe who have given us this ac¬
count, not underilanding futficiently the true nature of
the Chinefe feflivals, may have miltakefl the tenor and
drift of thefe external ceremonies.
The firft facrifices which the Chinefe inflituted in ho¬
nour of the Chang-ti, were offered up on a Tan, or altar
of Hones, in the open fields, or on fome mountain.,
Around the tan was raifed a double fence, called Kiao,
compofed of turf and branches of trees. In the fpace
left between the fences, were erected two irnalier altars on
the right and left, upon which, immediately after the fk-
crifice offered up in honour of the Tien, they facrificed
alfo to the Cheng, that is to fay, to the fuperior fpirits of
every rank, and to their virtuous anceftors. The fove¬
reign alone, whom they confidered as the high ■prielt of
the empire, facrificed on the tan. In the early ages, a
Angle mountain was thought fufficient for facrifices to
the Chang-ti. But in procefs of time, the empire being
coniiderably enlarged, Hoang-ti appointed four principal
mountains, fitu.ited in the extremities of his Hates, and
correfponding, like the pyramids of Egypt, with the four
cardinal points, to be ever after places particularly con-
fecrated, and let apart for the religious vvoiihipof the
whole nation. In the courfe of every year, the prince
went
C H
went fucceffively to offer up facrifice upon each of thefe
mountains, and thence took occafjon to fliew himfelf to
his people, and to inform himfelf of their wants, that he
might endeavour to relieve them.
Since the emperors Yao and Chun, different notions
have been entertained refpefting thefe facrifices. We read
in the Chou-king, and other fragments of the ancient Chi-
nefc h'utpry, that Chun ordained, ilt. That at the fecond
moon, in which the vernal equinox fell, the fovereign
ihould repair to the mountain Tai-chan, in the eaftern
part of China, and there offer facrifices on a tan, with¬
in tjte fence of tUe kiao, to beg that Heaven would
deign to watch over the feed of the earth, then begin¬
ning to fpring up. adly, That at the fifth moon, in
which the fummer folftice happened, the fovereign Ihould
perform the fame ceremonies on the fouthern mount, and
implore Heaven to diffufe warmth through the bowels of
the earth, to add vigour to its foftering power, and give
effeft to its nutritive qualities. 3dly, That at the eighth
moon, at which time the autumnal equinox fell, facrifice
Ihould be offered oh the weftern mountain to procure an
abundant crop, and to prevent infedb or deftru&ive ver¬
min, drought, or exceflive moifture, winds, and all inju¬
ries of the air, from deftroying the riling hopes of the
labourer. And laftiyi That at the twelfth moon, after
the winter folftice, facrifice Ihould be offered up on the
northern mountain, to thank Heaven for all the blellings
received in the courie of the year, and to folicit a con¬
tinuance of them through that which was about to com¬
mence. This cuftom lubiifteda long time after Koang-ti.
The emperors of the dynafty of Tcheou added fome
other ceremonies, and a filth mountain, which was fup-
pofed to form a centre to the other four. Since that
time they have been called the five Yo, or mountains of
facrifice.
This inftitution, which fubjeftedthe emperor to regu¬
lar journies, was however found to be attended with
certain inconveniences, to obviate which, a fpot was
confecrated in the neighbourhood of his palace, and fub-
ffituted for the Yo on all occafions, when it was incon¬
venient for the fovereign to repair to either of the moun¬
tains of facrifice. At this place an edifice was eredled,
which at once reprefented the kiao, thetan, and the hall of
anceltors, and in this the emperor offered the accuftomed
facrifice. The hall of anceftors made part of this edifice,
becaufe it was neceffary for thofe who offered facrifice to
the Chang-ti, to repair fir It to this hall, and acquaint their
anceftors what they were about to perform. Thither alio
they returned after lacrificing, to thank them for thepro-
tedftion they had procured from the Chaug-ti, who had not
difdained to receive the homage of their vows. They
then offered up a facrifice of thankfgiving, and perform¬
ed certain ceremonies, to fhew their refpedt. This edi¬
fice received a different name and a new form under each
of the three firft dynafties. The Hya called it Cheche,
the Hcufe of Generations and Ages — or, according to the in¬
terpretation of Father Amiot, a fetnple in honour of him
who made generations .and ages. It contained within its
circumference five feparate halls appropriated for differ¬
ent purpofes. Thele halls had neither paintings nor or¬
naments of any kind 5 they prefented only four bare
walls in which windows were conftrufted for the admif-
fion of light. The fiair-cafe that condudted to the prin¬
cipal entrance confifted of nine fteps. The offerings
from the Levitical law of Moles, of the firlflings of the
•flocks and herds, and likewife of fowls, of oil, fait, flour,
and incenfe, which fir George Staunton allures us are
known and obferved by the Chinefe at the prefent day,
together with their patriarchal mode of life, offers a freih
proof that their religion mull have been that of the early
patriarchs, thotigh now fo much debaled.
Pekin contains at prefent two principal temples, the •
Tien-tan, or temple of the heavens, and the Ti-tan, or
temple of the earth, in the conftruftion of both Which,
the Chinefe have difplayed all the elegance and magnifi-
VOL. IV. No. 211.
[ N A. ' 457
cence of their architefture. Thefe temples are both de¬
dicated 10 the Chang-ti; in the firft, he is adored as the
Eternal Spirit; in the fecond, as the Spirit that created
and preferves the world. The ceremonies with which
modern facrifices are accompanied, are however greatly
multiplied, and nothing can equal the fplendour and
magnificence with which the emperor is furrounded,
when he performs this folenm and facred duty. He
alone, in quality of high prieft, and head of the great
family of the nation, has a right to oiler up facrifice to
the Chang-ti j and it is in the name of all the people
that he prays and facrifices. Some time before the day
fixed for this important ceremony, the monarch, the
grandees of his court, the mandarins, and all thofe who
by their employments are qualified to affift, prepare
tiiemfelves by retirement, falling, and continence. Du¬
ring that time the emperor gives no audience, and the
tribunals are entirely flnut. The mandarins of the Tri¬
bunal of Crimes, and every perfon who has been dii-
graced, is incapacitated from performing any office in
thefe grand ceremonies. Marriages, funerals, rejoicings,
entertainments, and feftivalsof every kind, are then for¬
bidden. On the day appointed for the facrifice, the em¬
peror appears with all the pomp and magnificence of
power. His train is compofed of ah innumerable crov’d,
a multitude of princes, lords, and officers, furroundhim,
and his march towards the Tien-tan refembles a triumph ;
the magnificence of every thing in the temple corref-
ponds to that of the fovereign ; the vafes and all the
uteniiis employed in facrificing are of gold, and even the
inftrwments of mufic are of enormous magnitude, and are
never ufed any where elfe. If the emperor however ne¬
ver difplays more pomp and grandeur than when he
walks in proceffien to the Tien-tan. he on the other hand
never appears more humbled and dejedled than durinr
the time he is facrificing. By the manner in which he per¬
forms his proftrations, roils in the duft, and fpeaks of
himfelf to the Chang-ci, it Ihould feem that he sffumes
this pomp and fplendour only for the purpofe of declar¬
ing, in a fenlible and ftriking manner, ti\e infinite di(-
tance which is between the Supreme Being, and man.
This remains of the ancient patriarchal faith, or confi¬
dent belief in one only Supreme Being, feems now prin¬
cipally confined to the royal race, to the nobility, man¬
darins of letters, and thole whole minds are better in¬
formed than the untaught multitude. Yet it is a moft
unaccountable fa£t, that every idea of a fabbath, or day
of reft, is loft among them; no fabbath-day being ob¬
ferved throughout this vaft empire !
The left of the Tao-fte, was founded by an enthufiaft
named Lao-kiun , or Lao-tfe, who came into the world 603
years before the Chriftian era. His father is reprefented
as a poor peafant, who from his infancy lived in a rich
•family as an inferior domeftic; he attained to the age of
feventy without having made choice of a wife, but at
length united himfelf to a woman of the fame rank, who
was then in her fortieth year. The wonderful deftinyof
the fon was foretold, according to oral tradition, by ma¬
ny remarkable circutnftanees which attended his birth.
His mother, who happened to be in a retired place, con¬
ceived on a Hidden, being imprefied by the vivifying vir¬
tue of heaven and earth. She carried the fruits of her
W'omb for the fpace of eighty years, but the mafter fne
ferved, enraged at her going with child fo long, drove
her from his houfe, and reduced her to the neceffity of
wandering about the country. At length file brought
forth a Ion, 'whole hair and eye-brows were entirely
white. The people, ftruck with the whitenefs of his
hair, named him the grey-haired child Lao-tfe.
We have little account of this enthufiaft during his
infancy ; he was appointed librarian to one of the em¬
perors of the dynafty of Tcheou, and afterwards railed
to the rank of an inferior mandarin. His firft employ¬
ment, which placed him amidft books, infpired him with
an ardent deiire for iludy, and to this he entirely gaye
6 A1 himfelf
4 58 C H
himfelf up, and acquired by clofe application a profound
knowledge of hiftory and of ancient ceremonies. He
died at Ou in an advanced age. The principal work he
left to his dilciples is the book Tao-te, which is a collec¬
tion of five thoufand lentences. The morality of this
philofopher has a relemblance to the doctrines of Epicu¬
rus. It cor.lifts principally in banilhing vehement de¬
fires, and fuppreflinlg thole impetuous paifions, capable
of dilturbing the peace and tranquility of the foul.
But the dilciples' of this philofopher afterwards changed
the doftrine which he had left them. As that pafiive
if ate and perfeft tranquillity of mind to which they en¬
deavoured to attain, was continually difturbed and inter¬
rupted by the fear of death, they declared that it was
pollible to difcover a compofition from which a drink
might be made that would render mankind immortal.
Thisabfurd idea led them to the ftudy of chemiftry, af¬
terwards to fearch for the philofopher’s ftone, till at
length they gave themfelves up to all wild extravagan¬
cies of magic.
The defire and hope of avoiding death by the difcovery
of fo valuable a liquor, gained a number of profelytes to
this new left; wealthy individuals, efpeciaily tiiofe of
the female lex, Ihewed the greateft eagernefs to be in-
ftrufted in the doff rine of the dilciples of Lao-tfe. Ma¬
gical praffices, the invocation of fpirits, and the foretell¬
ing future events by divination, made rapid progrefs
throughout all the provinces of the empire. The credu¬
lity of fome of the emperors gave an air of importance
lo the fchifm, and the court was filled with an innumera¬
ble train of thefe impolfors, who were now honoured
with the dirtinguilhed title of tien-Jfe — celeftial doctors.
Vou-ti, fifth emperor of the dynafty of the Han, lliewed
n pafiionate defire for the ftudy of thefe rnyfteries.
Death had deprived him of a favourite miftrefs, whom he
.ardently loved, and one of thefe impolfors, Tao-fle,
found means, by incantations, fo to work on his imagi¬
nation as to give him a fancied fight of the woman whom
he fo tenderly loved ; and this fancied apparition at¬
tached him more and more to the extravagant notions of
the new fe£f. Grieved at this infatuation, one of the
■grandees of the empire, being in the emperor’s prelence
when the myfterious beverage was brought him, ludden-
ly feized the cup, and drank up the whole liquor. En¬
raged at this aft, the monarch caufed him to be arrefted,
and gave orders for putting him to death. “ Your order
is of no avail,” faid the courtier, without any emotion;
cl it is not in your power to deprive me of life, lince I
have now rendered mylelf immortal : however, if I am
frill fubject to the power of death, your majelty owes me
much obligation, fince you mult thereby be convinced,
that this liquor lias Xiot that virtue which is attributed
to it, and that thefe impolfors deceive you.” This an-
iwer faved the courtier’s life, but it did not reform the
monarch. He often drank the liquor of immortality;
but his health began to decline, and, after being made
lenfible of ids mortality, he died, ladly deploring his
own foliy and credulity.
The death of this emperor did not retard the progrefs
of the fecf. Temples, confecrated to fpirits, reared their
idol heads in every corner of the empire ; and two of
the moll celebrated of the Tao-fle were authorifed to
maintain public worfliip there, after the form which had
been appointed for them. They likewife dillributed and
fold to the people fmall images, upon which were repre-
fented that immenfe crowd, both of men and fpirits,
with which they had peopled the heavens, and which
they named Sien-gin — Immortals. Thefe were worlhip-
ped as fo many diftinff deities, independent of the Su¬
preme Befog : in like mariner feveral of the ancient
kings were metamorpholed .into gods, and alio invoked.
Under the Tang, this l’uperfi ;on Hill continued. The
founder of that dynafty erefted and confecrated a mag¬
nificent temple to Lao-tfe himfelf ; and another emperor
of the lame family caufed the ftatue of this philofopher
I N A,
to be placed with great pomp and folemnity in his pa¬
lace. The prielts Tao-fle therefore inereafed in number,
and became more powerful under the dynafty of Song.
Every fraud and deceit that cunning could lugged, or
ingenuity invent, were employed by thele impolfors, to
increafe the reputation of their dodfrine, and to infatuate
themfelves into the confidence of princes. On a dark
night, they fufpended, at one of the gates of the impe¬
rial city, a book full of myftic characters, and magical fi¬
gures. At break of day, they lent notice to the empe¬
ror of the hidden appearance of this book, and publicly
declared that it had fallen from heaven. The credulous
monarch, followed by a numerous train, immediately re¬
paired, on foot, to the fpot, in order to take pofleflion of
the precious volume; and, having received it into his
hands, in the molt refpedlful manner, he carried it in
triumph to his palace, and Quit it up in a golden box.
The eighth emperor of the lame dynafty 'carried his fu-
perftitious veneration for a favourite Tao-fle fo far, that
he publicly ordered him to be worlhipped under the
name of Chang-ti. Until that epoch, the molt zealous
partifans of Lao-tfe had always referved this name for
the Supreme Being only. This impiety therefore Shock¬
ed and difgufted the whole fages of the nation ; yet no
decree was made againft them.
The Toa-fle, at prefent, offer up three different victims
to the fpirit which they invoke ; a hog, a fowl, and a filh.
The ceremonies which they ule in their incantations are
various, according to the imagination and addrefs of the
perfon who praCtiles them. Some drive a ftiarp flake into
the earth ; others trace out fantaftical figures on paper,
and accompany each ltroke of the pencil with grimaces
and horrible cries, and others make a hideous and fright¬
ful noife with kettles and fmall drums. A great num¬
ber of thefe Tao-lfe now pretend to be fortune-tellers.
The chief of them is inverted by government with the
dignity of grand mandarin, and refides in a town of the
province of Kiang-(i, where he inhabits a fumptuous pa¬
lace. The fuperltiticus confidence repofed in him by
the vulgar attrafts an immenle concourfe of people, who
flock thither from every part of the empire : fome to
feek a cure for their difeafes ; others, to confult refpecl-
ing what may befal them, and to get an infight into fu¬
turity.
The feCl of the god Foe, or Fo, is ftiii more perni¬
cious, and much wider dirfufed throughout China, than
the preceding. It came originally from India. The
doftors Tao-lfe had promifed to a prince of the Tchou,
and brother of the emperor Ming-ti, to make him enter
into communion with fpirits. This credulous and lu-
perftitious prince, having heard of a celebrated fpirit in
India, named Fo, prevailed on his brother to lend an
embafly to this foreign deity. The officer who was
charged with this commifiion let out, accompanied by a
train of feventeen perfons. When he arrived at the
place of his deftination, he found only two Cha-men, or
votaries of Fo, whom,, not willing to fail in his errand,
he carried with him to China. He coile&ed, at the
•fame time, feveral images of Fo, or Boudha, painted on
fine chintz, with forty-two chapters ol the canonical
books of the Indians, which he placed, together with
the images, upon a white horfe. This embaiiy returned
to the imperial city in the eighth year of the reign of
Ming-ti, and the fixty- fifth of the Chriftian era. Thus
was the doftrine and worfliip of Fo fir It introduced into
the Chinefe empire; and thefe ceremonies feem to be the
principal traces of Indian cuftoms in China, brought in
lupport of Sir William Jones’s opinion, that China was
peopled by the Hindoos. -
We have no certain knowledge of the origin of this
pretended god Fo ; but his followers relate that he was
born in one of the kingdoms ot India, fituated near the
line, and that his father was a king. They affure us that
his mother, who was named Mo-ye, brought him into the
world by the left fide, and that foe expired foon after her
delivery;
CHINA.
delivery ; that at the time of her conception, Hie dreamed
that, (ire had fwallowed an elephant, and that this ftrange
dream gave birth to the particular veneration which tire
kings of India have always (hewn for a white elephant.
"As fonn as this extraordinary child was born,” add
they, “ he had itrength enough to hand ered without
aftiltance ; he walked leven Heps, and pointing with one
hand to the heavens, and with the other to the earth,
cried out, In the heavens and on earth there is no one
but me who deferves to be honoured.” The derivation
of this idol god, given by Sir William Jones, in his Afi-
atic Refearches, differs widely from the above, but does
not appear to belb authentic.
The prielts attached to the worlhip of Fo, are called
'Talapoins by the Siamefe, Lamas by the Tartars, Ho-cbang
in China, Bonzes in Japan ; and it is under the latter
appellation that they are generally known by Europeans.
One of the principal errors propagated by Fo, is the doc¬
trine of tiie transmigration of louls, and of which he
appears to have been the inventor ; for he lived at lead five
hundred years before Pythagoras. This dodrine has
given rife to that multitude of idols, which are reve¬
renced in every place where the worfhip of Fo is etta-
blifhed. Quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and the vileft ani¬
mals, had temples, and became objeds of public venera¬
tion, becaul'e the foul of the god in his tranfmigrations
and metamorphofes might have inhabited their bodies.
An infinitude of fables were fipread concerning Fo, af¬
ter his death. Some affirmed that he was (till in life, that
he had been already born eight thoufand times, and that
he had appeared fucceffively under the figures of an ape,
lion, dragon, elephant, &c. Thefe fables occalioned much
trouble and divifion among his difciples. Some continued
firmly to maintain the original dodrine, while others,
embracing a fecond, formed a fed of atheilts. A third
party, who were defirons of re-uniting the two former,
gave rife to the celebrated diftindion of the- external and
internal dodrine, one of which mud naturally precede
and difpofe the mind for receiving the other. “ The ex¬
ternal dodrine,” fay they, “ is to the internal what the
mould is to an arch which the builder is about to raife j
when the latter is- conftruded, the former is knocked
down and becomes ufelefs.” The cafe is the fame with
the two law's, the external and internal; when we rife
to a knowledge of the fecond, we ought to abandon the
firft. We fhall not attempt to examine all the errors
contained in this internal dodrine : its folly and abfur-
dity will appear fufficiently evident, if we only mention
the ideas upon which it is founded. “ Nothing is the
beginning and end of every thing that exifts ; from no¬
thing our firft parents derived their exrftence, and to no¬
thing they returned after their death. All beings are the
fame, their only difference confifts in their figure and
qualities. This univerfal principle is extremely pure,
exempt from nil change, exceedingly fubtle and fimple ;
it remains continually in a ftate of reft ; has neither vir¬
tue, power, nor intelligence; befides, its eftence confifts
in being free from adion, without knowledge, and with¬
out defires. To obtain happinefs, we muft endeavour, by
continual meditation and frequent vidories over our-
felves, to acquire a likepefs to this principle; and to ob¬
tain that end, we muft accuftom ourfeives to do nothing,
will nothing, feel nothing, defire nothing. When we
have attained to this ftate of happy infenfibility, we have
nothing move to do with virtue ok vice, punilhments or
rewards, providence or the immortality of the foul. The
whole of holinefs confifts in ceaiing to exift, in being
confounded with nothing ; the nearer man approaches
to the nature of a ftone or log, the nearer he is to per-
fedion: in a word, it is in indolence and immobility,
in the ceffation of all defires and bodily motion, in the
?nni illation and lufpenfion of all the faculties both of
body and foul, that all virtue and happinefs confilt. The
mo lent that man arrives at this degree of perfedion, he
has no longer occaiion to dread changes, futurity, or
459
tranfmigrations, becaufe he hath ceafed to exift, and is
become perfedly like the gbd Fo.” Extravagant and
abfurd as this philofophy appears, it found partifans in
China, and the emperor Kao-tfong became fo much in¬
fatuated with it, that he abdicated the. throne, that he
might be more at liberty to indulge himfelr in the prac¬
tice of this extravagant dodrine, which entirely deltroys
morality, lubverts lbciety, and tends to nnihilate that
reciprocal relation which unites men together.
The external dodrine is better luited to the compre-
lienfion of the vulgar, and lias, on that account, gained
more followers. The following are the maxims and te¬
nets preached up by the bonzes who profefs this dodrine.
They admit the, diftindion between good and evil; and
that, after death, rewards will be beitovved on the good,
and punilhments inflided on the wicked, in places def-
tined for the fouls of each ; that the god Fo came upon
earth to fave mankind, and to bring back to the paths of
falvation thofe who have Itrayed ; that it is by him their
fins are expiated, and that he alone can procure them a
happy regeneration in the life to come. They enjoin the
ftrid obfervance of the five following precepts : not to
kill any living creature, of whatever nature it may be;
not to take away the goods of another ; not to pollute
themfelves by uncleannefs'; not to lie; and not to drink
wine. They, above all, recommend the pra£lice of cer¬
tain ads of mercy ; fuch as, to treat their bonzes well,
to build monafteries and temples for them, and to fup-
ply them with every thing neceffary, in order that they
may be able, by the affiftance of their prayers, and the
penance which they impofe, to merit forgivenefs, and the
remiftion of all their fins. “ At the funeral ot -your pa-,
rents, burn,” lay they, " paper gilt with gold or filver,
dreffes and filk fluffs : thefe lubftances will be changed
into real gold and filver, and luperb veftments, in the
other world; and all thefe riches will be faithfully tranf-
mitted to your fathers. Woe unto you, if ye do not
obey thefe holy precepts ! your louls will be delivered
over, after death, to the ievereft torments, and fubjeded
to the moll difgulting changes. Ye (hall revive in the
form of dogs, rats, ferpents; horfes, and mules ; and ye
lhail be for ever expofed to the molt difmal and wretched
tranfmigrations.” It is difficult to conceive the ivnprel-
fion, thefe threats and denunciations relpeding futurity,
make upon the minds of the credulous Chinefe; and there¬
fore it is not furpriling that the idolatrous worlhip of Fo
has become almoft univerfal among the common people
of China; particularly as there is no eitabliihed religion
infilled upon by the government, which neither inter¬
feres with mere private opinions, nor prohibits any be¬
lief, which is not thought dangerous to the general tran¬
quillity of fociety.
The bonzes, or priefts of Fo, are perfed matters of all
the refources of hypocrify ; they embrace every occaftbn
for cringing and fawning, and they affed a meeknefs and
model! civility, which at firft deceives, and prepolftlfes
perfons in their favour. They often lubrnit to the fe-
vereft penances, and pradife the molt rigorous aufteri-
ties. They are often feen in the fquares, and other pub¬
lic places, exhibiting themfelves as frightful ipedacles
of mortification. Some of them drag, with great pain,
along the ftreets, large chains, thirty feet in length, which
are f attened round their necks and legs, and lotne mangle
their bodies, and make them appear all over bjood, by
flalhing their flelh with a fharp flint. Notwitlillanding
all thefe infatuations, a bonze is generally delpifed by
the better lort of people in China. To recruit and per¬
petuate their fed, they purchafe young children, whom
they initiate in ail their myftenes ; and thefe afterwards
fucceed them, and carefully tranfmit their art and know¬
ledge to other young bonzes, whom they educate, in the
like manner.
The ciifcovery of a Jewifh fynagogue in an empire fo
remote, is a circumltance too interetting to be omitted.
This Ilraditifh colony appeared in China under th.e dy-
CHINA.
460
nafty of the Han, who began to reign in the year 20 6
before Chrift. It is reduced to a finall number of fami¬
lies, who are eftablilhed only at Cai-fong, the capital of the
province of Ho-nan. Thefe Jews neither kindle fire nor
cook any viftuals on Saturdays ; but they prepare on
Friday whatever may be necefiary for the day following.
When they read the Bible in their fynagogue, they cover
their faces with a tranfparent veil, in remembrance of
Mofes, who came down from the mountain with his face
covered, and in that manner pubiifhed the Decalogue.
The Mahometans feem to have multiplied much more
in China than the jews. It is above fix hundred years
iince they firft entered this empire, in which they have
now formed different eftabihhments. Fora great num¬
ber of years they were preferved only by marriages, and
by the alliances which they contrasted ; but, for fome
time paft, they feem to have been more particularly at¬
tentive to the propagation of their doctrine. The prin¬
cipal means which they apply for this purpofe, are, to
purchafe, for a l'um of money, a great number of chil¬
dren brought up in idolatry, whom their poor parents,
compelled by neceffity, readily part with. Thefe they
circumcife, and afterwards educate and inftruif in the
principles of their religion. During the time of a terri¬
ble famine, which defolated the province of Chang-tong,
they purchafed more than ten thoufand of thefe chil¬
dren, for whom, when grown up, they procured wives,
and built houles, and even formed whole villages of
them. They infenfibly increafed, and are now become
fo numerous, that they endeavour to exclude from the
places in which they re fide, every inhabitant who does
not believe in their prophet, and frequent a moique.
Although the manners of the Chinefe people have been
varioufly reprefented, yet it is certain that they bear no
kind of rel’emblance to thole of any other known nation
on the face of the earth ; and what is equally remarkable,
they have remained always nearly the fame. Every cul-
tom formerly praftifed, is Hill preferved with little varia¬
tion ; whatever they formerly did, they feem to do at
prefent, and nearly in the fame manner. Public decency
has alfo been always refpeted in China, and great care
and attention have been employed to enforce lti Mar¬
riage, recommended and encouraged by all great leglfla-
tors, is particularly protected in China. Whoever leduces
the wife of another is put to death ; and the fame p uni fli¬
nt ent is generally infli&ed on the perfon who debauches
a- young woman. In both thefe circumftances, the pre¬
cautions dictated by universal cuftom tend greatly to fup-
port the law, and often render it fu pel'll nous.
According to the abbe Grofler, “ a Chinefe enters into
the married itate often without ever having Gen the wo¬
man whom he efponles : he knows nothing of her looks
or perfon, but from the account of fome female relation
or confidant. The fame matrons who negociate the mar¬
riage, determine the fum which the intended hulband'
mull: pay to the parents of the bride; for, in China, a
father does not give a dowry to his daughter ; but the
hulband gives a dowrytohis wife, or, we may fay with more
propriety) purchafes her of her parents or friends. When
the day appointed for the ceremony arrives, the bride is
placed in a chair, or dole palankin. Every tiling that
compofes her portion is borne before or behind her by
different perfons of both fexes, while others furround
her, carrying torches and flambeaux, even in the middle
of the day. A troop of muficians, with fifes, drums, and
hautboys, march before her chair, and her family follow
it behind. The key of the chair in which fhe is Ihut up,
is committed to the care of a trufty domeftic, to be de¬
livered to the hulband only. The hufband, richly dreffed,
waits at his gate for the arrival of the procelfion. As
foon as it approaches, the key is put into his hands ; he
eagerly opens the chair, and at the fir It glance learns his
fortune, it fbmetimes happens, that the hufband, difeon-
tenfed with his intended fpoufe, fuddenly fhuts the chair,
and lends her back to her relations. To get rid of her,
it only cofts him a fum equal to that which he gave to
obtain her. If the hufoand is contented, fhe defeends
from her chair, and enters the houie, followed by the re¬
lations of both, where the new -married couple talute the
Tien four times in the hall, and afterwards tile parents
of the hufband. The bride is then committed into the
hands of the women who have been invited to the cere¬
mony, and who, together with her, partake of an enter¬
tainment. which continues the whole day : the male part
of the guefts are treated in the like manner by the huf¬
band1. The lame form prevails among the Chinefe at all
their grand feafts : the women amufe themfelves feparate-
ly ; and the men do the fame in another apartment. The
pomp increafes according to the riches and rank of the
parties, and diminifhes alfo in the fame proportion.
We have already noticed that a Chinefe is permitted
to have only onedawful wife ; but that he may purchafe
feveral concubines. Every Chinefe, who is defirous of
embracing this privilege, and keeping on good terms with
his wife, pretends to be actuated by fome good motive,
and he- is particularly careful to let her know, that if he
takes concubines, it is only with a view of procuring her
a greater number of women to attend her. A widower
r-aifes fometimes his favourite concubine to the rank of
lawful wife. He is not then obliged, as in the former
cafe, to examine whether the rank of her whom he efpoufes
approaches near to his own : and lie is alfo freed from all
preliminary formalities. Thefe concubines are nearly all
procured from the cities of Yang-tcheou, and Sou-tcheou,
which are almoft wholly engaged in this fpecies of traffic,
and where girls are educated, and taught finging, dancing,
malic, and every accomplifhment fuitable to women of
quality, or which can render them agreeable and pleat¬
ing ; and the greater part of them are purchafed from
other places, to be again difpofed of.
The Chinefe women, even of the greateft rank, feldom
quit their apartment, and their book of ceremonies re¬
quires, that there lhould he two apartments in every
houfe ; the exterior for the hulband, and the interior for
his fpoufe. They mult be leparated by a partition or
wall, and the door mult be carefully guarded : the huf¬
band is not always at liberty to enter the inner apart¬
ment, nor mult the wufe quit it without leave, or a fuffi-
cient caule. “ A wife,” adds this book, “ is not miftrefs
of herfelf Ihe has nothing at her own dilbofal ; Ihe can
give no orders but within the precindts of her own apart¬
ment, to which all her authority is confined.” It leems,
however, from the account with which we have been fa¬
voured by fir George Staunton, that the charge brought
again ft parents and hufbands, of binding up the feet of
the Chinele females purpofely to prevent their walking
or gadding abroad, is a popular error; for that this ridi¬
culous cuftom owes its origin to nothing more than an
ablurd fa (hum among the ladies of having, fmail feet:
We lhall prelent the fadl in fir George's own words :
“ Molt of the Chinefe women, even of the middle and
lower dalles, have their feet unnaturally fmail, or rather
truncated. They appear as if the fore part of thefoot
had been accidentally cut off, leaving the remainder ot
the ufual fize, and bandaged like the Stump of an ampu¬
tated limb. They undergo, indeed, much torment, and
cripple themfelves, in a great meafure, in imitation of la¬
dies of higher rank, among whom it is the cuftom to
ftop, by preflure, the growth of the ancle as well as toot,
from the eariieft infancy. Leaving the great toe in its
natural fituation, they forcibly band the others, and re¬
tain them under the foot, till at length they adhere to,
and are buried in, the i'ole, and can no more be fepa-
rated from it. Where thefe cornprefl'es are conftantly
and carefully kept on, the feet are fymmetrically fmail.
The young creatures are, indeed, obliged, for a con-
fiderable time, to be fupported when they attempt to
move; and ever afterwards they totter, and walk upon,
their heels. This artificial diminutivenefs of the leet,
though is does not entirely prevent their ufe, mull
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certainly cramp the general growth, and injure the con-
ftitution of thofe who have been fubjefted to it. Some
of the lowed: claffes of the Chinefe women, of a race con¬
fined chiefly to the mountains and remote places, have
not adopted this unnatural cultom ; but the females of
this clafs are held by the reft in the utmoft contempt,
and are employed only in the moft menial domeftic of¬
fices. So inveterate is the cuftom, that if of two lifters,
otherwile every way equal, the one had thus been maim¬
ed, while nature was flittered to make its ufual prog refs
in the other, the -latter would be confidered as in an ab-
jeft ftate, unworthy of affociating with the reft of the fa¬
mily, doomed to perpetual obfcurity, and to the drudgery
of iervitude.”
With refpeft to education, the Chinefe book of cere¬
monies directs, that at the age of fix, if it be a male, he
is to be made acquainted with the numbers moft in ufe,
and with the names of the principal parts of the world.
At eight he is inftrufted in the rules of polit'enefs. The
calendar becomes his ftudy at the age of nine, ‘and at ten
he is lent to a public fchool, where he learns to read,
write, and calculate the Sliwan-pan, or abacus of the
Chinefe, and by which they calculate nearly all their
operations in arithmetic. From thirteen till fifteen he is
taught mufic, and every thing which he lings conlifts of
moral precepts. When boys have attained to the age of
fifteen, the)'- are taught to handle a bow and arrow, and
to mount on horfeback. At twenty they receive the firft
cap, if they are judged to deferve it, and they are per¬
mitted to wear filk drefles, ornamented with furs ; before
that period they have no right to wear any thing but
cotton.
As it is confidered of great advantage to the Chinefe
literati to be able to write their characters weli, they on
this account bellow particular pains in forming the hands
of young people. A neatnefs in characters is made of
the utmoft confequence in thofe examinations, which
ftudents undergo before they are admitted to the firft
degree. A deficiency in this refpeft often occafions them
to be rejected. Of this F. Du Halde gives the following
inftance: “ A candidate for degrees, ' having, contrary
to order, made ufe of an abbreviation in writing the cha¬
racter ma, which fignifies horfe, had the mortification of
feeing his compoiition, though in other refpeCts excel¬
lent, rejected merely on that account, befides being fe-
verely rallied by the mandarin, who told him that a horfe
could not walk unlels he had all his legs.” When a fcho-
lar is become raafter of a fufficient number of characters,
lie is permitted to compofe. In this exercife a kind of
competition is eftablilhed. Twenty or thirty families,
all of the fame name, and who confequently have only
one hall for the manes of their anceftors, agree to fend
their children to this hall twice a month in order to com¬
pofe. Each head of a family in turn gives, the fubjeCt of
this literary conteft, and adjudges the prize.
Europeans can fcarcely conceive how far the fove-
reigns of China have carried their attention, in order to
promote and encourage learning. In every city and town,
and almoft in every village, there are mailers who keep
.fchools for the purpofe of teaching thofe fciences with
which the Chinefe are acquainted. Parents poffeffed of
a certain fortune, provide preceptors for their children
at home, who endeavour to form their minds to virtue,
to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the
accultomed ceremonies; and, when them age admits, to
make them acquainted with the laws and hiltory of their
country. The education of the females is confined to
giving them a tafte forTolitude, and a'ccuftoming them
to modelty, and even to filence. If their parents are
rich, they are alfo inftrufiled in fuch accomplifhments
as may render them agreeable and pleafmg. The duties
of women in China, as in other Aiiatic countries, are
merely of the paflive kind.
With refpeft to the drefs of the Chinefe, it is almoft the
■fame among people of either fexj but certain appen-
Vol. IV. No. 2 1 x *
I N A. 461
dages, or ornaments, diftinguiih the rank and dignity of
thole who wear them, and levere cliaftifement would be
the confequence to any perfon who Ihould venture to af-
furrie a drefs not authorifed by the law. The Chinefe
drefs, in general, conlifts of a veil, which reaches to the
ground, one part of which folds over the other, and is
faftened by four or five gold or filver buttons. The
lleeves terminate in the form of a horfe-lhoe, covering
the hands, and leaving nothing to be feen bu«t the ends
of the fingers. Round their middle is tied a girdle of
filk, the ends of which hang down to their knees. From
this girdle is fufpended a Iheath, with a kind of knife,
together with two final! fticks, which they ufe at their
meals. Under this robe both men and women wear a
pair of drawers or trow fees, fuited to the feafon. In dim¬
mer they have their necks always bare, and in winter
-they wear a collar, made of fillc, fable, or fox’s (kin, joined
to their robe, which is then trimmed with Iheep’s lkin, or
quilted with filk and cotton. That of the mandarins and
people of quality is lined throughput with (able brought
from Tartary, or with fox’s lkin, trimmed with fable.
In fpring it is lined with ermine. Above thtfir robe, they
wear alio a kind of furtout, with wide lleeves, but very
fiiort, which is lined in tiie fame manner. .The emperor '
and princes of the blood alone wear yellow ; certain
mandarins are permitted to wear fattin of a red ground,
upon days of ceremony, but in general they are clothed
in black, blue, or violet. The colour to which the com¬
mon people are confined, is blue or black ; and their
drefs is always Compol'ed of plain cotton cloth. In at¬
tending funerals, and for mourning, they wear white. ■
The Chinefe lhave their heads, but they have not been
always accultomed to do this; they formerly employed
great pains in preferving their hair; but tSie Tartars,
who fubdued them, compelled them to cut it after their
manner. This revolution in drefs was not effefted with¬
out bloodlhed ; and it was neceffary to employ force, be¬
fore they could be induced to imitate the Tartars. It
appears lingular, that the conqueror of China Ihould re¬
quire this trifling mark of fnbjeftion, when he adopted
their laws, their manners, and their conftitution. The
finall portion of hair which the Chinefe preferve on the
tops of their heads, or behind, is all that is allowed by
cuftom ; it is generally very long, and they plait'it in the
form of a tail. In Cummer they wear on their heads a
kind of pyramidical hat or cap, lined with fattin, and
covered with ratan, or cane, neatly wrought. To the
top they fix a large tuft of red hair, which falling down
covers it to the brim. There is another kind of head-
drefs, which the mandarins and literati only have a rmht
to wear: it is a cap of the feme form as the preceding;
but lined with red. fattin, and covered on the outfide
with white. A large tuft of the fineft red filk is fixed
over it, which is l'uffered to hang down, or wave with
the wind.
People of condition when they go abroad wear boots,
of fattin, filk, or cotton, but always dyed. Thefe boot9
have neither heel nor top, and they are made to fit the
foot with the greateft exaftnefs. When they travel on
horfeback, they have others, made of cow or horfe leather,
prepared in fuch a manner, that it is very loft and pliable.
The boot-ftockings which they wear in winter, are of
quilted (luff, lined with cotton : they reach above the^top
of the boot, and are ornamented with a border of velvet
or cloth. For fummer they have a cooler kind ; and in '
their houfes they wear a fort Of flippers, made of filk-
ftuff. Tii-e common people are contented with a kind
of flippers, made of black cotton cloth. A Chinefe,
drefled according to rule, would confider it as great an
omiflion to forget his fan, as it would be to forget his
boots.
The drefs of the Chinefe women, in its lhapeand form,
feems to have been dictated by modelty, feconded perhaps
by jealoufy. Their robes are clofe at top, and very lono-.
With regard to the colour of their drelfes, it is entirety
6 -B arbitrary.
462 c H
arbitrary, and depends upon choice ; but black or violet
are generally adopted by thofe advanced Jn life. Their
general head-drefs confifts in arranging their hair in feveral
curls, among which are interfperled imall tufts of gold or
filver flowers. Young ladies wear alfo a kind of crown or
bonnet made of pafteboard covered with fine Huff or filk ;
the fore-part rifes in a point above the forehead, and is
covered with pearls, gold,, diamonds, and other coftly
ornaments, in proportion to their rank and fortune. The
relt of the head is decorated with flowers, either natural cr
artificial, among which are often interfperled fmall dia¬
mond pins.
The drefs of a Tartar lady is fomewhat different
from that of a Chinefe. The robe of the former is equal¬
ly long ; but the veil which covers it, does not defcend
fo low. This robe is alfo clofe at the top ; and the Tartar
ladies wear, belides,.upon their breaks, a very large band.
Their ufual head-drefs is a hat, ornamented according to
the fancy of the wearer.
The. drefs of a villager differs from that worn by thofe
who live in towns. It confifts of a coarfe linen frock,
over which is thrown a cotton veft, that defcends to the
middle of his thigh. He has a pair of large drawers, or
trowfers, that rile to his girdle, and reach as far as the
ancle, and his flippers, or rather wooden fltoes, terminate
at the toe in a lharp point, which is turned backwards.
The drefs of the females among the peafantry, is much
like that of the men ; they wear fimilar cane hats, a
cotton veft, and large trowfers. They are much accuftomed
to fpin ; and, being fubj'edled to the fame labour with their
hulbands in tilling the ground and getting in the har-
veft, they appear equally coarfe and ill attired.
The Chinefe buildings, even public monuments, and
the emperor’s palaces, itrike more by their extent than
their magnificence. Many of the imperial palaces may
be compared to cities, and thofe of the princes, principal
madarins, and people of great fortune, are very extenfive.
The apartment where they entertain theirintimate friends
is plain, neat, and Ample. With regard to thofe fet
apart for their women and children, they are inacceffible
to every ftranger, were he even the deareftand moft inti¬
mate friend of the mailer of the houfe. Their gardens
are laid out in fuch a manner, as to particularly attraft
the attention of an European. In thefe gardens are leen
groves, ponds, mountains, natural or artificial rocks,
and winding alleys, which conduct to different points of
view, each of which prefents a new objedt. When the
ground is of fufficient extent, part of the garden is form¬
ed into a park, in which Hags, does, and other w'ild ani¬
mals, are kept. Fifties and aquatic birds are alfo bred in
ponds and canals made for the purpofe. The Chinefe
are fond of every thing gigantic. According to them
the beauty of a column confifts in its lize and height ;
and that of a hall, in its great extent. Its ornaments
confift of large lanterns, made of painted filk, which
are fufpended from the ceiling; alfo tables, cabinets,
fcreens, chairs, and abundance of vafes of porcelain.
The furniture is covered with varnifli fo tranfparent, that
the veins of the wood may be leen through it, and fo
bright and Alining, that it llrongly refiefts different ob-
jefts, and its fplendour is not a little heightened by thofe
figures which are painted upon it, in different colours, or
done over with gilding,
Befides the feftivals and ceremonies above deferibed,
performed in the perfon of the emperor, the Chinefe
have alfo two other feftivals, which are celebrated with
great fplendour. One is the commencement of the year;
the other the feaft of lanterns. During the celebration of
the firft, all affairs, whether private or public, are fufpend¬
ed ; the tribunals arelhut; the polls are Hopped,; prelents
are given ar.d received; the inferior mandarins go to pay
their refpefts to their fuperiors, children to, their parents,
and fervants to their mailers. This F. Du Halde fays is
what the Chinefe call taking leave of the old year. All the
N A.
family affemble in the evening, and partake of a grand
repall. To this no ftranger is admitted ; but they be¬
come more fociable on the day following, when they
indulge in plays, diverfior.s, and feafting, which is con¬
cluded in the evening by illuminations.
The feaft of lanterns , is fixed for the fifteenth day of
the firlt month : but it begins on the evening of the thir¬
teenth, and ends on the fixteenth. It is ealierto deferibe
this feltival than to difcover its origin, or the period at
which it was at firft celebrated. It is univerfal through¬
out the empire ; and all China is illuminated on the fame
day, and at the fame hour. Every city and village,
the Ihores of the fea, and the banks of rivers, are hung
with lanterns, of various lhapes and fizes. Some of them
are even feen in the windows of the poorelt inhabitants.
The abbe Grolier afferts, that rich people fometimes ex¬
pend eight or nine pounds llerling for one lantern ; and
that thofe which the emperor, viceroys, and great manda¬
rins, order to be made, colt an hundred or an hundred
and fifty pounds each. Thefe lanterns are very large,
and fome of them are compofed of lix wooden frames,
either painted or neatly gilt, and filled up with fine
tranfparent filk, upon which are painted flowers, animals,
and human figures ; others are round, and made of a
blue tranfparent kind of horn. Several lamps, and a
great number of wax-candles, are put into thefe lan¬
terns ; to the corners of each are fixed taflels, or ltream-
ers of fattin and filk of different colours ; and a curious
piece of carved work is placed over its top. F. Du
Halde obferves, that, “ they caufe ftiadows to appear,
which reprefent princes and princeffes, foldiers, buffoons,
and other characters, the geftures of which are fo con¬
formable to the words of thofe who put them in motion,
that one is almoft induced to believe that they fpeak in
reality.” This is the origin of the Ombres Cbinoifes, or
magic lanthorn ; for which fee Chinese Shades. The
Chinefe fireworks, fo juftly celebrated, are difplayed in
all their varieties during this feltival; and a large one
is then exhibited in each city.
On the day correfponding to our firft of March, it is
ufual, according to ancient cullom, for dramatic pieces
to be performed on ftages in the principal ftreets of the
different towns throughout the empire, for the amufe-
ment of the poor people, who are not able to purchafe
thofe pleafures. This beneficent aft continues for a fuc-
ceflion of feveral days, at the expence of the emperor ; fo
that every morning and evening, during this period, the
lower dalles of his l'ubjefts enjoy a favourite pleafure with¬
out coll, and blefs the hand which bellows it on them.
Yet, as the Chinefe employ moll of their time in at¬
tendance on their duty as members of fociety, they be¬
llow very little on amufements. Naturally a grave people,
they feldom affume an air of gaiety, but in compliance
with fome ellablilhed cullom. They have indeed thea¬
trical pieces, both comic and tragic ; but they have no
public theatres authorifed by government, and their aft-
ors, like thofe of the Tartar nations, are Itrollers, who
attend the lioufes of thofe who are able to pay them.
Hunting and filhing is confidered by the Chinefe ra¬
ther as an objeft of indultry than amulement. In their
great filheries, they ufe nets ; but private people employ
a line. They ufe alfo for this purpofe, in certain pro¬
vinces, an aquatic bird, which is trained to catch fifh,
almoft in the fame manner as dogs are taught to purfue
game. The bird principally ufed in thefe filheries, is a
ipecies of corvorant, though we are informed that dome
of the colymbus genus are educated for this purpofe.
In China there are no difputes concerning rank and
precedency; every individual knows the titles he mull
give to others, and is always content with thofe due to
himfelf. A common falutation in China confilts in join¬
ing both hands together before the breaft, moving them
in an affeftionate manner, bending the head a little, and
reciprocally pronouncing tfin-tfn , a complimentary word,
which.
'Sc7iupman. scAp’
A C HINE SE PllIN CESS of the pres ent
Manchoo Tartar race .
Joriifcn Tub/ishabiut the - L t Ju -ixts J\rov V4 ly .f. It 7/kc
; '■ >•; :-.v : v
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C Ii
which has almoft the fame fignification as your humble
fervant. When a perfon of the lower order meets ano¬
ther of fuperior rank, it is then neceflary to join the
hands, raife them above the forehead, afterwards bring
them down to the earth, and bow with the whole body.
When two perfons w'ho are acquainted meet after an ab-
fence of any time, they both fall on their knees oppoflte
one another, bend their bodies to the earth, then raife
them up, and repeat the fame ceremonies two or three
times. When two mandarins, of equal rank, meet in
the ftreet, they never quit their chairs; each joins both
hands, moves them downwards, then raifes them to the
forehead, and this falutation is repeated until they are
out of each others fight ; but if one of the two be of
higher rank than the other, the inferior orders his chair
to flop ; or if he be on horfeback, he difmounts, and
makes a profound bow to his fuperior. In a word, po-
litenefs in China, being regulated by law, is nearly as
prevalent in villages as in cities.
A Chinefe, when addrefling his fuperior, fpeaks nei¬
ther in the firft nor in the fecond perfon. He will neither
fay I, nor you, but if he acknowledges a favour received,
he will fay, “ the fervice which his lordfhip has ren¬
dered to his little lervant, has been very acceptable to
him.” A fon, when fpeaking to his father, never ililes
liimfelf his fon, but his grandfon, though he is perhaps
the oldeft of the family, and probably father of a family
liimfelf. He will alfo often make ufe of his own name,
that is to fay, of the name given him at that period, for
the Chinefe have different names, in fucceflion, accord¬
ing with their age and rank. The family name is that
given at their birth ; this is common to all thofe who
are delcended from the fame grandfather. A month af¬
ter, the mother and father give what is termed a dimi¬
nutive name to their fon, w'hich is generally that of a
flower, animal, &c. This name is changed wdien the
youth has made fome progrels in his education at a pub¬
lic fchool, and generally for fome flattering appellation,
given by the matter, which the pupil adds to his family
name. When he attains to manhood, he requefts a new
name from his friends, and this he retains during life,
unlefs he rifes to fome dignity. He is then honoured
with another, fuited to his talents and office. No other
is afteiwards given him, not even that of his family.
The repalts or entertainments of people of diftin&ion
are generally fumptuous, and always accompanied with
the moll ceremonious etiquette. It is only while they
are drinking, that the dilhes on the tables are removed,
and others brought in, all of which are in the form of; ra¬
gouts. The Chinefe never ufe knives in their repafts, and
two fmall fharp-pointed Hicks, ornamented with ivory
or fllver, fupply the place of forks, and with which they
take up every thing they eat. The common people, who
are the fuffering part in every country, live very poorly
in China, as well as elfewhere ; they are fatisfied, in
times of fcarcity, with the flelh of horfes and dogs. That
of cats and rats is alfo fold publicly in the ftreets.
The funeral rites in China are as Angular as their other
cuftoms. A few moments after a perfon has expired, he
is dreffed out in his richeft attire, and with every badge
of his dignity. He is then placed in the coffin which
has been purchafed for him, or which he himielf pro¬
vided in his life-time ; for one of the moll anxious cares
of a Chinefe is to prepare himfelf a coffin, which fome-
times remains twenty years ufelefs in the family, though
oonfidered by the head of it as the moll valuable piece
of furniture in his poffefiion. In preparing the body for
interment, they firft fprinkle, in the bottom of the cofiin,
a fmall quantity of lime, on which they lay the corpfe,
taking care to place its head on a pillow, and to add a
quantity of cotton to keep it more fteady, and prevent
it from (haking. The lime and cotton lerve alfo to re¬
ceive the moilture which may iftue from it. In this man¬
ner the body remains expofed leven days ; during which
time all the relations and friends come and pay their re-
x
N A. 463
fpe6ts to the deceaftd, and the neareft relations remain in
the houfe. The coffin is expofed in the hall of ceremony,
which is then hung with white. Thofe 'who enter the
hall, fahe.te the coffin, in the fame manner as if the per¬
fon were frill alive, proftrate tlxemfelves before the table,
and knock their foreheads againft the earth ; they after¬
wards place upon the table lome perfumes and wax can¬
dles, which they have taken care to provide for that pur-
pofe. The corpfe is then conveyed to the place deftined
to receive it, preceded by folenm muflc, with a proceffion
as large and numerous as the relatives are abundant.
When they arrive at the burying-place, the coffin is de-
pofited in a tomb appropriated for ft. The burying-
places are always fituated at a fmall diftance from a city
or town, and generally upon fome eminence, around
which are planted pines and cypreffes, a cuftom which
has exilled, at the fame period, in different nations who
never had the leaft communication with each other.
Some of the Chinefe have carried their attachment fo
far, as to preferve in their houfes, for three or four years,
the bodies of their deceafed fathers. The mourning con¬
tinues three years, and during that long interval they
abftain from the ufe of flefh and wine; they can aflift at
no entertainment of ceremony, nor frequent any public
afl’embly. When a Chinefe dies in a province in which
he was not born, his children tranfport the body to the
burying-place of their anceftors. A fon, who fhould be
wanting in this refpeft, would be difgraced in his fa¬
mily, and his name would never be placed in the hall of
anceftors, where the different branches of a family meet
once a year, to pay honour to the memory of their de¬
ceafed friends, by an offering to their manes.
One, and not the leaft, among the Angularities of this
extraordinary people, is their language ; which is, per¬
haps, of all the languages of the early ages, the only one-
now fpoken. The following are the obfervations of the
abbe Grofler refpe&ing it, whofe opinion is, that it has
never undergone, in its different parts, any material
change fince the foundation of the empire.
“ In the Chinefe there are four diftinft. languages : —
Firft, the kou-ouen , or language of the King, and other
ancient claflical books ; it is not fpoken at prefent, but
the ipeeches in the Chou-king, and the longs of the Chi-
king, prove it to have been lpoken in the early ages.
The didtion is fo laconic, that it is almoft impoflible for
thofe who have little pradice in reading the Chinefe au¬
thors to underftand it, the ideas are fo various, and fo
‘ wrapt up in the words,’ as one of the miffionaries ex-
prefles it. Nothing can exceed this manner of writing;
it unites energy and depth of thought, with boldnefs of
metaphor, fplendour of imagery, and harmony of ftyle ;
but it is difficult to learn, and requires a very laborious
application to render it familiar.
“ Secondly, the ouen-tcbang. This is the language ufed
in compofitions where a noble and elevated ftyle is requi-
fite. It is never fpoken, but fentences and complimentary
expreflions are often borrowed from it. The ouen-tcka?ig-
has not the fame laconic brevity and fublimity as the
kou-oueti •, it is, however, concife, natural, and ealy, and
abounds with a variety of grand and beautiful expref-
fions ; but it is not much adapted to the ambiguities of
metaphyfics, or the formal and rugged diCtion uled in
treating of the abftradt fciences.
“ Thirdly, the kouan-boa. This is the univerfal lan¬
guage of the court and of the literati j it is underitood
throughout the whole empire, and pronounced with
much gracefulnefs at Pekin, and in the province of
Kiang-nan, where the court formerly refided. The kuuan-
hoa admits of fynonymous expreflions, to moderate the
brevity of monofyllaoles ; of pronouns and relatives for
the connecting of phrales, and perfpicuity of ftyie ; of
prepofitions, adverbs, and particles, to lupply the want
of cafes, moods, tenfes, and numbers, which have place
in other languages.
“ Fourthly, Liang-tan, This is a kind of provincial
dialed,.
464 CHI
dialed, fpoken by the lower clafles in China. Every pro¬
vince has its hwn. The fenle of the words varies in a
great number of places, and they are fo altered by dffver-
fity of pronunciation, as to be almoft unintelligible.”
Of this fadt lord Macartney experienced a ftngular proof,
at a meeting of two Chinefe interpreters, who, on enter¬
ing into converfation, could not underhand each other.
The Chir.ele annex great merit to the talent of tracing
or writing their characters with tafte ; they often prefer
them even to the molt elegant painting, and there are
i'ome of them who will purchafe, at an exorbitant rate,
a page of old writing, when the characters appear to be
elegantly formed. We fhall not in this place enter into
an investigation of the principles ot the Chinefe charact¬
ers, or language; lince it more properly belongs to that
department or head in this work, under which we fhall
treat of all the known languages in the world.
A tafte for poetry is pretty general in China, and there
are few Chinefe writers who have not devoted foine part
of their leifure hours to the mufes. The common people
have their ballads and longs, and fome of the literati
have thought it of importance to turn into verfe for their
ufe the molt celebrated maxims of morality, the duties
of the different conditions in life, and the rules of civi¬
lity. “ If good grain,” fay they, “ produce only ftraw,
it will benefit the ground by preventing the growth of
weeds.” Though China abounds with works of erudi¬
tion, they are feldom the production of private indivi¬
duals, who have neither the leifure nor .conveniencies
requifite for literary purfuits. The firft years of the
young literati are fpent in ftudying the language, cha¬
racters, and doCtrine, of the King; the examinations keep
them continually employed. When admitted to the firft
literary degree, it is (till neceflary to continue their flu-
dies, in order to obtain the fecond and third. They then
obtain employment in the tribunals, or become gover¬
nors of cities in their own provinces. In this fituation
their occupations are fo various and conftant, that it is
impcflible for them to follow a courfe of uninterrupted
ftudy. The fword of the fovereign is continually over
their heads, and they have need of all their application,
to avoid even flight omiflions, which are fufficient to oc-
cafion their ruin. The difficulty of procuring accefs to
libraries, is alfo an inconvenience which the man of ge¬
nius, unconnected with any literary focieties, muff: expe¬
rience in China; and the condition of individuals is lb
liable to change, that it is impoflible for any of them to
have fuch a collection of books as are found in the houfes
of men of letters in Europe. The great bonzeries are
the only refources of the litegati ; it is there that govern¬
ment, in order to guard againft Ioffes, by conflagrations,
wars, and revolutions, has ordered the molt curious and
rare manufcripts to be collected ; and there alfo are de-
pofited copies of every collection and new edition of any
work publiflaed at the expence of the ftate. Thefe im-
menfe libraries are open to all the literati ; but the greater
part of the bonzeries which contain them are fituated on
mountains, at a diftance from large cities, and therefore
in a great meafure cut off from the infpeCtion of perfons
in private life.
All the great works nearly, which have appeared in
China, have proceeded from the college of the Han-lin.
This body, compofed of the molt celebrated literati, and
of the greateft geniufes of the empire, freed from every
care, and furrounded with alt the literary treafures of the
empire, find every convenience and alliftance that can
facilitate their labour. Emoloyment is affigned to each
of them, fuited to his tafte and talents. They are never
fubjeCted to the fettering reltraint of time, nor hurried to
finifh any work which they have undertaken. Intereft
and felt-love unite them clofely together, for the glory
attending their fuccefs is never divided. A reciprocal
communication of knowledge, in the fulleft and moft
tmreferved manner, is, therefore, a neceflary confe¬
rence, becaule every imputation afteCts the whole body.
N A.
Hence it happens, that all the works which come from
the pencil of the Han-lin, bear a character of perfedtion
rarely to be found in thofe of a private man of letters.
To them are the Chinefe indebted for all their great hif-
torical coiledtions, didtionaries, commentaries, new edi¬
tions of ancient authors, &c. The emperor generally
furn Lilies for thefe large works a preface, by his own
hand. They are printed at the expence of government,
and the whole edition belongs to the emperor, who dif-
tributes the copies as prefents to the princes of the
blood, his ministers, the great mandarins, the chiefs of
the different tribunals, governors of provinces, and the
mod celebrated literati of the empire. In 1770 the Han-
lin were employed in the compilation of a Chinefe En¬
cyclopaedia, in which are difcufled the moft interefting
points of fuch fciences and arts as are known to them;
alfo. hiftory, chronology, geography, jurifprudence, po¬
litics, and natural hiftory. This edition was to form "a
coliedtion of an hundred and fifty volumes.
Much has been faid by different writers for and againft
the knowledge which the Chinefe have of aftronomy. F.
Gaubi!, who wrote a particular treatife on Chinefe aftro-
noniy, which he long itudied, thus fpeaks of the Chinefe
aftronomers : “ The Chinefe have been long acquainted
with the motion of the fun, moon, and planets, and even
of the fixed ftars, from weft to eaft ; though they did not
determine the motion of the latter till about four hun¬
dred years after the Chriftian era. To Saturn, Jupiter,
Mars, Venus, and Mercury, they have affigned revolu¬
tions which approach very nearly to ours. They have'
no notion of their different fituations, when ftationary
and retrograde ; and, as in Europe, fome imagine that
the heavens and planets revolve round the earth, and
others around the fun. By reading their books, we may
eafily perceive that the Chinefe have had a perfect know¬
ledge of the quantity of the folar year; that they have
alfo known the diurnal motion of the fun and moon ;
that they have been able to take the meridian altitude of
the former by the fliadow of a gnomon ; and that they
have thence made pretty exadl calculations to determine
the elevation of the pole, and the fun’s declination : it
appears that they have had a tolerable knowledge of the
right afcenfion of the ftars, and of the time when they
pals the meridian ; of the reafon why the fame ltars, in
the fame year, rife and fet with the lun ; and why they
pafs the meridian fometimes when the fun rifes, and
fometimes when he fets. In fhort, it evidently appears,
from perufing their hiftory, that the Chinefe have always
been acquainted with a g.eat many parts of aftronomy.”
The Jefuit miflionaries contributed much to the en¬
largement of aftrouomical knowledge in China; Ricci,
Adam Schal, Verbieft, Couplet, Gerbillon, Regis, d’En-
trecolles, Jartoux, Parrenin, and a great many others,
were men whofe talents would have rendered them cele¬
brated, even in Europe. F. Verbieft found, in the ob-
fervatory at Pekin, a number of inftruments made of
brafs ; but, as he judged them improper for aftronomical
purpofes, he fubftituted new ones in their room, which
Hill remain. F. le Comte has given an accurate defcrip-
tion of all thefe machines. At prefent aftronomy is cul¬
tivated at Pekin as it is in the greater part of the capital
cities of Europe. A particular tribunal is eftablilhed
there, the juiifdidtion of which extends to every thing
that relates to the celeftial phenomena, The obfervation
of eclipfes is one of the moft important fundtions of this
tribunal. Information mult be given to the emperor of
the day and hour of the eclipfe, in what part of the hea¬
vens it will happen, its duration, and the number of di¬
gits eclipfed. It is neceflary that this intelligence precede
the eclipfe by fome months, and it mult be calculated for
the longitude and latitude of the capital city of every
province. Thefe obfervations, as well as the diagram
which reprefents the eclipfe, are preferved by the tribu¬
nal of ceremonies ; and the great calao, or prime mi-
nifter, takes care to tranfmit them into all the cities of
the
C H I
the empire, in order that it may be observed according
to the form prelcVibed.
Each town is fuppofed to be under the protection of
fome liar or confteliatioh, of which J aft the Chinefe reckon
twenty-eight ; and they have, befide, a divhion of the
liars anfwei ing to the figns of the zodiac, which they call
the twelve manfions of the fun. On fome of their ancient
coins are to be found the characters denoting the man-
lions of the fun, which (hews, in part, the great antiquity
of their aftronomical knowledge. By dint of obfervation
they at length came to know the true number of days in
a tolar year ; as well as other periods and phenomena of
the heavenly bodies : but they fell chiefly into the delu-
fipns of aftrology; the magnificent prophecies and pro-
inifes of which, deltroyed their Lade for the patient la¬
bours and'fober fcitnce of aftronomy. Their altrologers,
like thofe in Europe, pretend to foretell, and publilh an¬
nually in their almanacs, every variation of the weather
in the feveral fealons of the next approaching year; and
they mark, befides, the lucky and unlucky days for every
poflible human undertaking, whether public or private,
and whether applicable to individuals, or to the affairs of
the nation.
The Chinefe have invariably fixed the beginning of
the aftronomical year at the winter folftice; but that of
their civil year has varied, according to the will of their
emperors ; fome of whom have fixed it at the third, or
fecond moon, after the winter folllice, and others at the
folftice itfelf. The Chinefe year has at all times confided
of a certain number of lunations ; twelve lunations form¬
ing a common, and thirteen the etnbolilmic, year. They
reckon their lunations by the number of days which fall
between the moment in which the fun is in conjunction
with the moon, and the moment of the conjunction fol¬
lowing ; and as in the interval between one conjunction
and another, the number of days cannot be conftantly
equal, they fometimes admit twfenty-nine, and fometimes
thirty days, to complete their lunations. They divide
their days into a greater or fmaller number of equal
parts, but generally into twelve hours, which are double
thofe ufed by us. Their day begins and ends at midnight.
The Chinefe year, divided into lunations, is alfo di¬
vided into four equal parts, or feafons, each of which has
three parts, its beginning, its middle, and its end; that
is to lay, a lunation for each of the three parts. This
year is itill fubdivided into twenty-four equal parts, each
of which contains fifteen degrees; fo that the whole to¬
gether make up three hundred and fixty degrees. To
exprefs the age of the moon, befides numbers, they ufe
the words fuperior and inferior firing ; they fay, cbang-
hiett, a bow having the firing uppennoft; and bia-hien,
a bow having the firing undermolt: thus they diftinguifh
what we call the oppofite quarters of the moon. The
Chinefe altronomers divide the ftars according to the
following order : they place firft the pe-teou, or celeftial
btiftiel of the north ; this is what we call the Great Bear:
fecondly, the nan-teou , or celeftial bufhel of the fouth ;
which comprehends the principal ftars oppofite to the
Great Bear, and which together form a figure aimolt like
that of the Great Bear in the north ; thirdly the five pla¬
nets, ou-hing , which are, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus,
and Mercury : fourthly, the twenty-eight conftellations,
in which are comprehended all the ftars of our zodiac,
and fome of thofe which lie neareft to it.
The Chinefe fix the difcovery and firft fabrication of
their paper, about the year 105 before Chrift. Prior to
that epocha, they wrote upon cloth, and different kinds
of lilk fluff. In more early ages, they wrote with a fort
of flyle upon fmall flips of bamboo, and even upon plates
of metal ; feveral of thefe flips, ftrung and joined toge¬
ther, formed a volume. At length, under the reign of
Ho-ti, a Chinefe mandarin invented a kind of paper
much more commodious. He took the bark of different
trees, hemp, and old pieces of filk fluff, and boiled thefe
i'ubftances until they were reduced to a kind of pafte, of
Vol. IV, No. 211.
N A. 465
which he formed paper. Chinefe Induftry improved this
difcovery, and found out the fecret of whitening and
fmoothing different kinds of paper, and of giving them
a beauty and luftre. Different papers are at prelent
greatly multiplied. The Chinefe, for making paper, ufe
the bamboo reed, the cotton fhrub, the bark pf the kou-
chu, and of the mulberry-tree ; hemp, the ftraw of wheat
aiid rice, parchment, the cods of the filk-worm, and fe¬
veral other fubitances, the greater part of which are un¬
known in this manufacture in Europe,
The Chinefe ink is made from the fmoke of different
fubftances, but principally from that of pines, or of oil
burnt in lamps. Care is taken to add to it a little mu fie,
or fome other perfume, to correCt the ftrong and dila-
greeabie fmell which it would otherwife retain. The in¬
gredients are mixed, until they acquire the confidence
of pafte, which is afterwards divided, and put into fmall
wooden moulds. The interior part of thefe moulds is
neatly cut and carved, fo that the cake of ink, when
taken out, appears ornamented with different figures,
fuch as dragons, birds, trees, and flowers; one of its fides
is generally marked with fome beautiful characters. This
we ft-e on ail the fquarfcs of what we term Indian ink.
The art of printing, fo recent in Europe, has long
exifted in China,” but it differs very much from ours.
The fmall number of letters which conipofe our alpha¬
bet permit us to call a certain number of moveable cha¬
racters, which, by their arrangement and fuccefilve com¬
binations, are fufficient to print the largeft works ; the
types employed in printing the firft (beet may furniih
characters to print the whole volume. But this is not
the cafe in China, where the characters are fo numerous.
The Chinefe find it more commodious to engrave upon
pieces of wood the whole work which they intend to
print. Their method of proceeding in this operation is
thus : They firft employ a writer to tranlcribe the work.
The engrqver glues each of the leaves of the manufeript
upon a piece of plank, made of any hard wood ; he then
correCtly traces the ftrokes of the writing, carves out the
characters in relief, and cuts down the intermediate part
of the wood. Each page of a book, therefore, requires,
a feparate plank. The Chinefe, however, are not unac¬
quainted with the ufe of moveable characters; they have
a kind, not call, but made of wood, and it is with, thefe
characters they correft every three months The State of
China, and the Gazettes, which are printed at Pekin.
Other fmall works are alfo printed in the fame manner.
Ink ufed for printing is made in a particular manner;
it is liquid, and different from that which is formed into
oblong flicks, or cakes. The leaves are printed upon
one fide only, becaufe thin and transparent paper, fuch
as the Chinefe, w'ould not bear a double imprefiion, with¬
out confounding the characters of the different pages.
Each leaf of a book is, on that account, double ; lo that
the fold Hands uppermoft, and the opening is towards
the back tSvhere it is Hitched. Hence it happens that the
Chinefe books are not cut upon the edges. They are ge¬
nerally bound in grey pafteboard, which is very neat;
thofe who with to have them done in a richer and more
elegant manner, get the pafteboard covered with thin fa-
tin, flowered taffety, and fometimes with gold and filver
brocade. The edges are neither gilt nor coloured.
The culture of the mulberry-tree, and the manufactur¬
ing of filk, have been greatly extended in China. The
nioft beautiful and valuable filk of the whole empire is
that which comes from the province of Tche-kiang,
which is wrought in the manufactories of Nankin, by
the belt workmen of China; thence are brought all thole
filk fluffs, deftined for the ufe of the emperor, and thole
which he diltributes in prefents to the nobility of his
court. The open commerce carried on with A.fia and
Europe draws alfo to the manufactories of Canton a great-
number of excellent workmen. The principal filk fluffs
manufactured by the Chinefe, are plain and flowered
gauzes, of which they make dreffes for fummer ; damafk
466 C IT I
of ail colours; ftiiped and black fatins 5 napped, flow¬
ered, flriped, clouded, and pinked, taffeties ; crapes,
brocades, plu(h, different kinds of velvet, and a multi¬
tude of other (tuffs, the names of which are unknown
in Europe.
Porcelain is a prominent feature of Chinefe ability and
induftry, aild a branch of commerce which employs a
vaft multitude of workmen. After a piece of porcelain
has been 'properly faflvioned, it paffes into the hands of
the painters, who follow no certain plan in. their art; all
their knowledge is the efteft of practice, Shifted by a fer¬
tile imagination. Some of them (hew great tafte in paint¬
ing flowers, animals, and landfcapes, on porcelain, as
well as upon the paper of fans, and the (ilk uled for
filling up the fquares of lanterns. The labour of paint¬
ing is divided among a great number of hands. The
bufinefs of one is entirely confined to tracing out the firft
coloured circle which ornaments the brims of the veflel;
another defigns the flowers, and a third paints them ; one
delineates waters and mountains, and, another birds and
Cither animals 5 human figures are generally the word,
executed.
The ufe of glafs is very ancient in China. It is related,
in the Large Annals, that, “ in the beginning of the
third century, the king of Ta-tfin fent the emperor Tai-
ffou a magnificent prefent of glafs of all colours; and
that Come years after, a glafs-maker, who had the art of
converting flint into cryffal, by means of fire, taught this
lecret to iome others, by which thofe who had come,
and thofe who then came from the Weft, acquired much
glory.” That part of the Annals in which this quotation
is to be found, was written in the feventh century : but
from the little attention which at times feems to have
been paid to the art of manufadturing glafs, and its being
loft and revived at different periods, we have reafon to
fulpedt that the Chinefe have never fet any great value
upon this branch, and that they have confidergd glafs
rather as an objedt of luxury than utility'-. According
to fir George Staunton, there is at prefent no manufacture
-of glafs in the whole empire, except at Canton, where,
infteaa of fufing the rough ingredients of flint, or land
and barilla, and converting them by the proper procefs
into glafs, the manufacturer is fatisiied with only melt¬
ing the broken pieces collected of that material, and
forming it into new fhapes, according to the ufes to
which it might be deltined.
The ftudy of medicine among the Chinefe is as an¬
cient as the foundation of their empire. Their phyfi-
cians were never fkilful anatomifts, or profound philofo-
phers, nor will their moll refpeCtable theories bear the
fcrutiny of the practical anatomilt ; indeed, where ana¬
tomy is fhackled by a prejudice which prevents the open¬
ing of the human body, it is impoflible that the know¬
ledge of phyfic, or furgery, can be very extenfive. Vital
heat, and radical moilture, are confidered by the Chinefe
phyflcians as the two natural principles of life ; the blood
and fpirits they confider only as tlitpr vehicles. Thefe
two principles, according to them, are feated in all the
principal parts of the body, in which they prelerve life
and vigour. The Chinefe phyflcians iuppofe alfo, fays
F. du Halde, that the body, by means of the nerves, muf-
cles, veins, and arteries, is like a kind of lute or muflcal
inftrument, the different parts of which emit various
founds, or rather have a proper temperament for each,
and iuited to their figure, fituation, and particular ufes;
and that its different pulfes, which refemble the different
tones and notes of thefe inftruments, enable the practi¬
tioner to judge infallibly of their fituation and Hate, in
the fame manner as a cord, more or iefs tenfe, touched
in one place or in another, in a (Longer or gentler man¬
ner, fends forth different founds, and difcovers whether
it be too much ftretched, or too much relaxed. In a
word, they fuppofe that between all the parts of the hu-
,snan body, there is a certain influence on the one hand,
and a lympathy on the 'other, and thefe form the bafis
N A.
of their fyftem of phyfic. They pretend to judge of the
ftate of a patient, and to determine the nature of his dif-
eafe, by the colour of the face and eyes, by infpedtihg
the tongue, noftrils, and ears, and by the found of the
voice; but it is chiefly upon a knowledge of the pulfe
that they found their molt infallible prognoftics. Their
theory refpedting the pulle is very px ten five, and varies
according to circumllances. One of the ancient phyfi-
cians has left a complete treatife upon this fubjedt, which
Hill ferves as a guide. This work, was compofed about
two hundred years before the Chriftian era; and it ap¬
pears certain that the Chinefe were acquainted with the
circulation of the blood long before any of the nations of
Europe.
The modern Chinefe entertain the fame ideas refpedt-
ing their ancient mufic, as thofe which have been tranf-
mitted to us concerning that of the Greeks and Egyp¬
tians; and they regret their ancient harmony, as we la¬
ment the lofs of that which has been fo much extolled by
antiquity, and of which fo many wonderful things have
been related. If Egypt had a Hermes, or Mercury Trif-
megiftus, who, by the foftnefs and charms of his voice,
finifhed the civilization of men; if Greece had an Am-
phion, who built cities by his harmony alone; and an
Orpheus, who, by the found of his lyre, fulpended the
courfe of rivers, and made the molt rugged rocks follow
him ; China boafts of no lefs miracles performed by her
ancient muficians. We are told of a Lyng-lun, a Kouei,
and a Pin-mou-kia, who, by touching their kin aild their
che, produced founds capable of foftening the hearts of
men, and of taming the mod ferocious animals. It is
not our intention to enter into a diflertation on the an¬
cient mufic of the Chinefe ; we (hall only oblerve, that
the mufical fyftem, fo long attributed to the Egyptians
and the Greeks, has been difcovered in China; and that
it had its origin there, at an epocha much anterior to
the times of Hermes, Linus, or Orpheus. We cannot
enter into that tedious detail which would be requifite
to explain this fyftem ; the mufical reader may find it in the
diflertation of F. Amiot, publifhed by the abbe Rouffier,
and which this learned theorift enriched with his own
obfervations. They have always diftinguilhed eight dif¬
ferent lounds ; and they believe that nature, in order to
produce them, formed eight kinds of lonorous bodies.
The order in which they diftribute thefe founds, and the
inftruments they have conftrudted to produce them, are
as follow: 1. The found of (kin, produced by drums.
2. The found of ftone, produced by the king. 3. That
of metal, by bells. 4. That of baked earth, by the hiuen.
5. That of (ilk, by the kin and the che. 6. That of wood,
by the yu and the tchou. 7. That of bamboo, by the
koan, and different flutes. And, 8. That of a gourd, by
the cheng.
The firft drums were compofed of a box made of baked
earth, covered at both extremities with the tanned hide
of fome animal ; but, on account of the weight and brit-
tlenefs of baked earth, wood was foon fubftituted in its
Head. The Chinefe are, perhaps, the only nation who
have had the ingenuity to apply (tones to the purpofe of
making mufical inffruments. We have already mentioned
the lonorous (tones which are found in this empire; the
inftrument conftrudted of them is called king, and is dif-
tinguifhed into tfe-king, and pien-king. The tfe-king
confifts of only one fonorous ftone, which, confequently,
produces only one tone. The pien-ting is an affortment
of fixteen (tones, fufpended together, which form all the
tones admitted into the mufical fyftem of the ancient
Chinefe. They have always made their bells of a mix¬
ture of tin and copper : their (hapes are various, thole of
the ancients were not round, but flatted, and in the lower
part refembled a crefcent". The Chinefe have formed an
inftrument of fixteen bells, properly aflorted, fo as to cor-
relpond with the lonorous (tones, of which the king are
compofed.
The inftrument hiuen, which is made of baked earth,
- is
C H ]
is highly refpeCted by the Chinefe, on account of its an¬
tiquity. They diftinguifh it into two kinds, the great
and the fmall. “ The great liiuen,” fays the Dictionary
Eulh-ya, “ is like a gooi'e’s egg, and the final) hiuen, like
that of a hen : it has fix holes for the notes, and a l'eventh
for the mouth. The kin and. the che, which have been
known from the remotelt antiquity, emit the found of
filk. The kin has feven firings, made of filk threads,
and is diftinguifbed into three kinds, differing only in
fize; the great kin, the middle kin, and the linall kin.
The body of this inllrument is formed of the wood of the
tonng-mou, and varniflied black; its whole length is
about five feet five Inches. The che, of which there are
five kinds, is furnifhed with twenty-five firings, and its
ordinary length is nine feet. F. Amiot allures us, that
we have no inftrument in Europe that deferve to be pre¬
ferred to-it.
The infiruments which emit the found of wood, are
the tchou, the yu, and the tchoung-tou ; the firft is fliaped
like a fquare bufiiel, and is beat on the iniide with a ham¬
mer; the fecond, which reprefents a tyger fquatting, is
made to found by fcraping its back gently with a rod ;
the third is a collection of twelve pieces of board tied to¬
gether, which are ufed for beating time, by holding them
in the right hand, and knocking them gently againfi the
palm of the left. The bamboo furnilhes a numerous clafs
of infiruments, compofed of pipes joined together, or fe-
parate, and pierced with more or fewer holes. The prin¬
cipal of all thefe wind infiruments is the cheng, which
emits the found of a gourd. The neck of the gourd is cut
otf, and the low'er part only is relerved, to which a cover
is fitted, having as many holes as are equal to the number
of founds required. In each of thefe holes a pipe is fix¬
ed, made of bamboo, and Ihorter or longer, according to
the tone it ought to emit. The mouth of the infirument
is formed cf another pipe, fliaped like the neck of a goole ;
it is fixed to the gourd on one fide, and ferves to convey
the air to all the pipes it contains. The ancient cheng
differed in the number of their pipes ; thole ufed at pre-
fent have only thirteen : this inllrument appears to have
fome affinity w'ith our organ.
The Chinefe are unacquainted with the ufe of our mu-
fical notes ; they have not that diverfity of figns which
diffinguilh the different tones, and the gradual elevation
or deprefiion of the voice; nor any thing to point out the
various modifications of lound which produce harmony.
They have only a few characters to mark the principal
notes ; all the airs which they have learned, they repeat
merely by rote : the emperor Kaung-hi was therefore
greatly altonilhed at the facility with which an European
could catch, and remember an air the firft time he heard
it. In 1679, he fent for fathers Grimaldi and Pereira to
the palace, to play lome tunes upon an organ and a harp-
fichord. of which they had made him a prefent. He ap¬
peared much fatisfied with the European mufic, and after¬
wards ordered his muficians to play a Chinefe air ; F. Pe¬
reira pricked down the whole air while the muficians
were playing it ; and when they had done, the miifionary
repeated the air without omitting a fingle note. The em¬
peror could .not comprehend how a ltranger could learn
a piece of mufic fo quickly, which had colt fo much time
and labour to his muficians ; and how it was poflible, by
the help of a few characters, to make himfelf fo far mat¬
ter of it, as not to be in any danger of forgetting it. He
beftowed the higheft praifes on the European mufic, and
admired the means which it furnilhes to facilitate and
lellen the labour of the memory.
With refpeCt to the art of painting, it feems to be uni-
verfally agreed, that the Chinefe have no notion of cor-
reftneis or perlpeCtive, and little knowledge of the beau¬
tiful proportions of the human body. But thofe who re¬
fute them the talent of painting figures well, cannot dif-
allow that they particularly excel in flowers and animals.
They execute thefe fubjefts with much tafte, juftnefs,
and freedom j and they pride themfelves, above all, in
1
N A. 467
an exaCtnefs of re prefen tation, which might appear to
us trifling and minute. Painting makes little progrefs in
China, becaufe it is not encouraged by government ; it
is Reckoned among the number of thole frivolous; arts,
which contribute nothing towards the profperity of t)ie
ftate. The late emperor’s cabinets and galleries are filled
with European paintings; he employed, for a long time,,
the pencils of Caftiglione and Attiret, both eminent ar-
t; Its, whom he highly efteemed, and whole works he of¬
ten infpeCted ; but, on account of that notion entertained
of the inutility of painting, he rejected an offer made by
them of eftablifhing a fchool for painting, and of inftruct-
ing pupils in that art.
Painting, in frefco was known in China long before
the Chriftian era : it was much in vogue under the Kan,
w ho idrnamented the walls of their principal temples with
it. This kind of painting made frefh progrefs, and gained
more admirers in the fifth and fixth centuries ; and it was
carried to a degree of perfection leldom equalled. The
late emperor caufed an European village to be painted in
frefco, in his park, which produces the moll: agreeable de¬
ception. The remaining part of the wall reprefents a
landfcape, and little hills, which are fo happily blended
with the diftant mountains behind, that it is almoff im-
poflible to conceive any compoiition more ingenioufly
imagined, or better executed. This beautiful wotk is
the production of Chinefe painters, and was copied from
defigns Iketched out for them. Engraving, or printing,
in colours is very ancient among the Chinefe, who difco-
vered that method long before it was known in Europe.
The chiffel of the Chinefe fculptors is feldom employed,
becaufe, if we except the idols of the temples,, the luxury
of ftatues is not known in that empire. There is not a
fingle ftatue to be feen in the fquares, public edifices, or
palaces, of Pekin; indeed, the only real ltatues to be found
in China, are thofe which, for the lake of ceremonious
dillinCtion, are ufed to ornament the avenues leading to
the tombs of princes, and great men of a certain rank.
The Chinefe architecture is not the mere effeCt of cuf-
tom without any fixed fyftem ; it has its principles, rules,
and proportions. When a pillar is two feet in diameter
at the bale, it muff be fourteen in height ; and by one or
other of fheie meafures that of every part of the building
may be determined. This architecture, though it has
borrowed nothing from that of the Greeks, Romans, or
Saxons, yet it has a certain beauty peculiar to itfelf.
The numberlefs rivers and canals by which China is
watered, have rendered it neceflary to conftruCt a multi¬
plicity of bridges of various fhapes and forms ; the
arches of fome are exceeding lofty and acute, with ealy
ftairs on each fide, the fteps of which are not quite three
inches in thicknels, for the greater facility of alcending
and delcending; others have no arches, but are com¬
pofed of large itones, placed tranfverlely upon piles,
after the manner of planks. Thefe itones fometimes are
eighteen feet in length : fome of thefe bridges are con-
flruCted of itone, marble, and brick; others of wood ;
and fome are formed of a number of barks, joined to¬
gether by itrong iron chains. The invention of the
latter is very ancient ; they are known by the name of
feou-kiao, floating bridges; and .feveral of them may be
feen upon the Kiang and Hoang-ho. The molt remark¬
able bridge in China is about three leagues from Pekin ;
it is two nundred paces in length, and broad in propor¬
tion. Molt ltrangers who view it, appear altonilhed at
its height, and the apparent inutility of the greater part
of its arches; becaufe it is conltru&ed upon a very final!
river. But when this river becomes fwelied by the/um-
mer rains, all thefe arches are fcarcely fufikient to afford
a paffage to its waters.
The naval architecture of the Chinefe appears to have
made no great progrefs for feveral centuries ; neither
their frequent intercourfe with thole Europeans who have
vilited their coafts, n«r the fight of their yeffels, has
made them turn their thoughts to change or improve
their
CHINA.
468
their own. Their largeft fhips are not more than 250 or
30,0 tons burthen-, and they have neither rnizen, bovv-
iprit, nor top-malts, but only a main and a fore-maft, to
which is fometimes added a fmail top-gallant-maft ; this,
however, can afford only a feeble a fh fiance, The Chi-
nefe fupply the place of fails with mats made of' bam¬
boo ; they are ftrengthened by whole bamboos, equal in
length to the breadth of the fail, and extended acrol's it,
at the diftance of a foot one from another. They draw
up the water from the hold with buckets, for they have
not yet adopted the ufe of pumps an any of their veffels.
They pretend to have been the firft inventors of the ma¬
riner’s compafs, yet feem to have little defire for improv¬
ing the interefting difcovery.
The Chinefe have never been expofed to the neceffity of
fighting their naval battles, except on the river Kiang,
around and near their own coafts, or in the neighbour¬
hood of the ifles of Japan. They have, however, feveral
diftinft kinds of veffels for warlike operations. Thofe
belonging to the port of Canton are much larger than
thole employed on the coafts of Fo-kien, and the latter
are built only of fir, or common deal ; whereas the vef-
•i'els of Canton are moftly conftrudled of iron-wood. In
naval battles they are found to be much ftronger, and
more ufefui ; but they are heavy, and far inferior to the
ethers in point of failing. Tliefe veffels laft long, worms
never pierce them, and fome of them are armed with
cannon.
Thus far we have endeavoured to give a conneffed de¬
tail of the Chinefe hiltory, fe!e<Sted from the mod authen¬
tic documents ; as well thofe afforded by feveral of the
Chriftian miffionaries, who fpent the principal part of
theirlives in the country, as from the well- founded in¬
formation of feveral modern travellers. What more par¬
ticularly relates to the Chinefe commerce, to the prelent
Hate of that country, and to the general views of the peo¬
ple, we have purpofely referved for the concluding arti¬
cle, in order to place on record the memorable and laud¬
able endeavour of the king of the united empire of Great
Britain and Ireland, to open a commercial intercourfe
between this country and China'; and although we have,
in the preceding part of this narrative, been indebted to
fir George Staunton for the elucidation of many contro¬
verted and interefting fails; yet, for the fake of unquef-
,tionable certainty and truth, we are induced to give the
■whole particulars of the embaffy from fir George’s own
valuable and admired publication.
BRITISH EMBASSY to CHINA.
Of thofe nations diftinguifhed by the fpirit of enterprife
for commercial views, the Portuguefe appear to have been
the firft who had the honour of exploring the Chinefe
coafts, and of opening an European intercourfe with that
diftant country. This happened about two centuries ago,
in the period of their molt brilliant exploits; at which
time they rendered fuch fignal fervices to the empire of
China, that, in return, lands for building the town of
Macao, on the margin of a fafe harbour at the foutliern
extremity of the country, with feveral collateral advan¬
tages, were granted to them; and, notwithftanding the
decline of their power, and the intermediate lapfe of
time, the recollection of their former fervices and long
connexion, ltili continues to procure them, on the part
of the Chinefe, a marked preference before all other Eu¬
ropeans.
Next to thefe, the Dutch, in confequence of aflifting
them againft the formidable rebel Co-fhing-ga, whole
fleets infefted the eaftern coafts of China about the mid¬
dle of the feventeenth century, were careffed by the efta-
blifhed government, and invited even to Pekin, where
the firft emperor of theMan-choo Tartar race was then
fitting on the throne. His fuccelfor, the great Kaung-hi,
or, as more accurately pronounced, Caung-fhee, during
a long and.profperous reign, received very favourably any
foreigners, fkilled in fuch arts and fciences, and in fuch
conveniencies of life, as were unknown to his own fub-
jeifts. Fie admitted many foreigners into his fervice and
confidence, and employed fome of them in political ne¬
gotiations. But in all thefe kindly offices we do not find
that the emperors ever encouraged or permitted an inte¬
rior commerce, or fuffered the tranfaftions of the mer¬
cantile world to approach nearer to them than the river
and city of Canton. With refpeft *0 commerce, the Chi¬
nefe really entertain an opinion, that it is ufefui only fo
far as it eafes them of their fupei fluities, and procures
them neceffaries ; on this account, they eonfider even that
which they carry on at Canton, as prejudicial to the true
interefts of the empire. “ They take from us, fay they,
our filks, teas, and our porcelain : .the price of thefe ar¬
ticles is railed through ali the provinces; fuch a trade,
therefore, cannot be beneficial. The money brought us
by Europeans, and the high-priced baubles which ac¬
company it, are mere fuperfluities to fuch a ftate as ours.
We have no occafion for more bullion than what may be
neceffary to anfwer the exigencies of government, and to
fupply the relative wants of individuals.” The only
commerce which the Chinefe eonfider of any advantage,
is that which they carry on with Tartary and Ruffia ; as
it furnifhes them, by barter, with thofe furs fo much ufed
in all the northern provinces.
The difputes between the Ruffians and Chinefe, con¬
cerning the limits of their refpedtive empires, feem to
have firft paved the way for that commercial intercourfe
which has fubfifted between them fince the peace con¬
cluded in 16F9. This treaty was figned on the 27th of
Augult of the above year, under the reign of Ivan and
Peter Alexiovitz. The chief of the embaffy on the part of
Ruffia was Golovin, governor of Siberia. Two Jeluits,
Pereiraand Gerbillon, (the former a native of Portugal,
the latter of France,) were deputed by the emperor of
China ; and the conferences were held in Latin, with a
German in the Ruffian ambalTador’s train, who was ac¬
quainted with that language. By this treaty the Ruffians
loft a large territory, befides the navigation of the river
Amoor, called by the Man-choo Tartars, Saghalien-oula j
but, in return, they obtained what they had long defired,
a regular and permanent trade with the Chinefe. Tiie
advantages arifing from it were foori found to be fo con-
fiderable, that Peter I. formed a defign of ftill farther en¬
larging it. For this purpofe, in 1692, he difpatched to
Pekin, Ifbrand Ides, a native, of the duchy of Holftein,
then in his fervice, who requeued, and obtained, that
the liberty of trading to China, which, by the late treaty,
had been granted to individuals, might be extended to
caravans.
After this arrangement, caravans went regularly from
Ruffia to Pekin, where a caravanfary was allotted for
their reception ; and all their expences, during their con¬
tinuance in that metropolis, were defrayed by the empe¬
ror of China. The right of fending thefe caravans, and
the profits arifing from them, belonged to the crown of
Ruffia. In the mean time, private merchants continued,
as before, to carry on a feparate trade with the Chinefe,
not only at Pekin, but alfo at the head quarters of the
Moguls. The camp of tliefe roving Tartars was gene¬
rally Rationed near the confluence of the Orhon and
Toula, between the fouthern frontiers of Siberia and the
Mogul defert. A kind of annual fair was held at this
fpot, by the Ruffian and Chinefe merchants, who brought
their refpeftive commodities for fale. This rendezvous
foon became a feene of riot and confufion ; and repeated
complaints of the drunkennef's and mifeonduft of the
Ruffians were tranimitted to the emperor of China.
Kaung-hi, exafperated by thefe complaints, and by the
frequent reprefentations of his fubjedls, threatened to
expel the Ruffians from his dominions, and to prohibit
them from carrying on any commerce, either in China,
or in the country of the Moguls. This circumftance
occafioned another embalfy to Pekin in 1719. Captain
Ifmailof, the ambaflador, who was deputed to accommo¬
date
. ~ C_ H ]
t]a£e matters, fuceeeded in his negociation : he adj lifted,
every difficulty, to the fatisfaftion of both parties; and,
on his departure, Laurence Lange was permitted to re¬
main at Pekin, for the purpofe of fuperintending the
■condudl of the Radians, The refidence of this gentle¬
man -in that metropolis was, however, but Ihort; for he
was foots after compelled to leave China in hade. His
'fudden difmidion was owing partly to a caprice of the
Chinefe, and partly to a mifunderftanding between the
-two courts, refpefhng foine Mogul tribes who bordered
upon Siberia. Thefe tribes had thrown themfelves un¬
der the protection of Rudia, and were demanded by the
Chinefe. Their requelt was not complied with; and this
refulal, added to the dilorderly conduft of the Ruffians,
who sagain began to indulge in excefles, fo exafperated
the Chinefe, that an order was ifiued, in 1722, for their
expuldon 5 and all intercourfe between the two nations
immediately ceafed.
Affairs continued in this date till 1727, when a Dal¬
matian, in the lervice of Rudia, was difpatched to Pekin.
Matters were again accommodated by a new treaty; a
Caravan was allowed to go to Pekin every three years,
provided it confided of no more than an hundred per¬
son s ; and that, during their (tay, their expences fhould
be no longer defrayed by the emperor of China. A per-
million was at the fame time obtained by the Rudians for
building a church within the precinCfs of their caravan-
fa ry ; and, for the celebration of divine fervice, four
priefts were allowed fo refide at Pekin. The fame favour
was alio extended to lome Ruffian fcholars, for the pur¬
pofe of learning the Chinefe language, in order to qua¬
lify themfelves for interpreters between the two nations.
This treaty was concluded on the fpot where Kiatka now
ftands, by count Ragufinlki, and three Chinefe plenipo¬
tentiaries, on the 14th of June, 1728. It is the bafis upon
which all the fubfequent traniaftions between Ruffia and
China have been founded.
Since the year 1755,^0 caravans have been fent to Pe¬
kin. Their fird difcontinuance was occafioned by a mif-
undeidanding between the two courts of Peterlburgh and
Pekin; and, though a reconciliation took place, the ca¬
ravans have never fince been re-edabliOied. The late
emprefs of Ruffia, fenfible that the monopoly of the fur-
trade, which was entirely confined to the caravans be¬
longing to the crown, and prohibited to individuals, was
prejudicial to copamerce, in 1762, die wifely gave up, in
favour of her fubjefils, the exclufive privilege which the
crown enjoyed, offending caravans to Pekin; and Kiat¬
ka, a place near the Rufiian frontiers, is now the centre
of commerce between the two nations.
This commerce is entirely a trade of barter. The Ruf¬
fians are prohibited an exportation of their own coin ; and
they find it more advantageous to take goods in ex¬
change, than to receive bullion at the Chinefe dandard.
The principal commodities which Ruffia exports to Chi¬
na, are furs, the mod valuable of which are thofe of fea-
otters, beavers, foxes, wolves, martens, and ermines.
The greater part of thefe fkins are brought from Siberia,
and the newly-difcovered idands ; but, as they cannot
furnifh a fupply equal to the demand, foreign furs are
imported to Peterlburgh, and thence tranfported to Ki¬
atka. England alone furnilhes a large quantity of bea¬
ver’s and other Ikins, chiedy procured from the Ameri¬
can fettlements. According to Mr. Coxe, the number
of Ikins exported to Peterlburgh in the year 1777, amount¬
ed to tw-enty-feven thoufand three hundred and fixteen
beaver, and ten thoufand feven hundred and three otter
Ikins. The Ruffians alio fend to China cloth of various
kinds, hardware, and live cattle, fuch as camels, horles,
&c. The commodities procured from China are raw and
manufactured lilk, cotton, porcelain of all forts, rhubarb,
3nulk, &c. The government of Rudia has referved to
itfelf the exclufive privilege of purchafing rhubarb : it is
brought to Kiatka by fome Bucharian merchants, who
have entered into a contract to fupplv that country with
VOL. IV. No. 212.
N A. 469
it in exchange for furs. The exportation of the bed
rhubarb is prohibited by the Chinefe, under the fevered
penalties: it is, however, procured in fufficient quanti¬
ties, fometimes by clandeltinely mixing it with inferior
roots, and fometimes by means of a contraband trade*
Great part of Europe is fupplied with this drug through
Ruffia.
All this time the Engliffi feem to have bad but little
opportunity of making themfel ves known at the court of
Pekin, or of refeuing their national character from an
odium which had been cad upon it, in confequence of
the following commercial adventure, and fpirited at¬
tempt to force a trade with the Chinefe at Canton.
This happened in the following manner. At the dole
of the lixteenth century, John Mildenhall was lent out
by order of queen Elizabeth, to the court of the great
Mogul, to obtain certain commercial advantages for the
Englilh. JHe was there drongly oppofed by the Spanifh.
and Portuguefe Jefuits, who, from craft and prefents,
contrived to frultrate its completion for fome years.
The exclufive privilege of reforting thither was claimed
by the Portuguefe till the year 1634, when a free trade
to China, as well as to other parts of the Ead Indies*
was agreed upon between the viceroy of Goa, and a
company of Englilh' merchants, purfuant to a licence
granted for that purpofe by Charles I. though in oppofi-
tion to an exiding charter of queen Elizabeth, which de¬
legated that immunity to others. This company of
merchants fitted out a fleet of (hips, and gave the com¬
mand to captain Weddel, who being furnilhed with cor-
refpondent letters to the governor of Macao, could forefee
no obdacle to prevent an intercourfe with the Chinefe at
Canton. It feems, however, thatthe procurator of Mac-
cow, or, as it would appear, the Portuguefe conful, on
the fleet’s arrival off that place, went on-board the com¬
modore’s ffiip, and laid, “ that as to matters of refrefh-
ment, he would provide them ; but that there was an
obffacle to their trading, which was, the non-confent ofi
the Chinefe, who, he pretended, held his (the Portu¬
guefe) people in miferable fubjeflion. In the Hidory of
Commerce, whence this article is extra&ed, we are far¬
ther informed, that the Engliffi, mortified at the difap-
pointment, were determined to difeover, if poffible, the
river leading to Canton. A barge and pinnace, with
about fifty men, were accordingly fent out to explore,,
and in. the courfe of two days they came in fight of the
mouth of the river, the entrance of which was prohi¬
bited even to the Portuguefe ; and who, in confequence,
carried on their traffic in f'mall craft, through circuitous
narrow flraits amid various iflands. The Chinefe, alarm¬
ed at the appearance of thefe vefiels within their pre-
cimSfs, came down the river, oppofite a fort or caftle,
with twenty fail of junks, mounted with ordnance, treble-
manned, and commanded by an admiral, who defired
them to come to an anchor. Having complied, the Chi¬
nefe began to expollulate on their temerity in coming
thither to infpecl their manufafihires, and explore the in¬
terior parts of fo great a prince’s dominions ; and afked
who were their pilots. Being told that they came from
England to exercife a free trade for the mutual ad van¬
tage of both princes, paying the accultomed duties, like
others ; that they were without pilots, and were able, of
themfelves, to difeover pafiages infinitely more intricate
and dangerous ; they began to relax their aufterity, and
promii’ed to introduce three of them to the Chinefe
viceroy at Canton, provided they would proceed no far¬
ther in their pinnace. This was agreed to, and the next
day, being within five leagues of Canton, (the alarm
having reached that city,) a deputation waited on them,
and defired them, in a friendly manner, to return to their
fliips ; with an aflurance, that if they would apply to
certain perl'ons at Maccow, they fliould have a licence
granted them for the exercife of a free trade. This was
nothing but an artifice ; for their requeft being complied
with, fix vefiels belonging to the Portuguefe, laden wit h
6 D merchandize.
CHINA.
470
merchandize', failed in the interim for Japan; and it ap¬
peared they were under apprehenfions left commodore
Weddel ftiould have feized them. Being now out of
danger, they derided the credulity of the Englifh ; and
confiding in their own ftrength on the fcore of defence,
lent the Englifh. a peremptory refufal of having any iri-
tercourfe with them.
Enraged at this duplicity, -a council of war was h olden
by the commanders of the Englilh (hips, at which it was
unanimoiifly refolved, to proceed up the river as far as
Canton. Having reached the caftle above-mentioned, by
means, of fome interpreters they fell in with, they were
introduced to fome mandarines ; who promifed, on con¬
dition of their remaining on the fpot for fix days, to in¬
tercede with the principal men, refident at Canton, for
the accompliftiment of their wifhes. This was another
fubterfuge in order to gain time ; for, in the courfe of
four days, the faid fort, before difmantled, was now fur-
nilhed with forty-fix pieces of heavy ordnance ; and they
actually difcharged feveral (hot at one of the veflels as it
was pafling by, in fearch of a convenient watering place.
This daftardly conduCt, fuperinduced by the falfe repre¬
fen tations of the Portuguele, fo incenfed the Englifh,
that, as the fame hiftory tells us, they immediately
hoifted the bloody flag, got under way, anchored within
mulket-fhot of the forty and, by abrifk and well-direCted
fire, filenced, in a few hours, this formidable battery.
They then landed a hundred men, got poffeifion of the
fortrefs, difmounted the ordnance, hoifted the Britifh
flagon the walls, let fire to the council houfe, and demo-
lifhed whatever they could. Having alio feized two or
three -fmall veflels, they fent a deputation to the viceroy
of .Canton, complaining of their breach of faith. They
juftifiecl their proceedings wholly upon that ground ; and
tin-owing all the odium on the perfidy and intrigues of
the Portuguele, they efteChd a reconciliation, and ob¬
tained the objeCI in view, a licence for a free trade.
The fefplnte and perlevering -circumftances, however,
underwhi'ch the Englilh firft get footing in China, mult
have operated to their difadv'antage, and rendered their
fituation, for fome time, peculiarly unplealant. Till
then, the name of their country was unknown ; and
many contemptuous epithets were thrown upon them
long after their commercial intercourfe. Of all fo¬
reigners, the Englifh were portrayed in the molt unfa¬
vourable point of view; their complaints were deemed
frivolous and vexatious ; and, to prevent their grievances
from being made known, perfons were forbidden to
tranflate them. The1 few Englilh who had acquired as
much of the Chinefe language as to be able to reprefent
them, being applied to for that purpofe, rendered them-
felves obnoxious; and it became dangerous for the na¬
tives of Canton to undertake to teach it. And though a
faftory had now been eftablilhed upwards of a century,
yet, for want of an afiimilation of manners and habits,
which' facilitate and invigorate commerce; their mercan¬
tile concerns were materially impeded, and expoled to
•various impofitions. Added to all this, thole ancient
prejudices to ftrangers, early imbibed, and deeply rooted,
operating on the minds of the Chinefe, induced them to
Blue orders that only one port fhould in future be open
for foreign fhips ; and at a ftated period, every European
was obliged to embark, or quit the Chinefe territories,
leaving his faClory and concerns until the return of their
(hip the next year. This conduft, and thefe meafures,
it was thought, could never have taken place, but in
conlcquence of grofs miireprefentations to the emperor
of China; and, therefore, under this conviction, many
agents of the Eaft India company, hinted the propriety
of fending a meflenger to his imperial majefty, in hopes
that, by a true ftatement of their fituation, he would or¬
der a removal of the exifting grievances. Such an
event, however, was not to be brought about by any of
the Englilh at Canton; for they were no otherwile
known than through the deforiptive medium of their ad-
verfaries or competitors. The fame motives of policy or
commerce, which had led to the eftablifliment of minil-
ters at other courts, applied with equal force and propri¬
ety to the appointment of one at Pekin. The annual
amount of the trade between the two countries amount¬
ed to feveral. millions- lterling ; and though the two feats
of government were many thoufand miles apart, yet the
dependant territories of each ftate approximated within
two hundred miles of our Eaft Indian territories. It is
here, however, defer.ving of . notice, that there are many
petty princes, often hoftile to each other, yet clofely con¬
nected with, or dependant on, one or other of thefe twa
powerful neighbours, who occupy much of the lpace fi-
tuated between the weftern limits of the Chinefe pro¬
vince of Shen-fi, and the eaftern boundary of the Britifh.
government of Bengal. In the common courfe of events,
from fuch a relative fituation mult arife difeuflions which
might, without the intervention of perfons of high rank
and confidential charadter, lay the bafis of difagreeable
difputes between the two courts.
Indeed an accident which only happened at Canton a
few years fince, had well nigh put a ftop to our further
trade there. On fome day of rejoicing, in fil ing the
guns of one of thofe veflels which navigates between the
Britilh fettlements in India and Canton, but not in the
employment of the Eaft India company, two Chinefe, in
a boat lying near the veil'd, in the river of Canton, were
accidentally killed by the gunner. The crime of murder
is never pardoned in China. The viceroy of the pro¬
vince, fired with indignation at the fuppofed atrocity*,
demanded the perpetrator of the deed, or the perlon of
him who ordered it. 1 he event was ftated, in a remon-
ftrance, to be purely accidental ; but the viceroy, fup-
poiing it to have been done from a wicked dilpolition,
ltill perlifted in his demand, and to allure himfelf of that
objeCt, he feized one of the principal lupercargoes. The
other factories being alarmed, united themlelves with the
Englilh as in a common caufe, and feemed difpofed tore-
lift the intentions of the viceroy ; who, on h’s part,, .ar¬
ranged his troops on the banks of the river to force a
compliance. It was at laft deemed expedient, on .-princi¬
ples of policy, to give up the gunner, who fell a lkcrilice'
to this rancorous Ipirit of the viceroy.
The Englilh -factory tried the experiment of delegat¬
ing a meflenger to the court of Pekin ; but he was (top¬
ped on the way, and feverely punifhed, for prefuming to
penetrate to the capital without the emperor’s permiflion.
Some time after this, a more rational plan was conceived,
of lending an envoy of rank and authority, with the pre¬
vious concurrence of the emperor; and on this million
colonel Cathcart was, in the year 1787, really difpatched 5,
but dying on the outward paftage, in the ltraits of Sunda,
the embaflyof courfe failed.
The accounts given by moft of thofe who had hitherto
penetrated into the interior of China, were contradic¬
tory and problematical, contributing rather to excite 'at¬
tention than fatisfy curiofity. They all concurred how¬
ever, in alluring, that, in regard to its natural and artifi¬
cial productions ; the policy and uniformity of its go¬
vernment ; the manners and fentiments of the inhabi¬
tants, their civil inftitutions, moral maxims, and general
economy; it prefented, collectively, one of the l'ublimeft
objeCts for human contemplation, or deep refearch. The
imaginary danger of admitting a free intercourfe to per¬
fons, prone to tumult and immorality, were the obitacles
railed by the Chinefe government againll the Englilh. It
appeared that lome of thole who had infinuated them-
felves as miflionaries into the very heart of the country,
and had gained accel’s to the court of Pekin, being of
the Roman catholic perfuafion, had not only taken pains
to place their own, and all other Roman catholic coun¬
tries, in the moft favourable point of view ; but, from jea-
louly and prejudice on the (core of religion, had fedu-
loufly endeavoured to reprefent the Englilh as men of no
faith, and of little principle j and, by pointing out to
c h :
the emperor the very final] fpace which England occu¬
pies in the map of the, world, particularly when com¬
pared with the more extenlive traits of their own coun¬
try, or with the magnitude of the Chinef'e empire, the
Engl fill were reprefented as of no importance in the fcale
of nations ; a feeble race, circumfcribed in riches, in po¬
pulation, and in territory ! Yet the more fedate and
thoughtful of the (ages in China, are faid to have made
many fenfible remarks, in con trading' the fuperior num¬
ber and neatnefs of the Englifh fhips in the river of Can¬
ton, and the irrimenfity of their returns for teas, iiiks,
and porcelain, over and above thofe of all other trading
nations. Teas were unknown in Europe, before the
commencement of the feventeenth century, when they
w?re hrft introduced by the Dutch. At the beginning
of the eighteenth century, the whole of the annual pub¬
lic Tales of teas by our Ealt India company, did not
much exceed fifty thoufand pounds weight; but for fe-
veral years pad, the company’s annual Tales have ap¬
proached to twenty millions of pounds, -being an increafe
of four hundred fold, in lefs than One hundred years !
This adonifhing demand by the Englifh merchants alone,
the vaft increafe of their flopping, and the eclat of their
victories in Hindoodan, as well as their conqued of the
Philippine Iflands in the Chinefe Teas, could not but at-
traft the notice of the emperor; yet it is a faft, that re-,
prefentations inimical to Great Britain were uniformly
kept up at the court of Pekin ; whereby the Englifh at
Canton, thus denied the privilege of ad'erting their own
caufeon the l'pot, and deftitute of fupport at the capital,
were dill conlfahtly fubje&ed to oppredions in their deal¬
ings, and inl'uits upon their perfons. The reprelenta-
tion of thefefafts by the Ealt India company ; the necedity
there appeared to be of fe curing, if pofiible, a preference
in proportion to our fuperior demand in the market, for
teas, which can be had in^no other part of the world;
and the mutual advantages that might accrue from bar¬
tering Englifh manufactures for the produce of China,
under a fair and honourable- commercial treaty between
the two nations; are the circufnftances on Which was
founded the propriety, or rather neceffity-, of a diploma¬
tic einbafl'y to the court of Pekin: of which intention
official notice having been forwarded to the Chinefe em¬
peror, it received the previous approbation and fandtion
of that prince.
For this arduous negociation, earl Macartney was
named the ambaflador, and fir George Staunton, bart.
fecretary to the enthalpy ; with a fuite, which in every
refpedf did honour to the appointment. The Lion man
of war, of fixty-four guns, commanded by fir Erafmus
Gower; the Hindooftan Ealt Indiaman, commanded by
captain Mackintofh ; and the Jackall brig, were the fhips
deftined to convey the embaffy with the rich and valu¬
able prefents fent by his Britannic majefty to the em¬
peror of China. A military guard, under the command
of major, now colonel, Benfon, was alfo ordered to at¬
tend on the perl'on of the ambaflador. Every neceflary
arrangement being made, tliefe fhips fet fail from Portf-
mouth on the 26th of September 1792, and arrived lafe
©n the coafl of China, oppoflte the iflands of Chu-fan, on
the 30th of June 1793. Earl Macartney, for further affift-
ancein the voyage, had been obliged to purcliafe another
veflel at Batavia, which he named the Clarence; fo that
the fquadron now confined of four fhips. On the 2d of
July, they fell in with a l'mall clufter of iflands, called
Qu. ee-fan, where they came to anchor in nine fathoms wa¬
ter. The higheft and mod foutherly of thefe, called by
the Englifh, Patchcock, bore north by weft four miles.
Ou the third of July the lquadron weighed, and flood
in, not without difficulty, nearer to Chu-fan, by reafon of'
a multiplicity of boats around them. There were fome
thoufands in light. Three hundred crouded about the Li¬
on, from one of which a pilot was procured by the Hin¬
dooftan. He condufted her oft' Tree-a-top ifland, and an¬
chored her four miles to the fouthward of it ; but the
N A. 471
Lion and Jackall flood in, and came' to between the
Ploughman and Buffalo’s Nofe. From hence iome of
the gentlemen, with the interpreter, were difpatc hed, in
the Clarence, to Chu-fan, to bring down the pilots who
had been previou fly .ordered by the Chinefe government,
to carry the fhips fafe to Tien-fing. 'I* he Clarence, in
her paflage to Chu-fan harbour, anchored the firft even.-
•jng a kttle to the fouthward of Kee-to-point, in feven-
•teen fathoms water ; and fo good a look-out was kept,
that intelligence of her approach had already been re¬
ceived at Chu-fan. An officer, from a Chinefe veflel, paid
a vilit on-board, who, purfuant to inftubtions, condufted
the Clarence, with his boat, the next morning fafe into
the harbour. Three hundred iflands are faid to be com-
prifed between the Qitee-fan and Chu-fan harbour ; a
fpace of about fixty miles in length and thirty in width ;
among which there are many valuable and. commodious
harbours, fit for fhips of the greateft burden. This ad¬
vantage, added to its central fituation with regard to the
eaftern coaft of China, .and its contiguity to Corea, Japan,
Leoo-keoo, andFormofa, make 'it a place of great trade,
particularly at Ning-poo, a great commercial city, bor-
■dering on the province of Tche-tchiang, to which are
annexed all the Chu-fan iflands.. Twelve yeflels are dif-
•pat-ched annually for copper, from one of its ports to-
Japan.
As foon as the governor had information .that the Cla¬
rence belonged to the embafly, lie-ordered provifions of
every kind- on-board. He alio politely received the gen-
tlemen'on-fhore the next morning, and invited them to
partake of fome refrefhments.. The governor had pro¬
vided pilots who were capable only Of carrying them to
the next port, at which others were fucceflively to be pro¬
cured, till they fhp'uld arrive, at Tien-fing. He obferved,
that dt had long- been the cuftom of the Chinefe to navi¬
gate along the coaft front province to province, and that
that mode in the prelent inltance mu' ft be the molt eligi¬
ble ; that the port of Chu-fan was only an auxiliary port
to the greater one of Ning-poo, and not able to'furnilh.
fuch pilots as were required. To this it was anfwered ;
that as the Englillr fliips were much larger than the Chi--
nefe, and of a different conltrubfion, they required a
mode to be followed different from their ulual paflice
and that, as Ning-poo might fupply fuch pilots as- could
not be met with at Cliu-lkn, they would immediately go
thither in fearch of them. The governor inftqntly took,
the alarm. Their departure for Ning-poo, be laid, would
be conftrued by the emperor as proceeding from an im¬
proper or cool. reception, and that he might not only be
diliniffed from his office, but be divelted of his honours.
To avert the danger, he undertook to find pilots capable
of taking the fquadron to the defired place. Qpdeis
were therefore inftantly difpatched, commanding alTper-
fons who had ever been at Tien-fing, to repair forflvivith
to the hall of audience. Several came, and underwent
examinations ; and at laft two wrere found who had often
traded to that port, and who laid, the fquadron might
be carried to a fafe and cpmmodious harbour, under the
ifland of Mi-a-tau, within a day or two’s (ail of Tien-
fing. The pilots being brought on-board, the Clarence
got under way, and the next day rejoined the Lion.
Before the lquadron could arrive at the gulf of Pekin,
they had to fail about ten degrees of latitude and fix of
longitude, through the Yellow Sea, in which no Euro¬
pean had before penetrated, Chu-fan having been the ut-
moft boundary of their nautical refearches. The Yellow
Sea is bounded by China, Tartary, and the peninfula of
Corea. The great Hoang-ho, Whang-ho, or Yeilow Ri¬
ver,. difembogues into this fea ; carrying with it, in its
circuition, a vaft quantity of yellowilh mud, from vyhicli
circumftance the fea, as well as the river, derived its
name. The Chinefe pilots, being upon deck, looked with
aftonifhment at the manoeuvres of the Lion, and the ala¬
crity of the feamen in preparing her for fea. They had
brought with them a compals, but no chart, nor any in-
ftrument
472 CHINA.
flrumcnt for taking an obfervation. The Chinefe ro ne-
times carry with them rough drafts of their intended
track, (ketched out or engraved upon the back of an
empty gourd, its globular form correiponding, in fome
degree, to the rotundity of the earth. But as the Chinefe
feas are narrow, and every where interfered with iflands,
they have lefs occafion for charts, and they depend chiefly
on the polarity of the needle. The compafs, however,
though here of little avail, is in univerfal u(e among them.
The Chips entered the Yellow Sea on Tuefday the 9th
of July, in dark cloudy weather. Vatt quantities of the
yellowifh mud were dillurbed by the fliips' motion through
the water, when they were failing in about fix fathoms,
as appeared in the fliips’ wakes at a confiderable diftance.
On the morning of the 10th of July, being in from thirty
to thirty-feven fathoms water, they difcovered the iflands
of Tchin-fan and Shoo-tong-yeng, which bore about
north-weft by weft, diftant nine or ten leagues. On the
nth they del'cried two iflands, called Pa-tcha-fan and
Te-tchong. Friday, the nth of July, they had a thick
fog, which increafed much in the morning. Guns were
fired, during the fog, to keep the l’quadfon together ; not-
withftanding which the Hindooftan loft company, Sun¬
day the 14th, the fog was dil'pelled. The Hindooftan, it
afterwards appeared, had this day fallen in with the En¬
deavour brig, belonging to the Eaft-India company, com¬
manded by captain ProClor, on-board which veffel was a
young man, mailer of the Spanilh and Chinefe languages,
who meant to offer liimlelf as an additional interpreter to
the embafly. On VVednefday the 17th of July, the whole
fquadron again joined company. Two capes or head¬
lands were this day difcovered. Thefe, with an ifland
lying in the track from the l'outhward to the gulf of Pe¬
kin, being likely to be the firft iflands made by future
European navigators, their exaCl fituations were afcer-
tained, and the following names given to them by fir
Erafmus Gower: Cape Macartney, N. lat. 36. 54. E. Ion.
1 22. 12. by fun and moon ; 122. 20. by time-piece. Cape
Gower, N. lat. 36. 57. E. Ion. 122. 15. by fun and moon ;
122.23. by time-piece. Staunton’s Ifland, N. lat. 36.
47. E. Ion. 122. 9. by fun and moon; 122. 17. by time¬
piece. There was an inlet within Cape Macartney,
where feveral fmall craft were feen lying at anchor.
This cape may be eafily known, if it is brought to bear
north-north-eaft to north-well, by a Angular appearance
of Ax pointed peaks. From hence the fquadron failed
along the coaft in various directions, till they got into
the bay of Ki-fan-feu. The harbour of Mi-a-tau was in
an ifland, diftant ftfteen leagues farther to the wellward,
though the latitude differs but a few miles only to the
northward. The bay of Ki-fan-feu is very fpacious, ex¬
tending about ten miles from eall to well, and nearly the
fame diftance from north to fouth. It is Iheltered from
every wind except from eaft-north-eaft to eall-fouth-eall,
the direction of the entrance into it. The fquadron re¬
mained one day in this bay, having procured new pilots;
but on Sunday the 2tft of July, they made fail through
the paffage between Cape Zeu-a-tau and the ifland, keep¬
ing rather clofer to the former than the latter. There
was a bay, a little, to the wellward of the mod northerly
point of Zeu-a-tau, in which feveral velfels were feen
to enter. This has been laid down by fome miffionaries
as a fife and convenient harbour. After clearing the eall
point, they fleered a courfe from north to north-weft,
keeping the coaft pretty well on-board. On the evening
they hauled round a projecting head-land, which, with
a bluff point due weft from this, diftant about eight
miles, form the entrance of Ten choo-foo bay, in which
the fquadron anchored in feven fathoms water. The an¬
chorage being foul, by reafon of Ihells and hard ground,
the Clarence was immediately ordered to proceed to Mi-
a-tau, to examine its harbour. In the interim, an offi¬
cer was lent to the governor of Ten-clioo-foo, to notify
the arrival and purport of the fquadron ; who, when he
heard the ambalfador was on-board the Lion, inllantly
lent off a prefent of frelh proviftons and fome fruit, and
z
went afterwards in perfon to compliment his excellenc/.
The governor did pot fail to invite the vamball'ador and
his Ante, in the moll prefling manner, to entertainments
and plays on flrore. He willied for an opportunity of
(hewing his excellency, on a fmall fcale, what a magnift-
cent reception was preparing for him by his fovereign,
againll his arrival at the court of Ptdrin.
To a nation like File Chinefe, among whom fubordina-
tion in the various ranks and degrees of fociety is ob-
l'erved with unremitting ItriCtnefs ; who look up to the
throne with the profoundell veneration, and whole minds
were about to he imprefl'ed, from the example of their
fovereign, with the highell degree of conlideration for
the Englifh nation, heretofore held, if not in contempt,
at lealt in difefteem; it was a matter of the highell im¬
portance, that the individuals who compofed the em-
bafly (liould adopt fuch a cautious and circutnlpeClive
conduft as (liould avoid giving offence where it was fo
eaflly taken; and all'o endeavour to root out their pre¬
judices, and conciliate their elleem, by examples of ci¬
vility, courtefy, and moral reClitude. As the fquadron
was now pretty far advanced in the Yellow Sea, and
likely foon to arrive at its place of deilination, his excel¬
lency judged it expedient to caufe a paper to be dilperfed
throughout the fleet, tending to put thofe perfons, who
compofed the embafly, on their guard with refpeCl to
their general demeanour. This paper,, which was pub¬
licly read to the crews and pall'engers of each fliip, pur¬
ported, that the fuccefs of the embafly depended on gain¬
ing the good-will of the Chinefe; that this might alfo
depend on the ideas entertained by them of the dilpoli-
tion and conduCl of the Englifh nation, now to be judged
of by their behaviour ; that the unfavourable imprefiions
retained by the Chinefe againll the Englifh for irregu¬
larities heretofore committed at Canton, damping them
as the worft of Europeans, could only be effaced by a
conduCl diametrically oppofite ; and fucli a conduCl only
was likely to eradicate that fettled enmity ; that the
meanell of the Chinefe were fupported by their fuperiors
in all their differences with foreigners; and, if neceffary,
were ready to avenge his blood, of which a fatal inllance
had happened to the Englifli gunner, who molt inno¬
cently, and very unintentionally, deprived a Chinefe of
life : he therefore recommended particular caution and
mildnefs in every intercourfe or accidental meeting with
the pooreft individual of the country.
His excellency, who was convinced there was no ne-
ceffity for recommending to fir Erafmus Gower to make
fuch regulations, as prudence might dictate on the occa¬
fion, for the perfons under his immediate command, nor
to captain Mackintolh for the officers and crew of the
Ilindollan, trufted all'o that the propriety and expediency
of maintaining the credit of the Englifli name would l'e-
cure their voluntary obedience; and that the fame in¬
centives would produce fimilar effeCls on every perfon
concerned in the embafly. His excellency declared, that
as he (liould be prompt to encourage and report the good
conduCl of thofe who merited commendation, fo he
fliould be equally ready, in cafe of mil'conduCl, to report
with equal exaClitude, and to ful'pend or difmifs the vio¬
lators ; and that, fliould injury be offered or done to a
Chinefe, or a mil'demeanor of any kind be committed,
punilhable by the laws of China, they were not to expeCt
him to interfere with a view of mitigating or warding
off their leverity.
The next objeCl of importance was, to know whether
the fquadron could be lafely fheltered in the harbour of
Mi-a-tau. The officer who had been thither in the Cla¬
rence to reconnoitre, foon after returned, and reported
that that harbour did not afford them a fecure retreat,
on account of a dangerous reef of rocks that lay off the
eall end of the eafternmolt of the Mi-a-tau iflands, called
Chan-fan, which could not be approached by the fqua¬
dron nearer than where they were nine fathoms water.
The Clarence, however, anchored in feven fathoms, in
clayey ground, within a mile of the fliore. The ifland
was
C FI
was three miles long, and nearly as many broad ; and
was populous and well cultivated. From this report it
was determined, by fir Erafmus Gower, to fend an offi¬
cer, previous to the fquadron’s failing to the gulf of
Pekin, to furvey the mouth of the river which fell into
it from Tien-iing, that its fafety might be afcertained.
The Jackall was no fooner difpatched for this purpofe,
than a-new pilot was recommended, well acquainted with
the fpot in queftion. He did not helitate to. affirm there
was a commodious harbour within fix miles of the Pei-ho,
or White River, flowing from Tien-flng, with water deep
enough for the largelt veffels ; and he drew a fketch of
the place. As this man appeared to be more fkilful in
nautical affairs than the other pilots, much confidence
was placed in him, and it was refolved to enter the gulf
without farther delay. The fquadron therefore got un¬
der way in the afternoon of the 23d of July, keeping the
Mi-a-tau iflands on the right. The weather moderate
and clear, and the wind eallCrly ; foundings through
the day from fifteen to nine fathoms. In the morning
of Friday the 26th, were violent fhowers of rain, and in
the evening tremendous claps of thunder, with conti¬
nuous vivid flalhes of lightning. The Jackall was dil-
covered returning from the weltward, environed with
numerous Chinefe junks ; and from lieutenant, now cap¬
tain, Campbell’s report, who had been lent to explore,
St appeared that no fecure harbour was to be found on
the fliores of the river Pei-bo. The Jackall, in going up
the river, was hailed by feme Chinele foldiers in a boat,
who defired her to call anchor. Soon after a mandarin,
with feveral attendants, came on-board ; and, being al¬
lured (lie belonged to the embafly, enquired after the am-
baffador, and what prefents he had brought for his im¬
perial majelty. When he had obtained all the informa¬
tion he could as to the number and fize of the fliips, and
how many guns they carried, he clofed his interrogato¬
ries by declaring, that the emperor had given fpecial
orders for the reception and accommodation of the em¬
bafly, and that he would provide whatever might be
wanted. In the mean time the gentlemen of th£ Jackall
accepted an invitation, and were hofpitably entertained
on (liore, but Itrifitly re-examined on the former points.
The mandarin alfo inquired refpefiting the merchandize
brought for fale at Pekin, and offered to get them de-
pofited in the four Chriftian churches. Trade and an
Englilhman were, in the minds of the Chinefe, lo affo-
ciated, that nothing could exceed his furprife on being
told that they had no goods for fale ; that the perfons of
the embaffy were not merchants ; and that men of war
never carried out, nor dealt in, any kind of merchant
dize. The mandarins, being informed that the Ihips
were too large to crofs the bar, gave orders for a fuffi-
cient number of junks to be got ready, to bring the pre¬
fents, and paffengers, and baggage, on (bore. An exten-
five building, near the river’s mouth, had been prepared
for the ambaffador’s reception, fuppofing be would have
remained there feme days to recover himfelf from fatigue;
and his excellency had the choice of travelling to Pekin
in a l'edan chair, in a two-wheeled carriage, or in a com¬
modious veffel by water.
Soon after the Jackall’s return, a prodigious quantity
of live-ftock, fruit, and vegetables, were brought to the
fquadron in junks; and, not being able to How away the
whole, the i'urplus was neceffarily returned. The fol¬
lowing is a lift of the articles : twenty bullocks, a hun¬
dred and twenty (beep, a hundred and twenty hogs, a
hundred fowls, a hundred ducks, a hundred and lixty
bags of flour, fourteen chefts of bread, a hundred and
fixty bags of common rice, ten chefts of red rice, ten
chefts of white rice, ten chefts of fmall rice, ten chefts
of tea, twenty-two boxes of dried peaches, twenty -two
boxes of fruit preferved with f’ugar, twenty-two chefts of
plums and apples, twenty-two boxes of ochrus, twenty-
two boxes of other vegetables, forty bafkets of large cu-
VoL.IV. No. 2ia.
: N A. 473
cumbers, a thoufand fquaflies, forty bundles of lettuce,
twenty meafures of peafe in pods, a thoufand water me¬
lons, three thoufand mu(k melons, befides a few jars of
fweet wine and fpirituous liquors ; together with ten
chefts of candles, and three bafkets of porcelain. Not
only here, but alfo at Turon-bay, Chu-fan, and Ten-
choo-foo, the fquadron experienced the lame hofpitality;
and they were gratuitoufly fupplied, without having been
previoufly demanded.
Two mandarins of rank, one in the civil, the other in
the military, department, numeroufly-attended, came to
the Lion to congratulate the ambaffador in the emperor’s
name, and in their own, on his lafe arrival, after fo long
and perilous a navigation ; and informed him they were
ordered by their l'overeign to accompany him to court.
The civil mandarin, whofe family name Was Chow, had
the title of ta-xhin, or great man, annexed to it. He
bore the honorary diftindtion of a blue globe or button
upon his bonnet. The name of the military mandarin,
who had an engaging open countenance, was Van ; but
he, too, had the addition of ta-zhin, or great man. His
valour had been confpicuous in battle ; he had received
many wounds, and was not only honoured with the red
button upon his bonnet, but had alfo fuperadded a pea¬
cock’s feather, taken from tire tail. He was celebrious
for his (kill in archery, the bow and arrow being (till
there often preferred to fire-arms. Thefe gentlemen
were received on-board the Lion with every mark of
attention and relpedt. A third perfon of high rank, of
a Tartar race, had alfo been appointed by the emperor
as a principal legate, to attend the ambaffador ; but
being very timid of the fea, he waited to receive his
excellency on fhore.
Inquiry was made by the two mandarins, whether the
letter brought by the ambaffador for the emperor was
rendered into Chinele, and what were its contents, in
order that they might be able to tranfinit to Pekin every
poflible information relative to the embaffy. As this
queftion was not urged on the authority of the court,
the anfwer given was, that the original, with its tranlla-
tion, were locked up together in a gold box, to be deli¬
vered into the hands of the emperor. But with regard
to the prefents, after which they feduloufly inquired, they
were formally inftrufited to demand a lift of them, to be
forwarded to the emperor. An ordinary catalogue could
neither point out their qualities, nor their worth, nor
be comprehended by any tranflation : they were, there¬
fore, defcribed, by circumlocution, in all the pomp of
oriental ftyle.
The prefents confifted of an orrery, a refle&ing tele-
fcope, a pair of magnificent globes, feveral chronometers
or time-pieces, an air-pump, a machine exhibiting the
mechanic powers, five pieces of brafs ordnance, mulkets,
piftols, fword-blades, a complete model of a firft-rafe man
of war of a hundred and ten guns, ornamented vales,
various kinds of earthen ware, a large burning-glafs or
lens, a pair of magnificent glafs luftres, fpecimens of the
produftions of the manufafitures of Great Britain, in'
wool, cotton, fteel, and other metals; reprefentations of'
feveral cities, towns, churches, feats, gardens, caftles,
bridges, lakes, volcanos, and antiquities; of battles by
fea and land, dock-yards or places for building fliips,
ho-rfe-races, bull-fighting, and of molt other objefits cu¬
rious or remarkable in the dominions of his Britannic
majefty, and other parts of Europe ; alfo portraits of:
fome of the molt eminent penbns, including the royal
family of Great Britain. The defeription of thefe pre¬
fents was tranflated into Chinele, and done into Latin
by Mr. Hiitner, before mentioned ; as had alfo been his
majefty’s letter to the emperor, for the purpofe of giving
the nfiffionaries an opportunity of correcting any miftake
which might have been committed in the Chinele tranfla¬
tion, which, however, was underftood fufficiently by the
two mandarins to excite their admiration of its contents.
6 E Orders
474 CHI
Orders were given to prepare a number of junks to con¬
vey the whole acrofs the bar, after which they were to
be tranfhipped into different veffels, better adapted for
the navigation of the river; other junks were provided
to convey the perfons and baggage of the embaffy from
the fhips to the river, where proper veffels were ail'o ready
to receive them.
The lea junks which attended the fhips were to the
number of thirty, eaifo about two hundred tons burden.
The hold, by means of partitions, is divided into twelve
compartments. The competition ufed for caulking the
ieams is made of lime and oil, with fome fcrapings of
bamboo. It is very glutinous, foon acquires folidity, is
not combuftible, and is impenetrable to water. The
weather was exceedingly favourable for tranflhpping the
prefents and baggage into thefe junks ; for, though done
on the open fea, they did not fuftain the leaft damage.
The Itormy feafon, however, was approaching faff, and
fomething was to be refolved on to provide for the fafety
of the fquadron, their prefent fituation being ineligible.
With relpedl to the Hindooftan, it was thought definable
in her way home to touch at Chu-fan, provided leave
could be obtained at Pekin for that purpofe, which it
was intended captain Mackintofh, by accompanying the
ambaffador, fhould folicit in perfon. He could not only
procure there teas and lilies on better terms than at Can¬
ton, but, on his way to rejoin his fliip, he might have an
opportunity of observing the mode of fabricating the
articles he ufually carried from China, of which the Eail
India company was anxious to gain information. His
excellency recommended fir Eralmus Gower to prepare
to conduct the fquadron, either to the bay of Ki-fan-feu,
or to that of Chu-fan, where proper copveniencies might
be procured for the lick, and refrefhments for the crews ;
but trailed that the neceffary fupply of provifions would
be paid for, and that no prefents would be allowed to
come on-board for individuals.
While thefe preparations were making, under orders
from iir Erafmus Gower to his officers, his excellency
wiffied to have the fatisfadlion of his company to Pekin,
One of the brigs was to remain in the river Pei-ho to
take him to the Lion, after which his excellency requefted
that fir Erafmus would quit the coaft of China, and not
revilit it till the enfuing month of May ; the interval
of which was filled up with general inlliuftions of what
ports he was to touch at, obi'erving to be at Macao, to
meet the ambaffador on his return, in the beginning of
the following May. Sir Erafmus, however, begged to
decline the propoial of going to Pekin, deeming lus pre-
fence with the Iquadron indifpeniably neceilary. He
fhould return to one of the bays mentioned, and, after
the health of the crews were re-eftablilhed, proceed to
accompiiffi the objedls contained in the inftrudlions, for
the public advantage. The mandarins, having been ap¬
plied to, procured from the viceroy letters to enfure good
treatment for the Lion. The ambaffador and his iuite
were now preparing to quit her, on whofe departure the
crew cheerfully obeyed the orders of their commander,
to man the yards as a token of elteern ; loud cheers were
given, and a general falute from the fhips fired, which
was a novel fpedlacle to the Chinefe.
It was on Monday the 5th of Auguft, 1793, that the
ambaffador, and the gentlemen belonging to the embaffy,
embarked on-board the Clarence, jackall, and Endea¬
vour, brigs, for the Pei-ho river, as the lightnefs of thefe
veffels admitted of their, being got over the bar ; the fer-
vants, guards, muficians, and other attendants, vvent
with the baggage and prefents in the junks. The wind
Being favourable, they croffed the bar in a few hours,
and in the afternoon came to, for a ffiort time, on the
fouthern bank of the river, oppofite a linall village called
Tung-coo, which being a military poll, the troops were
■drawn up as a mark of refpedl to his excellency. From
this place the veffels were dragged or trailed along, by
%.
N A.
men upon the river’s bank, to another village named
See-coo, and thence to a town called Ta-coo, where a
great number of yachts and other boats were lying ready
for the accommodation of the embaliy. The naval pro-
ceffion, on this great occafion, was as follows :
Firlt, The grand mandarin and his fuile, in five large
covered barges ; afterwards, in a yacht,
No. 1. His excellency the earl of Macartney.
2. Sir George Staunton, bart. fecretary, and Mr*
Staunton, his Ion, page of the embaffy.
3. Mr. Plumb, the Cbineie interpreter.
4. Lieutenant-colonel Benion, lieutenant Parifh, and
lieutenant Crewe.
5. Captain Mackintofh of the Hindooftan ; Mr. Max¬
well, fecretary to the ambaffador; Dr. Gillan,
phylician ; and Mr. Hiitner, preceptor to maf-
ter Staunton.
6. Mr. Barrow, mathematician, comptroller of the
houlehold, &c. Mr. Winder, joint fecretary of
the embaffy; and Mr. Baring, ion of fir Francis
Baring.
7. Dr. Scott, furgeon to the embaffy; Dr. Dipwiddie,
profeffor of aflronomy, &c. Mr. Hickey, portrait
painter; and Mr. Alexander, draftfinan.
Laftly, Five other large junks, which contained the me¬
chanics, foldiers, and l'ervants, clofed the pro-
ceffion.
The yacht prepared for the reception of the ambaffa¬
dor, into which he entered on their arrival off Ta-coo,
was fpacious, richly ornamented, and contained a greater
number of glafs panes than the other yachts ; whole
window's, inltead of being glazed, were filled up with a
tranfparent kind of paper, fabricated in Corea from cot¬
ton, and is not eafily aife&ed by rain or any other wea¬
ther. His excellency’s apartment cornprifed moil of the
veffel, and confifted of an anti-chamber, a faloon, a bed¬
chamber, and a clolet. The faloon was furnifhed with a
fquare fopha, or feat of honour, fuch as are met with in
the manlions of the chief mandarins, which they always
occupy on giving audience. On each fide of the yacht,
from head to Hern, was conflruiled a gangway, project¬
ing two feet beyond the gunwale. Upon this the crew
manoeuvred the veffel ; and by it the domeftics were pre¬
vented from palling through the principal rooms. The
cabin allotted for the crew was next the. item, in a corner
of which was a lmall altar, writh an idol upon it, and
around it perfumed matches were kept conftantly burn¬
ing. Befides the ambaffadors, there were fixteen other
yachts in the proceiiion, independent of lighters for con¬
veying the prefents and luggage ; and the junks for the
accommodation of mandarins of various ranks, as well
as other Chinefe, ordered to attend on the occafion, were
equal in number to thofe w'hich compofed the embaffy.
Many of the yachts were eighty feet long; and, notwith-
llanding they were encumbered with upper-works, drew
only eighteen inches water. The cabins in them were
lofty and airy ; aboye them were births for the crew, be¬
neath lockers for flowage. Some had coloured curtains
on the outfide, reaching from flem to Hern, to keep out
the fun, and fhutters to ward off the rain. Some of thefe
boats, in which were feveral cooks, contained provifions
for the ambaffador’s table, to preclude the necefiity of
going on ffiore, or prevent procraftination whenever the
wind and tide were favourable for their paffage. The
tranfhipping of the luggage, of which there were fix hun¬
dred packages, occupied nearly three days. While this
was doing, the chief diredlors of the route, Chow-ta-zhin
and Van-ta-zhin, made occalional complimentary vilits
to the ambaffador, as well as to fee that he was properly
accommodated. Their politenefs extended to the prin¬
cipal gentlemen of the embaffy, who were likewiie ho¬
noured with vilits of civility. The inferior mandarins
were not lei's attentive to the accommodation and corp-
. fort
C H
fort of the pafi'engevs belonging to the embafly ; and
even the Chinefe foldiers and failors evinced a difpoiition
to pleafe beyond the ordinary line of duty.
On tlie morning of the 9th of Augull, every necefTary
arrangement having taken place, the fignal was made for
failing. This fignal, always uled upon the water, is not
made with guns, but with an inftrurnent called in Chi-
nefe loo, and by Europeans in China gong. It confiils of
circular rimmed plates of copper, in which there is mixed
a certain portion of tin, or fpelter, to make it fonorous.
Thefe being ftruck with a wooden mallet, covered with
leather, emit a found which may be heard at two or three
miles diftance. Authoritative notice on fhore, el'pecially
among troops, is made riot by drums, but by linking
two pieces of hollow bamboo together. The drum is no
martial inftrurnent, being ufed only in their temples.
The meandrous courfe of the river, which rendered a
wind that was fair on one ftretch foul on another, re¬
tarded the progrefs of the embafly, but afforded a favour¬
able opportunity of viewing its banks and circumjacent
places. Each fide was adorned with pleafant villas and
delightful gardens, and the fields were in the higheft
llate of cultivation, many of them covered with Barba-
does millet, bolcus forghum, the tailed of the vegetable
tribe, growing to the height of ten or twelve feet, called
by the Chinefe lojty corn , and is laid to increafe a hun¬
dred fold. At night its banks were fplendidly illumina¬
ted with a diverfity of lights, from lanterns of tranfpa-
rent party-coloured paper. Lights were alio affixed to
the maft-heads of the veffels ; their number and lituation
denoting the rank of thofe on-board. The fhrill and re¬
peated found of the loo , and the conftant buz and threat¬
ening (ting of mufquitos in the night-time, were both
Angularly troublefome. Not only during the firlt, but
allb in the fecond day’s progrefs up the Pei-ho, were the
banks lined with innumerable lpedators of both fexes,
and of all ages ; but the river itielf was literally covered
with boats of every defcription. Its fhores on one fide
were crowded with Hacks or pyramids of fait, from two
to fix hundred feet long, and about fifteen feet high.
Two hundred and twenty-two entire Hacks were counted,
. befides many others incomplete} which, from a nice cal¬
culation, were iuppofed to contain fix hundred millions
of pounds weight. This is an article of great revenue
to the emperor.
On the third day the embafly reached the port of
Tien-fing, the general mart for the northern provinces
of China. The city is built at the confluence of two
rivers ; the one, upon which the embaiTy was to proceed
to Tong-choo-foo, was alio called Pei-ho, the other
Yun-leang-ho. A bridge of boats extended acrofs the
rivers, which occafionally feparated to admit a paflage
for veffels. Temples and handfome edifices were built
along the quays, contiguous to which were yards and
magazines for navai ftores, and (hops and warehoules for
retail trade. A pavilion was ereded in the centre of the
city, oppofite to which the ambafladorial fleet flopped.
The viceroy, who had come by land from Ta-coo, was
in waiting here for the ambaflador. His excellency dif-
embarked, with all his f'uite, attended with his whole
train of fervants, guards, and muficiaris, and was received
on-fliore by the viceroy and the legate above-mentioned,
according to the following order of parade : Three mili¬
tary mandarins, or principal officers. — A tent, with a
band of mafic outfide the tent. — Three long trumpets. —
A triumphal arch. — Four large green ftandards, with five
fmall ones between each, and bowmen between each fmall
colour. — Six large red ftandards with matchlock men,
and five fmall colours between each flandard. — Two large
green ftandards, with lwordlinen between each. — Mulic
tent. — Triumphal arch. — A body of Chinefe archers.
After an interchange of compliments, and the accuf-
tomed refrefhments of tea and fweetmeats, the legate in¬
formed the ambaflador that the emperor was at his coun¬
try refidence at Zhe-hol, in Tartary, at which place it
I N A. 475
was his intention to celebrate the anniverfary of his birth¬
day, which happened on the thirteenth of the eighth
_ moon, correfponding with the 17th of September; and
that it was his defire to receive the embafly in that city.
The ambaflador and the gentlemen returned to their
refpe&ive yachts, and loon after a fumptuous repaft, with
the addition of wine, fruit, and lweetme.its, was fent to
them from the viceroy, as he had done before at Ta-coo;
and his hofpitality was even extended to the fervants of
the embafly, to whom he alfo lent a plentiful dinner.
One among the many inftances of polite attention to the
ambalfador, was a temporary theatre, which he had caufed
to be ereded oppofite to his excellency’s yacht, where a
company of comedians, at various times of the day, ex¬
hibited dramatic pieces and pantomimes. Boys or eu¬
nuchs played the female characters. In the evening, the
weather proving favourable, the yachts and veffels pro¬
ceeded up the Pei-ho. Its fides, in fome places, were
banked up by the lower ftalks of the millet ; in fome
reaches, by parapets of cut granite; and at others, by
caufeways of the fame material ; and fluices were made
here and there to let off water to irrigate the adjoining
lands. During the progrefs up the river, they were afi-
fifted by the tide for thirty miles from Tien-fing, where
it ceafes to flow; but in light airs, and contrary breezes,
the Chinefe failors frequently made ule of a couple of
(weeps, or large oars, which are neverlifted out of the
water. When rowing was impracticable, men were em¬
ployed upon the banks to draw or trail the veffels by
ropes. There were fifteen men to eacli yacht, and up¬
wards of five hundred were occupied on this fervice.
Tien-fing, the literal tranflation of which is heavenly
fpot , is in length nearly equal to London, and was laid
to contain feven hundred thoivfand perfons. Some of
the houfes are built with Hone, but niollly with brick, of
one ftory only, though there are fome of two ltories
high. The molt durable bricks are thole of a bluilh
or lead colour; fome few are red; and others pale
brown. The laft kind, ufed for the mean dwellings, are
only baked in the fun. The blue bricks are burnt in a
kiln by a dole wood fire, the blaze of which is not al¬
lowed to touch them ; and thole which are expofed to
its flame, acquire a reddifh colour. In the making of
bricks from the clay, thin layers of ftraw are placed be¬
tween them, without which they would, as they dried,
run or adhere together ; fo that tlie Chinefe, like the
children of Ifrael, could not make bricks without ftraw.
The lands, as on the other fide of Tien-fing, were many
of them covered with millet, which with rice, and a lit¬
tle wheat, are the principal objects of cultivation ; yet
the people have experienced the dreadful effeds of fa¬
mine from the deftrudion of locufts, orfrorri the burftof
torrents from the mountains. In fome fpots were feen
growing a fpecies of the dolichos, not very difiimilar to-
the kidney bean ; in others fields of beans, and various
kinds of pulle ; and likewife fefamum, and other plants
whofe feeds produce oil. Plantations of the tea tree,
of a dwarf fize, were alio abundant. The leaves had a
near refemblance to a myrtle. It was the feafon for
plucking the bloffoms, the finalleft of which, when care¬
fully diied, poffefs thehigheft flavour. The tea-tree of¬
ten grows upon the fides of mountains in China, and
among rocky cliffs, to come at which is frequently dan¬
gerous, and fometimes impracticable. The people there¬
fore, that they may gather the leaves, make ufe of a An¬
gular ftratagem. Thofe declivities are often the habita¬
tion of monkeys, whom they menace, mock, and imi¬
tate, till the animals, to revenge themfeives, break off
the branches, and fhower them down upon the infulters j
from thefe branches the Chinefe colled the leaves, which
is the objed they had in view. When dodor Letfom had
read the above ltatement, taken from Grofier’s Defcrip¬
tion of China, he wrote to the author, to thank him for
having given an account which coincided fb exadly with
his own, which he had given in his Hiltory of the Tea-
ti-ee3
476 CHI
tree, and which had been treated with unmerited ridi¬
cule. In nations, which have not acquired the common
art of printing, the arts, which they have difcovered, are
generally preferved and explained by paintings and hie¬
roglyphic reprefentations. In Chinefe drawings are to
be feen the hiltory of manufacturing porcelain, of culti¬
vating rice, as well as collecting and preparing tea ; in
gathering which that irafcible animal the monkey is
Ihewn to advantage. Dr. Letfom mentions drawings, in
which monkeys are reprefented gathering the branches
or leaves of the tea-tree., without exhibiting any menac¬
ing attitude. They appeared rather to be fulfilling an
office to which they had been regularly trained ; and the
more fo, becaufe others were walking and fitting by the
people, as if tamed and domefticated, whilft they were
quietly gathering the branches upon the trees. This
tame ltyle of painting led to the vulgar error.
The number of junks employed upon the Pei-ho, ap¬
peared to be incalculable. Exclufive of thole bulled in
the ordinary courfe of commerce, not lefs than a thou¬
fand, of a large fize, were employed in the fervice of the
government between Tong-choo-foo and Tien-ling, for
the purpofe only of gathering fuch taxes as were paid in
kind. It is ufual for the wives and families of the offi¬
cers and l'ailors to live conffantly upon the water. Chil¬
dren, are born, brought up, and l'pend their whole lives,
on-board ; every land is foreign to them ; and the water
may be called their native element. Each velfel, on an
average, contained fifty perfons; and, eftimating the to¬
tal of the boats at two thoufand, it will appear that a
hundred thoufand fouls move and live daily upon the
furface of the waters of that river.
The travellers, in their How progrefs up the river, of¬
ten quitted and rejoined the yachts, in order to infpeCt
objeCts on Ihore which ftruck their fancy. This conduCt
was watched with extraordinary jealouly ; and they were
given to underhand, that this freedom was difpleafing to
the legate. In Ihort, the interpreter communicated, by
feveral intimations, occafionally let out in converfation
with the ambaflador, that fome recent diffatisfaClion had
been conceived at the court of Pekin againft the Englifh
nation. Great circuml'peCtion had been obferved by the
interpreter, in acquiring this important information ; nor
was it without much addrefs that he extorted from the
mandarins the following particulars: In the year 1791,
the emperor of China lent an army into the country of
Thibet, to drive back the rajah of Napaul, who had made
predatory excurfions thither ; and, in the contell, his ar¬
my met with more obltacles, greater refinance, and heavier
Ioffes, than had been forefeen, or ever before experienced,
from fo feeble an enemy. Some of the Chinefe officers,
mortified at their ill fuccefs, fancied they law oppoled to
them not only European taftics, but European foldiers ;
and reported at court, that they perceived hats, as well
as turbans, among their enemies ; and they concluded
the former mull have been Englifh. Thus it had been
politically reported among the people of China, that the
Englifh had, in the above inllance, aClually afforded af-
fiitance. Though the ambaflador gave no credit to either
faft, he was induced to believe, that the bare affertion
would have the power to alienate any previous favour¬
able difpofition of the country towards the government
of Great Britain.
It had long been a policy pra&ifed in the eall, prior to
a meditated attack on the territories of a foreign prince,
to fend an embaffy thither, under the mafk of friendfhip,
the better to difcover its real fituation and flrength. The
Britifh government had been apprifed with what a jea¬
lous eye the Chinefe viewed their acquifitions in Bengal,
and the prejudices which might be raifed on the fcore of
ambition ; and the ambaflador was furnifhed with argu¬
ments to allay their lufpicions on that head. But it was
not within the compafs of human wildom to forefee, and
prepare againft, an imputation of having interfered liof-
tileiy with the arms of China, which had never taken
N A.
place ; nor was it till the following year, when his excel¬
lency arrived at Canton, that he was informed, from
England and Calcutta, what were the circumttances upon
which an affertion fo groundlels had been founded. It
was notorious, that the governor-general of Bengal con¬
ducted himfelf, in this bufinefs, with ftriCt neutrality,
and with great propriety and attention towards the em¬
peror of China ; declaring to the rajah of Napaul, that
the only affillance he fhould give, was to endeavour to
extricate him from a ruinous war, by means of concilia¬
tory negociation between the commanders of the Thibet
and Chinefe forces.
It is probable, that if the embafly previoufly intended
for China, in the year 1787, had not failed through the
premature death of colonel Cathcart, then appointed mi -
nifter to the court of Pekin, any miflmderflanding might
have been prevented ; or, if even the circumftances con¬
nected with the Thibet war had arrived at Canton before
the prefent ambaflador quitted its vicinity to proceed to
Tien-fing, it is poffible it might have been in his power
to refute the calumny. His excellency did convince the
principal mandarins, and Chinefe officers of Hate, that
the flory was unfounded ; but he was not able to effeCl
fo much with the Tartar legate, over whom the others
had no influence; who alone was allowed to correipond
with the government, and who evinced no diipofition to
make a favourable or juil reprelentation of the matter
to the emperor. The legate, either from niiltruft or ma¬
levolence, even refufed to fend the ambafi'ador’s letters
to firEralmus Gower, by the meflengers of government,
though he knew his excellency had the honour of re¬
ceiving a packet from the emperor. Without the legate’s
permiffion, there was no mode of conveying any intelli¬
gence whatever ; of courfe, he was fecluded from corre-
fponding with the company’s commillioners at Canton.
Thus the moll neceflary intercourfe was obltruCled, with¬
out the lead profpeCl of redrefs ; inafmuch as the legate
was the intimate creature of the colao or prime minifter
of the empire, whole fentiments were, doubtlefs, in per-
feCl unifon. It may be proper to obierve, in this place,
that the government of China has not eltablifhed any
mode of conveying letters of correlpondence for the con-
veniency of the people. The emperor only receives and
fends exprefles, which are conveyed on horfeback to and
from every part of his extenfive dominions, at the rate
of a hundred and fifty'- miles a-day. For the ordinary exi¬
gencies of government, as well as for the uie of the man¬
darins and officers of itate, there are flower couriers ap¬
pointed, who are fometimes, though rarely, permitted to
carry letters or packets for individuals. But information
is conveyed to, or with-held from, the body of the peo¬
ple, juft as the government may deem it expedient.
The perverle circumftances above-mentioned augured
an unfavourable fuccefs to the embaffy, which was pro¬
ceeding, but (lowly, towards the capital. The river be¬
ing (hallow, much mud, or diluted clay, was dilturbed
from the bottom ; and this, added to what was occaiion-
ally walhed down into it from the mountains, rendered
the water turbid and fcarcely potable. The Chinefe,
however, have an eafy mode of refining it. A fmall
quantity of alum is put into the holiow joint of a bam¬
boo, in which leveral perforations are made. A conve¬
nient quantity of water being taken from the river, it is
to be ftirred about three or four minutes with this bam¬
boo ; by which means the alum unites with the earthy
particles, and precipitates them to the bottom of the
veflel, leaving the water pure and tranfparent. But the
Chinefe of rank ufe dilhlied water for their own con-
fumption ; and even the lower claffes never drink water
till tea, orYome other falubrious herb, has been infufed
in it. Not only is this infufion drunk hot, as common
beverage, but even wine and every other liquid, is made
warm befoie taken. The fame mode prevails in the hot
climate of Hindoollan. The Chinefe, however, enjoy,
in the heat of lummer, the grateful coolnefs of ice ; but
C H
it is principally with fruits and Sweetmeats. But, not-
witliftanding tea is the common beverage of all the Chi¬
nefe, and is prefented to vilitors at all hours, yet there
are lome, efpecially in the northern provinces,- who are
fond of Spirituous liquors, and are difpofed to be very
convivial. The mandarins leemed to indulge in luxury ;
they made, daily, two, or three, meals of animal food,
highly feafoned ; each repaft confuting of many courfes.
The intervals were employed in Smoking, and chewing
the areca nut.
The embafly, in its palTage Up the river, was Saluted
by a discharge of three guns at every military poll:, fome
or which were paffed every day when the high road was
near the river. This road, though narrow, was good ;
carriages were few ; and thofeonly with two wheels, and
without fprings. Gentlemen commonly travel in fedan
chairs, chair-palanquins, or on horfeback ; and ladies in
clofe litters lufpended between mules ; and even in this
manner only for fliort diftances. T here are no coaches
in the country. The ancient cuftom of applying fails to
carriages by land, is not entirely laid afide. Theft ve¬
hicles are carts or double barrows made of bamboo, hav¬
ing one large wheel placed between them. Two poles,
riling from the oppolite Tides of the cart, ferve as malls,
upon which the fail, confining of a mat, is fet. But this
can only take place when the cart is going before the
wind. In other cafes, the machine is drawn by one man,
while another, behind, not only keeps it Heady, but im¬
pels it forward.
On the 1 6th of Auguft, the yachts having proceeded
as far up the river Pei-ho as the depth of water would
admit, came to anchor within half a mile of Tong-choo-
foo, which is ninety miles diftant from Tien-fing, and
within twelve miles of the city of Pekin. It appeared
that the Lion and Hindooftan failed from the gulf of
Pe-tche-li on the 8th of Auguft, and on the 12th had
palled through the ftraits of Mi-a-tau. While they re¬
mained at anchor in the gulf, they found the latitude of
the anchorage to be thirty degrees fifty-one minutes and
a half north, and longitude by time-keeper, a hundred
and feventeen degrees fifty minutes eaft ; and that the
latitude of the mouth of the Pei-ho, or White River, was
thirty-nine degrees north. The letter which had been
fent from the viceroy of Pe-tche-li to the governor of
Ten-choo-foo, in favour of fir Erafmus Gower, had been
the mean of procuring him every affiftance of which he
flood in need. From thence he went to take a minute
examination of the bay of Ki-fan-feu, fometimes named
Zeu-a-tau, where he arrived on the 1 5th of Auguft, and
found it fpacious, the depth of water from nine to five
fathoms, the ground or anchorage tough, and that fhips
were fecure in all direfitions ; but that wood and water
were at fome diflance in the bay. The country, how¬
ever, had a barren appearance, the inhabitants were poor ;
and it was doubtful whether proper accommodations
could be procured for the fick and convalefcents. Sir
Erafmus, therefore, determined to go to Chu-fan, where
he had more favourable profpefts ; and for this place the
tyvo large fhips fleered their courf'e.
The route prefcribed for the embafly, was through the
city of Pekin, to a villa in the vicinity of the emperor’s
autumnal palace, called Yuen-tnin-yuen, or garden of per¬
petual verdure. At this palace were to be depofited iuch
of the prefents as might receive damage by conveying
them along the rugged roads to Zhe-hol, in Tartary. A
temple, near Tong-choo-foo, was appropriated for the
accommodation of the ambaffador and his fuite, and tem¬
porary buildings had been erected for receiving the pre¬
fents. Thefe buildings, conftrufted .of bamboo, were
impenetrable to rain ; guards were placed around, and
perfons forbidden to approach them with fire or lights.
All the packages were re-landed and houfed in a day.
The temple, now converted into a caravanfary for tra¬
vellers of rank, was founded for the maintenance of twelve
priefts of the religion of Fo. The priefta were removed
Vox. IV. No. 212.
N A. 477
to a neighbouring monallery, exceptone, who was ap¬
pointed to watch over the lamps of the fhrine, and to qt-
tend his excellency’s commands. The rooms had boarded
platforms, elevated a foot from the floor ; thick woollen
cloths were fp read upon them, which, with the addition
of a culhion, conftituted the bedding of thofe priefts.
The apartments of the fuperiors were allotted for the
embafly, in which, to their great terror, were difcovered
fcorpions and fcoiopendras.
A public banquet, or breakfaft, was prepared the next
morning by the mandarins, to which every perfon be¬
longing to the embafly was invited. Befides tea, there
were various kinds of viands. Tables were Ipread in the
vacant parts of the new Itore-rooms, no other place be¬
ing fufficiently capacious. This repaft, according to
Chinefe etiquette, was given as a mark of extreme civi¬
lity, by including every attendant belonging to the per¬
fon whom it was meant to honour ; and not to have ac¬
cepted .of it, would, befides giving umbrage, have been
confidered as a want of good breeding. The diftance
from the beach to the temple was io lined with people,
that it had the appearance of a crowded fair, efpecialjy
as fimilar flails were purpofeiy eredted for the lale of li¬
quors, fruit, and other articles. Not a pauper was to be
feen on the fpot ; nor did any one alk alms. The pre-
fent, indeed, was not the feafon of diftrefs for the pea-
fantry, who, in times of dearth or fcarcity, impelled by
lharp hunger, are often driven to criminal excefles to
procure food. In thofe times of national calamity, how¬
ever, the emperor opens the public granaries for their re¬
lief, remits the taxes of the haplefs cultivator, and re-
inflates him in his farm by pecuniary aflillance.
A party of gentlemen, accompanied by fome manda¬
rins, going into the adjoining city to purchafe a few tri¬
fles, obferved the projeftion of an approaching lunar
• eclipfe difplayed upon the lides of feveral hou-les. The
Chinefe have always confidered an eclipfe of the fun as
portending fome national calamity ; and, as they efti-
mate their own happinefs by the degree of virtue pof-
feffi-d by their fovereign, they attribute their misfortunes
to his privation of moral goqdnefs. Even the emperor is
forced, as it were, to accede to the idea, and govern him-
felf accordingly. On the eve of an eclipfe, for example,,
he never engages in any important enterprize ; but feems
defirous of avoiding the converts of his minifters, that he
may fecretly examine into his pall adtions, with a view
to correft their errors, for which the approaching eclipfe
may be fent as an admonition ; and his fubjedls are then
invited to offer him their advice.
The country, for fome miles round Tong-choo-foo,
appeared level; the foil light, and of ealy culture. Its
principal autumnal crops were Indian corn and millet :
and the thick ftubble was left upon the ground for ma¬
nure. The inllruments of hulbandry for thralhing and
winnowing corn, as well as for rolling the land, were
nearly of European conftrudlion. The inciofures were
few, and but few cattle to inclofe ; pallurage ground was-
rare, the anirpals for food and tillage being foddered and
fed chiefly in flails. Straw cut Imall and mixed with
beans was the food for horles. Ploughing was performed
by oxen. Their horfes are ftrong and bony ; and many
of them are fpocted as regularly as a leopard, occafioned
by crofting thofe of contrary colours. Mules are more
valuable in China than horles, as requiring lets food, and
performing more labour. The cottages of the peafantry
are neat and comfortable ; but they have neither fences
nor gates to' guard them againft wild bealts or thieves ;
for the latter, perhaps, it were unnecelfary, as robberies
are feldom committed, notwithstanding the pur.ilhment
is not capital, as before noticed, unlels accompanied by
afts of violence.
The wives of the. peafantry are truly induftrious ; for,,
befides managing every domellic concern, they exercile
l'uch trades as are carried on within doors. They rear
filk-worms, fpin cotton, and work at the loom ;• in fhort,
6 F they
478 C H
they are the only weavers in the country. Yet their
hutbands tyrannize over them, keep them in the greateft
fubjeClion, and occalionally make them attend behind
their table as fervants. The old refide with the young,
to temper their impetuofity ; and obedience to them is
enforced as well by habit as by moral precepts. Moral
maxims are inculcated by the aged to the younger off¬
spring ; and plain Sentences of morality are hung up in
the common room, where the male branches of the fa¬
mily affemble. A tablet of ancellry is in every lioufe,
and references in conversation are often made to their
a&ions. By their periodical vifits to the tombs of their
forefathers, the moil remote relations become colleCled
and united. Even the moll diftant relative, if in ill
health, or in mifery, has a claim on his kindred for cha¬
ritable affiilance. This is the reafon why no mendicants,
nor Spectacles of real diilrefs are to be Seen in China.
The prefents, and baggage, which hitherto had come
by water, were now to be conveyed by land to the em¬
peror’s autumnal palace. Such as were liable to receive
damage by the jolting of vehicles without Springs, were
deftined to be carried by men ; and it was found, that
about ninety Chinefe waggons, forty hand-barrows, two
hundred horfes, and nearly three thoufand labouring men,
w'ould be wanted for this employ. The ambaffador, and
three gentlemen of his Suite, travelled in Sedan chairs ;
the other gentlemen, and all the mandarins, on horfe-
back. They were preceded by Chineie Soldiers on foot,
who cleared the way. His excellency’s fervants and guard
were conveyed in w'aggons. The road to Pekin from
Tong-choo-foo is perfectly level, the middle of which is
paved with granite, bordered in many places with trees.
On the road, and over a rivulet, is a liandfome marhle
bridge, wide, fubftantial, and but little elevated, as the
banks of the river are never overflowed. After taking
a breakfall at a fmall village on the road, they arrived
loon before the walls of the city of Pekin. The am-
baffador’s arrival was notified by the firing of guns.
Refrelhments were prepared at a relting-place within the
gate, over which was a watch-tow'er, having, in the dif¬
ferent (lories, port holes for cannon. Near the gate were
extenfive ftorehoufes for depofiting rice ; and a lofty
building, at no great dillance, faid to be an obfervatory,
built in the reign of the emperor Yong-loo, to whom the
city was indebted for its principal ornaments. A funeral
proceflion was met in this (Ireet, which, from the white
colour of the mourners, was taken for that of a wedding ;
but the lamentations of young men attending the corpfe,
incloled in a Square coffin, (haded by a gaudy painted ca¬
nopy, Soon undeceived the travellers. The female rela¬
tives followed, behind, in Sedan chairs, covered with white
cloth. Soon after, a nuptial proceflion offered itfelf to
view, in which it would be as prepofterous to appear in
white, as it w’ould in Europe to be dreffed in black. The
lady, whom the bridegroom had not yet feen, was carried
in a gaudy chair, decorated with feltoons of factitious
flowers, attended by her relations, friends, and fervants,
Supporting the paraphernalia, the only portion the Chi¬
nefe give to a daughter in marriage.
The embaffy halted a little wdiile oppofite the treble
gates on the northern fide of the palace wall, which en-
compaffed a conliderable Space of ground. Befides a few
Mahometan Spectators, recognifed by their red caps, were
Several women, natives of Tartary, or of Tartar extrac¬
tion, whole feet were not diftorted like thofe of the Chi¬
nefe. Many of them were genteelly dreffed, and of deli¬
cate features ; but their complexions were afliffed by art.
The feat of beauty was upon the lower lip, in the middle
of which w'as a thick patch of vermilion. Some of thefe
•ladies were in covered carriages, and others on horfe-
back, riding aftride like men. The embaffy now eroded
a llreet, Situated north and South, in length four miles;
and, in about two hours more, after having palled by
Several beautiful temples and other extenfive buildings,
it -arrived at one of the weftern city gates, whence com-
I N A.
mence the Suburbs; to traverfe which took up twenty
minutes. At length the embaffy reached the villa in¬
tended for its reception, Situated between the town of
Hai-tien and Yuen-min-yuen. The buildings comprised
Several dillinCl pavilions, conllruCled round fmall courts,
whole apartments were moftly embellilhed w'ith land¬
scapes done in frefco. The whole encircled about twelve
acres of land, in which was a garden laid out with talle ;
a rivulet meandering round an illand ; a grove of trees
with Scattered grafs plots of factitious mounds and cavi¬
ties, and craggy artificial rocks rudely piled upon each
other.
The governor of this palace, between wdiom and the
ambaflador the accultomed compliments of civility palled,
agreed with his excellency, that the moll advantageous
mode of difplaying the prefents would be to place the
molt rare and curious on each fide of the throne, in one
of the halls of audience. The entrance to this hall, whofe
external appearance was magnificent, was through three
quadrangular courts, encompaffed by feveral detached
buildings. It was a hundred feet in length, and forty in
breadth, and in height about twenty ; and ereCled upon
a platform of granite. Two row's of large wooden co¬
lumns, whofe Shafts were painted red and vamifhed, Sup¬
ported its projecting roof; and its capitals, befides other
ornaments, were decorated with dragons, wdiofe feet were
armed with five claws. There w'as nothing left in the
hall but the throne, except a few' large jars of porcelain,
and a mulical clock, made early in the eighteenth cen¬
tury, by George Clarke, of Leadenhall-ltreet, London.
The throne was afeended by Heps in the front and on
each fide ; and above it w'ere the Chinefe characters of
glory and perfection. Tripods, and veffels of incenfe,
were placed on each fide, and before it a fmall table, as
an altar, for placing offerings of tea and fruit to the fpirit
of the abfent emperor. Being the period of full moon,
a feftival with the followers of Fo, it w'as a day of facri-
fice. .Among the many names given to his imperial ma=
jelly by thefe idolaters, he has one which correfponds in
found, as well as in written characters, with that feme-
times given in China to the Supreme Being : donbtlefs
as an attribute of power reliding in the perfon of the fo-
vereign, whofe dominion they conlider as virtually ex¬
tending over the w'hole world. Believing the majeily of
the emperor to be ubiquitary, they facrifice to him when
abfent; it cannot, therefore, be lurp riling they Should
pay adoration to him when prefent. The adoration, or
ko-teou, conliils in nine prollrations of the body, the
forehead being made each time to touch the floor; which
is not only a mark of the deepell humility and fubmif-
fion, but alfo implies a conviClion of the power of him
towards wdiom this veneration is made. Thefe abjeCl
prollernations are required not only from the fubjeCls
and tributary princes of the empire, but alfo from all
llrangers, however exalted ; and the legate urged the
British ambaflador to perform them before the throne.
His excellency had previously received his Britannic ma¬
jeily ’s inllruClions on this head, and was therefore pre¬
pared to anfwer the demand. He well knew the tenacity
of the court in exacting ceremonies as degrading to one
part as exalting to the other, and which rendered em-
v baffles Singularly grateful to the imperial court. It was
this haughty fpirit which had induced the legate and cc»
lao to give orders to write, in Chinefe charaClers, not
only upon the flags of the Chinefe yachts up the river
Pei-ho, but likewife upon thofe which accompanied all
the land carriages, provided for the embaffy, the words,
“Ambaffador bearing tribute from the country of Eng¬
land.”
His excellency, considering that he might probably be
fuppofed ignorant of the meaning of thofe charaClers,
-forbore to make any formal complaint ; in which, in the
firfl place, lie augured no fuccefs ; and, in the next, that
it might be the caufe of abruptly terminating the em-
bafly, Thefe characters, however, had attracted general
notice ;
c h :
notice ; they were inferted in tlie court gazette ; they
wpuid be recorded in the annals of the empire ; and would
find their way into Europe through the medium of the
Ruffian refidents; and the millionaries in the capital.
The ambaflador was therefore particularly on his guard
with refpeft to any aft of his own, which might leflen
the dignity of his l'overeign ; and he had the example of
a Ruffian ambaflador who had refufed to comply with the
ceremony in queftion, until a regular promife had been
made for its return in like manner to his fovereign. The
Dutch, who, in the feventeenth century, had meanly fub-
mitted to every degrading ceremony in the hope of ob¬
taining profitable commercial advantages, complained af¬
terwards of being treated with negleft, and of being dif-
miffied without experiencing the fmalleft mark of favour.
In any point of view, therefore, it was mod likely that
the difpofition of the Chinefe, at that time, would refufe
a return of favours for any facrifice of dignity. The pre¬
judices imbibed againft the Engliffi on their firft appear¬
ance at Canton ; the effeft of fubiequent mifreprefenta-
tions ; and, to complete all, the recent circumltances of
the Thibet war, notwithftanding the magnificence which
every where accompanied the embafly, worked fo ftrongly
upon the minds of every Tartar chief, as to excite a mif-
trull that the Engliffi “ were come to fpy out the land,’*’
and intended ultimately to ffiare with the Tartars them-
l'elves l'ome portion of their ruling power.
The legate, who was not ignorant of the cafe of the
Ruffian embafly, flattered himlelf of being more fuccefs-
ful with the Britiffi ambaflador, from whofe kind difpo¬
fition be had built upon unconditional compliance; and
to his own efforts he added thofe of the mandarins, who
were intimate with his excellency. Thefe, however, were
aftoniffied when they heard that, for a fimilar aft done by
an European. Timagoras, in the charafter of ambaflador
to a powerful monarch of Perfia, was condemned to fuf-
fer death by his countrymen, the Athenians, as foon as
he returned home, for having degraded the nation who
deputed him ; that lefs afts of humiliation had, in mo¬
dern times, been feverely cenfured ; the aftions of men
in a public capacity being looked upon as the afts of
thofe whom they reprefent ; and that ceremonies prac-
tifed by l’ubjefts to their fovereigns, ought not to be ex-
afted from the reprelentatives of foreign princes. The
point in queftion being of the utmoft delicacy, the Bri¬
tiffi ambaffador was difpofed to gratify the declared willies
of the emperor, as far as lay in his power, without infult
to the dignity of his own lovereign. He did not, there¬
fore, refufe to accede to the ceremony of proftration, but
offered to perform the whole, on a condition which, while
it di4 «ot abftraft any perfonal refpeft from the emperor,
removed the principal objeftion attached to it as an aft
of homage or dependence in his reprel'entative charafter.
This condition was, “ That a fubjeft of his imperial ma-
jelty, of equal rank to his own, ffiould perform, before
the pifture he had with him of his Britannic majelty,
drefled in his robes of ftate, the fame ceremonies that the
ambaflador fliould. be direfted to do before the Chinele
throne.” It was of the utmoft moment that this propo-
fal fliould be accurately tranflated and forwarded to the
emperor, to avoid the poflibility of mifconception. The
ambafladorial interpreter, though a native of China, was
unacquainted with the language ufed at the court. The
legate, taking advantage of this, and direfting his views
to unconditional compliance, refilled any agreement in
writing, and was unwilling to afford affiltance to the in¬
terpreter for that purpofe. After repeated applications,
home of the miffionaries were introduced to his excel¬
lency, but with the utmoft circuml'peftion, and in pre¬
fence of the legate and Portuguefe jefuit, whom the em¬
peror had raifed to a higher dignity than any of his bre¬
thren. This man was inimical to the interefts of Great
Britain, and encouraged the legate to refill the requeft
which the ambaflador had made to remove to the capital,
where he might more conveniently prepare for his jour-
N A. ; 479
ney to Zhe-hol ; but the governor of the palace of Yuen-
min-yuen, fuperior in power to the legate, interpofed on
the occalion, and the embafly was irnmecjiately ordered
to take refldence at a palace in the city of Pekin. Here,
a Chinefe Chrillian, qualified in all refpefts for the office
of tranflator, undertook, privately, to write very expli¬
citly the above conditions, though not without much
rifk on his part, in cafe it ffiould be known to the legate;
for it is a fail that a native of Canton had been formerly
put to death, for only writing a petition for the Englifh.
Care, however, was taken in this cafe to prevent detec¬
tion. The tranflation was copied fair, and the original
rough draught deflxoyed in the tranllator’s prefence.
This memorial of his excellency was addrefied to Ho-
choong-taung, colao, firft miniller of the empire, and re-
prefented, that “ his majefty the king of Great Britain,
in lending an embafly to the emperor of China, fhlly
intended to give the ftrongeft teltimony of particular
efteem and veneration for his imperial majefty ; that the
ambaffador entrulled to convey fuch fentiments, was
earnellty defirous of fulfilling that objeft of his million
with zeal and effeft; that he was ready, likewife, to con¬
form to every exterior ceremony praftifed by his impe¬
rial majelty’s fubjefts, and by the tributary princes at¬
tending at his court, not only to avoid the confufioii of
novelty, but, in order to (hew, by his example in behalf
of one of the greateft, as well as moll diltanr, nations on
the globe, the high and jtift fenfe univerfally entertained
of his imperial majefty’s dignity and tranfeendent vir¬
tues; that the ambaflador had determined to aft in that
manner without helitation or difficulty, on this condition
only, of which he flattered himlelf his imperial majefty
would immediately perceive the neceffity, and have the
goodnefs to accede to it, by giving fuch direftions as
fliould be the means of preventing the ambaflador from
fuffering by his devotion to his imperial majefty in this
inllance; for the ambaflador would certainly fuffer hea¬
vily, if his conduft, on this occafion, could be conftrued
as in any wile unbecoming the great and exalted rank
which his mailer, whom he reprefented, held among the
independent fovereigns of the world; and this danger
could he eafily avoided, and the fatisfaftion be general
on all Tides, by his imperial majefty’s order that one of
the officers of his court, equal with the ambaffador in
rank, fliould perform before his Britannic majelly’s pic¬
ture at large, in his royal robes, and then in the ambaf-
fador’s poffeffion at Pekin, the fame ceremonies which
fliould be performed by the ambaffador before the throne
of his imperial majefty.” This paper was fhewn to the
legate, who appeared to approve its contents, and under¬
took to forward it to the emperor, whofe acquiefcence
was little doubted. In this perfuafion; the articles def-
tined for Zhe-hol were brought back to Pekin, among
which were fix neat brafs field-pieces, on light carriages.
His excellency had them tried by the artillery men, pre¬
vious to their exhibiting before his imperial majefty, and
they were fired feveral times in a minute. This celerity-
in military manoeuvres was difrelifhed by the legate, who
aftefted to fay, that the imperial army was equally as
expert. He countermanded the orders refpefting thefe
field-pieces, which before w-ere-deftined for Zhe-hol, but
now to remain at Pekin. The few barrels of gunpowder,
intended for falutes, and the mufquetry of the ambafla-
dor’s guard, were both become objects of fufpicion, and
were deiired to be given up. The requeft was immedi¬
ately Complied with as a matter of indifference. In ffiort,
the whole tenor of the legate's conduft difplayed a mind
agitated by alarm and diftrult, and left the Chinefe ffiould
attribute fuperior prowel's to the Englifli nation. Even
in a difplay of the prefents, to gratify curiofity, he was
fo illiberal as to iupprefs the leall emotion of appro¬
bation.
In the thirteenth century, the commencement of the
firft Tartar dynafty, a new plan was laid down for di¬
viding the city of Pekin into two parts ; when that de-
CHINA.
figned for the principal capital was called the Tartar city.
It has a paralleiogramic form ; and the four walls, which
front the four cardinal points, include an area of about
fourteen fquare miles, of which the palace, fituated in
the centre, comprifes, within its yellow walls, at leaft
one Iquare mile. The whole is computed to be one-
third larger than London. The other part, called the
Chinefe city , by way of diftin&ion, contains about nine
Iquare miles, the major part of which is not occupied by
buildings. Upon that part of it which is in cultivation
is conftru&ed the fien-nong-tang, or eminence venerable
for agriculture, on which the emperor facrifices previous
to ploughing and fowing the grain, as defcribed above.
The ambaffador, and moil of his fuite, fet out from
Pekin for Zhe-hol, on the ad of September 1793, accom¬
panied by the ufual number of Chinefe. His excellency
travelled in an Englifh poft-chaife, in which he occafion-
ally accommodated fome of the mandarins. At firlt they
were under great apprehenfions for its over-turning; but
their fears foon fubfided, and gained it a decided pre¬
ference over their clumfy carriages. Accommodations
were previoufly ordered at the lame palaces along the
road, where his imperial majefty had hopped in his way
to Zhe-hol. The land, as they paffed, feemed to be
highly cultivated ; and its produce generally the fame as
on the other fide of the city. One field, adjoining the
road, attrafted particular notice ; as, from its regularity,
it feemed to have been planted with a fpecies of the poly¬
gonum. The leaves, being macerated and prepared like
thofe of the indigo plant, imparted a dye of a blue co¬
lour, equal, or nearly fo, to that produced from indigo.
It was faid likewife that a dye of a green colour was ex¬
tracted from the buds and tender leaves of a fpecies of
the colutea; that carmine was feldom ufed, as their finelt
red was drawn from the carthamus ; and that the cups
of the acorn afforded a dye of a black colour.
Early in the firlt day’s journey a river was croffed, which,
though narrow, was navigable for boats. The courfe of
this, and of the others in this traCt, was to the fouth-eaft.
Goods of various kinds are brought down thefe rivers
from the borders of Tartary ; and furs, the richeft of its
produce, as well as charcoal, the chief fuel for culinary
purpofes at Pekin, are conveyed thence upon the backs
of dromedaries, animals which are fleeter and ftronger
than camels. Sheep were defcried grazing upon the
plains, having fhortflelhy tails, in high eftimation among
Chinefe epicures. Having advanced about twenty miles
in the country, the foil, in lieu of rich loam which they
had hitherto feen, now put on a fandy and more barren
appearance. A few miles farther the embalfy reached the
palace which completed their firlt day’s tour. It was fitu¬
ated at the bottom of a gentle hill, encompaffed with a
park and pleafure-grounds. In its neighbourhood were
fome mineral Iprings, faid to be occafionally retorted to
,,by the emperor, and thence called his baths.
During their progrefs oh the fecond and third days,
the travellers obferved feveral plantations of tobacco upon
the low grounds. This article in the Well Indies is cured
in extenfive buildings, here principally in the open air.
It is hung upon cords to dry, under little apprehenfions
of its leaves being injured by rain. Smoking is not only
very prevalent with both fexes here, but this cuftom ex¬
tends even to girls of nine or ten years old. The l'moke
of the tobacco is inhaled through bamboo tubes. Its
powder, too, Is taken as fnuff, as is likewife pulverifed
cinnabar ; and opium and odoriferous gums are fome-
tirnes made ule of for fmoking. Approaching the con¬
fines of Tartary, there was a perceptible aflimilation of
manners between the Chinefe and Tartars, which at Pe-
kin were flrikingly oppofite. The principal difcrimina-
tion of the Tartar women here, confiited in the fize of
their feet. Both wore natural and artificial flowers in
their head-drelTes. This decoration is neither neglected
by tire poor, nor abandoned by the old ; and flowers are
purpofely cultivated for dvefs by perlons who have no
s
other occupation. Many of thefe gardeners, from atten¬
tion and experience, have dilcovered methods of heighten¬
ing the beauty, and increaflng the fragrancy, of the ane¬
mone, the peony, the rnatricaria, and many other flowers.
On the morning of the fourth day the travellers came
in fight of what will ever continue to be the wonder and
admiration of ages, the great wall of China. The road
which led to it was by a Iteep afcent, which carried the
embalfy to the fouthern gate, thrown acrols the road,
where it paffed over the fummit of a range of hills, inac-
cefllble almoft in every part. Along this it ran through
a narrow pafs to a military poll fituated at its extremity.
Here, as well as at other polls, are placed l'mall bodies
of troops, who turned out as the embalfy paffed. A loo
was beat by a man at the top of a tower, while another
fired a falute of three cannon, placed vertically in the
ground. The embalfy palling foon after through a gate,
nearer to the Tartar boundary, arrived at Koo-pe-koo,
where the (trong garrifon refides, dellined for the defence
of this part of the outer wall. Concentric works, united
with the main wall, inclofe the fortrefs. At this northern
border of China Proper, the ambaffador received mili¬
tary honours. The troops were drawn up in two lines,
facing inwards. A captain was at the head of each of
the companies, with the Itandard, and five camp colours.
Mandarins were on each fide of the lane, formed by two
lines ; then mufic, tents, and trumpets ; triumphal gates ;
on each fide twelve companies in fucceflion ; and lallly,
ten field-pieces. Each of the companies was drawn up
in the following order :
The leader, ufually a bowman ;
the llandards;
one fword, five fmall colours ; one fvvord,
and matchlocks and fwordfmen, and
fwordfmen, in numbers nearly equal, fwordfmen,
five deep. five deep. five deep.
The whole number amounted to about twelve hundred
men ; and the fpace between the companies was about
feven yards, nearly equal to the extent of their front. The
embalfy had hardly palled the Chinefe wall, when a Tartar,
one of the attendants, being ordered to be punilhed by
fome of the Chirtefe mandarins, for milbehaviour, the
man made a vigorous refinance, and exclaimed, ir. a loud
voice, that no Chinefe had a right to inflibt punilhment
on a Tartar after having paffed the great wall. An
inllance of claimed or affected fuperiority of the Tartar
chiefs over Chinefe, of equal rank, occurred alfo on his
excellency’s arrival at the next llage ; where, receiving a
complimentary vilit from a Tartar military mandarin,
Van-ta-zhin fcarcely ventured to fit down in his prefence.
On this fide of the wall the leafon appeared to have
undergone a fudden change. The air was much cooler,
the mountains were either bare or thinly fcattered with
verdure, the pine-trees were Hunted, the oalc, afpin, elm,
and walnut, trees, diminilhed in fize, and the woods, in¬
habited by wolves, bears, and tigers, little better than
thorny Ihrubs. Hares, remarked for the length and
fpread of their feet and toes, many of which had white
furs, were not hunted by dogs, but driven into fnares
by men. The peafants of this part, like thofe about
Swifferland and the Alps, are fubje£t to a levelling in the
glands of the neck, called goitres, or craws, fuppofed to
be fuperinduced by the frequent ufe of fnow water. In
the feventh or laft day’s journey, the ridges of the moun¬
tains, containing immenfe rocks of granite, ran nearly
parallel to the road. Between the upper ridge and bot¬
tom of the valley was defcried a perpendicular rock or
antique ruin, of a very fingular appearance, two hun¬
dred feet high, of an irregular form, or rather of that
of an inverted pyramid, having tall Ihrubs growing
upon its furface. The cool temperature of the atmo-
fphere is coniiderably increafed by the relative eleva¬
tion of this part of the country ; it having been afcer-
tained, that the afcent into Tartary is at leaft five thou-
fand
C H
fend yards above the furface of the Yellow Sea. At a
fmall diftance from the towering rock above defcribed,
through a recefs of mountains, the valley of Zhe-hol, the
fumme'r retreat of his imperial majefty, opened to view.
The embafly proceeded in due order to Zlie-hol, was re¬
ceived there with military honours, and conducted to a
lliite of edifices, connedled to each other by iteps of gra¬
nite. They were fpacious and convenient, commanding
a view of the town, and part of the emperor’s park. The
imperial garden, the palaces, and the temples, lituated
immediately beyond the town, exhibited at once a pleat¬
ing fcene of grandeur and magnificence.
Soon after the ambatfador’s arrival, he was vifited by
two mandarins of rank, with polite greetings from his
imperial majefty ; and by another mandarin on the part
of the great colao or prime minifter, Ho-choong-taung.
The legate called the lame day, and, without offering the
fmallell: apology, delivered back to his excellency, open,
the memorial refpedting the ceremony of reception, which
had been entrufted to him lealed, under the promife of
tranfmitting it to Ho-choong-taung. The legate infi-
nuated that he had kept the memorial in his own pof-
feflion, though it was a known fadl it had been forwarded
to Zhe-hol, and its coutents approved. This change of
fentiment was fuppofed to have been effected at the infti-
gation of the viceroy of Canton, recently arrived at Zhe-
hol from Thibet, where he had commanded the Chinefe
troops. He was a declared enemy to the Englilh, and
reprelented them as a reftlels, enterprifing, and danger¬
ous, people. The colao was induced to believe it defina¬
ble, that the homage of vaflals to the emperor fhould be
performed by the ambaflador, without any return of the
independence of his own fovereign. Upon this ground,
his excellency’s memorial to the court was not to be
avowed, and, of courfe, no anfwer returned; and a firm
opinion was entertained, that when the ambaflador fhould
be introduced into the prefence of the emperor, he could
not avoid making the accuftomed profternations without
annexing any condition. Before his excellency, then,
fhould make his appearance at the palace, it became in-
dilpenfably neceflary to have an eclaircifiement of the
bulinels. The colao, indeed, had requefted an imme¬
diate conference with the ambaflador, to learn the pur¬
port of his majefty’s letter to the emperor. But, inde¬
pendent of indilpofition, other motives would have in¬
duced him to decline the vifit ; and it was determined
that fir George Staunton, fecretary to the embafly, fhould
be lent in his Head, with a copy of the king’s letter, and
the memorial returned by the legate. As by the etiquette
of the Chinefe court, no fecretary can hold converfe with
the prime minifter, nor even fit down in his prefence, re-
courfe was had to the commiflion of minifter plenipo¬
tentiary, granted to the fecretary, in cafe of abfence or
indilpofition of the ambaflador; and in this charafler he
waited on the colao. This vizier of China had been
raifed, about twenty years before, from an obfcure birth,
and from the humble ftation of one of the guards of the
palace gates, to the dignified ftation which, under the
emperor, delegated to him the whole power of the em¬
pire. On entering the audience-room, the colao was
found fitting upon a platform covered with filk, between
two Tartar and two Chinefe mandarins of ftate. A. chair
was brought for the Englifh minifter, but the legate, and
feveral other mandarins, and the interpreter, flood the
whole time. The colao having formally demanded the
objedl of the Britifh embafly to China, he was referred to
his majefty’s letter to the emperor, a Chinefe copy of
which was handed to him, and read. It commenced
with complimenting the emperor of China, by ftating,
that “ the natural diipofition of a great and benevolent
ibvereign, fuch as his imperial majefty, whom Providence
had feated upon the throne for the good of mankind,
was to watch over the peace and fecurity of his domi¬
nions; and to take pains for difierninating happinefs,
virtue, and knowledge, among his lubjefis, extending
Vol. IV. No. 213.
[ N A. • 48s
the fame beneficence, with all the peaceful arts, as far as
he was able, to the whole human race.” That his Bri¬
tannic majefty, “ imprefl'ed with fuch fentiments, from
the very beginning of his reign, when he found his
people engaged in war, had granted to his enemies, after
obtaining vidlories over them in the four quarters of the
world, the bleflings of peace, upon the moft equitable
conditions:” that, “ fince that period, not fatisfied with
promoting the profperity of his own fubjefits in every
refpeft, and beyond the example of all former times, he.
had taken various opportunities of fitting out (hips, and
fending in them fome of the moft wile and learned of his
own people, for the difcovery of diftant and unknown
regions; not for the purpofe of conqueft, or of enlarging
his dominions, wdiich were already lufficiently extenfive-
for all his wilhes, nor for the purpofe of acquiring wealth,
nor even for favouring the commerce of his fubje&s ;
but for the fake of encreafing the knowledge of the ha¬
bitable globe, of finding out the various productions of
the earth ; and for communicating the arts and comforts
of life to thofe parts, where they had hitherto been little,
known : and,” that “ he had fince lent vefiels, with ani*
mals and vegetables moft ufeful to man, to ifLnds and
places where, it appeared, they had been wanting:” that
“ he had been ftiil more anxious to enquire into the arts,
and manners of countries, where civilization had been
improved by the wife ordinances and virtuous examples
of their fovereigns, through a long feries of ages; and
felt, above all, an ardent wilh to become acquainted with
thofe celebrated inftitutions of his Chinefe majefty’s po¬
pulous and extenfive empire, which had carried its prof¬
perity to fuch a height, as to be tb.e admiration of all
furrounding nations.” That “ his Britannic majefty
being then at peace with all the world, no time could be
fo propitious for extending the bounds of friendfnip and
benevolence, and for propofing to communicate and re¬
ceive the benefits which mull refult from an unreierved
and amicable intercourfe between fuch great and civili¬
zed nations as China and Great Britain.” With this
letter the colao leemed highly gratified : upon which fir
George Staunton laid before him the ambaffador’s me¬
morial ; of which, however, he afreCted to be ignorant,
although he was prepared to make objections to the pro-
pofal it contained; which objections being anlivered in.
a manner that had been pointed out by his excellency,
the conference ended in the wilh, that the colao’s reafons
might be communicated to the ambaflador, for his fu¬
ture conflderation.
The next day, the legate and two other mandarins
paid an official vifit to the ambaflador, on the part of the
colao, and prefled him to give up the point in queftion.
They reprelented the proltration as a Ample unmeaning
ceremony, when done towards the emperor, but a fimilar
one towards his Britannic majefty as of the moft ferious
import; and as hints of perlbnal inconvenience were
thrown out, 5h default of unconditional compliance, his.
excellency took that opportunity of declaring, how much
his fenle of duty to his fovereign exceeded his fenfe of
danger* that there mull either be a reciprocity of cere¬
mony, or that fome ftriking charaCterifticlhould be elta-
blilhed whereby to diftinguilh between a compliment
paid on the part of a great independent fovereign, and
the homage performed by tributary princes ; elpecially as.
already it had been endeavoured to confound them by
giving the name of tribute to the Britilh prefents, as ap¬
peared by the infcriptions placed upon the flags by the
Chinefe. Not being, perhaps, aware that this circum-
llance was known to the ambaflador, they were forced to
admit the propriety of the propofal; and they alked,
how far confident with his duty, and in what manner,
different from that of the vaflals, he could teflify his per-
fonal refpeft to his imperial majefty ? His excellency re¬
plied, that on approaching his own fovereign, to whom
he was bound by every bond of allegiance and attach¬
ment, he bent upon ohe knee 5 and that he was willing
6 G ta
C H
to comply with the fame form, to demonftrate his refpect-
ful fentiments towards his imperial majefty. This pro¬
portion feemed perfedtly fatisfaiftory to the mandarins,
who promiled to return loon with the court’s determina¬
tion. In the interim, it became a matter of furprife at
Zhe-hol, how a few folitary ftrangers, at the mercy of a
foreign court, Ihould have the prefumption to offer to it
conditions, or the intrepidity to refute to it obedience.
They were to be fent back without audience, and no
attention paid to their complaints. It was at that mo¬
ment, however, necelfary to complain of the paucity of
provifior.s, which neglect was inftantly redrefl’ed, and
Supplies in future abundantly furnifhed. Intimation
was alfo given to the ambaffador, that his imperial raa-
jeily would accept of the fame form of fefpedlful obedi¬
ence from the Englifh, which' they were aCcultomed to
pay to their own fovereign. It was alfo notified, in
form, that the reception of the embaffy by the emperor
of China, fhonld take place on Jffie 14th of September,
three days prior to his birthday. In the interim very
flattering meffagCs were conveyed to his excellency, ex-
preffive of the great fatisfaCtion which the prefents gave
to his imperial majefty.
In a private vilit which the ambaffador afterwards
made to the colao, he was received with unrefervednefs
and affability, and with proper attention to his rank and
charafter. In the courfe of converfation, his excellency
was deftrous of impreffing the colao with a full convic¬
tion of the ingemioulnels of the pall conduft , and the puri¬
ty of the future intentions of his Britannic majefty towards
China. He perfifted in the pacific and beneficent maxims of
his government, wliofe chief objedt was the extenfion of
commerce for univerfal benefit; and he (lightly touched,
as incidental matter, 011 the affairs of the tributary
princes; on the dilfolution of the Mogul empire of Hin-
dooftan, in whole contefts, though they claimed pro¬
tection of the neighbouring countries, the Englifh did
not interfere. The colao, however, afforded not the
leaft opening for a particular difavowal of having lent af-
iiftance to tire rajah of Napaul againft the people of Thi¬
bet. His excellency alfo, being no ftranger to the
haughty notions entertained by the Chinefe of their be¬
ing independent in point of commerce, and that every
i’uch trail faction with foreigners was by them confidered
as acmirtefy, was far from infinuating that they could be
advantaged in a mutual interchange of commodities ; in
the fupply of cotton or rice from India; of bullion, or
lallly, by the aid of a naval force to exterminate the
fwarm of pirates from their coafts. The ambaffador was
not averfe to their conlidering a commercial intercourie
as a condefcenlion on their part, and offered to treat on
thofe terms. The colao oblerved hereupon, that they
ihould have frequent opportunities of couverfing upon
this fubjeft, during his excellency’s abode in China.
1-Io-choong-taung, befides being a finifhed ftatefmari, was
of refined manners, and of deep penetration. The favour
of his fovereign called him to his high office and power,
and the approving voice of perfons of rank and influence
maintained him in It. He was rendered llill more fecure
in its poffeflion by a matrimonial tie, his fon being mar¬
ried to a daughter of the emperor ; for princes, in Afi-
atic governments, often intermarry with their fubjefts.
This connexion, however, alarmed lbme of the imperial
family, and other loyal l'ubjedis, who faw no bounds to
this favourite’s ambition, inalmuch as the eftablifhed
principles of that government leave the fucceflion to the
choice of the reigning prince, who, in lieu of its delcend-
ing by primogeniture, may exclude, as has already been
noticed, even his own offspring and family. A man,
over zealou's, was punifhed capitally, by the emperor,
for daring, in a memorial, toadvife his imperial majefty
to proclaim his iucceffor, in order to avoid future diffen-
tiofis.
The emperor was accompanied by moft of his family
op the day of the ambafl'ador’s presentation, the fcene of
[ N A.
which was Ir, the garden of the palace of Zhe-hol. The
emperor’s magnificent tent was placed in the middle of
the , garden, and within it was a throne. Immediately
behind this tent was another, of an oblong form, having
a fopha in it at one extremity, for the emperor to retire
to occaffonaliy. In the front were feveral fmall round
tents ; and one for the accommodation of the embafly
rill his imperial majefty Ihould arrive; others for that of
the tributary princes' of Tartary, and delegates from tri¬
butary ftates, who generally come to Zhe-hol, to be pre¬
lent at the celebration of the birthday, but who attended
now to dignify the ambaffador’s reception. The repre-
fentative of the king of Great Britain was to be received
by his imperial majefty in his large ftate tent, feated upon
his throne. AS a compliment to the Britifli embaffy, the
emperor permitted his courtiers to appear dreffed in Eng-
liffi cloth in lieu of filk and fur. The princes wore the
tranfparent red button, marking the higheft of the nine
orders, as fixed by the prefent emperor. No perfon ap¬
peared who was inferior to the fecond rank in the ftate,
the chara&eriftic of which is, the opaque red button.
There are three claffes of another kind of dignity, which
confift of peacock’s feathers fixed in agate tubes, worn
pendent from the bonnet ; and he who had been honoured
with three feathers, doubtlefs thought liimfelf thrice
happy. In compliance with the etiquette of the court,
which is to be a long time in waiting, the embaffy affem-
bled by the dawn of day ; but many of the courtiers
had remained all night in the garden.
The emperor’s approach was notified, foon after day¬
light, by inftruments of mulic. His imperial majelty
was preceded by perfons loudly proclaiming his virtues
and his power. He was borne by fixteen men in a tri¬
umphal chair, followed by his guards, officers of the
houlhoid, ftandard and umbrella bearers, and a band of
mulic. He entered his tent, and afcending a few Iteps,
feated liimlelf upon the throne. The colao, and two of¬
ficers of his houlhoid were next him, and knelt when¬
ever they addreiled him. The princes of the family, the
tributary princes, and officers of ftate, having taken their
relpedtive ftations in the tent, the prefident of the tribu¬
nal of rites conduced the ambaflador, attended by his
page and interpreter, the minifter plenipotentiary being
alio prelent, near the foot of the throne, on the left hand
fide, which is the place of honour. The other gentle¬
men of the embaffy, many mandarins and officers of
various ranks, were placed at the great opening of the
tent, where every thing that palled could be oblerved.
His excellency the earl of Macartney appeared in a
fuit of velvet richly embroidered, decorated with a dia¬
mond badge and ltar, the order of the Bath, and over
this, a long mantle of the fame order. The minifter
plenipotentiary, fir George Staunton, being an honorary
dddtor of laws, of the univerfity of Oxford, was habited
in the lcarlet gown of that degree. The ambaffador,
purfuant to inltrudlions received from the prefident of
the ceremonies, held the large, magnificent, l’quare gold
box, embelliffied with jewels, containing his majefty’s let¬
ter to the emperor, between both hands raifed above his
head, then mounting the fteps which led to the throne,
and bending upon one knee, prefented the box with a
fuitable addrels to his imperial majefty, who receiving it
graciouily with his own hands, put it by his fide, and
expreffed “ the fati&fafition he felt at the teftimony which
his Britannic majelty gave to him of his elteem and good
will, in fending him an embaffy, with a letter and rare
prelents ; that lie, on his part entertained ientiments of
the fame kind towards the fovereign of Great Britain,
and hoped that harmony would always be maintained
among their refpeftive lubje&s.”
The perfon of the emperor was defcribed as being
about five feet ten inches high, of a well proportioned
form, with regular features; and, though he had juit
completed his eighty-third year, he dilcovered not the
decrepitude of age. He was affable in his deportment,
difplaying
T CHIEW-JLITW GJEMPJB1R.OK. of CH3KA
" ho grave Audience to the British Embafsv in 3793 .
London Published as the Act Mints July i5.i8m by Wilkes .
C H
<lSfplaying the dignity of the prince in the fuperior
manners of the man. His habit was a robe of dark pur¬
ple 111k, with a cap of black velvet, furmounted with a
red ball, and ornamented with a large pearl in the front ;
liis boots were of fllk embroidered with gold ; his under
garment was of yellow fitk ; a blue lilk fafh or girdle was
tied round his watte, and a firing of pearl beads were
fufpended from his neck ; on his bread he wore a tablet
of yellow fattin, on which was beautifully wrought a fi¬
gure or creft of the five-clawed dragon, which, like the
lion in Great Britain, is made the emblematic guardian
of the Chinefe throne. The portrait of the emperor,
done by Mr. Alexander, draftfman to the etnbaffy, and
publifhed as a frontifpiece to fir George Staunton’s mag¬
nificent work, is faid to have been taken under unfavour¬
able circumftances. Sir George remarks, “that to ren¬
der the portrait more correCt, it might have been proper
to draw the eye more full and clear, and the counte¬
nance more open and cheerful. Such at lead it was dur¬
ing the interview with the ambaffador, which was pro¬
longed by the necefiity of interpreting- whatever was faid
by either party.”
The dignified and fplendid manner in which the em-
baffy was received, influenced the minds of the Chinefe,
and induced them to believe that the government was
about to make a change of meafures favourable to the
Englifli. AmbaiTadors were not ufually received by the
emperor upon his throne ; nor were their credentials de¬
livered into his hands, but ordinarily into thofe of his
miniflers. The fird prefent which the emperor of China
made in return, to his Britannic majedy, was a jewel or
precious done, more than twelve inches long, highly va¬
lued by the Chinefe. It was carved into the fimilitude
of a Chinefe fceptre, in the form of that which is always
placed upon the imperial throne, aliufive of peace and
plenty. The ambafiador, in compliance with the Chinefe
etiquette, and alfo the minider plenipotentiary, refpeCt-
fully offered prefents, in their turn, on their own behalf;
which his imperial majedy vouchfafed to receive, and
gave others in return. Adverting to the inconveniency
of having recourfe to an interpreter to explain whatever
pafled during the interview, his imperial majedy aflced
the colao, if there were any perfons in the embaffy ac¬
quainted with the Chinefe language ; and being told
that the ambaflador’s page, mafter George Staunton, a
youth then in his thirteenth year, wras the only one who
had made any proficiency in it, the emperor delired he
might be brought up to him ; and he alked him to fpeak
Chinefe. His imperial majedy was fo pleafed with the
converfe and elegant manners of this accompliflied young
gentleman, that he took from his girdle his areca-nut
purfe, which hung to it, and prefented it to him with his
own hand. It was of plain yellow filk, and had the figure
of the five-clawed dragon, and fome Tartar characters
wrought upon it.
At the conclufion of thefe ceremonies, were brought
up to the emperor, at the right hand of the throne, feve-
ral Hindoo ambafladofs from Pegu, and Mahometans
from the vicinity of the Cafpian Sea, who, when they
had repeated nine folemn proltrations, were fpeedily dii-
milfed. After this, the Englifh ambafiador, and the
three perfonages accompanying him, were conduced to
the left hand of his imperial majedy, and feated upon
cufhions. The princes of the imperial family, the chief
Tartar tributaries, and the high ed officers of the court,
were leated according to rank, nearer Ifo or more remote
from the throne, before which was placed a table for his
imperial majeity ; and one table was likewife laid for
every two guelts. When all were feated, the tables were
uncovered, and difplayed a fplendid banquet. Various
kinds of viands and different forts of fruit were ferved up
rn bowls, piled pyramidally one above another. Tea
was alio introduced. During the repad, every bowl or
cup handed to the emperor was taken with hands raifed
above the head, as had been done by the ambaffador
i
N A. 4^
when he prefented the gold box. Much filenceand great
i'olemnity, verging on religious awe, were obi'erved dur¬
ing the whole of this bufinefs. Yet his imperial majefty’s
attention to his European gueds was remarkably confpi-
cuous. By his order, feveral diflies were handed to them
from his own table ; and, when the repad: was finithed,
lie lent for them, and gave them, with his own hand, a
goblet of warm Chinefe wine. Inquiringof the ambaffa¬
dor how old his own fovereign was, he cordially wifiied,
in anfwer, that he might attain to his years, which then
amounted to eighty-three, in a perfeCt enjoyment off
health. The fedival being concluded, he defeended
from the throne, and walked firm and ereCt to the open
chair which was in waiting, and which conveyed hint
back to his palace with the lame folemnity in which he
came.
A fliort time after, the ambaffador received from his
imperial majedy, prefents of filk, porcelain, and teas for
himfelf and all the gentlemen of his fuite. Some rare
white grapes, more oblong in form than the Spanifli
olives, and about their fize, were mixed with the oCca-
fional prefents of fruit. At or after the cultomary vifits,
between fuperiors and inferiors in China, an interchange
of prefents takes place ; but thofe from the former are be¬
llowed as donations, while the latter are received as offer¬
ings : thefe being the Chinefe terms for luch prefents as
pafs between the emperor and foreign princes. But among
the many infrances of civility and politenefs on the part
of the emperor, was an invitation to the ambaffador and
fuite to vifit the gardens and pleafure grounds of Zhe-
hol. This, like many other tranfaCtions at the imperial
court, began early in the morning. In going thither
they met the emperor, who, after being greeted by the
ambaffador, informed him, he was proceeding to his de¬
votions in the temple of Poo-ta-la ; that, as they did not
adore the fame gods, he fhould forbear to l’olicit his ex¬
cellency to join him; but that he had given directions
to his miniiterSi to accompany him through the gardens.
His excellency was not lei's furprifed than pleafed to>
find that Ho-choong-taung, the prime minilter, had been
ordered for this purpofe, in the hope that it might afford
a favourable opportunity of contracting an intimacy,
and of refuming the topic which was the chief objeCV of
liis million. But thispleafurable idea was foon repreffed
by the appearance of the Thibet general, who joined the
colao, as if he dreaded the ambaffador’s gaining any af-
cendency over him, or that any explanation might take
place between them relative to the Thibet war, or con¬
cerning any other fubjeCt interefting to Great Britain.
The general’s brother, and another chieftain of rank,
were alfo prefent. His excellency and fuite were con¬
ducted by them through a valt inclofure of pleafure
grounds, forming a portion only of the extenfive gar¬
dens ; the remainder, appropriated for the ufe of the fe¬
male part of the imperial family, was inacceffible to
thefe mi hitters as well as to the Englifh. Riding through
a verdant vale, in which were willows whole trunks were
of vaft magnitude, they arrived at a lake, upon which
they failed in yachts till they could proceed no further
for a bridge. The fpreading leaves and fragrant flowers
of the lien- winy, a fpecies ot lily, covered the furface of
the water.
Near the bordefs of the lake were feveral final! palaces.
In each was a public hall, having a throne in the mid¬
dle, and a few fide rooms chiefly furnifhed with Euro¬
pean works of art, and rare natural productions ot Tar¬
tary. Upon a marble pedeltal, placed m one of the pa¬
vilions upon the lake, was an agate of unique beauty
and fize, which, by art, is made to reprefent a land-
fcape ; it is four feet long, upon which is cut a copy of
verfes compofed by his imperial majeity. Various kinds
of quadrupeds and birds were difeovered in the gardens,
but no menagerie of wild beads. There were alfo un¬
commonly large varieties of gold and filver fillies fport-
ing in ponds of clear water, wliofe beds were covered
with
V.
CHIN A.
4S4
with agate, jaiper, and other precious ftones. The walks
were not covered with gravel, nor were the grounds en¬
riched by belts of trees, nor clumps of (hrubs ; art had
lent but little afliftance to nature in the diftribution of
ks objefts. One of the curiofities,' reported to be in the
garden of Zhe-hol, was inadmiflible to the party, the
to^wn in immature ; being inclofed within thofe limits
let apart for the ladies of the palace. It is faid, by a
miffionaiy, to be an exaft representation of the tranfac-
tions of common life; as well as the bustle and confulion
of the capital. The fame miffionary, in quality of artilt,
had been engaged in the embellifhment of afimilar work,
in the ladies’ -garden at Yuen-min-yuen. Something of
this kind is juft finifhed in one of the imperial palaces of
Peterfburg.
The general deportment of the colao, duringtheex-
curfion through the gardens, was that of an experienced
courtier; his politenefs and attention to the ambaffador
were unremitting. The other minifter was affable and
courteous ; but the manners of his brother, the general,
were formal and ungracious ; nor was it in the power of
the ambaffador, by flattering his talents as a warrior, to
diffipate his ill humour. The prime minifter, in the
courle of converfation, mentioning the arrival of the
Lion and Hindooftan at Chu-fan, his excellency feized
that opportunity of requefting that captain Mackintoih
might now be permitted to join his fliip, having paid his
obeifance to the emperor; but the Thibet general, who
kept clofe to the colao, immediately interpofed and ex¬
claimed, “It was highly impolitic to fufter him to tra-
/verfe the Chinefe dominions.” Nothing decifive was
therefore determined on for the prefent ; but the ambaf¬
fador prelied the colao to give him an.opportunity here¬
after of renewing the fubjeft. Ho-choong-taung, from
the multiplicity of ftate bufinefs, and the great fatigue
of that day's exercile, was taken ill, and he fent to re-
queft the ambaffador would allow bis Engliih phyfician
to vifit him. Dodfor Gillan followed the meffenger to
the colao’s houle, where fome of the faculty were affem-
bled. Tea, fruit, and fweetmeats, followed the firft ce¬
remonies of introduction ; when thefe were removed,
the patient prefented firft his right arm, then his left ;
and the doftor, to comply, in tome degree, with the
prejudices of the country, and that he might give no of¬
fence either to the patient or his phyficians, very gravely
felt the pulfe of both arms, and for fome continuance.
He told them, however, that Europeans did not deem it
at all necefiary to feel the pulle in different parts, as they
well knew that the pulfation was fimulfaneous in every
part of the body ; which doftrine being new, and as
amazing to the phyficians as to the colao himfelf, he ap¬
plied the fore finger of the colao’s right hand to the left
temporal artery, and the fame finger of his left hand to
the right ankle, when, to his utter affonifiiment, he
found the pulfe beat at the lame inftant of time at each
part. By the anfwers to the queftions which doftor
Gillan put to him, he found two diftinft complaints,
rheumatifm and hernia. The doftor’ s explanation of the
nature of the diforders, and propofed method of cure,
were put down in- writing; the colao was perfeftly fatis-
fied v.ith the doftor’s ideas, and made him a prefent of a
piece of’ ink.
As no interview could be obtained with the colao for
fome time, notwith;,anding he was foon eafed of his rheu¬
matic pains, the ambafiador determined to write to him
on the fu jeft of captain Mackintofh, to requeft leave for
his fpeedy departure to rejoin his (hip at Chu-fan; and,
as no Chinefe could be found hardy enough to carry a
letter, without leave, from the legate, (who had juft been
degraded by the emperor for not going on-board the Lion
with the two mandarins, Van-ta-zhin and Chow-ta-zhin,
and now wore in his bonnet the opaque white, inltead of
the tranfparent blue button, and, pendent from his cap,
a crow's tail feather inftead of a peacock’s, though he
kill retained his authority and offices, being protected
by Ho-clioong-taung,) the interpreter to the embaffyv
not without great rifle, and much perfonal infult from
the rabble on the road, undertook the bufinefs, and put
the letter in a proper channel for its fpeedy delivery.
The ambaffador and his fuite were called before fun-
rife, on the morning of the 17th of September, to be pre¬
fent at the celebration of the emperor’s birth-day, a fef-
tival which lafted many days, though the feaft appeared
to be calculated for rendering foiemn and devout ho¬
mage to the fupreme majefty of tiie emperor. The cere¬
monial paffed in a vaft hall, in which were affembled the
princes, tributaries, ambaffadors, great officers of ftate,
and principal mandarins. To the found of cylindric
bells, fufpended in a line from ornamented frames of
wood, and gradually diminifhing in fize ; and alfo to that
of triangular pieces of metal, placed in the fame order as
the bells, as well as to the muficof various other inftru-
ments, a flow and foiemn hymn was fung by eunuchs.
During the chaunting of this encomiaftic fong, which,
accompanied by the rnufic, produced a grand effeft ; at
particular fignals, nine times repeated, every perfon pre¬
fent proftrated himfelf nine times, except the ambaffidor
and his fuite, who made only one profound obeifance.
He to whom this awful aft of adoration was made, the
emperor, kept himfelf the whole time invifible. The ip.,
fluence intended to be wrought upon the minds of men
by this veneration of a human being, was not to be ef¬
faced by an immediate fucceffion of lport or merriment :
feenes of this kind were deferred till the morrow. In the
mean time the ambaffador, accompanied by Sun-ta-zhin,
a Tartar chief, lately promoted to the rank of colao, vi-
fited, among other places, the grand temple of Poo-ta-la,
comprifing one prodigioufly large, and Several fmall, fa¬
brics. The principal was a grand cathedral of a fquare
form, each of whole fides was two hundred feet. It con¬
tained eleven rows of windows, one above another, hav¬
ing as many ranges of apartments. The front was plain
and uniform, but well finifhed. The apartments of the
quadrangle were united together by a fpacious corridor
below, and an open gallery above. A Ipace railed off in
the middle of the chapel, raifed above the floor, prefented
three altars luperbly decorated, and three coloffean ffa-
tues of Fo, his wife, and child ; and, in an obfeure
recefs, at the back of thefe altars was the facred taber¬
nacle, with a Angle glimmering light, as if intended to
imprefs the mind with religious awe. No lefs than eight
hundred lamas, or priefts, were attached to this temple,
fome of them from their infancy ; but all officiated in the
exterior ceremonies cf religion, which greatly contri¬
buted to its magnificence.
The next day, upon the lawn before the emperor’s
great tent, were exhibited a variety of entertainments :
and his imperial majefty, furrounded by his court, cheered
them with his prefence. The amufements were entirely
Chinefe ; and every perfon who excelled in any particu¬
lar talent, whether for ftrength, dexterity, or in the per¬
formance of any extraordinary feat of agility, were af¬
fembled on the cccafion, in the prefence of innumerable
fpeftators. Some were famous in the art of balancing; *
others at legerdemain, tumbling, wreftling, dancing, and
various other exercifes. There was alfo lome vocal, and
a great variety of inftrumental, mulic. After the mufi-
cians, were performed fancied ballets, by many hundred
perfons, habited in tunics ; in which fuch Chinefe cha-
rafters were reprefented as, difeovered by the aid of
lights in tranflucent lanterns of various colours, reflefted
much commendation on his imperial majefty. After the
ballets, various kinds of fire-woiks were launched off,
which difplayed great {kill in the pyrotechnic art. Seve¬
ral of the conceits were new to the Englifh fpeftators,
among which was the following : A large box being lent
up high in the air, its bottom feemed accidentally ta
drop out, from which aperture ifl'ued a vaft number of
papers wrapped up in a flat form. Thefe papers unfolded
therafelves from each other by degrees, and were tranf-
formed
/
C H
formed into regular lanterns, in each of which a burn¬
ing light was fuddenly perceived, whole flame was vivid
and beautifully coloured; effedrted without any commu¬
nication from without which could produce the flame
that was within. But what was moll extraordinary, this
devolution and developement were reiterated, with a
change of figure every time, as well as a change of co¬
lours. Smaller correfpondent boxes were affixed to each
fide of the large one, which unclofed in the fame way,
and expofed to view a kind of net-work of fire, with par¬
titions of variotis forms that glittered like burnifhed cop¬
per; and, with every guft of wind, produced corufcant
flaflies refembling lightning. The whole concluded with
a volcanid eruption of artificial fire, in the grandelt ftile
imaginable.
A feledt party was invited to a pantomimic entertain¬
ment in the theatre belonging to the ladies of the palace;
a finall handfome building, thrfce ftories high, fituated
between their pleafure-grounds and the emperor’s gar¬
den. It contained three open ftages, One above another.
The guefts, among which were the ambaflador and a part
of his flute, fat in deep boxes, oppofite the loweft ltage ;
over them were the ladies, in latticed galleries, who could
fee what was doing upon any of the ltages, though they
were invifible to all. It appeared that the emperor was
willing to gratify their curiofity with the fight of one
belonging to the embafly, the page, mafter Staunton,
being conduced out of the ambaflador’s box, by a eu¬
nuch, upon a platform within view of the ladies. The
a£tors, who were numerous, and filled the three ftages,
inftead of appearing in the human fhape, afl'umed the
likenefs not only of animals, but likewife of a variety of
inanimate productions of both fea and land ; intended,
perhaps, to reprefent an epitome of the world. The pan¬
tomime was divided into feveral a£ts, and lafted a con-
fiderable part of the afternoon. During the performance,
the emperor called the ambaflador to him, and faid, “ It
•was only on particular occalions, like the prefent, that
be aflifted at fuch fpeCtacles ; the care of watching over
the fafety of his people, and enaCting laws for their wel¬
fare, neceflarily demanded every moment of his time.”
Notwithftanding this unremitting attention to the pub¬
lic weal, his imperial majefty had found leifure to culti¬
vate fome of the polite arts. He had written poems,
fomething like the epics of Voltaire, which (hewed tafte
and fancy. A few ftanzas were configned to the ambaf¬
lador for his majefty, as were fome rare gems, highly
prized from having been eight centuries in the family ;
and they were prefented as a pledge of perpetual friend-
fhip. It had been the cuftom of the emperor, after the
celebration of his birth-day, to follow the great chafe of
wild beafts in the forefts of Tartary; but this fport was
now declined oh account of his advanced age. He gene¬
rally parted the fummer in his Tartar, and the winter in
his Chinefe, territories ; and, as his imperial majefty had
refolved on a fpeedy return to Pekin, it was fettled that
the ambaflador fhould leave Zhe-hol before him. Pre¬
vious to his excellency’s departure for Pekin, he received
an anfwer from the colao to his letter, fignifying that the
Uindooftan fliould be allowed to fell goods and purchafe
a cargo at Chu-fan, under the protection of the manda¬
rins, who fhould take care that the natives did not exaft;
and that, as (he had come from Europe chiefly laden with
prefents for the emperor, no duties fliould be taken on
ber return ; but that captain Mackintosh could not be
allowed to join his Ihip. This difappointment was,
doubtlefs, owing to the illiberality and unfriendlinefs of
the Thibet general.
The embafly returned to Pekin on the evening of the
46th of September, to the inexpreflible joy of fuch of
their fellow-travellers as had neceflarily been left at that
place, and who had remained ever fince immured in a
State of little better than aftual captivity. Some of the
miflionaries, in the firft days, had paid them occafional
vifits; but this friendly intercourfe aroufing the jealoufy
Vql.1V. No. 2x3.
I N A, 485
of the Chinefe, they were ordered to be difcontinued, and
the conduCt of both, in future, was narrowly watched.
An alarm of another kind was alfo occafioned, In the
abfence of the ambaflador at Zhe-hol, by fome cf the
perfons of the embafly inadvertently walking upcn the
walls of their hotel, from whence could fometimes be
perceived the female inhabitants of the neighbouring
houfes. This was confidered as highly unbecoming, and
gave great oft’ence ; though, the moment it was repre¬
fen ted as improper, the piaCtice was difcontinued. The
ambafiador’s re-entrance, however, into the city, was
marked with the ufual honours, and he received the ac-
curtomed vifits of the mandarins. His excellency being
aware that a fyftem of precaution, originating in jealoufy,
had been conftantly exercifed with regard to the embafly,
forelaw the expediency of fixing fome certain day for his
departure; and he had underftood that l’uch a propolal
was expeCled from him. No permanent refidence had
ever yet been eftabliflied in China for any foreign minis¬
ter ; and the government of the country confidei ing am-
bafladors as guefts, whole charges were defrayed out of
the public purfe, the unbounded hofpitality, and f'ump-
tuous treatment, already afforded to the Englifh, were
powerful arguments againft the prolongation of the vifit.
The ambaflador, therefore, refolved to afk leave to depart
in the beginning of February, before which time he might
hope to effeCt fomething towards the eftablifhment of a
more frequent and friendly commercial intercourfe.
Exterior ceremonies performed in honour of the em¬
peror, which tend greatly to infpire the people with fen -
timents of refpeft and duty towards him, are praCtifed
generally on his birth-day throughout the empire. AH
the mandarins at Pekin drefled in their ceremonial
robes, had afl'embled at noon, in the great palace of that
city, and each, before the throne, upon which incenfe
was burning, proftrated himfelf nine times, and made
offerings of viands and liquors, as if he could partake
of them though abfent. In the fame general manner is
incenfe burned, and offerings made, every new and full
moon, before the throne of the feveral palaces, by all
the officers of the emperor’s houfehold. The temples of
Pekin, however, have no claim to elegance when com¬
pared with its palaces. The religion of the emperor is
not generally followed. The mandarins and men of let¬
ters venerate Confucius, and aflemble, as of old, in halls
of Ample conftruCtion ; and the lower clafies of the peo¬
ple are unable to contribute to the ereCtion of fplendid
edifices for public worfhip. Befides, their religious at¬
tention, like thofe of the patriarchca) times, is much taken
up with their houlehold gods; infomuchthat every liouls
has its altar and its deities.
To qualify perfons as officers of the houfehold, and
other departments among the women in the imperial pa¬
laces, it is neceffary to become eunuchs ; and the opera¬
tion for this is generally performed before the age of pu¬
berty ; though it is fometimes done from childhood to
forty years of age. Such as are defirous of quitting ple-
beity, and willing to become eunuchs, are immediately
received into one of the palaces, and inverted with an
employment that gains him the advantages and import¬
ance of a gentleman ; and fome few of them have been
dignified with a^ball upon their cap, the badge of office
of both civil and military mandarins. But Ample caftra-
tion is not fufficient for thofe who are wholly entrufted
with the care of the ladies of the court. They undergo
entire emafculation, all traces of fex fuffering complete
excifion. The beard of an adult, thus formed into a
complete eunuch, foon begins to fall off ; and in a fliort
time the whole difappears. His frame alfo withers like
a blighted plant ; and his face, like the wrinkled liag, is
full of furrows. From menial lervants at the commence¬
ment, by degrees they creep gradually into favour and
power, adminiftering to the potentate’s private pleafures
and amufement ; and their influence has been able, from
a fuppofed indignity, to effeft the difmiflkl and difgrace
6 H -cf
486 CHI
of mandarins of eminence. The milfionaries who, from
their principles of converting to their faith, (land on a
precarious footing, are more afraid of giving offence to
an eunuch than ro a mandarin; and knowing the}' have
the ear of the emperor, they endeavour, by meeknefs and
aCts of civility, to conciiiate their good wilhes. When
an emperor dies, all his women are removed to an edifice
called the Palace of Chajlity, fituated within the walls of
the palace; in which they are (hut up for the remainder
of their lives. There are in China a few Pagan nuns
yvho.make a vow to remain virgins. Though the laws
of the country do not admit of religious convents, thefe
women are admired for perlevering in an effort which is
difficult to accomplilh. The adultery of women is not,
like that of men, punilhed capitally. When a new em-
pero'r accedes to the throne, it is laid that very refpeCl-
able perfons of the country take their daughters to the
palace for his choice ; and the families of l'uch as are ac¬
cepted, think themfelves highly honoured. Others are
prelented to the princes of the blood either for wives or
concubines. The latter, in China, are looked upon in
the fame light as handmaids in the Old Tellament. In
the lower claffes of life, how'ever, beauty mud be very
rare, if what has been afferted be true ; that all young
girs among them, of good figure, with handfome fea¬
tures, and delicate complexions, are purchafed from their
parents at the age of fourteen, for the gratification of the
rich and powerful.
Intimation was given to the ambaffador of the empe¬
ror’s approach to Yuen-min-yuen, and that the etiquette
of the court required he Ihould go fome miles on the road
to meet him. Though much indifpofed with rheuma-
tifrn, his excellency went early in the morning to the
rendezvous pointed out. The emperor came with regal
pomp and dignity; and, perceiving the ambaffador, he
flopped to deliver a gracious mtffage of civility, which
ended in defiring him to return fpeedily into the city, as
ti’.e dampnefs of the morning might increafe his com¬
plaint. The ambaffador was now informed by fome of the
great mandarins, friends to the embaffy, that a council
had been holden to take into conlideration the letter
brought by him from the king of Great Britain, and the
proper mode to be uled towards his fubje&s. On this
occafion the prime minifcer had fummoned the Thibet
general, viceroy of Canton, and a former hoppo of the
fame place, a declared enemy of the Englifh, then a (fate
prilbner, convicted of embezzling the public treafure to
an immenfe amount, and of exadions from the Englifh
while at Canton, to give their teftimony and advice, as
being competent to judge of the conduct and difpofition
of the foreigners trading to that port; but, without
doubt, to llrengthen the colao againft the more favour¬
able inclinations of his imperial inn jelly. Nothing au-
fpicious could be expeCled from the luggeftions of Inch
perfons ; and the ambaffador notified his defire to the
prime miniiter, to leave Pekin early in the month of Fe¬
bruary. The ambaffador, inltead of an anfwer to this
meffage, received an invitation to come to the colao at
Yuen-min-yuen, where he had lome Englifh letters to
deliver to him. His excellency went thither, and found
a few' letters, dated Chu-fan, from the Lion and Hin-
dooilan. The colao wifhed to know their contents. He
was told that the Lion would loon put to fea, but that
the Hindooffan would wait for her commander; and his
excellency- hereupon put the letters into his hands. The
colao hoped the fhip would wait to carry back the em-
baffy. He obferved, that the emperor, on hearing of the
ambaffador’s illnefs, and the death of fome of his fuite,
and apprehenfive that they might materially fuffer in
their healths by a continuance, imagined it might be de-
firable to depart before the rivers were frozen up, as tra¬
velling by land was very inconvenient in that country.
The ambaffador dilcovered that other motives were con¬
cealed under the pretended folicitude for the embaffy’s
health, and made a proper anfwer ; which was replied
N A,
to by the prime minifler as before; and, his excellency
was buffered to take leave, without being informed that
the emperor’s anfwer to his Britannic majefty’s letter was
ready, and w'ould be delivered the next day.
The legate having waited on the ambaffador to fay
the colao deiired to lee him at the great hall of audience
in the palace of Pekin, he went thither ; in the midfl of
which was placed upon a chair of ftate, the emperor’s
anfwer. It was comprifed in a large roll, covered with
yellow filk, and was to be lent that evening, in form, to
the ambaffador’s hotel. Whatever favour it might con¬
tain, could not be attributed either to the colao or his
companions, whofe unfriendlinefs was demonftrated by
their pertinacity in refuting" the prefents uliial from fo¬
reign minillers. In a converfation, however, with the
minifler on the points defirable to be procured for the
Englilh Eail-India company in China, he alked for a
brief abltraCt ; and, without pledging himfelf to fupport
them, promifed they lliould have an immediate confider-
ation. Kis excellency, in confequence, loll no time in
forwarding fuch a llatement. The emperor’s anfwer,
which was lent the fame evening, was accompanied with
feveral chefts of prefents for his Britannic majelty ; fome
for the ambaffador and his fuite ; and even tokens of his
beneficence were extended to all the officers and men of
the lhips of the embaffy.
As no politive directions had been given for his excel¬
lency’s departure, it was inferred, from the emperor's
lall declaration at Yuen-min-yuen, that recourfe would
not be had to ablolute command. His excellency had
to regret the little progrefs made as to the purport of his.
milfion ; though he faw the inutility of a wifh to prolong
his ref/dence againft the coho’s inclination. He had, be-
lides, been privately informed, that the Chinefe had no
other idea of an embaffy than that of a vifit, with pre¬
fents on fome folemn feltival, and to lall only during its
continuance. Under thefe circumftances, his excellency
fignifiecl to Ho-choong-tuung his intention of joining fir
Eralinus Gower, at Chu-fan, with all poffible fpeed ; and
requelled a letter from him might be immediately for¬
warded containing fuch information. This determina¬
tion, which feemed pleafing to the colao, was perfectly
confident with Chinefe decorum, which demanded a to¬
tal ceffation of the embaffy after the receipt of the em¬
peror’s anfwer, and the farewel prefents; neither could
any perfonal communication afterwards be obtained with
his imperial majelly. An intercourfe more favourable to
the views of the ambaffador unexpeClediy took place on
the route to Chu-fan, through the meahs of one of the
fix grand colaos, appointed to accompany the embaffy
thither. This i'udden removal from Pekin threw the em¬
baffy into great confufion, from the lliort time allowed
to prepare for it ; but it was forced to yield to impe¬
rious neceflity. The route was direCled through Han-
choo-foo ; and, beffdes, its two old and repeClabie com¬
panions, Chow-ta-zhin and Van-ta-zhin, another perfon
of the firlt rank, Sun-ta-zhin, one of the grand colaos
who was in the confidence of the court, was appointed
to accompany the llrangers on their return, and to watch
and report their conduct.
On the morning of the yth of OCtober, Ho-choong-
taung, and other minifters, came to a pavilion within the
gates of Pekin, to take leave of the ambaffador, and de¬
livered lome gracious meffages on the part of his impe¬
rial majelty. They hoped the treatment his excellency
had met with was confonant to his willies ; and at the
fame time allured him, that due attention lliould be paid
to him and his fuite, in order to render the journey plea-
lant to the port of embarkation. Upon a table were placed
two tubes of bamboo wood, covered with yellow cloth,
containing two rolls of yellow paper. Upon one was
written an enumeration of the imperial preients, and up¬
on the other, an anfwer to the recent requifitions made
by the amballador rcfpeCling the Englilh faClory at Can¬
ton. A mandarin of the fifth order was appointed to
carry
C H
carry them as far as the river upon which his excellency
was to embark. Lord Macartney, with his Englifh and
Chinefe retinue, fet out immediately for Tong-choo-foo,
in order to embark upon the Pei-lio ; and palling through
one of the ealtern gates of Pekin, he was honoured with
the ufual lalutes. The embafly was received in a refpetft-
ful manner at Tong-choo-foo. The temple, its former
relidence, was again prepared for its accommodation, and
in the evening the city was illuminated. The next day,
the yachts being ready, and the prefents all Ihipped, the
embafly embarked upon the Pei-lio, whofe waters were
decreasing fo fait, that the fe cow'd day the boats were
forced to be dragged along. Very little progrels had been
made when the colao, Sim-ta-zhin, came to inform the
ambaflador, (whom he received with every mark of re-
fpect, and to whom his excellency reiterated his acknow¬
ledgments for the civility fliewn him at Poo-ta-la, and in
the gardens of Zhe-hoi,) that he had juft received a letter
from the emperor : an extraft of it, which he read, pur¬
ported, tiiat “ he (Sun-ta-zbin) fliould take the embafly
under his particular care ; that every proper diftinftion
lhould be fliewn, and attention paid to the ambaflador and
liis luite in their route to Chu-fan ; and that he fliould
fee them fafely embarked on-board their Ihips: hut that,
if thofe fliips lhould be failed from thence, he was to pro¬
ceed in the fame manner, and for the like purpoie, to
Canton.”
Sun-ta-zhin, befides being a colao, was honoured with
the yellow mantle, worn over his other garments, the
highelt diftimftion known in China. He was elegant in
manners, blit tenacious of his rank and dignity. With¬
out difcloling his private inftrudtions, conveyed probably
in the fame difpatch, lie gave the ambaflador to under-
ltand, that his letter to fir Erafmus Gower had not been
forwarded, having been kept back through the lufpicions
of Ho-choong-taung. Sun-ta-zhin, however, was loon
convinced, by the candid explanation which the ambaf-
fador gave him of that letter, of the necefiity of fending
it, and he wrote concerning it to his imperial majelty.
He held frequent communications with the ambaflador,
and liis enquiries were lefs llimulated by perfonal curio-
flty, than by the defire of conveying to the emperor the
belt information he could colleft, refpeiSting the Englilli
and other Europeans trading to China ; fo that his ex¬
cellency difeovered, that though he was receding from
the court, he was advancing more the object of bis mif-
flon, through the medium of the prefent liberal conductor
of the embafly, than when he was really prelent, by re¬
moving the prejudices which the Chinele, under falie re-
prefentations, had imbibed agaiiill the Englilli charadter.
The gentlemen of the'embaffy were not, as before, re-
ltrained from little excurlions upon the Ihore. In this
part, they obferved the fields were parched up by long
drought ; and the following was the method taken for
watering them. Two men flood upon projedting banks
oppolite to each other; each held in his hand a rope faf-
tened to a bucket, which when filled with water from
the river, after fwinging it to and fro fever?.! times, was
thrown with rapidity into a relervoir made near the ri¬
ver’s bank ; and from this, by means of fmall channels,
the water was conveyed over the adjoining fields. At
other times a long pole, whole length was unequally di¬
vided, is made to turn upon a pivot acrols an upright
poll. A bucket fixed to the Ihortelt end is lowered into
the river, which when filled is hoifted by the longelt le¬
ver, and its contents poured into the relervoir. A few
flieep were feen grazing upon fmall Ipotsj but the greatefl:
number come from Tartary, as well as the larger cattle.
Milk, cheefe, and .butter, are little known among the
Chinefe; and the common people rarely tafte of animal
food, unlefs of fuch as die by difeale or accident, in
which cafes they are equally relilhed; and even the ver¬
min picked off their filthy perfons fall a prey to their
depraved appetites.
After their crops of corn are got in, which was the
a
t N A. ^ 487
cafe at this time, and the ftubble taken off the ground,
•. it is ploughed with a Angle buffalo. Their plough was
of limple conftru&ion, and in parts where the foil is very
light it was drawn by men and women. There is no
coulter to the plough ; the fhare which penetrates being
made to terminate in a curve, performs the office of a
mould-board lor turning back the earth. It is lometimes
made of iron, but more frequently with the iron-wood
already defcribed. Their rice and corn fields are dll on
an even furface, not as in Europe, divided into ridges
and furrows ; and their corn is fown neatly in drills, or
dibbled. , At a few miles diftance from each other were
military polls, with loldiers ftationed to prote£t the in¬
ternal traffic of the provinces. Chinefe foldiers wear their
Iwords on the left fide, having the point before them ;
and they are drawn by turning their right hand behind
them. Though leveral of their villages are as large as
lbme European cities, they are held in little eftimation,
unlefs encompafied by a wall; and thefe walls, which al¬
ways furround towns, are generally higher than the tops
of their liigheft lioules. No legal tax has been impoled
for the maintenance of pri ells in any religion in China 5
yet there is fomething contributed to defray the expehces
of facrifices made at every new and full moon, in fpring
and autumn, and at the commencement of the new year.
No fuch thing as Sunday, or a day of reft, is known there;
nor is the week divided in that manner. The temples are
every day open for the free ingrefs of devotees, fome of
whom bequeath benefactions for the fupport of priefts.
During the reign of the laft emperor a land-tax was
fubftituted for a poll-tax ; and though molt of the im¬
ports, and all kinds of 'luxuries, are taxed, yet as the duty
is added to the original price of the commodity, the con-
fumer can feldom diltinguilh the one from the other.
There is likewife atranfit duty on goods pafling from one
province to another, which is. a great fource of revenue.
And the public treafury is not a little enriched by pre¬
fents from tributaries, and fubjeCts of the empire, as
well as by confil’cations of affluent criminals. But the
feveral fpecies of grain, upon whicii the poor principally
lubfift, are exempt from taxation.
The embafly entered the province of Chan-tong on the
1 8th of October, which being the day of full moon, the
whole night was occupied in the performance of religious
rites. There was an inceflant noife of guns firing, mu ftc
playing, loos beating, fireworks launching, and matches
burning, from the hour of midnight till the fun-riling.
On the 2zd of the fame month, the yachts arrived at
Lin-fin-choo, a city of the lecond order, where the yachts
quitted the Eu-ho, and entered the imperial or grand
canal, on which the embafly was deflined to proceed to
the city of Han-choo-foo, in an irregular line of about
five hundred miles, the length which the canal extends,
not only over heights and through vallies, but acrofs the
great Yellow River, the Yang- tie- kiang, and feveral other
confiderable rivers, until it terminates in the large ele¬
gant baton of Han-choo-foo. Near the commencement
of the canal, at Lin-fin-choo, Hands a magnificent Ta, or
pagoda, nine ltories high ; the fiiuation of which, in the
opinion of fir George Staunton, being improper either for
a watch-tower, or an obelilk, the fuppofed ufual purpofes
of fuch ltruCtures, he imagines it to have been ereCled as *
a monument to commemorate either the beginning, or
the accomplilhment, of this canal, as a work ot no lefs
genius than national utility. Thefe pagodas, called by
the natives ta, are generally from a hundred and twenty
to a hundred and fixty feet high ; the diameter ot their
bafes being about a fourth or fifth of their altitude. O11
the 15th the yachts reached the liigheft part of the canal,
where the river Luen, the largeft which feeds the canal,
delcends into it, with a molt rapid current, in a line per¬
pendicular to the courle of the canal. The oppolite weft-
ern bank is therefore ftrengthened by a ftrong bulwark
of ltone, againft which the waters of the Luen ltrike with
fuch violence as fo divide, and follow, one part to the
northern
488 C H I
northern, and another part to the fouthern, courfe of
the canal : a circumkance, which not being generally ex¬
plained or underkood, gave the appearance of wonder to
an affertion, that if a bundle of thicks be thrown into
that part of the river, they would feparate of their ovm
accord, and take different directions.
The Yellow River, which the yachts had next to crofs,
was fo rapid in its current, as to induce the Cbinefe to
think it neceflary to make facrifices to the fpirit of the
river to inline a fafe pakage. The maker of the yacht,
attended by the crew, alfembled upon the forecaftle; and
holding a cock in his hand as a viCtim, wrung off his
head, and threw it into the Itream. lie then confecrated
the veffel, by lprinkling its blood upon the deck, malts,
anchors, and doors of the cabins ; upon each of which
were Ituck fome of the cock’s feathers After this, bowls
of meat were brought, and placed in a line acrofs the
deck; and before thel'e cups containing oil, tea, fait, and
ardent fpirits. The captain now made three low folemn
bows, lifting up his hands, and uttered a few words as if
addrelfed to the deity. During this time the loo was
forcibly beaten, matches were lighted and held towards
heaven, tinfel paper was kept burning, and abundance
of crackers let off. Libations were made by him to the
river, by throw ing into it the cups of liquids, afterwards
that which held the fait. The ceremonial being finilhed,
the people made a hearty repaft of the bowls of meat.
They then launched the yacht with confidence into the
ftream ; and having reached the oppolite lliore, the cap¬
tain offered thanks to heaven with three inclinations of
his body.
During the embafly’s progrefs towards the Yellow Ri¬
ver, letters frequently paifed between the emperor and
Sun-ta-zhin, and the latter often paid friendly vifits to the
ambaffador. Quotations from the imperial difpatches were
cited at different times by Sun-ta-zhin, containing not
only an account of the letter of fir Erafmus Gower having
been forwarded to Chu-fan, but alfo gracious expreffions
towards bis excellency and fuite, which he was informed
was in confequence of Sun-ta-zhin’s favourable reports
of the embafly. He had declared to the emperor, that he
was perfectly convinced the ambaffador had no other
view than that of procuring for his country advantages
in trade, which Europeans confidered as an objeft of the
utmolt importance; and that he had difcovered nothing
in their manners or fentiments which could create the
fmallefl alarm to the nation, with whom the Englifh was
delirous of ekablifhing a friendly or commercial inter-
, courfe. As further teltimcnies of the emperor's perfonal
regard, his meffages were often accompanied with pre-
fents of dried meats from his table, preferved after the
eaftern manner. His imperial majefty, in a recent anfwer
to Sun-ta-zhin’s letters, affured him, that he entertained
himfelf an high efteem for the ambaffador and his nation,
notwithftanding the various furmifes which had been
made concerning them ; that he had refolved to protedf
their trade, about which his excellency had interefted
himfelf fo warmly; that he had, indeed, refufed to com¬
ply with certain requeks, as at his advanced period of life
he could not reconcile himfelf to any innovation ; that
with regard to the bufmefs of Canton, it had been left to
the difcretion and management of the viceroy, who would
not readily give orders to abolifh practices which he him¬
felf had fanftioned; but as a particular mark of his im¬
perial inajelly’s attention to the defires of the Englifh on
this fubjeft, he had recalled the former, and appointed a
new viceroy, one who was related to him by blood, and
endued with fentiments of jultice and benevolence to¬
wards ftrangers ; and that he had received inftru&ions to
examine andrevifethe regulations of the port of Canton,
and to put an effeflual flop to the vexations and griev¬
ances of which the Englifh complained. Sun-ta-zhin, in
addition, faid to the ambaffador, that it might be fup-
pofed perhaps, out of delicacy to his excellency, he had
put too favourable a conltnktion on his imperial majef-
N A.
ty’s difpatches, but that he might reft affured they were
the emperor’s own words ; and that as the newly-ap¬
pointed viceroy was kill at Han-choo-foo, he would in¬
troduce the ambaffador to him there, who would confirm
the affurances he had juk given.
Proceeding farther on, they perceived plantations of
mulberry-trees, fome of which bore white, others red or
black, fruit. The boughs being frequently lopped off,
young fcions flioot out abundantly, the leaves of which
are tender and more nutritions for filk-worms than thole
gathered from older branches. The aurelias of the filk-
worrn, as well as the white earth-grub, and the larvae of
the fphinx moth, are accounted among the Chinefe a de¬
licacy for the table. In this, however, they are not lin¬
gular; for in the Wek Indies a large caterpillar, which
feeds upon a palm, is ekeemed a delicious morfel. They
now approached the city of Sou-choo-foo, in the vicinity
of Nankin, termed the paradife of China. It is large
and very populous ; the houfes are well built, and the
inhabitants drefled mokly in filk. The women were fairer
than thofe in the north, many of whom wore a fmall cap
of black fatin adorned with jewels upon the forehead,
brought down to a peak between the eye-brows, and
they had ear-pendents of gold or crykal. The yachts
kopped at a village near the city of Han-choo-foo, to re¬
ceive the new viceroy of Canton. He came in a barge
to pay the firk vifit'to Sun-ta-zhin and to the ambakii-
dor. He confirmed the affurances which had been given
of the emperor’s friendly dif'pofition towards his excel¬
lency and the Englilh, to which, in the mok plealing
manner, he added his own good-will. In addition to the
honour conferred by the emperor on Chaung-ta-zhin,
the viceroy, the inhabitants of the Che-kiang, the go¬
vernment of which he had juk quitted, and where he had
adminillered impartial jukice, gave him the mok flatter¬
ing of titles, by calling him “ the fecond Confucius."
He accompanied Sun-ta-zhin and the ambaffador into
Han-choo-foo, at which place they arrived on the 9th of
November, 1793.
The city of Han-choo-foo, nearly equal in population
to Pekin, is the grand emporium for merchandize and
all kinds of articles which pafs between the northern and
fouthern provinces. The highek houfes have only two
kories ; the kreets are narrow, but well paved ; in the
principal of which the kiops are nearly as fplendid as
thofe in London. The manufariure of fiiks and fatins,
for which there is a brifk demand, is done by women ;
and furs and Englifh broad-cloths form no inconfidera-
ble part of their trade. Information was received here
that fir Erafmus Gower had failed from Chu-fan ; but as
he had kated in a former letter that he fhould proceed to
Canton, to get a fupply of medicines which he could not
obtain ell'ewhere, a difpatch was immediately lent to the
company’s conunikioners at Canton to kop the Lion.
From this place the new viceroy permitted captain Mack-
intofh and a part of the amballador’s fuite to go to Chu-
fan, where the Hindookan was taking in a cargo. Sun-
ta-zhin, who took a friendly leave of the anibaffador, ac¬
companied this party. They fet out on the 13th, and
arrived there on the 19th of November; at which place
their conduftor, after making prelents to them on behalf
of the emperor, fliook the captain heartily by the hand,
and bade him a cordial adieu.
The ambaffador and the viceroy fet out the fame day
for Canton, the route to which was upon the river Chien-
tang-chaung. Two bodies of Tartar troops, fuperbly
dreffed, were drawn out upon the beach, and iaiuted his
excellency as he paffed to his barge. An immenfe crowd
of boats were akembled on the occafion, and among the
experienced boatfmen was one who rowed, keered, held
the fheet, and fmoked at the fame time. Between Han-
choo foo and Yen-choo-foo were fome rich and pic-
turefque valleys, which prefented to view the large-leafed
chefnut, and purple-leafed tallow-trees ; alfo the tower¬
ing larch, and the glittering leaves of the thick fpreading
camphor-
C H
c-amphor-tree ; and nearer to the latter place, a great
number of the thuya, or arbor vitte tree, which grows to
an amazing height. During a ftiort temporary obltruc-
tion to the progrefs of the boats, two young men over¬
took them, who were anxious to have a light of the am-
balfador. They were dignified with the lame office from
the king of the Lequele ifiands, and were going to pay
tribute and do homage from their fovereign to the empe¬
ror. Their drefs, belides. filk turbans, confilted of a fine
brownlhawl, the manufacture of their country, lined with
the furs of fquirrels. They were of dark complexion, well
bred, and communicative. No European veil'd, it le.ems,
bad ever been at any of their illands, (at the principal
of which was a commodious harbour,) though they are
not prohibited, and would be well received.
Several excavations were perceived in the fides of the
contiguous hills, whence had been obtained a lpecies of
fine granite, called pe-tun-fe, ufed in manufacturing por¬
celain. This, with kao-lin, a kind of clay ; 'ivba-Jhe, fimi-
Jar to the Englilh foap-rock; Jhe-kan, the g.ypfum; and,
it is reported, the inconfumable albeftos fofiile Hone,
formed its principal materials. A village in the neigh¬
bourhood contained three thoufand furnaces for baking
porcelain ; but the manufacturing of it is, with them,
rendered uncertain ; inafmuch as, for want of fuch a py¬
rometer as Wedgewood’s to afcertain the degree of beat,
the contents of whole furnaces are fometimes baked into
one folid ufelefs mafs.
The embalfy had now reached Chan-fan-clien, where
the river was no longer navigable. During their route,
as well as on their arrival here, there were feveral inter¬
changes of vifits between the viceroy and the ambaffa¬
dor, while preparations were making for their journey
by land. He had almolt a daily correfpondence with the
emperor, from whom his excellency continued to receive
expreffions of perional efteena. The oppreffions to which
foreigners, and particularly the Englilh, were expoled at
Canton, frequently arofe in the courfe of converfation.
The benevolence of the viceroy dilpofe.d him to liffcen to
fuch complaints ; and Chow-ta-zhin, a Haunch friend to
the embalfy, whom he had honoured with Ins confidence,
undertook to urge the bufinel's to him in private. Every
thing being ready, the embalfy purfued their journey to¬
wards Canton. On their route they perceived ftages upon
the Hoping fides of hills, in which were cultivated pulfe,
grain, yams, fweet potatoes, onions, carrots, turnips, and
other, culinary vegetables. Upon the top of the moun¬
ts in was a relervoir to catch rain-water, which was con¬
veyed thence by channels, to irrigate thefe cultivated
terraces.
Befides the modes already pointed out for railing water
from rivers for irrigating their lands, the Chinele make
tile of a chain-pump, .the chambers of which, inllead of
being cylindrical, are univerfally fquare. The infide of
a hollow wooden trunk is divided in the middle, by a
board, into two compartments; a chain, made to turn
over a fmall wheel or roller at each extremity of the
trunk, is fattened to flat and fquare pieces of wood, nicely
iitted to the capacity of the cavity. Thefe, called lifters,
move with the chain round the rollers, and raife a vo¬
lume of water proportionate to the dimenflons of the
hollow trunk. The power to work this machine may be
applied different ways. When it is intended to raile a
great quantity of water, fets of wooden arms, in the form
®f the letter T, are affixed to the lengthened axis of the
rollers, and fmoothed for the foot to reft upon. The axis
is made to turn upon two wooden uprights, rendered
fteady by a piece of timber ftretched acrols them. Men,
by treading upon the projecting parts of the wooden arms,
iupporting themfelves at the lame time by a crofs beam,
give a rotatory motion to The chain; and the lifters,
being attached to it, raife up a conftant and abundant
ftream of water. But for works of irrigation on a grand
pud more extended l'cale, the Chinele have invented a
large water-wheel, moft ingenioufly cohftrnCted of bam-
Vol. IV. No.2I3„
[ N A. 489
boo, and which railes the venter with wonderful celerity,
and in vaft abundance; for the manner and figure of
which, fee the article Hydrostatics. In the courle of
this ffiort journey by land, no Angle fpot was feen uncul¬
tivated where the efforts of labour could avail. In places
where the loil was poor or fteril, every means was em¬
ployed to render it fertile. The Cliinefe are as neat in
hulbandry as in horticulture, and extirpate every nafeent
weed or noxious plant.
I11 the evening they arrived at a town, whence they
were next day again to embark ; and though inns are not
wanting on the road, at ail of which tea is fold like ale
in England, yet there was ndt one of fufficient magni¬
tude to receive the ambaffador and fuite ; and they were
accordingly accommodated with the public hall deltined
lor the examination of young men previous to taking
their degrees. Thefe examinations are always public ;
and the governor and magiftrates who prefide, and the
numerous auditors who attend, are fuppofed able to fup-
prefs any inclination to partiality in the judges. Oral
and written queftions are put to the candidates, as in Eng¬
land ; and the luccefsful one, after being eleCted to the
univerfity, may attain to the higheft offices and dignities
of the Hate. No perfon is precluded from arriving at
this honour; it is bpen to all claffes of men. The people,
thus convinced that authority has been obtained through
merit, are prompted to pay it refpeCt and obedience, ex¬
cept in cales of notorious abufe, again!! which rank and
learning do not always afford fecurity. A fyftem of go¬
vernment like this, holds out many advantages to fociety;
nor can it fail but when the temptation to do evil pre¬
ponderates over the ftrength of principle, and the hazard
of detection in facrificing it. The poor, and private in¬
dividuals of China, who have no channel through which
to impart the grievances they fuffer from the conduCt of
their local rulers, may be faid to be left almoft at their
mercy ; and the fame concluflon will apply to foreigners
when left in the fame predicament. It was under this
idea, that the ambaffador feized every opportunity of im-
preffing on the mind of the viceroy, the expediency of
his protecting the ftrangers at Canton from the extortions
of the collectors of the cuftoms, and other fubordinate
officers connected with the commerce of that port. The
viceroy in return faid, that he was convinced no pains
would be fpared by the perl'ons lie was about to govern,
to imprefs him with ideas inimical to the Britiffi nation;
but that he fully faw the neceffity of a change of conduCt,
as well out of a principle of juftice to the Englilh, as for
the honour of his own country. And though his influ¬
ence was coniiderable, and his footing apparently firm,
yet his new fituation was not free from difficulties ; that
befides the officers at Canton interefted in continuing
thofe oppreffions, and whofe guilt would be implicated in
a redrels, there were other prejudiced enemies at court,
who might equally conlider reform as a cenfure upon
them ; that exclusive of all thefe, another important con-
lideration had occurred to him, which was, the peremp¬
tory manner in which Ho-choong-taung had refufed the
requifitions of the ambaffador; that if in a reprefentation
of thefe fads to the court of Great Britain an endeavour
were made to excite refentment, any fubfequent appear¬
ances of relentment againlt his country would involve hint
criminally in the eyes of his government, for favours which
might be Ihewn by him to the Englilh in the mean time;
he was therefore anxious to be fatisfied on that head.
It was not quite clear, to the ambalfador, whether the
apprehenfion originated with the viceroy, or from a higher
fource; but at any rate it appeared to indicate) that from
a conviction of the Englilh armies in India, and of their
vaft maritime ftrength, the Britiffi nation was I'ufpeCted
of being too powerful not to require fome delicacy of
ponduCt even from the haughty empire of China. His
excellency owned that he was dubious of the difpofition
of the court or min liter of Pekin towards his country;
but from the explanations which Sun-ta-zhin, as well as
* 61 • he?
CHINA.
•49'°
he, the viceroy, had^ given of the genuine fentiments of
his imperial majefty, he placed a firm reliance on the af-
furances folemnly made to him, tl\at particular attention
would be paid to the Britilh fubjefts in China, and had
already imparted this confidence to the Englilh govern¬
ment in the letters he had fenf from Han-choo-foo, which
he did not doubt would confide in their fulfilment. The
viceroy then enquired of the ambaffador, whether he
could empower him to certify a continuance of this ami¬
cable difpofition, by the king’s writing fpeedily to his
imperial majeftv; and by fending again a minifter to
China, if the emperor were inclined to admit of fucli,
not in the expensive manner of the prefent embafly, but
merely as a token of the continued amity of his Britan¬
nic majefty. His excellency, not expecting Inch a pro-
polls!, replied, that “ the king would probably have no
difficulty in writing to the emperor, to acknowledge the
receipt of the prefents, and to exprefs his thanks for the
diltinguiftied manner in which he had received the em-
baffy ; a circumftance unconnected with its objefts, all of
which he had hopes might be eifefted in time ; but that
the valt diftance between the two empires, and the diffi¬
culty and precarioufnefs of the navigation, made it im-
pollible to determine the advent of a new embafly.” The
viceroy ended by faying, that he would inltantly fend a
meflenger to court with a relation of the conference, toge¬
ther with fuch intimations of his own as would, he hoped,
be in all points perfeftly fatisfaftory to the emperor.
The embafly embarked anew, and proceeding rather
in a northerly courle, parted by a vail extent of fwampy
land, in the midft of which was the largeft collection of
water in the country, called Poyang Lake. Into this
lake many rivers flow, and out of it feveral canals have
been formed, and inclofed within ftronghigh banks, for
the fecurity of veflels in ftormy or deluging weather. The
billows often rife as high as thofe at fea, which render
its paflage dangerous. Small fandy iflands were deferied
in the lake, the folitary refidence of fifliermen. The pro¬
vince of Kiang-fi, which lay by the river fide, abounded
with plantations of bamboo. The feet of the women here
were not crippled, being left in their natural ftate. The
river became again {hallow, and a fecond land tour was
unavoidable. Preparations being accordingly made on
the day of difembarkation, the embafly fet out early next
morning, and foon arrived at the foot of that immenfe
ridge of mountains which divide the province of Kiang-
ii, from that of Quang-tong. The travellers began in a
little time to afeend the liigheft of thefe eminences, the
fumniit of which was confounded with the clouds above.
There was an appearance of two clouds without motion,
which left a regular void fpace between them ; but, af¬
ter the travellers had afeended a long way upon a cir¬
cuitous road, fo traced for the purpofe of being practica¬
ble for horfemen, they were aftonifned to find that thofe
fteady-looking clouds were nothing more than the fum-
fflit of the mountain, which had acquired this appear¬
ance by its being cut down in the center to a very con-
fiderable depth, by mere dint of labour, in order to ren¬
der the afeent lefs fteep and difficult ; a work of fo much
utility, that the ftatue of the mandarin who had it done,
is ereCted in many Chinefe temples in that neighbourhood.
At the pafs is always kept a military port:. The moun¬
tain, on each fide of this key to the interior country, is
clothed with plantations of trees to its utmoft height,
from whence a moll extenfive and rich proipeft opens to
the eye. A gentle and uniform defeent of leveral miles
on each fide, almoft entirely covered with lively verdure,
and crowned with towns, villages, and farm-houles, lays,
as it were, a mod pifturefque feene at the feet of the
fpeftator, whilft diftant plains of unbounded extent, with
mountains rifing out of the horizon, terminate the view.
The little hills Icattered over the plains below, appeared
'ike fo many hay-ricks. The town of Nan-gan-foo, which
the travellers had fo lately left, feemed j ike a heap of tiles,
while the river that palled by it appeared only as a Ihining
line. From the computations made by fir George Staurt-
ton, this mountain was found to have an elevation of
eight thoufand feet above the level of the fea. The tra¬
vellers arrived the fame evening at Nan-lhoo-foo, where
fmall covered barges, on the river Pe-kiang, were pre¬
pared to carry them to Canton. Some days before they
got to that city, perfons were heard to utter broken Eng-
lifli as they palled, a proof of the influence of Britilh
commerce; and many boats were feen going down the
river with merchandize for the Englilh market.
The viceroy judged it expedient to proceed to Canton
before the party, to procure a fuitable reception for the
embafly. He lent from thence large elegant barges, in
which the ambaffador made his entrance into Canton, on
the 19th of December, 1793. The lplendid manner in
which his excellency was received, added to the perfonal
attentions of the viceroy, muff have convinced the inha¬
bitants that the Englifh were no longer deftitute of pro-
teftion, nor unworthy of efteem.
Of the prefent ftate of the Chinefe empire, its cufloms,
manners, general polity, genius, &c. the mod authentic
information is unqueftionably to be obtained from the
account fo recently given us by fir George Staunton. He
fuggelts, that although the Chinefe form of government
be provident and laudable, and its general regulations
benevolent and wife, yet it is far from being a model of
perfect jurifprudence, or adequate in a number of in-
ltances, to the regulations it has in view. The objeft of
the government, in feeking to maintain the general tran¬
quillity and welfare, feems to have' overlooked all pre¬
cautions for the perfonal fecurity of individuals. A court
of jultice is eftabliftied for trying perfons acculed of crimes
deierving death; but no jury is empannelled to try the
fail. The impartiality of the judge is endeavoured to be
fecured by appointing no man to that office in the pro¬
vince of which he is a native; but though he may not
lean, from affeftion, to the one or the other of the par¬
ties, he is liable to be fwayed by the weight of prefents.
Thefe difpenfers of juftice are not, as in England, placed
above temptation by the amount of their falaries, which
would render the acceptance of prefents as unneceffary
as they are improper.
Difputes among!! individuals concerning property, do
not fill up a large fpace in the tranfaftion of Chinefe af¬
fairs. Property, whether real or perfonal, is held by te¬
nures too fimple to occafion much difference of opinion
as to the right of it. There are no entails nor fettlements;
and the fort of community in which mod families conti¬
nue to live in China, cuts off the principal fources of dif—
fention. The halls of audience are, in faft, more en¬
gaged in folicitations than in contefts. Men of talents
and learning are fometimes employed to fupport the'eaufe
of others who are young, ignorant, or incapable; but
there is no particular order of men who fubfilt in afflu¬
ence as lawyers and attornies, or who arrive at dignities
like the former. The interefts of the emperor are always
made the firft objeft. No property can be fecure again!!
his claims. The preference thus given to the poffeffor of
unlimitted power, may be confidercd as the natural ccn-
fequence of it. Some juftification of this preference may
likewife be derived from the confideration, that he who
is molt liable to frauds, ought to have the moft effeftual
means of guarding again!!, and punilhing, the comrnif-
fion of them.
The execution of all capital criminals takes effect but
once in the year; and the number, feldom above two
hundred, is very fmall for fo vail and populous an empire,.
Theft and robbery are never punilhed with death, unlels
accompanied writh perfonal injury and cruelty. The me-
deration of thofe punilhments feems to imply the infre¬
quency of the offence; and the faft is really fo, except
where famine rages, in which cafe no feverity of punifli-
ment will prevent the commilfion of the crime. All cri¬
minals for execution are transferred from the leveral pro¬
vinces to Pekin, where a revifion of the fentence is had
before
CHINA.
491
before the great tribunal allotted for that purpofe > and
the ul'ages of the empire, which fuppofe the Sovereign to
be endowed with every principle of humanity, require
that he (hould formally confult his council, to know whe¬
ther he can, without danger to the ftate, avoid ordering
the fentence to be executed : thus exercifing the powers
of the Britilh monarch, in cales of life and death. In-
Itances are reported to have happened where an offender
has been allowed to hire another perfon to undergo punifh-
ment in his room. The .law, of which the maxims are
rational and juft, does certainly not allow it, though the
difpenfers of it may ; and the piety of a fon may, more
in China than eifewhere, impel him to fuffer pain to fave
a father from it.
In the adminiftration of the vaft revenue of the hate,
the opportunities of committing abufes are not often
negle&ed, as may be inferred from the frequent confif-
cations to the emperor, in confequence of l'uch frauds,
It is indeed affirmed, that much corruption and oppref-
fion prevail in moll of the public departments, by which
confiderable fortunes are acquired, notwithftanding the
modicity of the public Hilaries. With refpeCt: to the
allowances made by the emperor to the principal officers
of government, revenue, and jultice, it is to be obferved,
that, though in each city there is a chief judge appointed
exprefsly for trying criminals, all civil fuits are decided
by the principal or fubordinate governors of the places
where they ante, without any particular eltablilhment of
legal judges, appointed apart and independently for
that purpofe. The influx of filver from Europe into
China, within the thirteenth century, has occaiioned
fuch an increafe in the prices of all articles of confump-
tion, as greatly to alter the proportion between the fixed
falaries of the feveral officers of government, and the
ufual expences of their refpe&ive Rations. The follow¬
ing table exhibits the fixed falaries of the civil eftablilh-
ment of the prefent Chinefe government, as given by fir
George Staunton :
A Lift of the chief Civil Officers Of China, dftinguijhing their
Number, Station, and Salaries.
Tahels.
Eleven tfon-toos, or viceroys, over one
or more provinces, falaries - - 20,000
Fifteen foyens, or governors, under
him, of each province - - - -16,000
Nineteen hou-poos, or fifcals, the chief
officers of revenue ----- 9,000
Eighteen an-za-tzes, or prefidents, of
the criminal tribunal - - - - 6,000
Eighty-fix tao-quens, or governors,
prefiding over more than one city
of the fir ft order, and their depen¬
dencies -- . -
One hundred and eighty-four fou-
quens, or governors, only of one
city of the firit order, and its de¬
pendencies --------
One hundred and forty-nine kiou-
quens, or governors, of a city of
the fecond order ------
One thoufand three hundred and five
fien-quens, or governors, of a city
of the third order .
Seventeen fiou-jous, or prefidents, 1
of lcience or examinations - - f
One hundred and i'eventeen clio- I
tos, or infpeCLors-general - - J
3,000
2,000
1,000
800
3,000
Total.
220,000
240,000
171,000
108,000
258,000
368,000
149,000
1,044,000
402,000
2,960,000
The order and adminiftration of the jails in China, are
laid to be remarkably good. The debtor and felon are
confined in feparate places, without being permitted to
approach each other, as it is thought both impolitic and
z
immoral to aflbeiate guilfr with imprudence or misfor¬
tune, by a promifcuous imprifbnment. The two {'exes
are likewife kept carefully apart. Confinement for debt
is only temporary ; but if, after the delivery of all a
debtor’s property to liis creditors, the demands agaiult
him are ftill unfatisfied, he is liable to wear a neck-yoke
in public for a certain period, in order to-induce his fa¬
mily, if able, to difcharge the debt, and thus put an end
to the difgrace. If his infojvency had been incurred by
gaming, or other improper conduct, he is fubjeft to cor¬
poral punifhment, and exile into Tartary. The empe¬
ror’s debtors, if fraudulently fuch, are ftrangled ; if
merely by misfortunes, their wives and children and pro¬
perty of every kind are liable to be fold, and themfelves
lent, to the new fettlements in Tartary, at the difcretion
of the emperor.
The prodigious populoufnefs of China may be ac¬
counted for from divers caufes; one of which, and no;t
the leaft material, is, that the people are leldom dimi-
niftied by the calamities of war. No private foldiers, and
only a few officers, natives of the ancient provinces of
China, were engaged in the conqueft of Weftern Tartary,
or in the Thibet war. Celibacy is rare even in the mi¬
litary profeffion among the Chinefe. Accidents fome-
times of extraordinary drought, and lometimes of excef-
five inundations, occafionaliy produce famine in parti¬
cular provinces ; and famine difeafe : but there are few
drains from moral caufes, either of emigration, or foreign
navigation. The number of manufacturers, whofe oc¬
cupations are not always favourable to health, and whole
refidence in towns expofes them to irregularities, bears
but a very finall proportion to that of hufoandmen in
China. In general, there feems to be no other bounds
to Chinefe populoufnefs, than thofe which the neceffity
of fubfiftence may put to it. Thefe bounds are certainly
more enlarged than in other countries. The whole l'ur-
face of the empire is, with trifling, exceptions, dedicated
to the production of food for man alone. There is no
meadow, and very little pafture; nor are fields cultivated
with oats, beans, or turnips, for the fupport of cattle of
any kind. Few parks or plealure grounds are feen, ex¬
cepting thofe which belong to the emperor. Little land
is taken up for roads, which are few, and never unnecef-
farify wide ; their chief communication being by water.
There are no commons, or lands, fuffered to lie wafte by
the negleCt, or the caprice, or for the fport, of great pro¬
prietors. No arable land lies fallow. The foil, under a
hot and fertilizing fun, yields annually, in mod inftances,
double crops, in conlequence of adapting the culture to
the foil j and of fupplying its defeCts by mixture with
other earths, by manure, by irrigation, by careful and
judicious induftry of every kind. The labour of man is ,
little diverted from that induftry, to minifter to the luxu¬
ries of the opulent and powerful ; or in employments of
no real ufe. Even the foldiers of the Chinefe army, ex¬
cept during the fhort intervals of the guards which they
are called to mount, or other occafional lervices which
they perform, are rnoftly employed in agriculture. The
quantity of l'ubftftence is increafed alio, by converting
more, f'pecies of animals and vegetables to that purpofe
than is uiual in other countries; and even in the prepa¬
ration of their food, the Chinefe have economy and ma¬
nagement. In raifing and collecting manure for the land,
Chinefe induftry feerns to iurpal's every other part of the
world ; and it is to them an objeCt of the utmoft attention.
In this bufinefs the old and deqrepid are employed, and
little boys capable of no other labour. They rummage
every ftreet, road, river, and canal, and all'o pick up in
balkets the ordure of animals, and oft'als of every kind
which can anl'wer the purpofe of manure. Wherever
this is deficient, they unite various kinds of earth to¬
gether ; if the earth be too compaCt or adhefiye, they mix
with it land ; if too loofe, clay or loam, until the foil be¬
comes fit for the intended purpofe of vegetation. Their
induitrv is fuch in the fouthern provinces, that the gen-
•• " tkmen
49‘2 C H I
tlernen of the embaffy noticed a farmer, who with one
hand drove his plough, to which his wife was yoked,
while he fowed the ieed with the other hand in drills.
This-, talk impofed upon the woman appeared to an Eu¬
ropean eye altogether unbecoming; yet a labouring fe¬
male is there prized fo much by the other fex, that where -
ever they are known to be in greateft plenty, farmers
will travel from diftant provinces to purchafe what they
call a working wife. The wives are diftinguiftied from
the maidens, by the latter allowing the hair near the
forehead to hang down towards the eye-brows ; while
the former have ail theirs bound together upon the crown
of the head. From the united influence of thefe concur¬
rent circumftances, it will not, perhaps, appear furprif-
ing, that it fliould be aflerted, that every fquare mile in
China contains, upon an average, about one-third more
inhabitants, being -upwards of three hundred, than are
found upon an equal quantity of land, alfo upon an
average, in the moll populous country in Europe. Thus
the number and increafe of this people feems to befuch
as almoft to flagger belief, and exhibits to the rnind a
grand and curious fpe&acie of fo' large a proportion of
the whole human race, connedted together in one great
fyftem of polity, fubmitting quietly, and through fo con-
• fiderable an extent of country, to one great lovereign 5
and uniform in their laws, their manners, and their lan¬
guage; but differing effentially in each of thefe refpe&s,
from every other portion of mankind ; and neither de-
firous of communicating with, nor forming any defigns
againft, the reft of the world.
In the article of drefs, the Chinefe feem never to have
been the Haves of fancy or fafhion : whatever is thought
fuitable to the condition of the wearer, or to the feal'on
of the year, continues generally, under fimilar circum-
ftances, to be the fame. Even among the ladies, there is
little variety in their dreffes, except, perhaps, in the dif-
pofition of the flowers or other ornaments of the head.
In lieu of fhifts, the ladies wear a fort of filk netting;
next to which they have a waiftcoat and drawers of filk,
trimmed or lined, in cold weather, with fur; in warm,
with thin cotton. Above this is worn a longfattin robe,
which is gracefully gathered round the waift, and con¬
fined with a fafh. Thefe different parts of thin apparel
are ufually each of a different colour, in the feleftion and
^contraft of which, the wearers chiefly difplay their tafte.
The lower orders of women wear cotton nettings inftead
of filk ; and their other garments are of thecoarfer fabrics
of the country. Though the ladies reckon corpulence a
beauty in man, they confiderit as apalpableblemifhintheir
own lex, and aim at preferving a flimnefs and delicacy
of fhape. They fuffer thier nails to grow, but reduce
their eye-brows to a beautiful arched line. The frail fe¬
males, who in this country are few, compared with thole
of other nations, aim to make themfelves agreeable, and
deck themfelves out to the belt advantage, in the double
view of obtaining lovers, or hufbands; for thefe women
very frequently marry. Some poor parents, therefore,
feem to feel little reluftance in devoting their daughters
to the profits of the one employment, with a view to
more permanent advantage in the other. The Chinefe
women, efpecially in the lower walks of life, are bred
With little other principle than that of implicit obedi¬
ence to their fathers or their hufbands. To them they
are taught to refer the good or bad qualities of their ac¬
tions, without any idea of virtue in the abftraft. Nor
do the men feem to value chaftity, except what may tend
to their own perfonal gratification. The cafe is probably
fottiewhat otherwife in the upper claffes of life in China.
There is, iii faft, a greater difference often between dif¬
ferent' ranks 'in the fame country, than between the fame
ranks in different countries. The Chinefe women, of
whatever condition in life, are, for the moft part, de¬
prived of the benefit of reading, or of acq ring know¬
ledge by obfervation. Their ignorance, their inexpert-
N A.
ence, -their retirement, their 5We alfo of tliofe whom they
confiaer as their fuperiors, difqualify them, in a great mea"-
fure, from becoming the friends or habitual companions
ot the leifure of their hufbands. Even a relifh for their
perional charms is fubjedt gradually to diminifli; and lefs
horror is felt againft unnatural practices, which, however
they are, as well as all perverle and impure deftres, juftly
reprobated by the Chinefe moralifts, are feldom or ever
punilhed by the law, at leaft when committed by the
mandarins. Where the ladies never form a part of fo-
ciety with men, mutual improvement, or delicacy of tafte
and feutiment, the fofniefs of addrefs, the graces of ele-
gant converfe, the refinement and play of paffions, can™
not take place ; and unguarded manners in the men, are
liable to degenerate into coarfe pieafantry or broad allu-
fions. The, exterior demeanour of the Chinefe is, in¬
deed, very ceremonious ; but when thefe ceremonies have
palled, the performers of them mutually relapfe into eafe
and familiarity. Their good manners and complaifance
is entirely fyftematic. The greateft mandarin, or even
the emperor, in fpeaking of himfelf, contradiftinguifhed
from any of his anceftors or predeceffors, ufes the moft
modeft, and, indeed, humble expreffions, in every thiriT
that relates to his own perfon. Hence the excefs of pre¬
caution againft egotifm is fo great in China, that, in the
mention of one’s felf, the moft abjedt terms are employ¬
ed, and the moft exalted towards tliofe unto whom they
are fpeaking. In their addrefs to ftrangers, however, they
are not reftrained by any bafhfulnefs, but prelent them-
ielves with an eafy confident air, as if they confidered
themfelves as the fuperiors, and as if nothing in their
manners and appearance could be deficient or inaccurate.
This habit of confidence in themfelves arofe originally
from a confcioufnefs of furpafling their neighbours ir*
merit of every kind. Before the period of the Mongol
invafion of their country, in the midft of the dark ages
of Europe, when China was vifited by Marco Polo, the
natives of it had already reached their highelt pitch of
civilization, in which they were certainly fuperior to
their conquerors, as well as their European cotempora¬
ries ; but, not having fince advanced, whilll the nations
of Europe have been every day improving in manners,
and in arts and knowledge of every kind, the Chinefe are
feen by the latter with lefs admiring eyes than they were
by the firft travellers who gave accounts of them. The
Chinefe themfelves felt lately, in their intercourfe with
the embaffy, fome of the advantages which the Englifh
had confeffedly over them, even in their own country ;
particularly in thole gifts which are derived from uncon-
trouled literature and fcience.
One of the moft curious and not the leaft interefting
delcriptions with which fir George Staunton has favoured
us, is that of the burial-place belonging to the city of
Han-choo-foo. This facred diftridt occupies both hills
and dales, to a very confiderable extent, and is covered
with many thoufand monuments or tombs, generally
built in the form of fmall houfes, about fix or eight feet
high, painted moftly blue, and fronted with white pil¬
lars, the whole ranged in the form of pigmy ftreets.
The tombs of perlons of high rank were fituated apart,
generally on the Hope of hills, on terraces of a femicir-
cular form, and fupported by breaft- walls of ftone, and
doors of black marble, infcribed with the names, quali¬
ties, and: virtues, of the deceafed ; and- oftentimes obe-
lilks are eredted upon the terraces. The chief' monu¬
ments of departed greatnefs are furrounded by trees,
fuch as different fpecies of the lofty cyprefs, whofe deep
and melancholy hue feems to have pointed them every
where out, as well fuited for fcenes of woe. In this fo-
lemn and lonely retirement, fcarcely a night paft'es
without a vifit byperfons accompanied by torches, to
pay frelh tributes of i'oirow to their deceafed relations,
whofe monuments they decorate with flips of filk or
painted paper, befides ftrewing a profufion. of -flowers,
and
CHINA.
493
and burning perfumes before them. No perfons are al¬
lowed to be interred within the walls of their cities or
towns; but in villages many are buried in gardens, or
by the way-fides.
What has been fuggefted by profeflor Beckmann, un¬
der the article Chimney, feems to be corroborated and
confirmed by fir George Staunton, with relpedt to the
modern date of that invention. He fays the Chinele
have no chimneys, nor open fire-places, nor grates, but
burn their fuel in clofe ftoves, very fimilar to the Per-
fianftyle; for which purpofe they commonly char their
coal, previoufiy to its being employed for fuel ; and for
this purpofe deep pits are dug in the vicinity of the
mines. And in the 1'pirit of Chinefe economy, rendered
perhaps neceffary by the immenlity of their population,
the dult even of the coals is not lolt by them. A liveli¬
hood is. obtained by gathering this dult, and mixing it
with equal quantities of boggy earth; which, when
moulded into pieces of a fquare form, and hardened in. the
fun, are tranfported to diltridts where no coal is found.
Hofpitality to ltrangers, is the afl'umed charadteriltic
of the Chinefe xtation, the moment any fuch are fuffered
to come within their dominions; and Purely no country
on earth could have chofen a more worthy or more effec¬
tual method to dignify its name. It was this principle,
and this cultom, which alone influenced the Chinefe em ¬
peror to take the gentlemen of the Britilh embafiy un¬
der his own immediate protection, to fupply them in
abundance with provifions, and to defray every expence
attending them and their retinue, both by land and wa¬
ter, during their continuance within his territory, which
was from the time they landed at Cliu-fan, until their
departure from Canton. The police of China is like-
wile conduced upon a molt admirable plan, fince every
traveller pafl'es, as it were, l'ecure from thieves and rob¬
bers, few fuch being known in the country; and, in their
cities and towns, in their villages, or by their way-fides,
not a beggar is to be feen, nor any wretched objeCt of
diltrefs. Neatnefs and decency is feen in all their abodes ;
yet they have not the ufe of linen. Their dining-tables,
which the ftrcng body of varnifh laid upon them always
fecures from dirt and moilture, are not covered with
cloths. They fpread no llieets upon their beds ; and
white cotton, the growth of their country, is applied to
but very few of the purpoles to which linen is deltined
in England. The rules of external decency are ftriCtly
guarded by the manners and fentiments of all perfons of
•education and refinement; and whatever fimilitude may
be drawn betwixt the paganilm of China and that of its
neighbour Hindooftan, the former feems not to have bor¬
rowed from the latter, any of the oblcene pollutes fome-
times carved on the outiide of the Indian temples. If,
from the loofe expreflions familiarly introduced by fome
of the molt elegant writers in antiquity, and from the in¬
decent images dii'covered among ancient buildings; as,
for example, at Pompeia, as well as fiom fome remains
-of obfcene worfhip, in an obfcure part of the fame coun¬
try, and the fiiatnelefs praCtice of fome diftant favage
tribes, it be inferred that decency is not a ltrong, innate,
and neceflary, lentiment of nature, it nrnft be acknow¬
ledged, that it is at leaf! a happy artifice of fociety, not,
indeed, precluding vice, but covering its exterior turpi¬
tude, and adding refinement and delicacy to natural en¬
joyments. And in this fpecies of factitious virtue, the
Chinefe have preceded, as well as furpaffed, molt other
nations. Even fo delicate are their fenfations, that no
male phyfician is permitted to attend a pregnant woman,
and ftill lefs to praCtife midwifery ; in the indelicacy of
of which both lexes feem to agree in China. Nor can
the pretence of its utility, on the gound of preventing
cripples, or crooked or diltorted limbs, by improper treat¬
ment in the adt of parturition, be there of any weight,
•lince very few deformed perfons are to be found in Chi¬
na : not one fuch was feen by the gentlemen of the em¬
bafiy among any of the crowds of fpeftators, nor through
Vox. IV. No. 2i£.
their whole route, from the northern to the fou them ex¬
tremity of China. B-ut, nolwithflanding the vigilant and
fcrutinizing police of the Chinefe magiltrates, books dis¬
approved by them are fometimes privately printed and
dilleminated in China. It is not ealy to prevent, or even
always to detedl, the operations of a trade which, befide
paper and ink, require little more than lome pieces of
board, and a knife to cut out chara&ers upon them. The
books thus publilhed furtively, are chiefly thole which
are offenfive to decency, and inflame the imagination of
young minds.
The amufements of the Chinefe appeartobe but few, and
very Ample; as is evinced by thofe that were exhibited be¬
fore the gentlemen of the embafly at the court of Zhe-hola
on the celebration of the emperor’s birth-day. Their
moll favourite, and moll rational, fource of relaxation,
is in the drama. Plays are for ever performing in all the
provinces of China ; infomuch that an entertainment ia
never given by a mandarin of even moderate rank, with¬
out a dramatic performance in his own houie, by way of
folace and pleafure to his guefts. We have noticed that
plays were exhibited on the river fldes, wherever the Bri-
tifli embafiy flopped, in their way to Pekin, by order of
the mandarins, for the amulement of the Englilh ftrangers;
and we have aifo laid, that, during certain feitivals, plays
are performed in the ftreets to exhilarate the common,
people, at the expence of the emperor. And as their
drama feems really calculated to inculcate virtue and
morality, and fhews, perhaps, more than any thing elfe,
the eftabiilhed manners of the people, we lhall give the
call of one of their plays, entitled Chon-fon-k.au, or
Fidelity Rewarded ; which has been lately tranilated by E.
Van Braam Houckgeeft, fecona perlon in the recent Dutch
embafly to the court of Pekin. The term included in the
action of this play, compriles an interval of eighteen years.
Act I. — Thaye, a mandarin of letters, has two wives.
The lecond (Alaya) is brought to bed of a fon called
Siou-ye. On occalion of this birth a grand feaft is given
in the houfe of the mandarin. The relations who com-
pofe the family, repair to it to blefs the child, and to
partake of the common joy. During this feflival, which
lafts many days, there comes an order to the mandarin
from the emperor, who, informed of his great merit and
his talents, invites him to court. The mandarin, wifhing
to obey, aflembles all his family, among which appear
his father and mother. He communicates to them the
order of the fovereign, and his defigri to conform to it as
foon as poflible. His two wives and his relations appear
very much alarmed at this departure; but he conloles
them, and gives counl’els and inltruftions to his wives
and domeftics. He maintains, in his difcourfe, the ne-
jcelfary obligation which he lies under to ferve,the mo¬
narch and nis country with all his might, and to be
faithful to them. Then his father, a venerable old man-,
flrongly recommends to him a faithful regard to his du¬
ties. He exhorts him never to deviate from the path of
honour and virtue, the only one which can lead to re¬
nown, and render him worthy to pleafe the divinity.
After this .difcourfe, which the mandarin hears in an up¬
right poiture, became a fon in China never fits down be¬
fore his father, he prolirates himfelf at the feet of the
author of his days, and, with his head bent under, im¬
plores their benediction ; which they give him, each be¬
ing leated, and in a tone breathing fomewhat of rna-
jelty. The father efpecially imprefles veneration ; but
the mother alfo lets fall expreflions of her tendernefs and
fenfibiiity, Thaye riles, thanks his parents, and parts
from them, as well as from his wives, with marks of re¬
ciprocal attachment. His lafi movement of regret is for
his old domeltic Atay, and for his female fervant Aoua-
na ; to whom he recommends obedience and fubmifliort
towards their two miflrefles, the care of whatever con¬
cerns the houfe, and, above all, attachment to his fon,
during his own ablcence. He promiles them to fupply
their wants.— [Exit.— The curtain falls.]
.6 K.
Act
494 c H
Acr II.— After a fpace of four or five years without
any news -from the mandarin, whofe father and mother
are dead, and the family in the greatelt uneafmefs, the
two wives become very diicontented. They deliberate
together, and form the projeft to abandon the houfe of
their hulband, and go, while they are yet young and
beautiful, to feek a better deftiny, perfuaded that the
mandarin has perilhed in an expedition with which it
was laid the emperor had charged him. Having well
concerted their defign, and being firmly decided in their
refolution to execute it, they impart the lame. to the old
domeltic, as well as to Aouana. Thefe lall exprefs the
greatefl: allonifhment, and a jult indignation at the lhame
w'ith which thefe tvvo wives wpuld cover their mailer, or
his manes, if he be really dead. Both thefe two faith¬
ful domellics addrefs the ftrongeft reprefentations to the
two wives. They draw an energetic pifture of the fu-
blime fentiments with which chaility in fpires the women
in China; but their cares are of no avail, they only ob¬
tain from thefe degraded, women a fmile of dildain.
Aouana, who is touched Hill more by this inflexibility,
runs, takes up the infant and prelents it to its mother,
as a bond which ought to attach her for ever to the houfe
of her hulband. She conjures her to have compaflion at
dealt on her own blood, and not to complete, thfe dilgrace
of both the fon and the father by an infenfate defertion.
The two wives,. already feduced by the idea which they
had conceived of a liberty without bounds, perfevere in
their project. The mother rejefts the child die has given
birth to, and ftifling in her heart the fweetelt fentiments
of nature, recommends it in a tone of raillery to the faith¬
ful cares of Aouana. Thefe two vagabonds, conftantly
mocking the two domellics, take their jewels and clothes
which they had already packed up, and quit the houfe,
bidding an adieu to Atay and Aouana, which ferves to
complete their dillrefs and defpondency. After having
given bitter tears to this fatal event, thefe two valuable
iervants, finding it was impoflible to remedy it, mutually
encourage each other ; and at the inllant when their foul
is bowed down with grief, they fwear to confecrate the
remainder of their Itrength to labour for the relief of their
neceflities, and thofe of the innocent infant of their wor¬
thy mailer, and, above all, to furnilh him with the means
of devoting himfelf to the fludy of letters. The fecond
aft terminates with this laudable defign.
Act III. — The child has arrived at his thirteenth year.
— The curtain riles, and we fee old Atay bufily employed
in making llraw fandals, the only trade which he knows.
Aouana is fitting near a table covered with garments,
and is fewing very diligently. The old domeltic fings at
his labour the melancholy hiltory of his mailer, and with
fo much fenfibility, that at lall his eyes are fuffufed, and
tears run down his cheeks. To Ihew courage, he wipes
his tears, and aftefts to laugh, as if to reproach his pufil-
lanimity. Aouana then fpeaks to him, and obferves how
fweet and confoling it is for a virtuous foul to fulfil its
duties, becaule the gods never withdraw their benefits
from thole who love to execute them. She goes on to
exprefs all their happinefs in having fucceeded for fo
many years not only in efcaping mil'ery, but in having
procured inllruftion for their young mailer, who is
making Inch progrels, that lie will afluredly become a
man of rare merit, and be induced from gratitude to
take care of their extreme old age. This dilcourle con-
loles and re-animates the good Atay. He Ihews Aouana
his pair of fandals finilhed, and fays he is going to fell
them, or rather exchange them, for lome lamp-oil, by
the light of which they were accuitomed to labour very
far in the night. At the moment in which the old man
is about to let out, arrives young Siou-ye from his col¬
lege, with books under his arm. He falutes Atay with
an affefting and ingenious air, who cardies him with eu-
.logiums and encouragements. He then goes towards the
table where Aouana is at work, and falutes her as if Ihe
was his mother. He lays his books on the table, and
I N A.
places himfelf befide her. Aouana queftions him with
much affability on what he has learned. She, men¬
tions to him the lefi’ons which he has had to recite, and
he repeats them with a loud voice. She commends his
application, and profits of this moment to fliew him that
it is only by thefe means that he can acquire glory
enough to give real latisfaftion to the manes of his fa¬
ther: file recommends to him to dread the lofs of time,
and to purfue his feudies without ceafing night and day,
in order to arrive at the end of fo many labours. Ex¬
cited by this dii’courfe, the youth takes up his books and
reads in them attentively, till at length, fleep weighing
down his eye-lids, his head drops on his book. In this
interval Atay returns with a pot full of oil, fome of which
he pours into the lamp; he adjulls it that it might give
the better light ; afterwards he goes to prepare the iup-
per. Aouana, who perceives the young lludent afleep,
awakes him and invites him, after her example, to break
oft’ his repofe. He really makes efforts to do fo, but
yieding at length to a call, imperious at his age, he again
falls fall afteep. Aouana remarks him; and, in a long
of a touching nature, Ihe paints the contrail of the pain¬
ful fituation of a foul where inquietude has penetrated,
and that of an innocent heart where reigns tranquillity
which the thought of evil has not fullied. She touches,
laltly, on the happinefs which is the portion of youth,
becaufe it is yet unacquainted with the torments of ma-
turer years. In this lall part, Ihe has her eyes fixed on
the child. A truly maternal tendernefs is in her looks,
and Ihe lengthens out her fong by couplets on the lot of
this unfortunate. She is now moved to the bottom of
her heart. Although Ihe would refpeft his repofe, Ihe,
neverthelefs, judges it indifpenfable to awake him. She
wipes her tears, and at lall refolves to call her young maf-
ter ; but, too profoundly afleep, he cannot hear her. Then
Ihe takes a ferule of leather which is on the table, and
gives him a flight blow on the cheek. Siou-ye awakes, rifes
up in a pafiion, and abufes Aouana, alking her wlfat made
her fo bold as to dare to llrike him, lince Ihe very well
knows (lie is not his mother, but only a Have of his fa¬
ther? He manifells in all his gellures a degree of refent-
ment for that aftion, which he thinks impertinent. Aou¬
ana, who has confidered Siou-ye with the expreflion which
a flight fit of anger infpires, rifes when Ihe perceives the
effefts of that florin drawing to an end, and comes to
place herfelf before him. The youth is yet letting fall
reproaches from his mouth ; but it is already eal’y to re¬
mark that he has a fentiment of his fault. At length
Aouana addrefles him, and tells him, in a tone full of ten-
dernefs, that Ihe well knows (lie is not his mother. “ But,”
adds Ihe, “ where can you now find her from whom you
received life, and by whom you have been fo cruelly aban¬
doned in your tender infancy ? Since that fatal period, •
who has taken care of your days ? who has provided for
all your wants f Without doubt nature has not made me
your mother; but has my heart ever ceafed to have the
tendernefs and folicitudes of one ? Have not old Atay
and I laboured, day and night, for a great number of
years, to fuccour all your neceflities, in order to give you
the moll uieful of all benefits, that education which
in time was to make you a valuable man ? Who can
be lure that your true father is yet alive ? Ah ! I now
feel it cruelly, I have only taken fo much pains, have only,
experienced fo much anguilh, for an ungrateful wretch !
Already I become the objeft of your contempt and of
your haughty humour. It mult be fo, lince you force me
to it; I renounce, for the future, inquietudes which I fee
are likely to be fo unavailing. No, I am not your mother.
I reilore you to yourfelf, and will rigidly abftain for the
future from all the duties of a fenlible l’oul, of a nurfe.
May the gods forget your ingratitude, as I do.” Siou-
ye, who has heard all this tirade without daring to inter¬
rupt her (according to the cullom of the Chinele chil¬
dren,) and who has liltened to all her expreflions with a
painful attention, through which he diicovered from time
to
C H
to time movements which expreffed repentance, throws
himfelf at the feet of Aouana when (he has done fpeak-
ing. He prodrates himfelf with his face againft the earth.
He invokes her pardon ; he (wears that he ha9 no other
mother, and promifes her, w'ith a thoufand fobs, to have
the obedience and refpeft for her which that title com¬
mands. Aouana is overcome, (lie raifes him, promifes to
forget what is pad, and, in mild language, exhorts him
to lubdue his paflions, and thus to render himfelf, by his
moderation, worthy to bear the name of his father. [They
both retire afterwards into the interior of the hou(e, and
the aft finiflies.]
Act IV. — At the moment in which the curtain rifes,
we fee the mandarin Thaye in a veflel which is coming
down the river; and he is returning to his dwelling co¬
vered with marks of honour and dignities by the empe¬
ror, who has railed him to one of the firft ranks-. He de¬
tails all that has taken place in his expedition, and ter¬
minates by the pifture of all the enjoyments which await
him on his return to the bofom of his family, after hav¬
ing been feparated from it for fo great a number of years.
He paints to himfelf the joy which his prefence will give
rife to, efpecially at the inltant when nothing has an¬
nounced him. Full of thefe delicious thoughts, he per¬
ceives, on one of the banks of the river, a woman walking
linen, furrounded with all that can denote mifery. This
woman railes her head, looks at the' mandarin, thinks (lie
lees a fpedtre, imagines he is going to purfue her, lets up
a cry, abandons her linen, and runs away. While the
mandarin is himfelf moved at this fcene, and his ideas
are thrown into confufion by this Angular rencounter,
lie is feeking for the explication of it 5 there comes a fe-
cond woman that appears as miferable as the former one,
and who, bearing a yoke, at which were fufpended two
buckets, comes to draw water at the river. This woman
fees the mandarin, cries out, throws down her buckets,
and runs to a diftance off. The mandarin now experi¬
ences a greater trouble. He reafons on thefe two circum-
itances, inexplicable for him, and arrives, full of thought
and penfive, at the place which he inhabited.
Act V. — The curtain rifes. — Old Atay appears in a
movement and in a difpofition of mind very extraordi¬
nary, from having learned that his mailer, become a man¬
darin of an elevated rank, was approaching. He is oc¬
cupied, with two young perfons, in making ready the
hall of reception of the houfe. At a diftance is heard a
trumpet, the noife of the gomgom, and fucceftively the
found of other inftruments, which announce the arrival
of the mandarin, now feen to enter with a part of his
fuite. He places himfelf in a great chair at the upper
end of the faloon. Old Atay proltrates himfelf before his
mailer to felicitate him on his return, and (heds tears of
joy. His mailer orders him to rife, and makes his fuite
retire. Alone with his faithful fervant, he enquires into
the (late of his houfe; the wives, the child, every thing
is the objeft of his queftions. Atay gives him a faithful
account; and, in his recital, informs him, that the two
wives, after having quitted the fpoufal houfe, and having
fpent fome years in a kind of life oftenfive to good man¬
ners, had only reaped (hame and mifery as the fruit of then-
deviations; and they had been feen reduced to the occu¬
pation of fervants to fubfift. Thefe details explain to the
mandarin the furprife and fear which his prefence caufed
to the two women whom he found.-by the river fide, and
who fled at his approach. Atay fpeaks afterwards, but
with brevity, of his zeal and his application. He excnles
himfelf for having done fo little, at an age which dilen-
abled him from undertaking more, He extols to the high-
eft degree the cares and the fidelity of Aouana. He re¬
lates all her exprefiions of tendernefs for the infancy of
her mailer’s fon, and the addrefs which (lie had difplayed
to excite his emulation, and encourage him in his ftudies.
He praifes her aftivity, her induftrious difpofition, which
nothing could weary night and day, while (he was la¬
bouring for them. “ The gods,” added he, “ have loaded
I N A, 495
us with favour by granting to Aouana an unalterable
health.” At length the old man comes to wliat con¬
cerns the fon of his mafter. He cannot enough praile his
ardour for (ludy, and cites as a proof, that the day be¬
fore he has been nominated licentiate. The mandarin,
after having liftened with the greateft attention, and a
lively fenfibility, but without interrupting (a very wife
cuftom of the Chinefe), the recital of his old fervant, gives
him, in his turn, the eulogiums which his attachment
merited, and promifes to give notice of his conduft to
the emperor. He declares that his wives are, for the fu¬
ture, unworthy of his remembrance, and that he is re-
l’olved to elevate Aouana to the dignity of fpoufe, and
to inveft her with all the marks of honour which the em¬
peror had given him for his wife. He confequently or¬
ders Atay to go and feek for Aouana. Aouana appears
foon after, and, with an embarrafiinent which (lie cannot
conceal, lalutes her mafter, and willies him all the hap-
pinefs that his fortunate return promifes, and the honours
which he had received. The mandarin rifes from his
chair, advances towards her, thanks her for the incom¬
parable cares which (he has taken of his fon, and of his
houfe. He gives her a thoufand applaufes for the fidelity
which covers her with glory. Aouana defends herfelf
with a rare modelty, and only fees in her own conduft
the fimple accomplifhment of the duty which her mafter
had impofed on her. The mandarin, touched dill more
at this procedure, aflures her that the obligation which
he feels from it is fo great, that he thinks he has no other
method of acknowledging it, than to take her for his
wife. He proclaims her then by this title, and taking
her by the hand, he condufts her towards a feat where
he places hewbefide him, that (lie may thus enjoy a right
which only belongs-to the lawful fpoufe. Aouana, con-
fufed in amazement, obeys, makes a reverence, without
uttering a word, (which is, moreover, a linking trait of
the fubmiflion in which the Chinefe manners hold women,)
and goes to take the place which is prefented to her. A
little after arrives Siou-ye, who has juft finilhed the cere¬
mony of his licentiatefhip, the habit of which he has now
on. He throws himfelf at his father’s feet, and remains in
that fituation until he is ordered to rife. His father tefti-
fies for him all the fatisfaftion which his conduft and his
progrefs had given him, and particularly the refpeftful
regard which he had (hewn to Aouana, in whom he had
found a true mother. He enjoins him to retain it for
her, as (he is now really become fo, being the legitimate
fpoufe of his father. At thefe words Siou-ye, full of joy,
proftrates himfelf before Aouana, and pays her homage.
The mandarin afterwards orders fome domeftics to bring
the habits of ceremony which the emperor had prefented
to him for his wife; and he himfelf decorates Aouana
with them, who afterwards repairs with her fpoul’e to
make the falute of honour to the emperor, and thank him
for his benefits ; when Aouana is folemnly proclaimed as
lpoufe of the mandarin, in recompence for her perfevering
fidelity.' In the fetpael, the emperor raifes old Atay to
the rank of mandarin. But this fuccefs, perhaps exag¬
gerated, raifes this eftimable man, as it were, out of Him¬
felf; and he commits faults which prove that education
ought to concur with the fined qualities ; and that the
virtues which render a domeftic worthy of general efteem,
do not always fuffice to make a mandarin. The emperor
ordains, moreover, the ereftion of a triumphal arch of
marble, which, even during the life of Aouana, (hall be
deftined to celebrate her fidelity’-, and to tranfmit the fame
to pollerity as an example for them. Feafts, which lad
many days, terminate the drama.
_Tlie original Chinefe are deferibed as being rather low
than tall in dature, with brown or muddy complexions,
and thick lips ; though, in the northern provinces, ladies
were feen as fair as any Europeans. Beauty, with the
native Chinefe, confids of a large forehead, broad ears,
fmall eyes, arched eye-brows, a (liort blunt nofe, fome-
what turned up, and a chin broad and bulky; the hair
C H I N A;
496
is univerfally black, which induces a ftrong national
cbarafter in their general appearance. The men encou¬
rage the growth of a whilker ; but amongft the Chinele
there is a great paucity of beard ; a few ltraggling hairs
form a pendent beard from the chins of thofe advanced
in life, though it is never greatly confpicuous but in the
very aged : the long queue, formed with the hair left to
grow from the crown of the head, belongs not to the
original Chitiefe, it is a Tartar cuftom, introduced only
with the prefer.t dynalty. The proper names of the ori¬
ginal Chinele, independently of the additions which
defignate their quality, as we are informed by fir George
Staunton, are all of one lyllable ; as is every word in the
Chinefe language. The additions are the more necefiary,
as a fimple name implies no diftinftion in favour of the
family which bears it. . Sir George obl'erves, that there
are not above one hundred family names known through¬
out the empire, and the expreflion of the hundred
names, is often ufed .as a colle&ive term for the whole
Chinele nation, Individuals, however, occafionally af-
fume, at different periods, or under different circum-
ilances of their lives, other appellations, exprelfive of
Come quality or event. Each family name is borne by
perfons of all clalfes. Identity of fuch names, however,
implies fome connedtion. All who bear it, may attend
the hall of their fuppbfed common anceftor. A Chinele
feldom, if ever, marries a woman of his own family
name; but-the fons and daughters of lifters married to
hulbands of two different names, marry frequently:
thole of two brothers bearing the fame name, cannot.
The names do not always denote diftindtions; and
though no hereditary nobility exifts in China, pedigree is
there an objedl of much attention. He who can reckon his
anceftors to a diltant period, as if diltinguifhed by their
private virtues, or public fervices, and by the honours
conferred upon them in conlequence by the government,
is much more refpedled than new men. The fuppofed
defendants of Confucius are always treated with parti¬
cular regard ; and immunities have been granted to them
by the emperors. The ambition of an illuftrious defeent
is fo general, that the emperors have often granted ti¬
tles to the deceafed anceftors of a living man of merit.
Indeed, every means are tried to ftimulate to good, and
to deter from evil adrions, by the reward of praife, as
well as by the dread of fhame.
Although the cuftoms and manners of the original
Chinefe belpeak great fnnplicity, and betray much igno¬
rance with refpedt to many European inventions and im¬
provements; yet their general or native knowledge is
confeffedly fuch, as to prove them always to have been a
civilized and enlightened people. Their cycle of lixty
years, mentioned at the beginning of this article, as
evidence of their high antiquity, is alfo an irrefragible
proof of their early powers of calculation, and know¬
ledge in aftronomy. This people are laid to have pof-
felled, three hundred years before the birth of Chrift, a
treatife of Clepfydras and Gnomons, t*be latter of which
fiiredls how to find the latitude of a place, and to draw
a meridian line : a degree of knowledge not attained, at
that period, even by the Romans, who, for a confidera-
ble time, had no other way of determining the meridian,
or mid-day, at Rome, than that of obferving when the
fun came between the fenate houfe and the tribune ; and
who ufed for many years a fun-dial calculated for ano¬
ther latitude, imagining that it was equally applicable
to all places : an error into which fome of the Chinefe
have been fince accufed of falling themfelves. Ingeni¬
ous, however, as thefe people are, they do not feem to
have any idea of the earth’s motion ; but imagine that
the fun actually moves through the fixed ftars. Their
day is divided, as by the ancient Egyptians, into twelve
parts only, confifting each of two European hours; the
Sirft beginning at eleven at night, and ending at one.
Thefe portions of time are meaiured with tolerable ac¬
curacy, by means of a lighted taper made from the
a
pith of a particular tree, of which the confumption by
ignition is fo regular, that divided into twelve equal
parts, each continues burning during the twelfth part of
the twenty-four hours. The gradual motion of fand,
and the defeent of liquids, have been likewife applied
to the fame purpofe. To announce the hour, even at
prefent, in Pekin, they have no better method than that
of ftriking with a mallet upon a large bell a number of
ftrakes correfponding to that of the hour, by a perfon
who mu ft wait and watch the progrefs of time, as indi¬
cated by fome of the methods above delcribed. In this
ftate they were found when conquered by the Tartar
tribes ; and in it they feem ever fince to have continued.
The preference {hewn to the Tartar race in the prefent
day, has been already noticed. The native Tartar
princes ufually marry the daughters and nieces of the
imperial family, and then hold a diftmguilhed place at
court, in conlequence of fuch alliance. Their educa¬
tion is ufually diredted to the ufe of the bow and feimi-
tar ; weapons which they prefer to all others. Thefe
princes are at the head of all the military departments,
as being thofe only in whom the emperor can with fafety
confide. On their part, they hold the emperor in the
greater veneration; as confidering him defeended from
the Tartar prince who conquered China in the thir¬
teenth century. His defeendants, being afterwards driven
out by Chu, fled into the country of the Manchoos in
Eaftern Tartary ; and from their intermarriages with the
natives, fprung the Bog-doi-khans, who, in the feven-
teenth century, entered China, and formed the prefent
dynalty, under Shun-chi, great grandfather of Tchaen-
lung, at whofe death, in 7799, it liad continued one hun¬
dred and fifty-five years; the longeft dynalty of any four
princes in an uninterrupted lucceflion, that can be re¬
membered in any country, except thofe of the four laft
reigning princes of the ancient monarchy of France,
which had continued one hundred and eighty-three
years, when the laft lbvereign, Louis XVI. was cut off
by an untimely death. But the four Chinefe reigns, viz.
thofe of Shun-chi, Kaiing-hi, Yong tchien, and Tchi-
en-lung, though extended over a people whofe, fubjec-
tion was completed only in the courle of them, and
who, perhaps, are not yet perfectly reconciled, were not
only long but almoll beyond example, profperous.
The firft, indeed, though begun in a minority, had all
the vigour and exertion of a new dynalty ; and thofe
which fucceeded, were equally remarkable for wifdom,
firmnefs, and adlivity. That year, which in the Britilh
annals is juftly termed the glorious 1759, was glorious
alfo to Tchieu-lung. He conipleted in that year the
conqueft of the Eieuths, who poffeffed a great portion
of what formerly was called Independent Tartary.
It is a Angular faff, that although the three laft Chi¬
nefe emperors, as well as the prefent, Ka-hing, who
fucceeded to the throne in March J799, were all born at
Pekin, yet they are univerfally regarded by their fubjedls,
and indeed by therafeives, as Tartars. Their principal
minifters, their confidential fervants, the chiefs of their
armies, moft of their wives, concubines, domeftics, and
eunuchs, are of that race. Every male in China, of
Tartar parents or defeent, is allowed a ftipend from his
birth, and is regiftered among the foldiers or fervants of
the emperor- Thefe form his body guards, to whom his
perfonal fafety is confided. Such a preference of Tar¬
tars, apparently partial and impolitic, was deemed ab-
folutely neceffary in the commencement of the dynalty,
when the conqueft of the country was not complete, and
little reliance was to be placed on the fidelity of thofe
who had been vanquifhed. It became, however, the
fource of additional difaffe&ion, which, in its turn,
called for the continuance of the meafure which pro¬
duced it. No change in the circumftances of the Tartar
and Chinefe nations fince they became fubjedt to one fo-
vereign, has contributed to their union, or to overcome
the oppofition approaching to antipathy, which muff
have
C H I
have previoufly fubfifted between a warlike people ever
endeavouring to invade, and a civilized people always
struggling to exclude, their neighbours. It is (till a com¬
mon laying in the provinces of ©hina where thofe inva¬
ders raoft abound, that no half dozen of natives are af-
lembled together for an hour, before they begin to cla¬
mour againft the Tartars. The fovereigns of the pre-
fent dynafty have, hitherto, oftenfibly conformed to, ra¬
ther than exclufively adopted, the Chinefe manners,
laws, and language. It is, perhaps, fcarcely to be ex-
pefted, that it will continue long enough upon the
throne to melt entirely into Chinefe. Sir George Staun¬
ton fays the mandarins averted, that a feft had for ages
fubfifted in the country, whofe chief principles were
founded upon an antipathy to monarchy, and who nou-
rilhed hopes of at laft fubverting it. Their meetings
were held in the utmoft fecrely, and no man avowed any
knowledge of them ; but a fort of inquifition was laid to be
eftablilhed in order to find them out. Thole who were
proved to hold or to avow filch fentiments, were fentenced
to be cut in a thoufand pieces; and thofe only fufpefted
of it, were hunted out of fociety. It is a fingular fait,
that in the French zeal for propagating principles of de¬
mocracy, their declaration of the Rights of Man had
been tranllated into one of the languages in India, and
circulated in Hindoollan ; from whence it had found its
way into China. It is not, indeed, likely to caul'e any
fermentation in the tranquil, fubmiflive, and refigned,
minds of the Hindoos, who are of a weak and delicate
conftitution ; but it might be otherwife among the Chi-
nefe people, who are more lufceptible of fuch impref-
fions, their difpofition being more confonant to enter-
prize. They are a more bold and hardy race. Their
more northern climate tends to render them able as well
as refolute. They are abundantly more hulbandmen
than manufacturers ; and, by being expofed to the open
air in all feafons, are apt to feel a more undaunted fpirit.
The minds of many of them, alfo, are not altogether fa-
tisfied with their condition, nor with the tribute claimed
for the emperor, which is always the fame whether the
harveft be fcarce or plentiful, which lays them perpetu¬
ally, both as to their fortunes and their perfons, at the
mercy of the mandarins. Yet it lhould feem that the
Chinefe have in truth but little to complain of on the
fcore of taxation, fince they are obvioully more favoured
than any fubjefts are in Europe, fuppofing filver to re-
prefent property, and to bear the fame proportion to
the confumable productions among the former which it
does: among the latter; for in this way, fays Sir George
Staunton, if the whole revenue were to be reduced to a
capitation, it would not amount to more than five Shil¬
lings a head on the population of the empire; whereas, by
an analogous computation, the people of Ireland, be¬
fore the union, would pay to the government eight lhil-
Jings a head; thofe of France, under the monarchy, fix-
teen Shillings a head ; and each individual in Great Bri¬
tain, at leall, thirty-four Shillings !
The propagation of the gofpel, under the Roman ca¬
tholic miflionaries in China, confidering the many cen¬
turies they have been employed, has certainly made no
great progrefs. Not above one hundred and Sixty thou¬
sand Chriftians are calculated to be l'pread over all the
Chinefe empire ; where both they and their prielts are
watched with ilriftnefs, and are expofed occafionally to
perfecutions. The missionaries every where, except per¬
haps at Pekin, lead a laborious, indigent, precarious, and,
as to this world, a hopelefs, life. Their pittance from
Europe is truly trifling ; and this pittance they divide
frequently with their flock, more miferable, fometiines,
than themfelves. The chief comforts of the former are
dervied from a confcioufnefs of the perfonal attachment
and veneration of thofe dil’ciples towards them. Some
of the miflionaries may, indeed, prefer this independent
mode of life, l'uch as it is, to the cloiffers, to which they
had been formerly confined ; but, in general, their con-
Vol.IV. Mo.ziq..
N A. 497
duft implies fentiments and maxims rarely to be found,
and fcarcely fufpefted to exilt, by the more worldly-
minded portion of mankind.
The city of Canton, at which the enibaffy finally ter¬
minated its route, being the only Chinefe port allotted
for general commerce, it has in confequence a number
of foreigners mixed with the natives. The factories be¬
longing to different European nations, each of which has
its peculiar flag flying, are handfome buildings, arranged
in a line along the river, without the city walls ; and
around the neighbourhood are warehoufes for the recep¬
tion of articles for fale, as well as for Chinefe merchan¬
dize for exportation. Whatever purchafes are made for
theEnglifli Eaft-India company, is done by agents, whofe
liberal emoluments place them above the temptation of
fraudulent or difhonourabie practices ; and who are bred
in the habits of method, punftuality, and probity, the
charafteriflics of a good merchant. Befides all which the
fuperiority of their returns, over and above every com¬
petitor, fails not. to gain them relpeft and efteem, even
in fpite of malevolence and envy. The prefent ftate of
the trade between England and China, as ftated by fir
George Staunton, is as follows : — A few years ago, the
exports to China, on the company’s account, in Englifh
goods and in Englifh bottoms, fcarcely exceeded ioo,oool.
per annum. The private trade was nearly as much. The
balance for teas and other goods was paid in filver. 'Since
the commutation aft, the exports have been gradually
riling, but are yet far from having reached their highelt
point. There were imported into Canton in 1792, from
England, in flxteen company’s fliips, to the amount of
nearly i,ooo,oool. in lead, tin, woollens, together with
furs, and other articles of private trade. The order for
woollens only the following year, was 250,000!. higher
than the preceding year. The value of exports from China
to England in 1794-, was above 1,500,000k prime colt,
befides freight and charges of merchandize, and will have
probably produced above 3,000,000k The legal trade
from the Britifli dependencies in India to Canton, in 1792,
amounted to very near the fum of 700,000k befides opium,
which is clandeftinely imported there, to the amount of a-
bout 250, cool. The articles legally imported confided of
cotton, tin, pepper, fandal-wood, elephants teeth, and
bees-wax. The exports from Canton to India, amounted
only, in 1792, to 330,000k leaving a valt balance in fa¬
vour of India, which is paid in cafli. The articles pur-
chafed for India, confift chiefly of raw and wrought filk,
fugar, and i'ugar-candy, tutenag, alum, porcelain, cam¬
phor, Nankeen cloth, quickfilver, and turmeric. The
total imports from foreign European nations to Canton,
in 1792, amounted to 200,000k and their exports to up¬
wards of 600,000k Many of the imports were of Britifh
manufacture.
From a recent regulation at Canton, three commiflion-
ers have conftant refldence at the Englifh faftory, exclu-
five of the former number of fupercargoes and writers.
They were delegated by the company to notify, in form,
at the court of Pekin, the embaffy intended from Great
Britain, as well as to fuperintend and direft the compa¬
ny’s affairs at Macao and Canton. Thefe gentlemen
having furnilhed the ambaffador with a particular fiate-
ment of the oppreflions and perfonal indignities exper¬
ienced by their agents, enabled him to add to the re-
monftrances before prefented to the viceroy. In confe¬
quence of this, two edifts were forthwith iflued againft
the frauds praftifed on foreigners in their commercial
tranfaftions, as well as the intuits offered to their per-
fons 5 in virtue whereof feveral offenders were feverely
punifhed. Among the grievances dated by the commiri
fioners, and which was included in the remonftrance of
the ambaffador, was that of the natives being prohibited
from inftrufting Europeans in the Chinele language. The
viceroy was at a lol’s to judge on what principle fuch a
prohibition could have taken place, which deprived fo¬
reigners of the means of tranfafting their own affairs, as
6 L well
•49$ ' CHI
'well as that of acquiring a knowledge of, in order to
'•conform themfelves to, the laws and cuftoms of, the coun¬
try. In this particular the viceroy allured his excellency
that no farther obftrudtion Ihouid be given on the part
of government.
The real difpohtion of the viceroy to cherilh and pra¬
ted! the Englilh, was countenanced by recent difpatches
from the emperor, who therein exprefted the welcome
which would be given at his court to another embafiy
from the king of Great Britain, and his defire that notice
■might be timely given of the minifter’s arrival at Canton,
•that proper perfons might be difpatched thither to con-
-du£t him to Pekin. And by an extract from another
letter it was Hated, that as his imperial majelly intended
to relign the reins of government in the fifty-Ieventh year
of their current cycle, correfponding to our year 1796,
he wilhed to lee fucli miniiter at. or as loon as conve¬
nient after, that time. “ Thus,” fays the learned lecre-,
tary, “the embafiy, according to the expectations which
•led to the undertaking, but contrary to the profpedts
which clouded it fometimes in its progrefs, lucceeded, at
length, not only in obtaining permiffion, but in receiv¬
ing an invitation, for a fimilar intercourfe with the court
of China, whenever the government of Great Britain and
the company ffiail deem expedient to renew it.”
All the buildings eredted for the purpofes of com¬
merce, and for tranfadtions in trade with any foreigner,
are obliged to be without the city walls. This necefla-
rily renders the out-buildings unufuaily extenfive. The
valt numbers of ftrangers always to be ieen in the luburbs,
while their lliips are unloading and loading in the river ;
their various languages, drefles, and charadterillic de¬
portment, would leave it almoll a doubt, if a judgment
were to be formed from a view on this fide of the city,
to what particular nation it belonged. The Chinefe ar-
tilts at this place are very lkiiful and ingenious. They
manufadlure a number of trinkets in gold, filver, and
particularly in their white copper, which the Chinefe do
not wear; but which are fold in Europe as Chinefe orna¬
ments. Their white copper takes a beautiful polifli ; and
many articles which have the appearance of filver, are
formed only of this metal. An accurate analyfis of it
lately made, has determined it tp confilt of copper, zinc,
a little filver, and, in fome fpecimens, a few particles of
iron, and fome nickel, have been found. Tu-te-nag is,
properly fpeaking, zinc, extrafted from a rich ore, or
calamine. The Chinefe make early and great ufe of fpec-
-tacies, which are manufactured at Canton, and formed
of cryftal, The glafs beads and buttons of various ffiapes
and colours, worn by perlons of rank in China, are
chiefly made at Venice.; and this is among the remnants
of the great and almoft exclufive trade which the Vene¬
tians formerly carried on with the eaft. Canton feems to
be almoft the only place in China where any houle is to
be feen with glafs window's, or chimnies ; a ftyle of build¬
ing evidently introduced there by the Europeans, who
ffirit ereCted them in the luburbs. Within the city, in¬
deed, very few windows are to be feen but what are con-
.ttruCted of paper, as is the cuftom throughout China ;
nor are there many houfes with chimneys, although the
•Chinefe at Canton leemed very fond of indulging in the
comforts of an open fire-fide, while engaged at the am-
baflador’s hotel. The bufinefsof the embafiy having been
concluded, as ftated above, the ambaflador and his fuite
took their final departure from Canton; and, after fome
Stay at the Portuguefe fettlement of Macao, they let fail
for Europe on the 17th of March 1794, and arrived fafe
at Portfmouth on the 6th of September following.
CHI'NA,/. [from China, the country where it is made.]
China ware; porcelain; a fpecies of veltels made in China,
-dimly tranl’parent, partaking of the qualities of earth and
glafs. See Porcelain.
Spleen, vapours, or fmall-pox, above them all 3
And miftrefs of herfelf, tho’ china Pope ,
CHI
CHI'NA, / in botany ; fee Smilax.
CHI'NA ORANGE,/. The fweet orange; brought
originally from China. — Not many years has the China
orange been propagated in Portugal and Spain. Mortimer ,
CHI'NA PINK, /. in botany; fee Dianthus.
CHI'NA ROOT, /.. A medicinal root, brought origi¬
nally from China. See Smilax.
CHI'NA ROSE,/, in botany ; fee Hibiscus.
CHIN'CA, a valley of South America, in Peru, where
the ancient incas had formerly built a temple, dedicated
to the lun. It once contained 25,000 inhabitants, now
reduced to about 500 families; the town, which gives
name to a valley, lies fixteen miles north of Pifco. When
tliis country was conquered by the Spaniards, Pizarro
defired the king of Spain that this might be the limits of
his government on the foutli, and that the river St. Jago
fliould bound it on the north. The valley bears good
wheat, and Spanifh vines thrive well in it.
CHINCHIL'LA, a town of Spain, in the province of
Murcia: twenty-five leagues fouth-weft of Valencia. Lat.
3S.4.8. N. Ion. 14. 53. E. of the Peak of Teneriffe.
CHIN'CHINA, / in botany; lee Cinchona.
CHIN'CHIO, a town of European Turkey, in the pro¬
vince of Dalmatian fix miles eaft of Spalatro.
CHIN'CON, a town of Spain, in New Caftile : eighteen
miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Madrid.
CHIN'COUGH, /. [perhaps more properly kincoughj,
from ktnckin, to pant, Dut. and cough.] A violent and
convulfive cough, to w'hich children are fubjedt. See
-Medicine.
CHINE, / [ efchine , Fr . fchiena, Ital. fpina, Lat. rein,
Arm.] The part of the back in which the fpine or back-
bone is found :
He prefents her with the tuiky head,
And chine with rifing briftles roughly fpread. Dryden .
A piece of the back of an animal. — He had killed eight
fat hogs for this leafon, and he had dealt about his chines
very liberally amongft his neighbours. Addifon.
’To CHINE, <v. a. To cut into chines. — He that in his
line did chine the long-ribb’d Apennine. Dryden.
CHINE (La), a town of Lower Canada, in Britifk
America, fituated in a bay of lake St. Louis, which is a
broad part of the river St. Lawrence. Here are confider-
able ftorehoufds belonging to the king of Great Britain,
and alfo to the merchants of Montreal. In the former,
the prefents occafionally diftributed among the neigh¬
bouring Indian chiefs, are depofited as foon as they arrive
from England; and prior to their being fent up the coun¬
try, they are infpedted by the commanding officer of the
garrifon of Montreal, and a committee of merchants, who
are bound to make a faithful report to government, whe¬
ther the prefents are agreeable to the contract. Oppofite
La Chine Itands a village of the Cochenonaga Indians,
containing a Roman-catholic church, built in the Indiaq
ftyle, and ornamented with pidtures, lamps, &c. in fuch a
manner as to attradt the eye as forcibly as poffible. The
outward ffiow, and numerous ceremonies of the Roman-
catholic religion, are particularly fuited to the capacities
of the Indians. In this and all the other Indian villages
fituated in Lower Canada, a great mixture of the blood
of whites with that of the aborigines, is obfervable in the
perfons of the inhabitants; there are alfo confiderabie
numbers of the French Canadians living in thefe villages
who have married Indian wives, and have been adopted
into the different nations w-ith whom they refide. Many
of the French Canadians bear fuch a clofe refemblance to
the Indians, owing to their dark complexions, black eyes,
and long black hair, that when attired in the Indian ha¬
bit, it is only a perfon intimately acquainted with the
features of the Indians, that can diftinguifli the one race
of men from the other. The difpofitibns of the two
people alfo accord in a very linking manner; both are
averfe.to a fettled life, and to regular habits of induitry,;
ui both
CHI
both ate fond of rowing about, and procuring fuftenance
by bunting, rather than by cultivating the earth. Nature
teems to have implanted in their hearts a reciprocal af¬
fection for each other; they fociate together, and live
on the moll amicable terms ; and to this one eircum-
ttance, more than to any other caufe, is to be attributed
that wonderful afcenaency which the French were ever
known to have over the Indians, .whilft they had polleffion
of Canada. Itis very remarkable indeed, that in the up¬
per country, notwithftanding that prefents to 1'uch a very
large amount are given amongft the Indians through the
hands of the Englilh inhabitants, and that their natural
rights are protected, yet an Indian, even at this day, will
always go to the houfe of a poor French farmer, in pre¬
ference to that of an Englilhman.
CHINE'SE, c.Jj.' Any thing belonging to China, or its
inhabitants.
CHINE'SE SHADES, an ingenious amufement, in
•imitation of dramatic performances; the artifice of which
confifts in moving, by means of pegs or wires fallened to
them, a variety of figures cut out of palteboard, the joints
of which are made pliable by turning on a pin or pivot.
Thele figures are exhibited fo as to reprelent various
fcenes, behind a partition of fine painted gauze, fixed
before an opening in a curtain, the fliadows of which are
thrown on the gauze by means of a light reflected from
a mirror, towards the apartment where the IpeClators lit.
When it is required to cattle thefe figures to perform a
variety of movements, it is neceflfary to have feveral per-
fons, who mult be exceedingly expert. This amufement,
which can hardly be feen the firlt time without pleafure,
is really a Chinefe invention, mollly ufed at their well-
known fealt of lanterns, when they exhibit an infinite
variety of tragic and comic fcenes, feats of agility, com-
'bats between men and animals, Ihips and vefiels moving
on the water, &c. That thefe amulements were common
in Egypt, we are told by Profper Alpinus, who admired
them much ; though he was not able to difcover the me¬
thod by which they were performed, it being then kept a
profound fecret. The magic lantern is an optical illufion
arifing out of this Afiatic invention. See Dioptrics.
CHI'NEY, or Ciney, a town of Germany, in the circle
•of Weltphalia, and bilhopric of Liege, in the country of
Condroz : ten miles north-eaft of Dinant, and twenty-
eight fouth-fouth-weft of Liege.
CHING, a town of China, of the fecpnd rank, in the
province of Pe-tche-li, 125 miles fouth-fouth-weft of Pe¬
kin. Lat. 38. 4. N. Ion. 133. 6. E. Ferro.
CHING, a town of China, of the third rank, in the
•province of Tche-kiang, ten leagues fouth of Chao-hing.
CHING-CONGO, a river of Hindooftan, which rifes
in the Ellichpour country, and runs into the Godavery,
fixteen miles fouth-weft of Neermul.
CHING-HAI, a town of Alia, in the kingdom of Co¬
rea, fixty miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Kang-tcheou.
CHING-KIEOU, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Ho-nan, fifteen leagues north-eaft of
Yun-hing.
CHING-LI, a town on the north-weft coait of the Chi-
nele ifland of Hai-nan, of the third rank, twelve miles
well of Kiong-tcheou.
CHING-MOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
1 the province of Chen-fi, on the river Kiu, fifty miles
north -north- well of Kia.
CHING-TCHEN, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Chen-fi, twenty miles north of Tong.
CHING-YANG, or Moucdan Hotxin, a town of
Chinefe Tartary, .320 leagues eaft-north-eaft of Pekin.
Lat. 41. 52. N. Ion. 141. 3. E. Ferro.
CHINGOLEAGU L, a fmall ifland of America, near
the eaft coall of Virginia. Lat. 37.56. N. Ion. 75.26. E.
Greenwich.
CHI'NIZ, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfiftan,
iituated on the gulf of Perfia, 140 miles weft of Schiras.
CHINK, /„ [cinan, to gape, Sax.l A fmall aperture
CHI 499
longwife; an opening or gap between the parts of an^
thing. — Though birds have no epiglottis, yet they fo
contract the chink of their larinx, as to prevent the ad-
milfion of wet or dry indigefted. Brown.
In vain flie fearch’d each cranny of the houfe,
Each gaping chink impervious to a moufe. Swift.
To CHINK, <v.a. [derived by Skinner from the found-l
To fliake fo as to make a found :
He chinks his purfe, and takes his feat of ftate;
With ready quills the dedicators wait. Pope.
To CHINK, nj.n. To found by linking each other. — •
Lord Strutt’s money Urines as bright, and chinks as weii,
as Tquire South’s. Arbnthnot.
CIHN'KY, adj. Full of holes ; gaping; openthg into
narrow clefts:
Grimalkin, to domeftic vermin fworn
An everlafting foe, with watchful eye
Lies nightly brooding o’er a chivky gap. Philips.
CHIN'NA BALABARAM', a town of Hindooftan,
in the Myfore country, eighty-five miles north-eaft of
Serin gapatam. Lat 13.25. N. Ion. 77. 56. E. Greenwich.
CHINNOR', /. A mulical initrument among the He-
• brews, confifting of thirty-two chords. _
CHINON', a town of France, and principal place of a
diftridl, in the department of the Indre and Loire, fitu-
ated on the Vienne, and defended by a ftrong caltle ; it
contains about 5000 inhabitants. It is eight leagues weft-
fouth-weft of Tours, and four and a half louth-eaft of
Saumur.
CHIN'QUAPINE, J'. in botany; fee Fagus.
CHINSU'RA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Bengal, fituated on the weft fide of the Ganges, be¬
longing to the Dutch. The houfes are built in the Eu¬
ropean ftile ; the town is populous and commercial. The
fortrels is defended by four baltions and a ditch, accord¬
ing to the European form of military architefture ; twen¬
ty-four cannons defend the paflage of the river. It is
feventeen miles north of Calcutta.
CHINTS,/ Cloth of cotton made in India, and printed
with colours :
Let a charming chints, and Bruflels lace.
Wrap my cold limbs, and fhade rny lifelefs lace. Pope.
CHINY', a town of the Netherlands, in the duchy of
Luxemburg, on the Semoy, the capital of a comte; it
was firft furrounded with walls about the year 950, by
Arnold de Bourgogne, and was heretofore celebrated for
its beauty and riches, but has fuffered greatly in different
wars. The comte is of great extent, including thirteen
cities or capital towns, viz. Baltogne, Chiny, Dierich,
Durbuy, Honfalize, Marche-en-Famine, Neufchateau,
Roche," St. Hubert, St. Vit, Schleyden in tlie diocefe of
Treves, Vianden, and Virton, with all the villages de¬
pending thereon ; in a word, this comte comprehends
more than fome maps deferibe under the name of the
duchy of Luxemburg. A pealant of Condroz, being
a Iked what was the extent of the comte of Chiny, an-
fvvered very ingenuoully, he had heard at Metz that it
comprehended one-half of the world, and that the other
half was dependant on it. Neither the city nor comte are
dependant on the duchy of Luxemburg, having its own
particular juriidi&ion. The comte fometimes is called
imperial, and has been at all times conliderable. Bruno,
the twentyTeventh archbilhop of Cologn, and chancellor
of the empire, erefited it into a comte, about the fame
time the city was furrounded with walls. It pafled after¬
wards to the houfe of Looz, by the marriage of Jane,
comteflfe de Chiny, with Arnold, comte de.L'ooz, whole
youngeft fon Louis became comte of Chiny; but he dying
without a fon, the comte pafled to Thierry, lord of Ki.nl-
berg, and afterwards to Margaret, only daughter of Louis
c®mte of Chiny, and Jeanne de Blamont. After the
death
500 CHI
death of Margaret, widow of John duke of Lorrain,
who died in 1372, without children,, the comte palfed to
Charles IV. emperor and comte of Luxemburg, who in¬
verted his brother Wenceflaus with the fovereignty, uni¬
ted with the duchy of Luxemburg, only referving the
title in all public afts, which was obferved till the comte
was yielded to France, in 1681, under the pretext that it
was a lief of the duchy of Bar. It at prefent belongs to
the houfe of Auftria, being adjudged to it by the treaty
of Rylwick. It is five leagues welt of Arlon, and nine
weft of Luxemburg-
CHI'O, or Chios, in ancient geography, an ifland near
the coaft of Natolia, oppofite to the peninfula of Ionia.
It was known to the ancients by the name of iEthalia,
Macris, Pithynfa, &c. as well as that of Chibs, Accord¬
ing to Herodotus, the ifland was peopled originally from
Ionia. It was at firft governed by kings ; but afterwards
the government aflumed a republican form, which by the
direction of liberates was modelled after that of Athens ;
during which it was celebrated as not having had the fin
of adultery committed in it for feven hundred years ! It
is now called Scro, which fee.
CHIOCOC'CA, ■/. [from fnow, and yoy.y.o;, a
berry.] In botany, . a .genus of the clafs pentandria, or¬
der mor.ogynia, natural order of aggregatae. The generic
' characters are — Calyx: perianthium five-toothed, fupe-
rior, permanent. Corolla: monopetalous, funnel-form;
tube long, fpreading'; border five-parted; divifions equal,
acute, reflected. Stamina : filaments five, fiiiform, length
of the corolla; antherae oblong, ere6t. Piftillum : germ
inferior, roundifli, comprelfed ; rtyle filiform, length of
theftamens; ftigma fimple, obtufe. Pericarpium: berry
roundilh, comprelfed, crowned with a calyx, one-celled.
Seeds : two, roundifli, comprelfed, diftant. — EJfential Cha¬
mber. Corolla funnel- form, equal; berry oue-celled, two-
fieeded, inferior.
Species. 1. Chiococca racemofa, or climbing fnowberry-
tree, or David’s root : fcandent, leaves broad-lanceolate,
Dowers lateral, panicle-racemed, one ftipular tooth. Stem
a fathom in height and more, with fmooth loofe branches
fpreading out horizontally ; leaves petioled, oppofite, ob¬
long, acuminate, nerved, glittering on the upper furface,
and lmooth ; berry fnow-white ; feeds two, oblong, acu¬
minate. This plant is very nearly allied to the genus
pfycliotria ; but it differs not only in the manner of flow¬
ering-, which is always in a raceme, but alfo in the form
of the corolla, the berry, and the feeds. According to
Browne’s account, it begins to branch immediately above
the root, and rifes by many flioots and flender twigs from
•four to feven or eight feet, then requiring fupport. The
racemes are very flender and numerous towards the top
of the branches, and are both terminating -and axillary.
The fnow-white berries are of a loofe texture, and very
numerous. The root has much the fame bitter acrid
tafte with the Senelca fnake-root, and-has been long uled
as a ftrong refolutive and attenuant: it is adminiftered
with great fuccefs in obftinate rheumatifms, and old ve¬
nereal taints ; nor is it entirely ufelefs even in the fpina
ventofa : it is belt given in a decoction. Native of the Weft
Indies ; as in woods, on the lower mountains of Jamaica.
It flowered in Mr. Sherard’s garden at Eltham in 1729,
and was lent thither by Mr. Warner, a merchant of Lon¬
don, who received it from Barbadoes. Jacquin obferved
it in St. Domingo, and alfo at Carthagena. There is a
variety of this, (Browne’s Jam. No. 2.) which grows to a
confiderable height, and throws fome of its flender twigs
again to the ground. The leaves arcr very like thofe of
•the foregoing, but fmaller, fubconvex, fomewhat rigid,
■and glittering ; the racemes are Ihort and fimple ; the
.corollas a little larger, pale-coloured, but purple at the
^corners.
2. Chiococca barbata: ere£t, leaves ovate, peduncles
axillary, one -flowered, corollas bearded in the throat.
This is a native of the Marquefas, Society, and Friendly,
jlflands, .in the South Seas.
CHI
Propagation and Culture. The firft fpecies is propagated
by feeds procured from the Weft Indies : to be fown in.
pots plunged in a moderate hot-bed, where they may re¬
main till the autumn, when they fnould be removed into
the (love for the winter, and the following fpring placed
on a frefli hot-bed, to bring up the plants, for they rarely
come up the firft year. When they are fit to remove,
plant them each in a feparate j-rnall pot filled with light
earth, and plunge them in a frefli hot-bed, (hading them
from the fun tiii they have taken new root, and then
treating them as other tender plants from hot countries.
As they obtain flrength, the plants may he let abroad in
a flieltered fituation for tvvq, months or ten weeks, in the
warmeft part of the fummer, and in the winter they may
be placed in a dry ftove, kept to a moderate degree of
warmth, where they will thrive, and produce flowers in.
autumn. See Ce strum Nocturnum and Psychotria.
CHIONAN'THUS, f. [from fnow, and a.v So;, a
flower.] In botany, the Fringe or Snowdrop-tree ;
a genus of the clafs diandria, order monogynia, natural
order fepiariae. The generic charafters are — Calyx : pe¬
rianthium one-Ieafed, four-parted, eredt, acuminate, per¬
manent. Corolla: monopetalous, funnel-form; tube very
Ihort, length of the calyx, fpreading ; border of four di¬
vifions, which are linear, ere&, acute, oblique, moft ex¬
tremely long. Stamina: filaments two, very Ihort, Tubu¬
late, inferted into the tube; antherae cordate, eredt. Pif¬
tillum : germ ovate; ftyle fimple, length of the calyx;
itigma obtufe, trifid. Pericarpium : drupe round, one-
celied. Seed : nut Undated. The number of ftamens is
often three. — EJfential Character. Corolla quadrifid, with
the divifions extremely long; drupe with a ftriated nut.
Species. 1. Chionanthus Virginica, or Virginia fringe-
tree, or fnowdrop-tree : peduncles three-cleft, three-flow¬
ered. This Ihrub is common in South Carolina, where
it grows by the fides of rivulets, and feldom is more than
ten feet high : the leaves are as large as thofe of the lau¬
rel, but are of a. much thinner iiibllance; the flowers
come out in May, hanging in long bunches, and are of
a pure white, from whence the inhabitants call it fnow¬
drop-tree ; and, from the flowers being cut into narrow
fegments, they give it the name of fringe-tree. After the
flowers have fallen away, the fruit appears, which becomes
a dark-coloured drupe, about the fiz.e of a floe, having-
one hard feed in it. It varies with a four, five, and fix,
cleft corolla, and four ftamens: alfo, with broader or
ovate-elliptic, and with narrower or lanceolate, leaves.
Introduced in 1736 by Peter Collinfon, efq.
2. Chionanthus Zeylanica, or Ceylon fnowdrop-tree :
peduncles panicied, many-flowered. Leaves lmooth on
both fides, thicker than in the firft fpecies. The panicle
has often forty flowers, and the petals are much fhorter.
The fruit is a berried drupe, fuperior, obovate, fmooth,
black ; the (hell is bony, thin, marked on the outfide
with fix or eight raifed filiform ftreaks ; within it is very
fmooth, and it does not open with valves. The feed is
an oblong fpheroid, and bay-coloured.
3. Chionanthus compa&a : panicles trichotomous, the
laft flowers lubcapitate, calyxes villole, leaves lanceolate-
oblong, antherae acuminate. This is a tree fifteen feet in
height, covered with a dulky alh-coloured bark. Leaves
oppofite, on Ihort petioles, (harp at the bafe, narrowed
into a long (harp and fometimes fickle-lhaped termination,
quite entire, thickifli, firm, ihining, about half afoot in
length, and an inch and half in breadth. The firft fpecies
differs from this in having fmooth calyxes; and the fe-
cond differs from both ir Laving the leaves villofe under¬
neath. Native of the Caribbee iflands.
4. Chionanthus mayepea : panicles axillary, trichoto-
.mous, all the flowers diftinft, antherae obtufe. This is a
middle-fized tree, live or fix feet high, and five inches in
diameter, the wood and bark whitifh. Leaves thin, firm,
long, oval, ending in a point ; the largeft feven inches
long and two wide, on a Ihort petiole. Fruit the fiz.e of
an olive. 5 rind violet, fucculent, two lines'thick, bitter.
CHI
The flowers exhale a fweet and pleafant odour. Native
of the forefts of Guiana.
Propagation and Culture. The Ipeft way to obtain good
plants is from the feeds, which mult be procured from
Ain erica, for they never have produced any fruit in this
country. The feeds fhould be fown in fmall pots'filled
with frefli loamy earth loon after they arrive, and fhould
be placed under, a hot-bed frame, where they may remain
till the beginning of May, when they mult be removed
to a fituation expofed to the morning fun, and fcreened
from the fun in the middle of the day. ' In dry weather
the pots muft be watered, and kept clean from weeds;
for, as thefe feeds lie in the ground a whole year before
the plants will come up, they fhould not be expofed to
the fun the firft fummer, but the following autumn they
ihould be removed, and. placed under a frame, to proteCt
the feeds from being injured by the froft ; and, if the
pots are plunged into a moderate hot-bed the beginning
of March, it wil 1 bring up the plants much fooner than
they will otherwile rile; by which means they will get
more ftrength the firft fummer, and be better able to re¬
fill the cold of the next winter. While thefe plants are
very young, they will be in danger o-f fuffering by fevere
froft; but when they have obtained ftrength, they will
refill the greateft cold of our climate in the open air;
therefore, for the two or three firft winters, it will be
proper to keep them under fhelter ; fo that the young
plants may remain in the feed-pots all the firft fummer,
and the following winter; and in the fpring, before they
begin to fhoot, they fhould be fhaken out of the pots, and
carefully feparated fo as not to break off their roots, and
each planted in a fmall pot filled with light loamy foil,
and plunged into a very moderate hot-bed, juft to for¬
ward their taking frefli root; then they fhould be gradu¬
ally inured to the open air, and during the following
fummer the pots fhould be plunged into the ground, to
prevent the earth from drying, in a fituation where they
may enjoy the morning fun, but fcreened from the great
heat of noon. During the fummer feafon, they will re¬
quire to be frequently watered, and kept clean from weeds.
The autumn following they fhould be again placed under
a hot-bed frame to icreen them from froft ; but they
fhould enjoy the free air at all times, when the weather
Is mild. The April following the plants may be fhaken
out of the pots, with the ball of earth to their roots, and
planted where they are defigned to remain.
CHI'ONE, a daughter of Daedalion, of whom Apollo
and Mercury became enamoured. To enjoy her com¬
pany, Mercury lulled her to fleep with his caduceus, and
Apollo, in the night, under the form of an old woman,
obtained the fame favours as Mercury. From this em¬
brace Chione became mother of Philammon and Autoly-
cus, the former of whom, as being fon of Apollo, be¬
came an excellent mufician ; and the latter was equally
notorious for his robberies, of which his father Mercury
was the patron. Chione grew fo proud of her commerce
with the gods, that fhe even preferred her beauty to that
of Juno, for which impiety fhe was killed by the goddeis,
and changed into a hawk. Ootid.
CHIOP'PINE, /, [from chapin , Span.] A high fhoe,
formerly worn by ladies. — Your ladyfhip is nearer hea¬
ven than when I faw you lall, by the altitude of a chiop-
pine. Shakefpeare. . .
CHIOURLIC', a town of European Turkey, in Ro¬
mania, the fee of a Greek bifhop, fituated on a river of
the fame name: fifty miles north-weft of Conftantinople.
CHl'OZ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of San-
domirz: thirty-fix miles north of Malogocz.
CHIOZ'ZA, a fmall ifland in the Adriatic, near the
coaft of Italy, not far from the mouth of the Brenta, with
a town of the fame name, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan
of Venice: the town contains three churches and eight
monafteries. It is thirteen miles loath of Venice. Lat.
45. 15. N. Ion. 30, E. Ferro.
Vol. IV, No, 214. .
CHI sox
CHIP, CHEAP, CHIP'PING, in the names of places,
imply a market ;. from the Saxon cyppan, ceapan, to
buy. Gibfott.
"To CHIP, <v. a. [probably corrupted from chop.'] To
cut into fmall pieces ; todiminifti by cutting away a little
at a time. — Tnduftry taught to chip the wood, and hew
the ft one. Thomfon.
His mangled myrmidons,
Nofelefs, liandlefs, hackt and chipt, come to him,
Crying on HeCtor. Shakefpeare.
CHIP, f A fmall piece taken off by a cutting inllru-
ment :
The ftraw was laid below ;
Of chips and ferewood was the fecond row. Dryden.
A fmall piece however made. — The manganefe lies in the
vein in lumps wrecked, in an irregular manner, among
clay, fpar, and chips of ftone. Woodward.
CHIP PENHAM, or Chippincham, a borough town
in the county of Wilts, fituated on the river Avon, over
which it has a handlbme ftone bridge of fixteen arches ;
diftant ninety-three meafured miles from London, thir¬
teen from Bath, and twenty-two from Briftol. Chippen¬
ham is governed by a bailiff and twelve burgeffes ; and is
faid to have been, in the days of Alfred, one of the fineft
and ftrongeft cities of the kingdom ; the taking of which
by the Danes, about the year 880, was a principal caufe
of the memorable retreat of that great and good king.
The chief trade of the place is the manufacture of fuper-
fine woollen-cloths. It has four fairs annually; on the
17th of May, 2zd of June, 29th of OCtober, and nth of
December. Here is an eftabliflied and very confiderable
market for corn, &c. on Saturdays.
CHiP'PING,/. A fragment cut off. — They dung their
land with the chippings of a fort of foft ftone. Mortimer.
CHIP'PING, / An operation ufed in the China ma¬
nufactory, for which fee Porcelain.
CHIP'PING NORTON, a borough town in Oxford-
fliire, with a market on Wednelday for corn, &c. and
feven annual fairs, viz. March 7th, May 6th, laft Friday
in May, July 18th, September 4th, November 8th, and
the laft Friday in November. It is governed by two bai¬
liffs and twelve burgeffes. Here is a free grammar-fchqol,
founded by Edward VI, The church is a noble ftruChire
in the Gothic tafle, 98 feet long by 87 feet wide, the
middle aifle 46 feet high, and much noticed for its light
and curious workmanftiip in the windows. On Chapel-
heath, near the town, are the Rollrich-ftones, a Stone¬
henge in miniature, being a circle of ftones Handing up¬
right, fome of them from five to feven feet high, and
probably the veltigia of an old Britilh temple. The town
is fituated on the turnpike-road from London to Wor-
cefter; diftant from London feventy-four miles, and from
Worcefter thirty-feven. There is a confiderable manu¬
factory carried on here for horfe-clothing, tilting, harra-
teens, See.
CHIPPIO'NA, a town of Spain, in the country of Se¬
ville, fituated on a rock near the coaft of the Atlantic:
five miles fouth-weftof San Lucar de Barremeda.
CHIQUI'TOS, a province of South America, in the
government of Buenos Ayres, inhabited in 1732 by feven .
Indian nations, each compofed of about 600 families.
CHl'RAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Lozere, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrid of
Marvejols : one league louth-weft of Marvejols.
CHIRA'GRICAL, adj. [from chiragra, Lat.] Having
the gout in the hand ; fubjeCt to the gout in the hand. —
Chiragrical perfons do fuffer in the finger as well as in the
reft, and fometimes firft of all. Brown, .
CHI'RAS. See Schiras.
CHI'RENS, a town of France, , in the department
of the Here, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriCl
of La Tour-du-Pin : five leagues north-north-weft of
Grenoble.
«.M
CHIREZOUR';
502 CHI
CHIREZOUR', a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro¬
vince of Kurdiftan : fixty miles ealt of Moful, and one
hundred fouth of Betlis.
CHIRIQUI', or Chi ri quit a, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Veragua, on the coalt of the Pacific Ocean,
with a harbour, about a league from the fea, and eight
miles from the town : thirty leagues weft of St. Jago.
Lat. 1 1 . 20. N. Ion. 65. 50. W. Ferro.
CHIRiVICO'LA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of'
Naples, and province of Capitanata : nine miles fouth-
weft of Vielta.
C HI'RO GRAPH, yi [ cbirographum , or fcriptum chirogra-
fhatum.'] Any public inftrument or gift of conveyance,
attefted by the fublcription and erodes of witneffes, was
in the time of the Saxons called cbirographum ; which
being fomewhat changed in fofm and manner by the
Normans, was by them (tiled charta : in following times,
to prevent frauds and concealments, they made their
deeds of mutual covenant in a feript and refeript , or in a
part and counter-part, and in the middle, between the
two copies, they drew the capital letters of the alphabet,
and then tallied or cut afunder in an indented manner,
the flieet or fkin of parchment ; which being delivered to
the two parties concerned, were proved authentic by
matching with, and anfwering to, one another : and when
this prudent cuftom had for fome time prevailed, then
the word cbirographum was appropriated to lucli bipartite
writings or indentures. Anciently when they made a
chirograph or deed, which required a counter-part, they
ingrafted it twice upon one piece of parchment contrari-
wile, leaving a fpfree between, in which they wrote in
great letters the word and then cut
the parchment in two, fometimes even and fometimes
with indenture, through the midft of the word : this was
afterwards called di-videnda, becaufe the parchment was
fo divided or cut ; and it is faid the firft ufe of thefe chi¬
rographs was in Henry the Third’s time.
Chirograph was of old u fed for a fine ; the manner of in-
grofiing whereof, and cutting the parchment in two
pieces, is ftill obferved in the Chirographer’s office : but
as to deeds, that was formerly called a Chirograph , which
was fubferibed by the proper hand -writing of the vendor
or debtor, and delivered to the vendee or creditor: and it
differed from fyngraphus , which was in this manner, viz.
Both parties, as well the creditor as debtor, wrote their
names and the fum of money borrowed, on paper, &c.
and the word &£Ji2(S3ilE113SpiIII5 in capital letters in the
middle thereof, which letters were cut in the middle,
and one part given to each party, that upon comparing
them (if any difpute fhould arife) they might put an end
to the difference.
CHIRO'GRAPHER, f. [%£i£, the hand, and ygatpa, to
write.] He that exercifes or profelfes the art or bufmefs
of writing. — Thus pafteth it from this office to the chiro-
grapher's , to be engrafted. Bacon.
CHIRO'GRAPHER OF FINES, [ chirographus finium
& concordiarum ; of the Greek ^s^oy^aepot, a compound
of %el§, manus, the hand, and y^atpu, jferibo, I write ; a
writing of a man’s hand.] In law, that officer in the com¬
mon pleas who ingroffeth fines, acknowledged in that
court into a perpetual record, after they are examined
and paffed in the other offices, and that writes and deli¬
vers the indentures of them to the party : and this officer
makes out two indentures, one for the buyer, another for
the feller ; and alfo makes one other indented piece, con¬
taining the effedl of the fine, which he delivers to the
cufios brevium, which is called the foot of the fine. The
chirographer likewife, or his deputy, proclaims all the
fines in the court every term, according to the llatute,
and endorles the proclamations upon the backfide of the
foot thereof; and always keeps the writ of covenant, and
note of the fine. The chirographer lhall take but 4s. fee
for a fine, on pain to forfeit his office, &c. Statutes
2 Hen. IV. c. 8, 23EUZ. c. 3. zlnfi. 468.
CHI
CHIRO GR APHIST, f. This word is ufed in the fol¬
lowing pallage, Johnfon fays, improperly, for one that
tells fortunes by examining the hand •. the true word is
chirofopbifi or chiromancer. — Let the phyfiogno.mifts exa¬
mine his features ; let the chirographifis behold his palm;
but, above all, let us coniult for the calculation of his
■nativity. Arhuthnot.
CHIRO'GRAPHY, / The art of writing.
CHI'ROMANCER, f One that foretels future events
by infpefting the hand :
The middle fort, who have not much to fpare.
To chiromancers’' cheaper art repair.
Who clap the pretty palm, to make the lines more fair.
Drydcn.
CHI'ROMANCY, f [from the hand, and
a prophet.] The art of foretelling the events of life, by
infpedting the hand. See the article Divination.
CHI'RDN, a famed perfonage in antiquity, ity led by
Plutarch the nuife Centaur. Sir Ifaac Newton places his
birth in the firft age after Deucalion’s deluge, commonly
called the golden age ; and adds, that he formed the con-
ftellations for the ufe of the Argonauts, when he was
eighty-eight years old; for he was a practical aftronomer,
as well as his daughter Hippo: he may, therefore, be faid
to have flourilhed in the earlieft ages of Greece, as he pre¬
ceded the conquell of the Golden Fleece, and the Trojan
war. He is generally laid to have been born in Theflldy
among the Centaurs, who were the firft Greeks that had
acquired the art of breaking and riding horfes ; whence
the poets, painters, and lculptors, have reprefented
them as a compound of man and horle; and perhaps
it was at firft imagined by the Greeks, as well as the
Americans, when they firft favv cavalry, that the horle
and the rider conftituted the fame animal. Chiron was
reprefented by the ancients as one of the firft inventors
of medicine, botany, and chirurgery, a word which fome
etymologilts have derived from his name. He inhabited
a grotto or cave in the foot of mount Pelion, which, from
his wifdom and great knowledge, became the moft famous
fichool throughout Greece. Almoft all the heroes of his
time were fond of receiving his inftruftions ; and Xeno¬
phon, who enumerates them, names the following illufi-
trious perionages among his dil’ciples : Cephalus, FElcu-
lapius, Melanion, Neftor, Amphiaraus, Peleus, Tela¬
mon, Meleager, Thefeus, Hippolitus, Palamedes, Ulyfles,
Mneftheus, Diomedes, Caftor and Pollux, Machaon and
Podalirius, Antilochus, JEneas, and Achilles. From this,
catalogue it appears, that Chiron frequently inftrucled
both fathers and fons; and Xenophon has given a fhort
eulogium on each. In the heathen mythology, Chiron
is reprefented as half a man and half a horfe, fon of Phi-
lyra and Saturn, who had changed himfelf into a horfe,
to efcape the enquiries of his wife Rhea. He was wounded
in the knee by a poifoned arrow (hot by Hercules, in his
purfuit of the Centaurs. Hercules flew to his affiftance;
but as the wound was incurable, and the caule of the
moft excruciating pains, Chiron begged Jupiter to de¬
prive him of immortality. His prayers were heard, and
he was placed by the god among the conftellations, under
the name of Sagittarius, tiefiod. Mr.' Biyant reprelents
Chiron as a tower or temple perfonified by that name.
He lays, “ this temple flood at Nephele in Tnefi'aly, and
was inhabited by a let of priefts, called Centawri. They
were lo denominated from the deity they worlhipped, who
was reprefented under a particular form. They liiled him
Cahen-iaur ; he was the lame as the Minotaur of Crete,
and the Tauromen of Sicilia. Chiron is a compound of
Chir-on, in purport the fame as Kir-on , the tower and
t mple of the lun. In places of this fort people ufed to
ftudy the heavenly motions ; and they were made ufe of lor
. emiuaries, where young people were inftrudted, on which
account they were liiled 'sscc^olgotpoj. Hence Achilles and
others were l’uppoied to have been taught by Chiron : but
C H I
this could not be true of Chiron as a- perfon; he could
not have had pupils of fuch different ages, and fo many-
different countries ; befides many of them were manifeilly
ideal perfonages : fuch as the god Apollo, and TEfcula-
pius in the medicinal arts. Thofe who were inltrufted
partook only of Chironian education, and were taught
in the fame academy, but not by one perfon, nor proba¬
bly in the fame place, for there were many fuch temples
for the purpofe of education in the fciences. Thefe places
were likewife courts of judicature, where juftice was ad-
miniffered 5 whence Chiron was faid to have been ipiAo-
( ’ppoiewv , v.at ^ixatolaloe.'”
CHIRO'NIA,yl [from the centaur Chiron .] In bo¬
tany, a genus of the clafs pentandria, orcler monogynia,
natural order rotacese. The generic chara&ers are —
Calyx : perianth one-leafed, five-parted, ereCt, acute,
permanent; leaflets oblong. Corolla: monopetalous,
equal ; tube narrower ; border five-parted, fpreading ;
diyifions ovate, equal. Stamina; filaments five, broad,
fliort, growing from the tip of the tube ; anthers oblong,
ere&, large, converging, and (after having lhed the pol¬
len) 1‘pirally twilled. Piftillum : germ ovate ; fly le fili¬
form, a little longer- than the itamens, declinate; ltigma
headed, aleending. Pericarpium : ovate, bilocular.
Seeds: numerous, fmall ; in fome fpecies the pericarpium
is a berry, in others a capfule. — EJJential Character. Co¬
rolla, rotated; piftillum, declinate; ftamina on the tube
of the corolla ; antherae, finally fpiral ; pericarpium,
two-celled. The drooping ftigma feerns to conllitute the
effence of this genus.
■ Species, i. Chironia trinervia: herbaceous; leaflets
of the calyx membranaceous-keeled. Stem annual,
quadrangular, acute : leaves oppofite, lanceolate, acumi¬
nate at each end, fmooth, quite entire, tluee-nerved;
flowers from the upper axils oppofite, l'olitary, peduncled!
Burman adds, that the Item is glofly, alh-coloured, fur¬
rowed, with four joints or more ; at each joint a pair of
feflile leaves ; flowers elegant, blue; capfule one-celled.
Native of Ceylon and the Cape.
а. Chironia jaf'minoides : herbaceous; leaves lanceo¬
late ; Item four-cornered. Native of the Cape.
3. Chironia lychnoides : Item Ample, leaves linear-lan¬
ceolate. Stem entirely Ample, round, ftiff and llraight,
two feet high. Native of the Cape.
+. Chironiacampanulata: herbaceous; leaves fublinear,
calyxes the length of the corolla. Stem a foot high,
round with long branches ; flowers terminal, l'olitary,
wlieel-fliaped, purple, on a long peduncle. Obferved in
Canada by Kalm.
5. Chironia angularis : herbaceous; Item acute-angled,
leaves ovate ftem-clafping. This has the appearance of
1 e fie r centaury. Found in Virginia by Kalm.
б. Chironia linoides, or flax-leaved chironia : herba¬
ceous; leaves linear. An underftuub, with filiform,
round, fmooth, branches. Leaves an inch or more in
length, fucculent, linooth, feflile, frequent, longer than
the internodes 5 flow ers fcarlet, folitary at the ends of the
branches, peduncled. Native of the Cape; introduced
in 1787 by Mafl’on.
7. Chironia nudicaulis: herbaceous; leaves oblong
bluntifh, Items fubdiphyllous quite Ample one-flowered,
calyxes with fetaceo.us teeth. This is Angular for its ob-.
long leaves frequently rooted into a tuft. Stems many,
elongated, with two leaves in the middle, or two pairs of
leaves. Dilcovered at the Cape by Tliunberg.
8. Chironia tetragona : -fhrubby ; leaves ovate tluee-
nerved bluntifh, leaflets oi the calyx bluntifh keeled.
Corolla yellow, large. It differs from the firft fpecies in
being fln ubby ; in having fliorter and more obtufe leaves.
Native of the Cape.
9. Chironia baccifpra, or berry-bearing chironia : fhrub-
by, berry-bearing. This plant grows to the height of a
foot and half or two feet, and becomes very bufhy, ra¬
ther too much fo in point of ornament. It produces both
flovvers and fruit during moft of the fummer. The Item
C H I 505
is quadrangular. The feeds are numerous, final!, ovate-
globular, pitted, dark chefinut colour, It is a native of
- Africa, and was cultivated in 1759 by Mr. Miller.
10. Chironia frutefcens: fhrubby; leaves lanceolate
fubtomentofe ; calyxes bell-fhaped. Branches round,
tonientole, afh-coloured, moftly alternate, fubdividing a
. little at top. Leaves oppofite, obtufe, flefhy, about two
inches in length, feflile, frequent, twice as long as the
internodes. Peduncles two or three together, terminat¬
ing, each having two or three flowers, arifing from the
axils, with a pair of linear folioles in the middle. Na¬
tive of Africa; cultivated in 1756 by' Mr. Miller.
Propagation and Culture. The feeds fhould be fown, in
finall pots filled with light landy earth, foon after they
are ripe, and plunged into a moderate hot-bed, and mult
be frequently but gently watered; fometimes the feeds
will lie a long time in the ground, fo that if the plants
do not appear the fame feafon, the pots fhould not be
dilturbed, but preferved in flicker, till the following
fpring, and then plunged into a frefli hot-bed, which will
bring up the plants in a fhort time, if the feeds are good.
When the plants are fit to remove, they fhould be tranf-
planted into fmall pots, four or five in each pot; then
plunge the pots into a moderate hot-bed, and fprinkle
them with water, and fhade them every day from the fun
till they have taken new root; after which they mull have
a large fliare of air in warm weather, to prevent their
drawing up weak : when the plants have obtained fome
ftrength, they muft be gradually inured to bear the open
air; but when they are expoied abroad, if there fhould
happen much rain, the plants mult be fcreened from it,
otherwife it will caufe them to rot : when the plants have
filled, the pots with their roots, they fhould be parted,
and each put into a feparate pot filled with light landy
earth, not rich with dung, placing them in the fhade till
they have taken frefh root ; then they may be removed
to a warm fneltered fituation, and mixed with fuch other
plants as require but little water ; in which fituation they
may remain till autumn, when they muft be placed in a
dry airy glal’s-cafe ; and in the- winter fhould have very
little wet, but muft enjoy the fun as much as poffible ;
and in mild weather fhould have frefh air admitted to
them, but muft be prote&ed from froft : with this ma¬
nagement, the plants will thrive and produce flowers the
lecond year from feed. The cuttings alio will take root
with proper management, but not very readily. See
Gloea, and Gentiana.
CHIRO'NIUM, f. in botany. See Laserpitium.
To CHIRP, <v. n. [perhaps contracted from cheer up.
The Dutch have circken.~\ To make a cheerful rioil'e ; as
birds, when they call without linging. — No chirping, lark,
the welkin fheen invokes. Gay.
The careful hen
Calls all her chirping family around. ThomJ'on.
To CHIRP, v. a. [This feem* apparently corrupted
from cheer up.~\ To make cheerful :
Sir Balaam now, he lives like other folks;
He takes his chirping pint, he cracks his jokes. Pope.
CHIRP, f. The voice of birds or infeCts :
Winds over us whifper’d, flocks by us did bleat,
And chirp went the grafshopper under our feet. Addifon.
CHIRP'ER, f. One that chirps ; one that is cheerful.
To CHIRRE, n. [ceopian, Sax.] To coo as a pi¬
geon. Junius.
CHIRUR'GEON, f. from the hand,
and i^yov, work.] One that cures ailments, not by inter¬
nal medicines, but outward application. One who am¬
putates or fets ffaCfured limbs. In modern writing it is
fpelt furgeon.
CHIRUR'GERY, f. The art of curing by external ap¬
plications ; amputation; the-reducing of fraChues. Tins'
is called Surge rt.
CHIRUR'GIC
/
504 't H I
CHIRUR'GIC, or Cuirurgical, adj. Having qua¬
lities ufeful in outward applications to hurts. Relating
to the manual part of healing. Manual in general, con-
fifting in operations of the 1 hand. This lenfe, though
the firft according to etymology, is now fcarcely found. —
The chirurgical or manual part doth refer to the making
inftrumenfs, and exerciiing particular experiments. Will.
CHI'RY, a town of France, in the department of the
Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrid of
Noyon: three mile? fouth-fouth-weft of Noyon.
CHI'SEL, f. [cifcau , Fr. of fciffum, Lat.] An inftru-
ment with which wood or Hone is cut or pared away. —
What fine chi/el could ever yet cut breath?
Imperfeft fhapes : in marble fuch are feen,
When the rude chifel does the man begin. Dryden.
*To CHI'SEL, v. a. To cut with a chifel.
CHIS'ME, or Cisme, a feaport town of Afiatic Tur¬
key, on the weft coalt of Natolia, oppoiite the itlaiid of
Scio, between which and the continent is a narrow ftrait ;
where the Turkifh fleet was deftroyed by the Ruffians, in
1770, The ancient name of this town was Cyflus. I11
the year 191 before Chrift, the fleet of Antiochus, fur-
named the Great, was defeated near this town by the
Roman fleet, under the command of C. Livius, with the
lofs of thirty (hips taken, and ten funk in the engage¬
ment: forty miles weft of Smyrna. Lat. 38. 24.. N. Ion.
44. 2. E. Ferro.
CHISO'IN, or Cisoing, a town of Flanders, with an
abby, where Louis XV. took up his refidence during the
campaign of 1744: two leagues north-north- weft from
Orchies.
• CHI'SON, Kison, or Kisson, (judges iv. and v.), a
river of Gallilee ; Laid to rife in mount Tabor, to run by
the town of Naim, and to fall into the Mediterranean
between mount Carmel and Ptolemais, 1 Kings xviii. 40.
CHISS A'MO, a toum of the ifland of Candia, fituated
®n the north fide of the ifland, in a bay to which it gives
name : twenty-five miles weft of Canea.
CHIT, J'. [according to Dr. Hickes, from kind, Germ,
child; perhaps from chico, little, Span.] A child; a baby.
Generally ufed of young perlons in contempt. The
flioot of com from the end of the grain. A cant term
with lfialtfters. — Barley, couched four days, will begin to
fliew the chit or fprit at the root-end. Mortimer. — A
freckle, [from cbick-peafe.~\ In this fenfe it is feldom ufed.
To CHIT, v. n. To fprout ; to flioot at the end of the
grain : cant.— I have known barley chit in feven hours
after it had been thrown forth. Mortimer.
CHIT'CHAT, f. [corrupted by reduplication from
chat.~\ Prattle; idle prate; idle talk. A word only ufed
in ludicrous converfation. — I am a member of a female
fociety, who call ourfelves the chitchat club. Addifon.
CHI'TIM, according to Le Clerc, Calmet, and others,
was the fame with Macedonia, peopled by Kittim the foil
of Javan, and grandlon of Noah.
CHI' TON, f. in zoology, a genus of the order of ver¬
mes teftacese, or ftiell-fifh. The name chiton is from
lorica, a coat of mail. The fliell is plated, and confifts
of many parts lying upon each other tranfverfely. They
are common on the (bores of Scarborough, Aberdeen,
and Lochbroom., Of this genus there are twenty-eight
fpecies. See Conchology.
CHITPOU'R, or Chittjpur, a town of Hindooftan,
in the country of Guzerat, celebrated for its manufac¬
ture of chintzes: 172 miles louth-weft of Amedabad.
Lat. 23.45. N. Ion. 73. 3. E. Ferro.
CHI'TRO, a town of European Turkey, in the pro¬
vince of Macedonia: thirty-fix miles fouth-fouth-eaft of
Edelfa,
CHITTELDROOG', a town of Hindooftan, in the
Myfore country. Here is a fort, iinmenlely ftrong, feated
on a ftupendous rock, faid to be two thou (and fix hun¬
dred and forty yards high. I11 it were confined the crew
of the Hannibal, taken by the French admiral Suftrein,
CHI
in Auguft 1782; who, contrary to every law of war and
of humanity, were deliyered over to Hyder Aii, to fall a
facrifice to his fiavage refentment againlt the Englifli. It
was taken, with infinite difficulty, by a detachment from
the marquis Cornwallis’s army, in 1792 : eigbty-five raiies
north-north-weft of Seringapatam, and ninety-five eaft
- of Bedanore.
CHIT' FENDEN, a county in Vermont, near lake
Champlain, between Franklin county 011 the north, and
Addifon foutli; LaMoille river pafl’es through its north-
weft corner, and Onion river divides it nearly in the cen¬
ter. Its chiet town is Burlington. This county con¬
tained, by the cenfus of 1791, forty-four townlhips, and
7301 inhabitants. Since that time the northern counties
have been taken from it, fo that neither its (ize or num¬
ber of inhabitants can now’ be afeertained.
CHITTENDEN, a town of the American States in
Rutland county, Vermont. The road over the mountain
pafles through this townfliip. It lies feven miles eaft from
the fort on Otter creek, in Pittsford, and about fixty north
by eaft from Bennington.
. CHITTEPUT', a town of Hindooftan, in the Carna¬
tic : fourteen miles north of Gingee.
CHI I TERLINGS, J. ’without fmgular. [from febyter
lingh, D u t. Minjliew, from kutteln, Germ. Skinner. \ The
inteltines or bowels.
CHITTIGO'NG, a diftrid of Hindooftan, in the coun¬
try of Bengal, between the Burrampooter river, and the
country of Rodman and Aracan, where the Portuguese
made the firft fettlement. The capital is Iflamabad.
CHITTOOR', a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic :
twenty-eight miles north-welt of Arcot, and (eventy weft
of Madras.
CHITTR A', a town of Hindooftan, in the Bahar coun¬
try : eighty-five miles Couth of Patna, and leventy-two
fouth-fouth-weft of Bahar.
CHIT'TY, adj. Childifli ; like a baby.
CHI'VA, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencias
fifteen miles welt-north-welt from Valencia.
CHI'VALROUS, adj. Relating to chivalry, or errant
knighthood ; knightly ; warlike, 5 adventurous ; daring,
A word no w out of ufe:
And noble minds of yore allied were
In brave purluit of chivalrous emprife. Spenfer,
CHI'VALRY, f. [ chevalerie , Fr. knighthood, from*
cheval, aborfe; as eques in Latin.] Knighthood; a mi¬
litary dignity. — There be now, for martial encourage¬
ment, fonie degrees and orders of chivalry ; , which, ne--
verthelefs, are conferred promilcuoully upon foldiers and-
no foldiers. Bacon. — The qualifications of a knight; as,
valour, dexterity in arms :
Thou haft (lain
The flow’r of Europe for his chivalry. Shakefpeare
The general fyftem of knighthood :
Solemnly he fwore,
That, by the faith which knights to knighthood bore.
And wliate’er elfe to chivalry belongs,
He would not ceale till lie reveng’d their wrongs. Dryd ,
An adventure; an exploit. Not now in ufe. — They four
doing ads more dangerous, though lefs famous,-becaule
they were but private chivalries. Sidney. — The body or
order of knights :
And by his light
Did all the chivalry of England move
To do brave ads. Shakefpeare.
The age to which we muft look for the origin of chivalry,
as 'a fyftem or order of knighthood, was lingUlarly rude
and illiterate. Even the principal events of that period,
emigrations, wars, and the eftabliflnnent of fyftems of
laws and forms of government, hpve been but imperfect¬
ly, and in many inftances unfaithfully, recorded. But
C H I V
the tranfadtions which took place in the ordinary courfe
of civil and domeftic life, and which, though lefs Itriking,
mult have always prepared the way for the more remark¬
able events, have been generally thought unworthy of
tranfmiffion to pofterity, and have very feldom found an
hiftorian. Add to thefe difficulties which oppofe our re-
fearches on this fubjedt, that the nations of Europe were
in that age a mixed multitude, confifting of the aborigi¬
nal inhabitants, who, though either fubdued by the Ro¬
man arms, or at lead compelled to retire to the woods
and mountains. Hill obftinately retained their primitive
manners and cuftoms ; Roman colonies, and fuch of the
original inhabitants of the countries in which thefe were
eltablilhed, as had yielded not only to the arms of the
Romans, but alfo to the influence of their laws, arts, and
manners ; and the barbarians who, proceeding from the
northern regions of Afia and Europe, the wilds of Scy¬
thia and Germany, dilfolved the fabric of the Roman
empire, and made themfelves lords of Europe. Amid
this confufion of nations, inftitutions, and cuftoms, it
becomes almoft impoflible to trace any regular feries of
caufes and effedts. Yet as the hiltory of that period is
not entirely unknown to us, and the obfcure and imper¬
fect records in which it is preferved, while they comme¬
morate the more remarkable events, throw a faint light
on the cuftoms, manners, and ordinary tranfadtions, of the
age; we can at leaft collect fome circumftances, which,
if they did not of themielves give rife to the inftitution
of chivalry, mult certainly have co-operated with others
to that end. We may even be allowed, if we proceed
with due diffidence and caution, to deduce, from a con-
iideration of the effedt, fome inferences concerning the
caufe 5 from thofe particulars of its hiltory which are
known to us, we may venture to carry imagination back¬
wards, under a proper reftraint, to thole which are hid
under the darknels of a rude and illiterate age.
Diftindtion of ranks appears to be effentially neceffary
to the exiftence of civil order. Even in the limpleft and
rudeft focial eftablilhments, we And not merely the na¬
tural diltindlions qf weak and llrong, young and old, pa*
lent and child, huft>and and wife; thefe are always ac¬
companied with others which owe their inftitution to the
invention of man, and the confent, either tacit or formal,
of the fociety among whom they prevail. In peace and
in war, fuch diftindtions are equally necelfary : they con-
ltitute an effential and important part of the mechanifm
of fociety.
One of the eariieft artificial diftindtions introduced
among mankind, is that which feparates the bold and
fkilfnl warrior from thole whofe feeblenefs of body and
mind renders them unable to excel in dexterity, ftrata-
gem, or valour. Among rude nations, who are but im-
perfedily acquainted with the advantages of focial order,
this diftindtion is more remarkably eminent t;han in any
other ftate of fociety. The ferocity of the human cha-
radter in fuch a period produces almoft continual hoftili-
ties among neighbouring tribes ; the elements of nature,
and the brute inhabitants of the foreft, are not yet re¬
duced to be fubfervient to the will of man ; and thefe,
with other concomitant circumftances, render the war¬
rior, who is equally diftinguilhed by cunning and valour,
more ufeful and refpedtable than any other charadfer.
On the fame principles, as the boundaries of fociety are
enlarged, and its form becomes more complex, the claf-
fes into which it is already diftinguilhed are again l'ubdi-
vided. The invention of arts, and the acquilition of
property, are the chief caufes of the new diftindtions
which now arife among the orders of fociety ; and they
extend their influence equally through the whole fyftem.
Difference of armour, and different modes of military
difcipline, produce diftindtion of orders among thofe who
pradtife the arts of war ; while other circumftances, ori¬
ginating from the fame general caufes, occafion fimilar
changes to take place amid the intervals of peace.
None of the new diftindtions which are introduced
Vol. IV. No. zi 5,
A L R Y. 505
among men, with refpedt to the difcipline and condudt of
war, in confequence of the acquifition of property and
the invention of arts, is more remarkable than that occa-
fioned by the ufe of horfes in military expeditions, and
the training of them to the evolutions of the military
art. Fire-arms, it is true, give to thofe who are ac¬
quainted with them a greater fuperiority over thofe tq
whom their ufe is unknown, than what the horfeman
poffeffes over him who fights on foot. But the ufe of
fire-arms is of fuch importance in war, and the expence
attending it fo inconfiderable, that wherever thefe have
been introduced, they have feldom been confined to one
particular order in an army ; and, therefore, they pro¬
duce indeed a remarkable, though tranlient, diftindtion
among different nations ; but eftablifli no permanent dif¬
tindtions in the armies of any one nation. But to main¬
tain a horie, to equip him with coftly furniture, to ma¬
nage him with dexterity and vigour, are’ circumftances
which have invariably produced a Handing and conlpi-
cuous diftindtion among the military order, wherever bo¬
dies of cavalry have been formed. The Roman equites,
who, though the)' became at length a body of ufurers
and farmers general, were originally the only body of
cavalry employed by the ftate, occupied a refpedtable
rank between the fenators and the plebeians ; and the
elegance and humanity of their manners were fuitable to
their rank. In ancient Greece, and in the celebrated
monarchies of Afia, the fame diftindtion prevailed at a
fimilar period. And fince the circumftances and princi¬
ples on which this diftindtion depends are not fuch as
mult be confined in their influence to one particular na¬
tion, or one region of the globe, we may hope to trace
their effedts among the favage warriors of Scythia and
Germany, as well as among the Greeks or Romans. From
the valuable treatife of Tacitus de Moribus Germano-
rum, we learn, that among the German warriors a dif¬
tindtion fomewhat of this nature did adtually fublift ; not
fo much indeed a diftindtion between the warriors who
fought on horfeback and thofe who fought on foot, as
between thofe whom vigour of body and energy of mind
enabled to brave all the dangers of war, and fuch as, from
the imbecility of youth, the infirmities of age, or the na¬
tural inferiority of their mental and bodily powers, were
unequal to fcenes of hardfliip and deeds of valour.
Another fadt worthy of notice refpedting the manners
of the barbarians of Germany before they eltablilhed
themfelves in the cultivated provinces of the Roman em¬
pire is, that their women, contrary to what we find among
many other rude nations, were treated with an high de¬
gree of refpedt. They did not generally vie with the men
in deeds of valour, but they animated them by their ex¬
hortations to diftinguilh themfelves in the field ; and Vir¬
gins efpecially were confidered with a facred veneration,
as if endowed with prophetic powers, capable to forefee
events hid in the womb of futurity, and even to influ¬
ence the will of the deities. Hence, though domeftic du¬
ties were their peculiar province, yet they were not narlhly
treated nor confined to a ftate of llavery. There appears
indeed a Itriking analogy between the condition of the
women among the rude foldiers of Sparta, and the rank
which they occupied among the warlike cantons of Ger¬
many. Perhaps, indeed, the German were ftillanore ho¬
nourable than the Spartan women ; as they were taught
to wield the magic weapons of fuuerltition, which in
Greece were appropriated to the prielts. It appears,
therefore, that, in the forefts of Germany at leaft, if not
in the more northern regions of Afia and Europe, the
conquerors of the Roman empire, before they penetrated
into its provinces, treated their women with a degree of
refpedt unknown to molt of the nations of antiquity;
that the charadter of the warrior was likewife highly ho¬
nourable, being underftood to unite all 'thofe . qualifies
which were in the highelt eilimation.
When thole nations Tallied from their deferts and fo¬
refts, over-ran the Roman empire, and eltablilhed them-
6 N felves
5o6 C H I V
felves in its provinces, the change which took place on
their circumflances was remarkable; and, by a natural
influence, it could not but produce an equally remark¬
able change on the habits, cuftoms, and manners. The
great outlines might ftill remain ; but they could not
now fail to be filled up in a different manner. Here,
however, the records of hiftory are peculiarly imperfect.
We have no Caei'ar or Tacitus to l'upply fails or direit
our reafonings ; the Gothic nations had not yet learned
to read and W'rite ; and the Romans were fo depreffed
under the fenfe of their own miferies, as to be negligent
of the changes which happened around them. But, as loon
as the light of hiftory begins again to dawn, we find that'
the leading features of the barbarian charaiter were not
effaced, but only modified in a particular manner, in con¬
sequence of their mixing among a more polifhed people,
becoming acquainted with the luxuries of life, and ac¬
quiring extenfive power and property. Thofe who fought
on horfeback now began to be diftinguifhed with pecu¬
liar honours. The manners of the warrior too were be¬
come more cultivated, and his Spirit more humane. Lei-
fure and opulence, with the influence of a polifhed peo¬
ple, even though in a ftate of flavery, taught thofe bar¬
barians to afpirs after more refined pleafures and more
fplendid amufements than thofe which they had been be¬
fore Satisfied with. The influence of Christianity too,
"Vvhich, though grofsly corrupted, was ltill favourable to
the foetal happinefs of mankind, concurred to polifh their
manners and exalt their chara&er. Hence, in the end of
the tenth and in the beginning of the eleventh century,
we fee knighthood, with that romantic gallantry, piety,
and humanity, by which it was principally diftinguifhed,
make its appearance.
: The paflion for arms among the Germanic Rates, was
now carried to extremity. It was amidft fcenes of death
and peril that the young were educated : it was by va¬
lour and feats of prowel’s that the ambitious fignalized
t'h’eir manhood. All the honours they knew were allot¬
ted to the brave. The fword opened the path to glory.
It was in the field that the ingenious and, the noble flat¬
tered molt their pride, and acquired an afcendancy. The
Strength of their bodies, and the vigour of their coun-
feis, furrounded them with warriors, and lifted them to
command. But, among thefe nations, when the indi¬
vidual felt the call of valour, and wifhed to try his Strength
againft an enemy, he could not of his own authority take
the lance and the javelin. The admiflion of their youth
to the privilege of bearing arms was a matter of too much
importance to be left to chance or their own choice. A
form was invented by which they were advanced to that
honour. The council of the diftrifit, or of the canton to
which the candidate belonged, was affembled. His age
and his qualifications were enquired into ; and, if he was
deemed worthy of being admitted to the privileges of a
Soldier, his father, or one of his kindred, adorned him
with a Shield and the lance. In confequence of this f'o-
lemnity, he prepared to diftinguifh liimfelf; his mind
opened to the cares of the public ; and the domeftic con¬
cerns, or the offices of the family from which he had
fprung, were no longer the objefts of his attention. To
this ceremony, fo fimple and fo interesting, the inftitu-
tion of knighthood is indebted for its rife.
Knighthood, however, as a fyftem, known under the
denomination of chivalry, is to be dated only from the
eleventh century. All Europe being reduced to a ftate
of anarchy and confufion on the decline of the lioufe of
Charlemagne, every proprietor of a manor or lordfhip
became a petty fovereign ; the manfion-houfe was forti¬
fied by a moat, defended by a guard, and called a caftle.
The governor had a party of feven or eight hundred men
at Iris command ; and with thefe he ufed frequently to
make excurfions, which commonly ended in a battle with
the lord of fome petty Rate of the fame kind, whofe caf¬
tle was then pillaged, and the women and treafures borne
©ff by the conqueror. During this ftate of univerfal hof-
%
A L R Y.
tility, there was no friendly communications between the
provinces, nor any high roads from one part of the king¬
dom to another : the wealthy traders, who then travelled
from place to place with their merchandize and their fa¬
milies, were in perpetual danger; the lord of almoft every
caftle extorted Something from them on the road ; and at
laft, fome one more rapacious than the reft, fei zed upon
the whole of the cargo, and bore off the women for his
own ufe. Thus caftles became the warehoufes of all kinds
of rich merchandize, and the prifons of the diftreffed fe¬
males whole fathers or lovers had been plundered or (lain,
and who, being therefore Seldom difpofed to take the
thief or murderer into favour, were in continual danger
of a rape. But, as fome are diftinguifhed by virtue even
in the moft general defection, it happened that many
lords infenfibly affociated to reprefs thofe Tallies of vio¬
lence and rapine, to fecure property, and protect the la¬
dies. Among thefe were many lords of great fiefs ; and
the affociation was at length ftrengtliened by a folemn vow,
and received the fanflion of a religious ceremony. As
the firft knights were men of the higheft rank, and the
largeft poffeffions, fuch having moft to lofe, and the leaf!
temptation to Ileal, the fraternity was regarded with a
kind of reverence, even by thofe againft whom it was
formed. Admiflion into the order was deemed the higheft
honour ; many extraordinary qualifications were required
in a candidate, and many new ceremonies were added at
his creation. After having failed from fun-rife, con-
felled himfelf, and received the Sacrament, he was drefied
in a white tunic, and placed by himfelf at a fide-table,
where he was neither to fpeak, to fmile, nor to eat ; while
the knights and ladies, who were to perform the principal
parts of the ceremony, were eating, drinking, and making
merry, at the great table. At night his armour was con¬
veyed to the church where the ceremony was performed ;
and here having watched it till the morning, he advanced
with his l'word, hanging about his neck, and received the
benediction of the prielt. He then kneeled down before
the lady or patronefs who was to put on his armour,
who, being aflifted by perfons of the firft rank, buckled
on his fpurs, put an helmet on his head, and accoutred
him with a coat of mail, a cuirafs, bracelets, cuifles, and
guantlets. Being thus armed cap-a-pee, the knight who
dubbed him (truck him three times over the fhoulder
with the flat-fide of his fword, in the name of God, St.
Michael, and St. George. He was then obliged'to watch
all night in his armour, with his fword girded, and his
lance in his hand. From this time the knight devoted
himfelf to the redrefs of thofe wrongs which “ patient
merit of the unworthy takes ;” to fecure merchants from
the rapacious cruelty of banditti, and women from r.tT
vifhers, to whole power they were, by the particular con¬
fufion of the times, continually expofed.
From this view of the origin of chivalry, it will be eafy
to account for the caftie, the moat, and the bridge, which
are found in romances; and as to the dwarf, he was a
conitant appendage to the rank and fortune of thofe
times, and no caftle therefore could be without him. The
dwarf and the buffoon were then introduced to kill time,
as the card-table is at prefent. It will alfo be able to
account for the multitude of captive ladies whom the
knights, upon feizing a caftle, fet at liberty ; and for the
prodigious quantities of ufelefs gold and filver vefl’els,
rich fluffs, and other merchandize, with which many
apartments in thefe caftles are faid to have been filled.
The principal lords who entered into the confraternity
of knights, ufed to fend their fons to each other to be
educated, far from their parents, in the rnyfteries of chi val-
ry. Thefe youths, before they arrived at the age of twen¬
ty-one, were called bachelors, or bas chevaliers, inferior
knights, and at that age were qualified to receive the or¬
der. Thus honourable was the origin of an inftitution,
commonly considered as the refult of caprice and the
fource of extravagance ; but which, on the contrary, rofe
naturally from the ftate of i'ociety in thofe times, and
C H I V
had a very ferious effe& in refining the manners of the
European nations. Valour, humanity, courtefy, juftice,
honour, were its chara&eriltics : and to thefe were added
religion; which, by infufmg a large portion of enthufi-
aftic zeal, carried them all to a romantic excefs, wonder¬
fully iuited to the genius of the age, and produdlive of
the greateftand molt permanent effects both upon policy
and manners. War was carried on with lei's ferocity,
when humanity no lefs than courage came to. be deemed
the ornament of knighthood, and knighthood a diftinc-
tion. fuperior to royalty, and an honour which princes
were proud to receive from the hands of private gentle¬
men : more gentle and poliihed manners were introduced,
when courtefy was recommended as the molt amiable of
knightly virtues, and every knight devoted himfelf to
the iervice of a lady : violence and opprelfion decreafed,
when it was accounted meritorious to check and to punilh
them : a l'crupulous adherence to truth, with the molt re¬
ligious attention to fulfil every engagement, but particu¬
larly thofe between the l'exes as more eafily violated, be¬
came the diltinguifhing charadter of a gentleman, becaule
chivalry was regarded as the lchool of honour, and incul¬
cated the molt delicate fenfibility with refpeft to that
point ; and valour, feconded by fo many motives of love,
religion, and virtue, became altogether irrefutable.
That the fpirit of chivalry fometimes role to an extra¬
vagant height, and had often a pernicious tendency, mult,
however, be allowed. In Spain, under the influence of a
romantic gallantry, it gave birth to a l'eries of wild ad¬
ventures ; for the ardour of redrelfing wrongs feized
many knights fo powerfully, that, attended by efquires,
they wandered about in fearch of objefts whofe misfor¬
tunes and mifery required their afliliance and fuccour.
And, as ladies engaged more particularly their attention,
the relief of unfortunate damfels was the achievement
they moll courted. This was the rife of knights-errant,
whofe adventures produced fo many romantic novels ;
but the love of the marvellous came to interfere ; fancy
was indulged in her wildell exaggerations; and poetry
gave her charms to the moll monllrous fiftions, and to
fcenes the molt unnatural and gigantic, until they were
defervedly ridiculed in the character of Don Quixote, &c.
Yet in the train of Norman ambition, it extinguilhed the
liberties of England, and deluged Italy in blood : and at
the call of fuperftition, and as the engine of papal power,
it defolated Alia under the banner of the crols. But thefe
ought not to be confidered as arguments againlt an in-
ftitution laudable in itl'elf, and neceffary at the time of
its foundation : and thofe who pretend to defpife it, the
advocates of ancient barbarilm and ancient rufticity,
ought to remember, that chivalry not only firft taught
mankind to carry the civilities of peace into the opera¬
tions of war, and to mingle politenels with the ufe of the
Iword ; but roufed the foul from its lethargy, invigorated
the human charadler even while it foftened it, and pro¬
duced exploits which antiquity cannot parallel. Nor
ought they to forget* that it gave variety, elegance, and
pleafure, to the intercourfe of life, by making woman a
more eflential part of lociety ; and is therefore entitled to
our gratitude, though the point of honour, and the re¬
finements in gallantry, its more doubtful effefts, Ihould
be excluded from the improvement of modern manners.
Women, among the ancient Greeks, and Romans, feem
to have been confidered merely as objects of fenfuality,
or of domeftic convenience : they were devoted to a ftate
of feclufioh and obfcurily, had few attentions paid them,
and were permitted to take as little Ihajre. in the conver-
fation as in the general commerce of life. But the nor¬
thern nations, who paid a kind of devotion to the fofter
lex, even in their native forefts, had no fooner fettled
themlel.ves in the provinces of the Roman empire, than
the female chara&er began to affume new confequence.
Thofe fierce barbarians, who feeroed to thirft only for
blood, who involved in one undillinguilhed ruin the mo¬
numents of ancient grandeur and ancient ingenuity, and
A L R Y. 507
who devoted to the flames the knowledge of ages, always
forbore to offer any violence to the women. They brought
along with them the refpe&ful gallantry of the north,
which had power even to reftrain their lavage ferocity ;
and they introduced into the welt of Europe a generofity
of fentiment, and a complaifance toward the ladies, to
which the molt poliihed nations of antiquity vvereltrangers.
Thefe fentiments of generous gallantry were foftered by
the inftitution of chivalry, which lifted woman yet higher
in the fcale of life. Inllead of being nobody in fociety,
flie became its primum mobile. Every knight devoting
himfelf to danger, declared himfeif the humble fervant of
fome lady, and that lady was often the objeft of his love.
Her honour was fuppoled to be intimately connefted with
his, and her l'mile was the reward of his valour : for her
he attacked, for her he defended, and for her he Iheddiis
blood. Courage, animated by fo powerful a motive, loll
fight of every thing but enterprize : incredible toils were
cheerfully endured, incredible adtions were performed,
and adventures feemingly fabulous were more than real¬
ized. The effedl was reciprocal. Women, proud ol their
influence, became worthy of the heroifin which they had
inlpired : they were not to be approached but by the
high-minded and the brave; and men then could only
be admitted to the bofom of the chalie fair, after proving
their fidelity and affedtion by years of perfeverance and
of peril.
As to the change which took place in the operations
of war, it may be obferved, that the perfedt hero of an¬
tiquity was luperior to fear, but he made ufe of every
artifice to annoy his enemy : impelled by animolity and
hoftile palfion, like the favage in the American woods,
he was only anxious of attaining his end, without re¬
garding whether fraud or force were the means. But
the true knight or hero of chivalry, who feems in all his
rencounters to have had his eye on the judicial combat,
had an equal contempt for llratagem and danger. He
difdained to take advantage of his enemy: he defired
only to fee him, and to combat him upon equal terms,
truliing that heaven would declare in behalf of the juft j
and as he profefl'ed only to vindicate the caufe of reli¬
gion, of injured beauty, or opprefied innocence, he was
further confirmed in this enthuftaftic opinion by his own
imagination. Strongly perfuaded that the decifion mull
be in his favour, he fought as if under the influence of
divine infpiration rather than of military ardour. Thus
the fyftem of chivalry, by a Angular combination of man¬
ners, blended the heroic and lanftified charailers, united
devotion and valour, zeal and gallantry, and reconciled
the love of heaven with the love of the ladies.
At the court of every prince, count, or baron, joufts
and tournaments, the military evolutions of chivalry,
became the favourite amufements. Inllead of the gladi¬
ators and naked fpeflacles which corrupted the manners
of the Greeks and Romans, and banilhed from the lla-
dium the virgins and matrons, the pompous decora¬
tions of the lilts was crowned with the prelence of chafte
and high-born beauty, from whole hands the conqueror
received the prize of his dexterity and courage. The
Ikill and ftrength that were exerted in wreftling and box¬
ing bear a diftant and doubtful relation to the merit of a'
foldier ; but the tilts and tournaments, as they were in¬
vented in France, and pra&ifed in England, and eagerly
adopted both in the eaft and weft, prefented a lively image
of the bufineis of the field. The Angle combats, the ge¬
neral Ikirmilh, the defence of a pals or caltle, were re-
hearfed as in aftual battle ; and the contell, but in real
and mimic war, was decided by the luperior manage¬
ment of the horfe and lance. At thefe entertainments,
Ikill in arms, devotion to the fair, and generous courtefy,
were all at once cultivated. The afperity of national pre¬
judice was foftened ; and the community of religion and
arms fpread a limilar. colour and generous emulation over
the face of Chriftendom. Abroad, in enterprize and pil¬
grimage j at home, in. martial, exercife, the warriors of
eyery
508 CHI
e /ery country were perpetually affociated ; and Impartial
tafte muft prefer tilts and tournaments to the Olympic
games of claffic antiquity. At thefe martial entertain¬
ments, each knight was attended to the tournament by
iiis faithful fqtiire, a youth of equal birth and fimilar
hopes ; he was followed by his archers and men at arms ;
and four, or five, or fix, foldiers, were computed as the
furniture of a complete lance. The lance was the proper
and peculiar weapon of the knight : his horfe was of a
large and heavy breed ; but his charger, till he was roufed
by approaching danger, was ufually led by an attendant,
and he quietly rode a pad or palfrey of a more ea-fy pace.
His helmet and fword, his greaves and buckler, it would
be fuperfiuous to defcribe ; but we may remark, that at
the period of the crufades the armour was lefs ponderous
than in later times ; and that, inftead of a many cuirafs,
his bread was defended by an hauberk or coat of mail.
When their long lances were fixed in the reft, the war¬
riors furioufly fpurred their horfes againft the foe; and
the light cavalry of the Turks and Arabs could feldom
Hand againft the direft and impetuous weight of their
charge. In the expeditions to the neighbouring king¬
doms or the Holy Land, the duties of the feudal tenure
no longer lubfifted ; the voluntary fervice of the knights
and their followers was either prompted by zeal or at¬
tachment, or purchafed with rewards and promifes ; and
the numbers ofeachfquadronwere meafured by the power,
the wealth, and the fame, of each independent chieftain.
They were diftinguifhed by his banner, his armorial coat,
and his cry of war; and the moft ancient families of Eu¬
rope muft feek in thefe achievements the origin and proof
of their nobility. From what has been faid, we might
trace a ftrong refemblance between the manners of the
age of chivalry, and thofe of the old heroic ages deline¬
ated by Homer.
The military enthufiafm of the barons is but of a piece
vdth the fanaticifm of the heroes. Hence the fame par¬
ticularity of defcription in the accounts of battles, wounds,
deaths, in the Greek poet as in the Gothic romances.
Hence that minute curiofity in the difplay of their dref-
fes, arms, and accoutrements. The minds of all men,
being occupied with warlike images and ideas, were much
gratified by thofe details, which appear cold and unaf-
fefting to modern readers. We hear much of knights-
errant encountering giants, and quelling favages, in
books of chivalry. Thefe giants were opprefiive feudal
lords ; and every lord was to be met with, like the giant,
in his ftrong hold or caftle. Their dependents of a lower
form, who imitated the violence of their fuperiors, and
had not cattles, but lurking places, were the favages of
romance. The greater lord was called a giant for his
power ; the lefs, a favage for his brutality. Another ter-
Tor of the Gothic ages were monfters, dragons, and fer-
pents. Their ftories were received in thole days for fe-
veral reafons : t . from the vulgar belief of enchantments :
2. from their being reported on the faith of eaftern tra¬
dition, by adventures from the Holy Land ; 3. in flill la¬
ter times, from the ftrange things told and believed on
the difcovery of the new world. In all thefe refpefls,
Greek antiquity refembles the Gothic, For what are
Homer’s Lasltrigons and Cyclops, but bands of lawlefs
favages, with each of them a giant of enormous fize at
their head ? And what are the Grecian Bacchus, Hercu¬
les, and Thefeus, but knig’nts-errant, the exaft counter¬
parts of fir Launcelot du Lake, and Amadis de Gaul ?
With the greateft fiercenefs and favagenefs of charac¬
ter, the utmoll generofity, hofpitality, and courtefy, were
imputed to the heroic ages. Achilles was at once the
molt relentlels, vindiftive, implacable, and the friend-
lieft, of men. We have the very fame reprefentation in
the age of chivalry. As in thole lawlefs times dangers
and diftrefs of all kinds abounded, there would be the
lame demand for companion, gentlenefs, and general at¬
tachments to the unfortunate, as of refentment, rage, and
animolity, againft their enemies.
C H I
The martial games celebrated in ancient Greece, on
great and folemn occafions, had the fame origin and the
fame purpofe as the tournaments of the Gothic warriors ; *
and the paffion for adventures, being fo natural in their
fituation, would be as naturally attended with the love
of praife and glory. Hence the fame encouragement, in
the old Greek and Gothic times, to panegyrifts and poets,
which made it of mighty confequence who (hould obtain
the favour of a rich heirefs. And though, in the itrict
feudal times, (he was fuppofed to be in the power and at
the difpofal of her fuperior lord, yet this rigid ftate of
things did not laft long. Hence we find fome diftreffed
damfel was the fpring and mover of every knight’s adven¬
ture. She was to be relcued by his arms, or won by the
fame and admiration of his prowefs. The plain meaning
of all which was this : that as, in thefe turbulent times,
a protedlor was neceffary to the weaknefs of the fex, fo
the courteous and valorous knight was to approve him-
felf fully qualified for that purpofe.
It may be obferved, that the two poems of Homer were
intended to expofe the mifchiefs and inconveniences arif-
ing from the political ftate of Old Greece : the Iliad, the
diflentions that naturally fpring up among independent
chiefs ; and the Odyffey, the infolence of their greater
fubjedls, more efpecially when unreftrained by the pre¬
fence of their fovereign. Andean any thing more exactly
refemble the condition of the feudal times, when, on oc-
cafion of any great enterprize, as that of the crufades,
the defigns of the confederate Chriftian ftates were per¬
petually fruftrated, or interrupted at leaft, by the diffen-
tions of their leaders ; and their affairs at home as perpe¬
tually diftreffed and difordered by the rebellious ufurpa-
tions of their greater vaffals ? Jerufalem was to the Eu¬
ropean knights what Troy had been to the Grecian he¬
roes ; for chivalry never ftourifhed fo much as during the
time of the crufades. From thefe holy wars it followed,
that new fraternities of knighthood were invented ; hence
the knights of the Holy Sepulchre, the Hofpitallers, Tem¬
plars, and an infinite number of religious orders. Various
other orders were at length inftituted by fovereign princes :
theGarter, by Edward III. of England ; the Golden Fleece,
by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy ; and St. Mi¬
chael, by Louis XI. of France. From this time ancient
chivalry declined to an empty name; when fovereign
princes eftablifhed regular companies in their armies,
knights bannerets were no more, though it was ftill
thought an honour to be dubbed by a great prince or
viftorious hero ; and ali who profeffed arms without
knighthood affumed the title of Elquire. There is fcarce
a prince in Europe that has not thought fit to inftitute
an order of knighthood ; and the title of Knight- fervice,
which the kings of Britain conferred on private fubje&s,
is a derivation from ancient chivalry, although very re¬
mote from its fource. See the articles Feudal System,
and Knight.
CHI'VALRY,/ [fervitium military, from theFr. cheva¬
lier.'] A tenure of lands by knights fervice ; whereby the
tenant was bound to perform fervice in war unto the
king, or the mefne lord of whom he held by that tenure.
See Tenures. Chivalry was of two kinds, either regal,
held only of the king, or common, held of a common
perfon : that which might be held only of the king was
called fervitium or ferjeantia , and was again divided into
grand and petit ferjearty ; the grand ferjeanty was where
one held lands of the king by iervice, which he ought to
do in his own petfon, as to bear the king’s banner or
fpear, to lead his holt, or to find a man at arms to fight,
&cc. Petit ferjeanty was when a man held lands of the
king to yield him annually fome fmall thing towards his
wars, as a fword, dagger, bow, &c.
CHIVAZ'ZO, a town of Piedmont, fituated in a plain,
near the union of the river Oreo with the Po. It is de¬
fended with walls, baftions, and large foffes filled with
water : it is well fupplied with artillery and a numerous
garrifon, efpecially in time ef war. The fituation is fo
advantageous,
C H L
advantageous, that whoever are matters of this town are
faid to poffefs the key of the country of Turin, the Ca-
navois, the country of Vercelli, Monferrat, and Lom¬
bardy. It was taken by Thomas, prince of Savoy, in
1639, which induced Chriftina, duchefs of Savoy, to fend
her fon and fitters to Chambery, to prelerve them from
Infult till the profpeft of affairs might change. It was
foon after taken by the French, but reftored to the duke
of Savoy in 1649. It has feveral churches and convents.
Eleven miles north-eaft of Turin, and twelve fouth of
Ivrea. Lat. 45. r.N. Ion. 25. 29. E. Ferro.
CHI'VERNY, a town of France, in the department of
the Loir and Cher, on the fouth fide of the Conon : three
leagues fouth-eafl of Blois.
CHIVES, f. [cive, Fr. Skinner.] The threads or fila¬
ments riling in flowers. Alfo a fpecies of fmall onion.
CHI'UM MARMOR,yi the ancient name of a black
marble, called alfo the lapis opjidianus. See Mineralogy.
CHIU'SA (La), a town of Italy, in the Friuli, on a
fmall river called Fella, which runs into the Tajamento ;
taken by the French republican army under Bonaparte in
3797 : fourteen miles north of Friuli.
CHIU'SA (La), a town of Italy, in the Veronefe, be¬
longing to the date of Venice : nine miles north-weft of
Verona.
CHIUSA'NO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and province of Principato Citra : thirteen miles
fouth-fouth-eaft of Benevento.
CHIUSEL'LE, a river of Piedmont, which runs into
the Oreo : one mile we$>fouth-weft of Fogliffo.
CHIU'SI, a town of Italy, in the country of Sienna,
containing about 1000 inhabitants, the fee of a bifhop:
thirty-one miles fouth-fouth-eaft of Sienna.
CHIUSLEN'GI, a town of European Turkey, in the
province of Bulgaria : feventy miles eaft of Siliftria.
CHIUTA'YA, or Kiutaja, or Cutaja, a town of
Afiatic Turkey, and capital of a diftrift in Natolia, fitu-
ated at the foot of a mountain, in a fertile and healthy
country, defended by a caftle built on a rock. It con¬
tains feveral mofques, and three Armenian churches :
336 miles fouth-fouth-eaft of Conftantinople. Lat. 39. 14,
N. Ion. 48. 30. E. Ferro.
CHIZE', a town of France, in the department of the
Two Sevres, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridft
of Niort, fituated near the Boutonne : three leagues and
a half fouth of Niort, and three and a quarter fouth-weft
of Melle.
CHIZILARABAD', a town of Afia, in the kingdom
of Kurdiftan : feventy miles fouth-fouth-eaft of Kerkuk.
CHLAMY'DIA,/. in botany. SeePHORMiuM.
CHLA'MYS,/ A military habit worn by the ancient
Romans over the tunica. It belonged to the patricians,
and was the fame in the time of war that the toga was in
the time of peace. This fort of gown was called pitta,
from the rich embroidery with figures in Phrygian work ;
and purpurea, becaufe the ground-work was purple. The
ehlamydes of the emperors were all purple, adorned with
a golden embroidered border.
CHLENN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-
gingratz : eighteen miles fouth-eaft of Konigingratz.
CHLIAS'MA,/. [from %fieuvu, to make warm.] Te-
pefa&ion, or the a£l of making any thing warm. A fo¬
mentation, or application, which makes warm the parts
to which it is applied.
CHLO'E, a lurname of Ceres at Athens. Her yearly
feftivals, called Chloeia, were celebrated with much mirth
and rejoicing, and a ram was always facrificed to her.
The name of Chloe is fuppofed to bear the fame fignifi-
cation as Flava, fo often applied to the goddefs of corn.
The name, from its fignification, (yfon, herba wrens, )
lias generally been applied to women poffeffed of beauty,
and of fimplicity.
CHLO'PAN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Volhynia : feventy-two miles eaft-north-eaft of Lucko.
CHLO'RA, /. [from vTwpo;, pale, becaufe the flowers
Vol.IV. No. 2J5.
C H L 509
ate of a pale yellow colour.] In botany, a genus of the
clafs o&andria, order monogynia, natural order rotacea;.
The generic charafters are — Calyx : perianthium eight-
leaved; leaflets linear, fpreading, permanent. Corolla:
monopetalous, falver-ffiaped ; tube Ihorter than the ca¬
lyx, coating the germ; border eight-parted; divifions
lanceolate, longer than the tube. Stamina: filaments
eight, very fliort, leated on the throat ; antheras linear,
ere6t, fliorter than the divifions. Piftillum : germ ovate-
oblong; ftyle filiform, length of the tube; ltigmas four,
oblong, cylindric. Pericarpium : capfule ovate-oblong,
one-celled, fomewhat comprefled, furrowed, two-valved ;
valves incurvated on the fide. Seeds : numerous, mi¬
nute. This genus is allied to gentiana; but differs in
the number of ftamens, and legments of the calyx and
corolla.. — Effential Character. Calyx, eight-leaved ; corol¬
la, one-petalled, eight-cleft ; capfule, one-celled, two-
valved, many-feeded ; ftigma, four-cleft.
Species, r. Chlora perfoliata, or perfoliate yellow-
wort, or yellow centaury: leaves perfoliate. The whole
plant generally very glaucous. Stem cylindric, fmooth,
from three inches to three feet high; root-leaves oval,
feflile, fpreading in form of a ftar ; loweft ftem-leaves oval-
lanceolate ; the reft perfoliate, as if compoled of two
lanceolate or cordate leaves running into each other at
the bafe, all of a glaucous colour. Flowers in a kind of
umbel, of three rays, encompaffed by the uppermoft leaf;
the middle one bearing one flower without any leaves ;
the outer ones terminated by a leaf fimilar to the ftem-
leaves, from which arifes an umbellule fupporting one
or more flowers. Calyx fometinjes equal to, fometimes
longer, and fometimes Ihorter than, the corolla ; leaflets
eight to ten. Corolla gold-coloured, w'ith a milky juice ;
fegments fometimes nine, flightly emarginate ; ftamens
fix to nine or ten ; ftyle cloven, yellow, thickeft towards
the top ; ftigmas two, ftiaped like a horfe-fhoe, yellow ;
capfule more rounded than in the gentians. Annual.
Paftures, in chalky and limeftone foils; flowering from
June through the autumn. It was firft feparated from
the gentians by Mr. Hudlon. He gave it the name of
Blackjlonia, from Mr. Blackftone, an apothecary, author
of Fafciculus Plantarum circa Harefield, and Specimen
botanicum ; but Linnaeus has adopted Reaumur’s name
of Chlora, after Adanfon ; and Mr. Hudfon has given up
the title of Blackftonia, in the fecond edition of his Flora.
Haller affirms that it is more bitter than the red , gentian*
centaurium, and that it feems to poffefs the fame qualities.
2. Chlora imperfoliata : corollas fix-cleft. Stem e reft :
four-cornered, glofl’y, a hand in height; the internodes
longer than the leaves; leaves opofite, feflile, inclined to
ftem-clafping, ovate, gloffy, acute. Flower peduncled,
terminal, full yellow, larger than the leaf. It has the
appearance of the foregoing, but differs in having the
calyx divided to the bale, and the divifions not linear ;
in the corolla alfo being fix-cleft, and the ftyles glued to¬
gether. It is a native of the extreme part of Italy, and is
annual.
3. Chlora quadrifolia : leaves in fours. Produced from
gentiana perfoliata and linum quadrifolium. Stem Ample, a
fipan in height, fomewhat quadrangular, jointed ; leaves
in whorls, linear, only a little broader towards the end,
bluntiffi, the length of the internodes. Found in the
fouth of Europe, by Alftroemer.
4. Chlora dodecandra : leaves oppofite. Corolla longer
than the calyx, divided into twelve lanceolate legments ;
ftamens twelve, growing to the corolla, the length of the
calyx'; antherse oblong, fpiral; germ roundifh; ltyle long,
intorted; ftigma Ample. Native of Virginia.
Propagation and Culture. Thefe may ealily be propagated
from feeds, and require only common care in the cultiva¬
tion. Our common yellow centaury, however, does not
thrive well in a garden ; and though rather impatient of
cold, yet, if flieltered, it becomes mildewed.
CHLORAN'THUS,/ [from pale, and av5o<;, a
flower.] In botany, a genus of the clafs tetrandria, order
6 O monogynia.
5to
C H O
monogynia, natural order aggregate. The generic cha¬
racters are — -Calyx : none, but an ovate, acute, concave
icale, on which the germ is placed. Corolla : one three-
lobed convex petal, inferted into the outlide of the germ.
Stamina : filaments none ; anthers four, inferted irpt-o the
lobes of the petal on the edges towards the inlideand bi¬
valve. Piftillum : germ obovate, prominent in front, and
bearing the petal ; ltyle unequal, very fhort, angular ; ltig-
mas three, very minute, erect. Pericarpium: drupe oblong.
Seed : nut oblong, Ymooth. — EJJe?itiai CharaStcr. Calyx,
none 5 corolla, a petal three-lobed by the fide of the germ;
antherse growing to the petal ; drupe one-feeded.
Only one fpecies, viz. Chioranthus inconfpicuus. As de-
fcribed by Swartz, it is an herbaceous plant. Stems many
from the loot, half a foot high, fpreading, fubereCt, a lit¬
tle branching, round, itriated, fmooth ; leaves petiokd,
decuflated, oppofite, lanceolate-ovate, ferrate, nerved,
veiny, rather fucculent, very fmooth, pale green ; peti¬
oles lhortilh, channelled above, fmooth ; itipules between
the petioles, liaving two minute teeth on each- fide, mem¬
branaceous, permanent. Flowers panicled ; panicle ter¬
minal, ereCt, iimple; racemes or l'pike^s oppofite, decuf-
fated, ereCtifh, fubfaltigiate. Flowers oppofite, deculTkted,
fieffile, folitary, minute, the fize of a pin’s head, fomevvhat
fucculent, whitifh yellow ; pollen yellow; ltigmas whitifh ;
berry black, the fize of pepper. According to l’Heritier,
it is a ftoloniferous underihrub. Stems procumbent at
the bafe, knotted, grey ; the kpots near the ground root¬
ing, fometimes alternately leaflefs, but annulated with
Itipules like the relt. Leaves oblong-ovate, acute, the ler-
ratures mortified at the end, revolute, fomewhat wrinkled,
the fame colour on both tides, fpreading, flat, permanent,
from two to three inches long, and from eighteen to
twenty lines broad. Petioles one-fourth of the length of
the leaves, ending at the bafe in a ring, connecting two
tubulate ereCt Itipules. Panicles lax, compofed of fpread¬
ing ^decuflated l'pikes, an inch and a half long. Flowers
herbaceous, a line in length. BraCtes feflile, lanceolate,
acute, concave, prefled dole, permanent, under the fpikes.
Perianthium double ; the lower more properly a braCte,
the upper only a fcale ; ityle fcarceiy any 5 ftigma capi¬
tate, fub-bivalved, fometimes two-lobed ; fruit an oval
berry, acuminated with the ftyle, pellucid at the bafe.
This plant has long been introduced into the royal gar¬
den at Kew as a native of China, where we are told it
is cultivated in their gardens, though it feems not to
have any qualities either palatable or odoriferous, nor
has it a beautiful appearance. Dr. Lind aflerted, that the
Chinefe mix it with their tea, to give it a pleafant fmell ;
but this plant in itfelf has no fmell whatever. Introduced
1781, by James Lind, M. D. It flowered on-board the
Atlas pn the voyage. It is preierved in the itove, and
may be increafed readily by its runners.
CHLO'RIS, the goddefs of flowers, who married Ze-
phyrus. She is the fame as Flora. Ovid. — A daughter of
Amphjon, fon of Jafus and Perfephone, who married Ne-
leus king of Pylos, by whom flie had one daughter and
twelve fons, who all, except Neltor, were killed by Her¬
cules. Homer.
CKLORO'SIS, [from green,] The green fick-
nefs ; a difeafe fo called from the yellow greenifh look
which thofe have who are afflicted with it. For the re¬
gimen and cure, fee Medicine.
CHLORO'XYLON, /. in botany. See Laurus.
CHLU'METZ, a . town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Xonigingratz : five miles fouth of Konigingratz.
CHMlELOW'KA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
<of Braclaw : forty-fix miles eaft-north-eall of Braclaw.
CHNIM, a ftrong town of Bofnia, belonging to the Ve¬
netians : fifteen miles fouth of Banjaluka.
CHO-YANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Hou-quang : ten leagues ealt-north-eall
of Siang-yang.
‘To CHOAK. See Choke.
CHO'AM-YU-SO, a town of China, in the province
C H O
or Quang-tong : fixteen leagues eaft-fouth-eafi of Kao»
tchebu.
CHOBOL'TIVO, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Volhynia : thirty-fix miles weft of Lucko.
CHOC-BAY, a bayou the weft coail of the ifland of
St. Lucia, a little to the north of Carenage bay.
CHOCCHAR'MO, a town of Afia, in Thibet : twen-
ty-feven miles north-eaft of Tofon-liotun.
CHOCK'BAR, a town of Hindooltan, iituatednear the
confluence of the Indus and Delta, or rather where the
Indus divides its branches.
CHO'CO, a province of South America, in the govern¬
ment of Terra Firma, bounded on the north by the pro¬
vinces of Darien and Cartbagena, on the eaft and fouth
by Popayan, and on the weft by the Pacific Ocean. The
foil, climate, See. are fimilar to thofe of Popayan-
CHCfiCOLATE,/. [ chocolate , Span.] The nut of the
cacao-tree, or theobrotna. The cake or niafs, made by
grinding the kernel of the cacao-nut with other fub-
ltances, to be dilfolved in hot water. The Spaniards
were the firft who brought chocolate into ufe in Europe,
to promote the confumption of their cacao-nuts, achiot,
and' other drugs, which their Weft Indies furnifh, and
which enter the compofition of chocolate. See THEOBRO-
ma. The liquor made by a folution of chocolate in hot
water. — Chocolate is certainly much the belt of the threp
exotic liquors : its oil feems to be both rich, alimentary,
and anodyne. Arbuthnot.
In fumes of burning chocolate (hall glow',
And tremble at the fea that froths below I Pope
CHOTOLATE-NUT-TREE. See Theobroma.
CHOCOLO'COCA, which the Spaniards call Caftro Vi r—
reyna, a town of Peru, lixty leagues fouth-ealt of Lima,
famous for its ill ver mines, which are at the top of a high
mountain, always covered with fnow, and but two leagues
from the town. The ftones of the mines are of a dark
blue colour; thefe being calcined and powdered, then
lteeped in water and quickfilver, the filth is fieparated,
and the filver melted and formed into bars Thefe veins
are not very rich, but the metal is extremely fine. They
make plenty of wine here, where it attains a greater de¬
gree of perfection, owing to the purenefs of the air, than
it is obferved to have eilewhere.
CHO'COPE, a town in the jurifdiftion of Truxillo, in
South America, in Peru ; fourteen leagues fouth of St.
Pedro. Here are about fixty orfeventy families, chiefly
Spaniards, with fome of the other caits, but not above
twenty-five families. It has a church buiit ot brick, both,
large and decent. The people here mention a rain that
fell in 1726, which lafted ror.y nights, beginning con-
ftantly at four or five in the evening, and ceafing at the
fame hour the qext morning, which laid molt of the houfes
in ruins. Lat. 7. 4S. S.
CHOCUITO, or rather Chucuito, orTin Caca, a
large lake near Pari a, in South America, and in Peru, in¬
to which a great number of rivers empty themfelves. It
is 240 miles in circumference, and in lome parts eighty
fathoms deep ; yet the water cannot be drunk, it isdo
very turbid. It abounds in filh, which they dry and fait,
and exchange wdth the neighbouring provinces forbrandy,
wines, meal, or money. It is faid the ancient incas, 011
the conquelt of Peru by the Spaniards, threw into this
lake all their riches of gold and lilver. It was this lake
into which the inca Huana Capac threw the famous chain
of gold, the value of which was immenle. It abounds
with flags and rallies, of which Capac Vaupanchi, the
fifth inca, built a bridge for tranfporting his army to the
other fide.
CHOC'ZIM, or Cokzim, a town of European T urkey,
in Moldavia, fituated on the fouth fide of the Dniefter,
near the frontiers of Poland, remarkable for two victo¬
ries gained here by the Poles over the Turfs, one in
1621, the other in 1683. The luburbs were burned down
in 1769 ; twelve miles fouth-fouth-weft of Kaminiek, and
C H O
fix4y-eight miles weft-north-weft of Mogilov. Lat. 48.
51. N. Ion. 44. 45. E. Ferro. '
CHODE, [the old preterite from chide.] — And Jacob
Was wroth, and chode with Laban. Genefis.
CHODIVO'JA, a town of Walachia : thirty-two miles
fouth-fouth-weft of Buchoreft.
CHODOROS'LAU, a town of Poland, in the palati- .
nate of Lemberg : twenty miles fouth-eaft of Lemberg.
CHCE'NIX, f Gr.] An ancient dry meafure,
containing the 48th part of a niedimnus, or fix bulhels.
CHCE'RILUS, a tragic poet of Athens, who wrote 150
tragedies, of which thirteen obtained the prize. An liif-
torian of Samos. Two other poets, one of whom was
very intimate with Herodotus. He wrote a poem on the
vi ftory which the Athenians had obtained over Xerxes,
and, on account of the excellence of the compofition, he
received a piece of gold for each verfe from the Athe¬
nians, and was publicly ranked with Homer as a poet.
The other was one of Alexander’s flatterers and friends.
It is faid the prince prornifed him as many pieces of gold
as there ftiould be good verles in la is poetry, and as many
flaps on the forehead as there were bad ; and, in confe-
quence of this, fcarce fix of his verfes in each poem were
entitled to gold, while the reft were rewarded with the
caftigation. Plutarch. Horace.
CHO'HAN, a circar of Hindooftan, in the country of
Alla-Habad.
CHOH'REN, or Kohren, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and territory of Leiplic: twenty
miles fouth-louth eaft of Leipfic.
CHOICE, f. [choix, Fr.] The aft of choofing; deter¬
mination between different things propofed ; eleftion :
Gentle or fharp, according to thy choice,
To laugh at follies, or to lalh at vice. Dryden.
The power of chooling; eleftion. — Choice there is not,
tinlels the thing which we take be fo in our power,
ttiat we might have refufed it. If fire confume the Itable,
it choofeth not lb to do, becaufe the nature thereof is
fuch that it can do no other. Hooker. — Care in choofing;
curiofity of dillinftion. — Julius Ctelar did write a collec¬
tion of apophthegms: it is pity his book is loft; fori
imagine they were collected with judgment and choice .
Bacon. — The thing chofen ; the tiling taken, or approved,
in preference to others :
Your choice is not fo rich in birth as beauty;
That you might well enjoy her. Shakefpeare.
The belt part of any thing, that is more properly the ob-
jeft of choice. — Thou art a mighty prince : in the choice
of our fepulchres bury thy dead. Genef.s. — Several things
propofed at once, as objefts of judgment and eleftion :
A braver choice of dauntlefs fpirits
Did never float upon the fweliing tide. Shakefpeare.
To make CHOICE of. To choofe ; to take from feveral
things propofed :
Wifdom of what herfelf approves 7n0d.es choice,
Nor is led captive by the common voice. DeTibam.
CHOICE, adj. \_choifc , Fr.] Seleft; of extraordinary
value :
Thus, in a fea of folly tofs’d,
My choiceji hours of life are loft. Swift.
Chary; frugal; careful. Ufed of perfons. — He that is
choice of his time, will alfo be choice of his company, and
choice of his aftions. Taylor.
CHOICE'LESS, adj. Without the power of choofing;
without right of choice; not free.
CHOICE'LY, ad-v. Curioufly; with exaft choice :
A band of men,
Collefted choicely from each county fome. Shakefpeare.
Valuably; excellently.— It is certain it is' choicely good,
Walton ,
C H O 5ir
CHOICE'NFSS, / Nicety; particular value.— Cafry
into the (hade fuch auriculas, feedlings, or plants, as. are
for their choicenefs referved in pots. Eajelyiz.
CHOIR, f. \chorus, Lat.] An affembly or band of
fingers :
They now aflift the choir
Of angels, who their fongs admire. Waller.
The fingers in divine worfhip :
The choir,
With all the ohoiccft rnufic of the kingdom,
Together fung Te Deum. Shakefpeare .
The part of the church where the'chorifters or fingers are
placed. It was in the time of Conftantine that the choir
was feparated from the nave. In the twelfth century,
they began to inclofe it with walls; but the ancient ba-
luftrades have been fmce rellored, from a view to the
beauty of architefture.
CHOI'SEUL (Stephen Francis due de), born in 17 19,
and died in 1785. After having been ambaflador at Vi¬
enna, minifter of war, and of the marine, and having had
the entire confidence of Louis XV. he was dilgraced, yet
enjoyed great confequence in his retirement. The late
king of Pruflia ufed to call him the coachman of Europe.
To his dexterity in negociation was partly owing the
peace of 1763. He experienced the common lot of all
whole talents are remarkably brilliant; much good has
been faid of him, and much ill. But his bittereft enemies
could never deny that he had a ftrong underftanding, and
was diligent in bufinefs; that he pofieffed the art of pene¬
trating into the characters of men, and of taking advan¬
tage of events. Thofe men of letters and poets of his time,
who were in his intereft, have painted him in glowing co¬
lours, as the molt magnanimous of mankind ; while luch
as had no lhare in his favours have endeavoured to weaken
this praife, by eenfuring his adminiltration for the want
of economy. But, if lie was fometimes lavilh of the
public money, he certainly was not fparing of his own.
From whence we may conclude, that generofity was a
virtue to which he was naturally inclined.
CHOI'SEUL, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Marne : four leagues north-ealt of Langres.
CHOI'SEUL-BAY, on the north-well coalt of the
illands of the Arlacides, weft of Port Prallin. The inha¬
lants of this bay, like thofe of Port Prallin, have a cufi-
torn of powdering their hair with lime, which burns it
and gives it a red appearance.
CHOI'SI (Francis Timoleon de), dean of the cathedral
of Bayeux, and one of the forty of the French academy',
was born at Paris in 1644. In 1685, he was lent with the
chevalier de Chaumont to the king of Siam, and was or¬
dained prieft in the Indies by the apoftolical vicar. He
wrote a great number of works, in a polite, florid, and
ealy, ftyle ; the principal of which are, 1. Four Dialogues
on the Immortality of the Soul, &c. 2. Account of a
voyage to Siam. 3. An Eccleliaftical Hillory, in 11 vols.
4to. 4. Life of David, with an Interpretation of the Pfalms.
5. Life of Solomon, See. He died at Paris in 1724.
CHOI'SY, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Marne : four leagues north of Previns.
CHOI'SY-BELLEGARDE, a town of France, in the
department of the Loiret : four leagues weft of Montargis.
CHOI'SY-LE-ROY, or Choisy-sur-Seine, a town
of France, in the department of Paris, and chief place of
a canton, in the diltrift of Bourg-la-Reine, on the Seine:
lix miles fouth of Paris.
To CHOKE, nj. a. [aceocan, Sax. from ceoca, the
cheek or mouth. According to Minlhew, from Dn; from
whence, probably, the Spanifh abogar.] To fuffocate ; to
kill by llopping the paffage of refpiration :
While you thunder’d, clouds of dull did choke
Contending troops. Waller.
To ftop up ; to obftruft ; to block up a paffage. — They
are at a continual expence to cleanfe the ports, and keep
them
512 C H O
them from being choked up. Addifon.—'To hinder by ob-
ltruftion and confinement :
The fire, which chok'd in afhes lay,
A load too heavy for his foul to move,
Was upward blown below, and brufh’d away by \ove.Dijd.
To fupprefs :
And yet we ventur’d ; for the gain propos’d
Chok'd the re Ip eft of likely peril fear’d. Shakefpeare.
'To overpower. — And that which fell among thorns, are
they which, when they have heard, go forth,' and are
choked with cares, and riches, and pleafures of this life,
and bring no fruit to perfeftion. Luke.
CHOKE, f. The filamentous or capillary part of an
artichoke. A cant •word .
CHOKE', a town of Afia, in the country of Thibet;
14.5 miles eaft-fouth-eaft ofLaffa.
CHOKE-PEAR, f. A rough, harfli, unpalatable, pear.
Any afperfion or farcafm, by which another is put to
fiience. A low term. — Pardon me for going fo low as to
talk of giving choke-pears. Clarijfa.
CHO'KER, f. One that chokes or fuffocates another.
One that puts another to fiience. Any thing that cannot
be anfwered.
CHO'KY, adj. That which has the power of fuffocation.
CHOLA' VVIA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Minlk : forty-two miles fouth-eaft of Minfk.
CHOLEDO'CHUS, /. [from bile, and
to receive.] In anatomy, it is a common name for the
gall-bladder, the biliary dufts, and the common gall-
duft, which communicates with the duodenum, called
choledochus duftus. It feems to be a continuation of the
duftus cyfticus ; for it is often obferved, that the duftus
liepaticus runs, for fome fpace, within the fide of the
duftus cyfticus, before it opens into its cavity: alfo at
the opening of the hepatic duft into the cyftic, there is
a fmall loofe membrane to hinder the bile from regur¬
gitating.
CHO'LER,yi \cholera, Lat. from %oXvi.] The bile. See
Medicine. The humour which, by its luperabundance,
is fuppofed to produce irafcibility :
It engenders choler , planteth anger,
And better ’twere that both of us did faft,
Since, of ourfelves, ourfelves are choleric,
Than feed it with fuch over-roafted flefli. Shakefpeare.
Anger ; rage 5
He, methinks, is no great fcholar.
Who can miltake defire for choler. Prior.
CHO'LERA MOR'BUS,/. A fudden reaching, or
overflowing of the bile. See Medicine.
CHO'LERIC, adj. [ cholericus , Lat.] Abounding with
choler. Angry; irafcible: of perlons. — Bull, in the main,
was an honeft, plain-dealing fellow, choleric , bold, and of
a very unconftant temper. Arbuthnot. — Angry; offenfive:
of words or aftions. — There came in choleric halte towards
me about (even or eight knights. Sidney. — Becanus threat-
eneth him, ufing his confident, or rather choleric, fpeech.
Raleigh.
CHO'LERICNF.SS,/. Anger; irafcibility; peeviflinefs.
CHOL'LET, a town of France, and principal place of
a diftrift, in the department of the Mayne and Loire :
fix leagues weft of Argenton, and nine fouth-fouth-weft
of Angers. Near this town, in February 1794, the French
royalifts were defeated by the republican army, with great
lots. Lat. 47. 3. N. Ion. 16. 47. E. Ferro.
CHOLM, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Plkov, on the river Lovat: 180 miles fouth of Peterfburg.
Lat. 57. o. N. Ion. 49. o. E. Ferro.
CHOLMOGO'RI, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Archangel, on the weft fide of the Dwina : twenty-
eight miles fouth of Archangel, and 360 north-eaft of
Peterfburg.
C H O
CHOLO'MA, f. [from lame.] Any halting,
lamenefs, or diltortion of the leg/
CHO'LONG, a town of Afia, in the country of Thi¬
bet : fifty-feven miles north-north-weft of Chao-mahin°--
Hotun.
CHOLO'SIS, f. [from %wXo?, lame.] Lamenefs; halt¬
ing; particularly that which is occasioned by one leg
being fhorter than the other.
CHOL'TITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudim : fix miles north-weft of Chrudim.
CHOLU'LA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Tlafcala, which formerly formed an independent ftate.
It was held by the people of Mexico as a facred fpct, and
the fanftuary of the gods; with a temple, in which they
offer more viftims than in that of Mexico.
CHO'MELIS, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Loire: four leagues and a half north of
Le Puy.
CHOM'MERAC, a town of France, in the department
of the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton, in the dif¬
trift of Coiron: three miles fouth-eaft of Privas.
CHOMON'CHOUAN, a lake of Canada : feventy-three
leagues north-weft of Quebec. Lat. 49. zo.N. Ion. 75.40.
W. Greenwich.
CHOMSK, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefc : fifty-fix miles eaft of Brzefc.
CHO'NAD, a town of Hungary, fituated on the Ma-
rofch, the fee of a bifhop, fuftragan of Colocza : twenty-
five miles north of Temefvar.
CHO'NAS, a town of France, in the department of
the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Vienne : thirteen miles (outh of Vienne.
CHOND* a town of Arabia: 190 miles fouth-weft of
Amanzirifdin.
CHONDRIL'LA, f. a hillock of earth, a clot
or duller.] In botany, a genus of the clafs lyngenefia,
order polygamia aequalis, natural order compofita femi-
flofculofae. The generic charafters are — Calyx : common
calycled, cylindric; fcales of the cylinder very many,
parallel, linear, equal ; thofe of the bafe few, very ftiort.
Corolla : compound imbricate, uniform ; corollets her¬
maphrodite, very many, equal, in feveral rows ; proper
monopetalous, ftrap-fhaped, linear, truncated, four or
five-toothed. Stamina : filaments five, capillary, very
ftiort; anthera; cylindric, tubular. Piftillum : germ fub-
ovate ; ftyle filiform, length of the ftamens; ftigmas two,
reflex. Pericarpium : none; cklyx cylindric, oblong.
Seeds : folitary, ovate, comprefled, muricated ; pappus
hairy, ftipe long, attenuated above. Receptaculum : na¬
ked. — EJfential Character. Calyx calycled ; flofcules in
many rows ; feeds muricated ; pappus Ample, ftipitated.
Species. 1. Chondrilla juncea, or ruftiy gum-fuccory j
radical leaves runcinate, Item leaves linear, entire. Root
perennial. Stem much branched, from two to three feet
high, ereft; at bottom ftrigofe, towards the top fmooth,
bright green. Radical and lower leaves ovate-lanceolate,
pinnatifid, finuate-toothletted, decurrent, lcabrous with
few hairs ; leaves higher on the item, and on the branches
linear, tongue-fhaped, obtufe, quite entire, feflile, fmooth,
glaucous-green. Native of France, Swiflerland, Germany,
Auftria, Italy, and Spain; flowering in July, and ripen¬
ing its feeds in September. Cultivated in 1633. The juice
of the whole plant is extremely bitter; in Spain, however,
it is ufed as a falad herb.
2. Chondrilla crepoides: leaves fagittate, ftem-clafp-
ing ; flowers fubfeflile, lateral. Stem Ample, a foot and
a half high, purple at the bafe, ftriated, fet with a few
white briltles. Annual.
3. Chondrilla nudicaulis: fcape naked, flowers pani-
cled. Native of the Eaft Indies, not of North America j
and by the Egyptian pyramids, as Linnaeus fuppofed.
Propagation and Culture. The firft fort is leldom pre-
ferved in gardens, becaufe the roots are very apt to
fpread, and become troublefome weeds. The downy feeds
alfo are carried by the wind to a confiderable diltance,
and
C H O
and fill the ground with plants. The roots ftrike deep,
and f'pread oat with thick fibres ; each of thefe, when cut
or broken, will (hoot up 5 l'o that, when this plant has
once got pofleffion of the ground, it is very difficult to
root it out. The two other l'pecies have not been intro¬
duced into our gardens. See Apargia, Cacalia, Ca-
TANANCHE, CENTAUREA, GrEPIS, ERIGERON, LaC-
tuca, Lapsana, Leotodon, Pectis, Prenanthes,
ScORZONERA, SONCHUS, and ClCHORIUM.
CHONDROPTERY'GII, /. in ichthyology, the name
of Linnaeus’s fixth order of fifties, containing thofe ge¬
nera which have cartilaginous gills, viz. the Acipenfer,
Chimasra, Squalus, Raia, and Petromyzon ; which fee
under their refpeftive heads.
CHONG-TCHEOU, a town of Alia, in the kingdom
of Corea : twenty-five miles fouth-weft of Ou-tcheou.
To CHOOSE, <v. a. I chofe, I have chofen, or chafe ;
[cboifir, Fr. ceoyan, Sax. kicfen , Germ.] To take by way
of preference of feveral things offered; not to rejeft. —
Did I cboofe him out of all the tribes of Ifrael to be my
prieft ? 1 Sam. ii. 28. — To take; not to refufe, — Let us
choofe to us judgment; let us know among ourfelves what
is good. Job. — To feleft; to pick out of a number. — How
much lefs (hall I anfwer him, and choofe out my words to
reafon with him? Job. — To cleft for eternal liappinefs ;
to predeftinate to life. A term of theologians.
To CHOOSE, v.n. To have the power of choice be¬
tween different things. It is generally joined with a ne¬
gative, and fignifies mujl neceffarily be. — When a favourite
fhall be raifed upon the foundation of merit, then can he
not choofe but profper. Bacon.
Throw down a golden apple in her way;
For all her hafle, (he could not choofe but flay. Dryden.
CHOO'SER, /. He that has the power or office of
choofing ; eleftor. — This generality is not fufficient to
make a good choofer, without a more particular contrac¬
tion of his judgment. Wotton.
CHOOZ, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardennes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Rocroy.
To CHOP, v. a. [ happen , Dut. couper, Fr.] To cut
with a quick blow :
What fhall we do, if we perceive
Lord Haftings will not yield to our complots ?
— ■ Chop off his head. Shahefpeare.
T o devour eagerly : with up. — You are for making a hafty
meal, and for chopping up your entertainment like an hun¬
gry clown. Dryden. — To mince ; to cut into fmall pieces. —
They break their bones, and chop them in pieces, as for
the pot. Micah. — To break into chinks. — I remember the
cow’s dugs, that her pretty chapt hands had milked.
Shahefpeare.
To CHOP, v. n. To do any thing with a quick and
unexpefted motion, like that of a- blow; as we fay, the
wind chops about; that is, changes fuddenly. — If the body
repercufting be near, and yet not fo near as to make a
concurrent echo, it choppeth with you upon the fudden.
Bacon. — To catch with the mouth. — Out of greedinefs to
get both, he chops at the fliadow, and lofes the fubftance.
L' Ef range.— - To light or happen upon a thing fuddenly :
with upon.
To CHOP, v. a. [ceapan, Sax. koopen, Dut. to buy.]
To pur chafe, generally by way of truck; to give one
thing for another. — The chopping of bargains, when a man
buys not to hold but to fell again, grindeth upon the
felier and the buyer. Bacon. — To put one thing in the
place of another. — We go on chopp'utg and changing our
friends, as well as our horfes. L'Ef range.
Sets up communities and fenfes,
To chop and change intelligences. Budtbras.
To bandy ; to altercate ; to return one thing or word for
another. — You’ll never leave off your chopping of logic, till
your (kin is turned over your ears for prating. L'Ef range.
Vo l. IV. No. 215.
C H O 513
CHOP, f A piece chopped off. See Chip. A' final l
piece of meat, commonly of mutton :
Old Crofs condemns all perfons to be fops,
That can’t regale themfeives with mutton chops. King" sCook.
A crack, or cleft. — Water will make wood to fwell ; as
we fee in the filling of the chops of bowls, by laying them
in water. Bacon.
CHOP-CHURCH, f. \_ecclefiarum permutatio."\ A word
mentioned in a llatute of Henry VI. by the fenfe of which,
it was in thofe days a kind of trade, and by the judges
declared to be lawful ; but Brooke, in his Abridgment,
fays, it was only permiffable by law : it was without a
doubt a nick-name given to thofe that ufed to change
benefices ; as to chop and change is a common expreflion.
9 He,n. VI. c. 65.
CHO'PER, a river of Afiatic Ruftia, which runs into
the Don, near Choperfkaia.
CHOPERSK', a town of Afiatic Ruftia, in the govern¬
ment of Saratov, on the Choper: 140 miles weft of Sara¬
tov, and 648 fouth-fouth-eaft of Peterfburg.
CHOPERSKAFA, a town of Ruffian Tartary, in the
country of the Cofacs, on the Don : 192 miles north-eaft
of Afoph, and fixty fouth-weft of Archadinfkaia.
CHOP'HOUSE, f. A mean houfe of entertainment,
where provifion ready dreffed is fold. — I loft my place at
the ckopboufe, where every man eats in public a mefs of
broth, or chop of meat, in filence. Addifcn.
CHO'PIN,/. [French.] A French liquid meafure, con¬
taining nearly a pint Winchefter, or ftatute meafure. A
term ufed in Scotland for a quart of wine meafure.
CHO'PIN (Rene), a famous civilian, born at Bailleul
in France, in 1537. Fie was advocate in the parliament
of Paris, where he pleaded with great reputation. He
compofed many works, which have been collefted and
printed in 6 vols. folio. He died at Paris in 1606.
CHOP'PING, part. adj. [in this fenfe_, of uncertain
etymology.] An epithet frequently applied to infants,
by way of ludicrous commendation; imagined by Skin¬
ner to fignify lufiy, from ca]~, Sax. by others to mean a
child that would bring money at a market. Perhaps a
greedy hungry child, likely to live :
Both Jack Freeman and Ned Wild
Would own the fair and chopping child. Fentok.
CHOP'PING-BLOCK, f. A log of wood, on which
any thing is laid to be cut in pieces. — The ftraight
fmooth elms are good for axle-trees, boards, chopping-
blocks. Mortimer.
CHOP'PING-KNIFE, f. A knife with which cooks
and butchers chop and mince their meat
CHOF'PY, adj. Fail of holes, clefts, or cracks :
By each at once her choppy finger laying
Upon her fkinny lips. Shahefpeare.
CHOPS,/, ’without a fingular ; [corrupted probably from
Chaps, which lee.] The mouth of a beaft. — So loon as
my chops begin to walk, yours muff be walking too, for
company. L'Ef range. — The mouth of a man, ufed in
contempt :
He ne’er (hook hands, nor bjd farewel to him,
Till he unfeam’d him from the nape to th’ chops. Sbakefp.
The mouth of any thing in familiar language ; as of a
river, of a fmith’s vice, &c.
CHOP'TANK, a river of United America, in the date
of Delaware, which runs into the Chefapeak, twenty-five
miles fouth-fbuth-eaft of Annapolis.
CHO'RAI., adj. [from chorus, Lat.] Belonging to, or
compofing, a choir or concert :
All founds on fret by firing or golden wire.
Temper’d foft tunings intermix’d with voice.
Choral or unifon. Milton.
Singing in a choir.— And choral feraphs fung the fecond
day. Amharf.
6 P
CIIO'RAL,
5H C H O
CHO'RAL, [choralfs, Lat.] Any perfon that. by vir¬
tue of the orders of the clergy, was in ancient time ad¬
mitted to fit and lerve God in the choir. Dugdale, in
his Hiftory of St. Paul's Church, fays, that there were
formerly fix vicars choral belonging to that church.
CHO'RAN KIAMEN, a ''poll of Chinefe Tartary:
twenty miles weft-fouth-weft of I^imgouta.
CHORASANfi or Korasan, a province of Perfia,
bounded on the north by Chnrafm and the country of
the Ulbec Tartars, on the eaft by Bukharia and Canda-
liar, on the fouth by Segeftan, and on the weft by the
province of Mezanderan and the Cafpian Sea, about one
hundred and fifty leagues in length and one hundred and
forty in breadth. The principal towns are Heret, Kenef,
Talekan, Merwa, Zaweh, See.
CHORA'ZIM, or ChoraziN, a town of Galilee, now
defolate: two1 -miles diftant from Capernaum. St. Luke.
CHORD, f. [ chorda , Lat. from vo^Joua, to roll up or
twift.] A cord ; a rope. By anatomifts it is fometimes
uled to denote the tendons and inteftines of animals. In
its primitive or fcientific application, it is written chord ;
in its common or vulgar ufe, the h is omitted.
CHORD, f. in mufic, a firing formed of dried gut; or
of wire of gold, filver, fteel, or brafs, and applied to the
conftru&ion of many different muficai infiruments, both
ancient and modern. By the vibrations of thefe chords
the fenfation of found is excited, and by their divifions
the feveral degrees of tune are determined. Chords of
gold wire in harpficliords yield a found almofl twice as
ftrong as thole of brafs j while fteel wires give a feebler
found than brafs, as being lefs heavy and lefs dudtile. —
By chord, in mufic, is alfo uuderftood the intervals which
are to accompany the bafs or fundamental note: thus we
fay, the common chord, the chord of the fixth, See. For
the Nature, Conttruftion, Inverfion, and Refolution, of
Chords, fee the article Music.
CHORD, f. in geometry, a right line, conneiting the
two extremes of an arch ; lb called from its refemblance
to the chord or firing of a bow. It has the following
properties: i. The chord is bilected by a perpendicular
drawn to it fiom the centre, z. Chords of equal arcs, in
the fame or equal circles, are themfelves equal. 3. Un¬
equal chords have to one another a lefs ratio thafi that of
their arcs. 4.. The chord of an arc is a mean proportional
between the diameter and the verfed fine of that arc. See
Geometry.
\ To CHORD, as. a. To furnilh with firings cr chords;
to firing :
What paffion cannot mufic raife and quell?
When Jubal ftruck the chorded lliell,
His lilt’ning brethren flood around. Drjden.
CHORDE'E, oi-Chorde', f [Fr. from %o<A, a cord.]
A painful contraction of the fraenum of the penis, as if
it were drawn inward with a firing. — For the caule and
cure, fee Medicine.
CHO REA, f. [from yo^oc, a chorus, which of old ac¬
companied dancing.] A convulfive motion of the mem¬
bers as if the perfon were dancing, is called chorea fan Sit
V'ttl , St. Vitus's dance; becaufe, as Horftius relates, feme
devotees of St. Vitus exercifed themfelves lo long in dan¬
cing that their inrellefts were dilbr-dered, and could only
be re ft o red by dancing again attheanniverfary of St. Vitus.
CHOREPISCOTUS, f Formerly a fuffragan or local
bilhop, holding a' middle rank between bilhops and pref-
byters, and delegated to exercife epiicopal juriidiclion
within certain diftrifts, when' the boundaries of particu¬
lar churches, over which feparate bi/hops preiided, were
confiderably enlarged. It is alfo a dignity ftill fubfifting
in fome cathedrals in Germany, iignilying the fame with
chori epifeopus, or bilhop of the choir.
CHOR'FAKAN, or Corfuican, a town of Arabia,
in the country of Oman, pillaged by the Portuguefe in
15081 fixty-four miles fouth-eafi of Julfar.
CHOR/GES, a town of France, in the department of
C H O
the Higher Alps, burned by the duke of Savoy in 169*
ten miles weft of Embrun.
CHO'RIAMBUS, f. in ancient poetry, a foot confin¬
ing of four fyllables, whereof the firft and laft are long,
and the two middle ones are fnort ; or, which is the fame
thing, it is made up of a trochseus and an iambus : fuch
is the word nobilitas.
CHO'RIN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and Ucker Mark of Brandenburg: fix miles
fouth of Neu Augermunde.
CIIO'RION, f. [from yuyta, to efcape.] The external
membrane of the foetus, fo named becaufe it always efcapes
from the womb with the child. See Anatomy of the
Gravid Uterus,, vol. i. p. 650.
CHCFRISTER, f. [from chorus, Lat.] A finger in ca¬
thedrals, ufually a finger of the lower order ; a finging
boy. A finger in a concert. This fenfe is, for the moil;
part, confined to poetry :
And let the roaring organs loudly play
The praifes of the Lord in lively notes ;
The whiles, with hollow throats,
The' chorijiers the joyous anthem fing. Spenfer.
CHOR'LEY, a market town in Lancalhire, fituated
near a rivulet called Chor, which, iffuing from feveral
fprings, runs through the town, and 'flows along the
pkiurefque and plealant valleys beneath it, communi¬
cating with the river Yarrow, after giving motion to fe¬
veral mills, engines, cotton machines. See. The Yarrow
is a larger riv.er, that enriches more than one-haif of the
extremities of this townlhip lying to the fouth-eafi, on
whole banks, and for many miles around, are bleaching
grounds and printing-works of confiderable extent. From
Chor-, and the addition of the word ley, (from leaj, Sax.
fignifying a field,) comes Chorley.. It is fituated near the
centre of the county, on the great road from London to
Glafgow and Edinburgh. It is diftant twenty-two miles
from Manchefter, ten from Prefton, and 201 from Lon¬
don. Its markets are Tueldays and Saturdays ; fairs,
March 26, May 5, Auguft. 20, and September 4; the three
former for horned cattle, and the latter for toys, final!
wares, and woollen cloths brought from York (hire. The
cotton-manufadlure in all Its branches, from the grain to
the finiflled piece, is carried .on and flourilhes here, and
in the neighbourhood for many miies round ; as likewife
the trade of bleaching and printing cottons, fuitians,
callicoes, and muffins The neighbourhood abounds in
mines of coal, can el, lead, and alum ; in beds of gravel,
land, and marl ; and in rocks of ijtone, and quarries of
flag and Hate, afhlar, and mill-ftone ; all of which are ar¬
ticles that tend to eftablifh an advantageous trade on their
new canal. — Five miles louth-eaft of Chorley . is the vil¬
lage of Rivington, noted for the peak or beacon, which
is on'a very high hill, commanding a prof'peil of vatt ex¬
tent, and which ferved in the civil wars as a watch-tower.
It ftill ferves as a land and fea mark, and as the centre
mark of Lancafhire. Here is a grammar- fchool founded
by James Pilkington, bifhop of Durham in the reign of
queen Elizabeth.
CHORO'GRAPIIER, f. [from a region, and
y%a.(pa, to deferibe.] He that deferibes' particular regions
or countries.
CHOROGRA'PHICAL, adj. Defcriptive of particular
regions and countries ; laying down the boundaries of
countries. — I have, added a cborographical deferiptien of
this terreftrial paradife. Raleigh.
CHOROGRA'PHiCALLY, adv. In a cborographical
manner; according to the rule of chorography ; in a
manner defcriptive of particular regions.
CHORO'GRAPHY, f. The art of delineating or de-
feribing fome particular country or province. This differs
from geography, as the defeription of a particular coun¬
try differs from that of the whole earth ; and from topo¬
graphy, as the defeription of a country differs from that
of a townoradiftritt. Chorography, in painting or fculp-
turea
C H O
ture, is reprefented. by a woman in a liabit of a change¬
able colour, plain and fhort ; in her right hand a mea-
i'uring-fquare, and in her left a pair of compalTes. By
flier fide a globe, with Come part of it deiigned. Her
changeable habit denotes the different taking of fitua-
tions, as the fhortnefs of it does their being taken briefly.
The ufes of the inftrument and compafle.s are obvious.
CHOROI'DES, J. [from yo^ot, the chorion, and siooc,
a likenefs.] In anatomy, the name of feveral membranes,
which on account of their many blood-veffels referable
the chorion.
CHO'ROL, a town of Ruflia, on the river of the fame
name, in the government of Kiov: 100 miles fouth-ealt
of Kipv, and 252 foutli of Peterfburg.
CHO'ROL, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Pfol,
near Goltva, in the government of Kiov.
CHOROSCIES'SOW, a'town of Poland, in the pala¬
tinate of Kiov : iixty-four miles weft-north-weft of Kiov.
CHOROS'KI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Volliynia : eighteen miles north-welt of Zytomiers.
CHGROSSO'ZA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Bieifk : twenty-eight miles north of Bielfk.
CHOR'RO MAN'CAN, a town of Chinefe Tartary.
Lat. 43. 18. N. Ion- 1 38. 36. E. Ferro.
CHO'RUS,/ [chorus, Lat.] A number of fingers ; a
concert. — The Grecian tragedy was at firft nothing but a
chorus of fingers: afterwards one adtor was introduced.
Dry dm.
In praife fo juft let every voice be join’d,
And fill the general chorus of mankind! Pope.
The perfons who are fuppofed to behold what paffes in
the adds of a tragedy, and fing their fentiments between
the adls :
For fupply,
Admit me chorus to this hiftory. Shakefpeare.
The long between the adds of a tragedy. Verfes of a fong,
in which the company join the finger.
CKOSCIABAD', a town of~ Perfia, in the province of
K irman: fifty-leven miles fouth-weft of Sirgian.
CHOSE, f. [Fr. a thing.] In the common law, it is
with divers epithets ; as cbofe local, chofe tranfitory, and
chofe in adiion. Chofe local is fuch a thing as is annexed
to a place, as a mill, and the like; and chofe tranfitory
is that thing which is moVeable, and may be taken away,
or carried from place to place -. chole in action is a thing
incorporeal, and only a right, as an annuity, obligation
for debt, & c. And generally ail caufes of fuit for any
debt, duty, or wrong, are to be accounted chofes in ac¬
tion ; and it leems chofe in addion may be alfo called
chofe in fufpence, becaufe it hath no real exiftence or being,
nor can properly be laid to he in our pofleflion. i Lil.
Abr. 264. A perfon dilfeifes me of land, or takes away
my goods ; my right or title of entry into the lands, or
adlion and fuit for it, and lo for the goods, is a chofe in
adlion-. fo a debt on an obligation, and power and right
of action to fue for the fame. 1 Brdhvnl. 33. And a con¬
dition and power of re-entry into land upon a feoffment,
gift, or grant, before the performance of the condition, is
of the nature of a chofe in adiion. Co. Lit. 214. If one have
an advowlon, when the church becomes void, the prefen-
tation is but as a chofe in aElion, and not gran table ; but
it is otherwife before the church is void. Dyeri^G. Where
a man hath a judgment againft another for money, or on
a Idatute, thefe are chofes in adlion. An annuity in fee to
a man and his heirs, is grantable over : but it has been
held, that an annuity is a chofe in adlion, and not grant-
able. 5 Rep. 89. Fitz. Grant, 45. A chofe in adlion cannot
be transferred over; nor is it defirable : nor can a chofe
in adlion be a fatisfafidion, as one bound cannot be pleaded
to be given in fatisfafdion for another; but in equity
chofes in adlion may be aflignable ; and the king’s grant of
a chofe in adlion is good. Cro. Jac. 170. Chan. Rep. 169.
Charters, where the owner of the land hath them in
pofleflion, are grantable: a poflibility of an intereft or
C H O 515
eftate in a term for years, is near to a chofe in adlion, and
therefore may not be granted: but a poflibility, joined
with an intereft, may be a grantable chattel. Co. Lit. 265.
And this the law doth provide, to avoid multiplicity of
iuits, and the fubverfion of juftice, which would follow
if thefe things were grantable from one man to another.
But by releafe chofes in adlion may be releafed and dif-
c'narged for ever; but then it mull be to parties and pri¬
vies in the eftate, See. for no ftranger may take advantage
of things in adlion ; fave oniy in Ibnle fpecial cafes. Co.
Lit. 214.
CHOSE, [the preter tenfe, and fometimes the partici¬
ple paflive, from to choofe. ]
Our fovereign here above the reft might Hand,
And here be chofe again to rule the land. Dryden »
CKO'SEN, [the participle paflive, from to choofe. ]
If king Lewis vouchfafe to furnifti us
With Tome few bands of chofcn fcldiers,
I’ll undertake to land them on our coaft. Shakefpeare.
CHOS'ROES, the name of two very diftinguiflied Per-
fian monarchs. See Persia.
CHOS'SESO, a town of Poland, in the palatinate cf
Volhynia: fixty-fonr miles eaft of Lucko.
CHOSTTARN, a town of Germany, in the circle of
of Bavaria : twenty-two miles weft-fouth-weft of Paflau.
CHO'TA, a town of the American States, in the dif-
trift of Georgia: fifty-five miles weft of Tugeloo.
CHO'TA, a town of South America, in Peru, and ju-
rifdibiion of Caxamarca : fixty miles north-weft of Caxa-
marca.
CHOTAS'TITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Czaflau : two miles north of Czaflau.
CHO'TIEBOR, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Czaflau: eight miles north- north-eaft of Teutfch-Brod.
CHOT'MIZSK, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Charkov: fifty-two miles north-north-weft of Charkov,
and 588 fouth-fouth-eaft of Peterlburg.
CHO'TOW, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Minfk : twenty-two miles fouth-weft of Minfk. .
CHOTU'SITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Czaflaw, where the king of Pruflia obtained a fignal vic¬
tory in 1742.
CHOT'ZEMITS, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Cauzim, near the Elbe. The Auftrians obtained a vic¬
tory here over the king of Pruflia, in 1757.
CHOT'ZEN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudim : three miles north- north-eaft of Hohenmaut.
CHOU-LOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Pe-tche-li: twelve miles fouth-weft of
Ching.
CHOU-TCHUEN, a town of Alia, in Corea: thirty
miles fouth of Haimen.
CHOU'ANG-LEOU, a town of China, of the third
rank in the province of Se-tchuen : ten miles fouth-weft
of Tching-tong.
CHOU'ANGTAL, a town of Tartary, in the country
of Hami : nine miles north-north-weft of Tchontori.
CHOUAN'NA-MANDARU', f See Bauhinia.
CHOU'ANS, a people of la Vendee, in France, the
cafual offspring of a renegado blackfmith of the name of
Chouan ; who, with a large family, retired to the wilds of
la Vendee, where forages they multiplied amonglf them-
felves living by plunder, theft, and every fpeefes of law-
lefs depredation; retreating with equal celerity and ad-
drefs into the ftrong holds and faftneffes of the woods, or
into caves and fiffures of the rocks on the fea fhore. Thus
they bade defiance to th,e civil officers, and eluded every
attempt to apprehend or diilodge them. They became !o
numerous, that not being able to fubfift by plunder on
fhore, they became rovers on the leas, and formed a con-
fiderable part of the French fmugglers. In this fituation,
they were found by Charette, the celebrated leader of
the royalifts in France, who perfuaded them to make
atonement
5 1 6 C H O
atonement for their paft lives, by taking up arms in fup-
port of their fovereign. They are faid to have formed
an army of , thirty thoufand men, and to have fought
fome of the molt defperate battles with the republican
army, that the hiftory of , the French revolution will have
to record. The Chouans who To lately waged an un¬
equal war again It the republicans in France, are how¬
ever faid to have their name from ohouan (for cbath.iant),
an owl, from their appearing at firft only in the night;
and the royalilts of la Vendee had owls imprefied on the
button of their uniform. See the article Charette,
p. 109, of this volume.
CHOU'CIIA, a town of Africa, in Upper Guinea, on
the river Maguiba, furrounded with rocks.
CHOUG, or Shogle, a town of Afia, in Syria, on the
Orontes, where all travellers without diftinction are en¬
tertained in an excellent caravanfera gratis for three days :
it is in the road from Aleppo and Sayd.
CHOUGH, /. in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of crow. See Corvus.
CHDU'I-CKAN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Corea: twelve miles north-weft of Hiamen.
CHOU'I-FONG, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Kiang-fi : twenty-five miles north-eaft
of Ki-ngan.
CHOU'I-KING, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Kiang-fi : fixty-five miles eaft of Kan-
cheon.
CHOU'I-NGAN, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Tche-lciang : four leagues fouth of
Ouen-tcheou.
CHOU'I-TCHANG, a town of China, of the third
rank, in the province of Tche-kiang; twelve leagues
weft-north-weit of Tchu-tcheo.
CHOU'I-TCHANG, a town of China, of the third
rank, in the province of Kiang-fi : fix leagues weft of
Kieou-kiang.
CHOU'I- TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in the province of Kiang-fi, 712 miles fouth of Pekin.
Lat. 28. 25. N. Ion. 1 32. 39. E. Ferro.
CHOU'I-YNG, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Co*
rea: twenty miles fouth-fouth-weft of Haimen.
CHOU'I-YUEN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Corea : thirty-feven miles north-eaft of Haimen.
CHOULE, f [commonly pronounced and written
Jew/.] The crop of a bird. — The cboule or crop, adhering
unto the lower fide of the bill, and fo defending by the
throat, is a bag or fachel. Bronun.
CHOULE', a town of India, on the coaft of Concan,
with a harbour for fmal! velfels, belonging to the Portu-
guefe : twenty-five miles fouth of Bombay. Lat. 18. 37.
N. Ion. 72. 46. E. Greenwich.
CHOUL'TRY, /. A kind of inn or houfe of relief in
India. Thele public buildings are found all over Hin-
dooftan, and are ufually eredled contiguous to pagodas
or temples. They are fuppofed to have been erected and
endowed by the liberality of ancient princes, or from the
benevolence and piety of rich individuals. A bramin
generally attends them, who adminilters relief to the poor
and diftrefled, who are frequently fupplied alfo with a
mat to lie on. Tanks or refervoirs of water, or wells,
are commonly near them. One of thele choultries ftands
near the fort of Madras, on a plain which takes its name
from the building; — Fora further account of choultries,
and an engraving of two of the pillars with which they
a:-e ufually decorated, fee under Architecture, vol. ii.
p l>6 and 67.
IKOUPATOU', a town of Afia, in the country of
Thibet : 235 mdes eaft of Laffa.
CHOURAGUR', a town of Hindooftan, in the coun¬
try of Gurry Mundella : fifty-feven miles fouth-weft of
Gurrah.
CHOURTONG', a town of Afia, in the country of
Thb e: : 261; miles eaft of Laftii.
To C.1OU6E, v. a. [ Hie origin of this word is much
C H R
doubted by Skinner, who tries to deduce it from the
French gofer, to laugh at; or joncber, to wheedie ; and
from the Teutonic hofen, to prattle. It is, perhaps, a for¬
tuitous and cant word, without etymology.] To cheat;
to trick ; to impofe upon :
Freedom and zeal have chous'd you o’er and o’er;
Pray give us leave to bubble you once more. Dryden ,
It has of before the thing taken away by fraud:
When geefe and pullen are feduc’d,
And fows of fucking pigs are chous'd. Hudihras.
CHOUSE, f. [from the verb. This word is derived by
Henfhaw from kiaus, or chiaus, a meflenger of the Turkifh
court ; who, lays lie, is little better than a fool.] A bub¬
ble ; a tool ; a man fit to be cheated. A trick or fham :
A fottilh choufe,
Who, when a thief has robb’d his houfe.
Applies himfelf to cunning men. Hudibras.
CHOUSGIMYAN', a town of Perfia, in the province
of Chorafan : 220 miles north-north-eaft of Herat.
CHOUYANG', a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Corea : forty miles north-eaft of King-ki-tao.
CHOUZE', a town of France, in the department of
the Indre and Loire : five leagues north-weft of Tours.
CKO' WAN, a county of the American States, inEden-
ton diftrift, North Carolina, on the north lide of Albe¬
marle Sound. It contained by the cenfus 5011 inhabi¬
tants. Chief town, Edenton.
CHO'WAN, a river of America, in North Carolina,
which fails into the north-weft corner of AlbemarleSound.
It is three miles wide.at the mouth, but narrows fall in
its afcent. It is formed five miles from the Virginia line,
by the confluence ot Meherrin, Njttaway, and Black,
rivers, which all rile in Virginia.
CHOW'DRY, f in Bengal, the pofT flbr of feveral ta-
looks. It is alfo ufed as fynonymous with talookdar, an¬
ciently a colle&or. See the article Talook.
CHOW'RY, one of the Nicobar Blands, in the Indian
Sea. Lat. 8.27. N. Ion. 92. 32. E. Greenwich.
To CHOW'TER, <v n. To grumble or mutter like a
froward child. Phillips.
CHOZEV'KA, a town of Siberia, on the riverTchiuna:
1 So miles eaft-fouth-eaft of Enifeifk.
CHRAST, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bole-
flau : fix miles fouth-eall of Melnik.
CHRAST, a town oi Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim : five miles fouth-eaft of Chrudim.
CHRE'BET CHANDAB'GA, a range of mountains
between Ruffian Tartary and Chinefe Tartary. Lat. 52. N.
Ion. 1 14. to 1 19. E. Ferro.
CHRE'BET DIR'G AK, a range of mountains between
Ruffian Fartary and Chinefe Tartary. Lat. 52. to 53. N.
Ion. 1 14. E. Ferro.
CHRES'TOIA, a town of Iftria : nine miles eaft-fouth-
eaft of Capo d’lftria.
CHRISM,/, an ointment.] Oil confe crated by
the bifliop, and ufed in the Romifh and Greek churches,
in the adminiftration of baptifm, confirmation, and ex¬
treme unririon ; and which they prepare on Holy Thurs¬
day, with great ceremony.
CHRIS'MATIS DENARII, or crimfon-pence, money
formerly paid to the diocefan, or his fuffragan, by the
parochial clergy, for the chrifm confecrated by them at
Eafter, for the ufes of the year enfuing. This cuftomary
payment being made in Lent, near Eafter, was in fome
places called qitadragefmals, and in others pafcbals and
Eafer-pence. The bifhops’ exaction of it was condemned
by pope Pius XI. for fimony and extortion ; and there¬
upon the cuftom was releafed by our Englifh bifhons.
CHRISOM', / [from chrifm.] I11 the Romifh
baptifm, a white vefture or garment, which, immediately
after the ceremony, the prieft puts upon the child, ac¬
companied with a formula 01 benedi&ion. This cere¬
mony was retained in the Englifh church, for lome time
after
C H R
after the reformation; from which cuftom, though long
fince abolillied, the children who die within a month of
their birth are itill called cbrifoms, in our London bills of
mortality.
CHRIST, [from anointed ; whence the pre-emi¬
nent term, the anointed of the Lord.~\ A name fynonymous
with the Messiah, ufually added to Jesus, ( Deliverer ;J
and, together therewith, denominating or implying that
Divine Person who was appointed to be the
Saviour of the World; becaufe the objeft of his
million upon earth was to reftore mankind to the inheri¬
tance of thole bleliings and that favour of God which
had been forfeited by Adam’s tranfgreffion. Every dif-
penfation of Providence from the fall, had been prepara¬
tory of this great event. Prophets had Jjeen railed from
time to time, to preferve, in the early ages of the world,
the knowjedge and worlhip of the true God: the children
of Abraham had been feparated from the furrounding
nations for the fame purpofe; and, by the difperlion of
the ten tribes, the captivity of the other two in Babylon,
and the tranflation of the Hebrew feriptures into the
Greek language, much of the knowledge which had been
revealed to the Ifraelites, and their expectation of a pro-
mi fed MelTiah, was gradually difrufed over the eaftern
world.
This promife of a Redeemer of Ifrael, tranfmitted
through lo many generations, was recognized by the
Jews, and anxioully expended by them at the very time it
was fulfilled; but they had grofsly miltaken the fpiritual
million of Chrilt, fondly expending a powerful and mighty
prince, who Ihould reign over them on earth, with all the
pomp of temporal greatnefs, tramplirg under foot the
enemies and oppreflors of Ifrael, and leading forth his
cbofen people amid the triumphs of conqueft, and the
fplendour of dominion. Yet the fame prophecies which
foretold the coming, had likewile marked out with lin¬
gular precision, every particular concerning the charac¬
ter, the office, and the perfon, of the Saviour. The myf-
terious union of the divine and human natures in the
perfon of Chrift, was repeatedly (hadowed out, and might
have been fairly inferred from thole very prophecies,
which predicted the meannefs, the fufferings, and the ig¬
nominious death, of the MelTiah; and which painted the
victory, the grandeur, and the fpiritual eternity, of his
heavenly kingdom. He was, nevertkelefs, deferibed as
“ defpifed and rejefted of men; a man of forrows, and
acquainted with grief; wounded for the tranfgreffions,
and bruifed for the iniquities, of his people and, laft-
ly, as “ clofing his unexampled diltrefl'es and unfpotted
life, like the fheep led forth in patient, and lubmiffive
lilence to the {laughter.”
As, in the Old Teftament, we find thefe ftriking fails
long and' early predicted ; fo, in the New Teftament, we
fee them precifely and literally fulfilled. Thus between
the Old and the New Teftament, there is the clofefc con¬
nexion. The two parts taken together conllitute the
Holy Scriptures : which being proved the authentic
writings of men, whom divine agency prevented from
miltake in the relation of fails and doilrines, become to
us the unerring rule of our faith. We Ihould have to
recite the whole of the gofpels, if we were to enter into
a minute detail of fails recorded by the evangeliits. From
fuch recapitulation we are neceflarily prevented : but we
Ihould not do juftice to the importance of the fubjeil, if
we did not direil the attention of the reader to fome par¬
ticulars. Let him obferve then, “ what Chrift teaches
concerning God the Father; concerning his own Divine
Nature; and concerning the Holy Spirit : what he teaches
concerning his own manifeftation in the flefli ; concern¬
ing good and evil fpirits; concerning a Hate of future
retribution. Let him obferve. alfo, the authority with
which he fpake ; the force and energy, the fimplicity, af-
feftion, and dignity, of his difcourles ; the beauty of his
parables, and the correfpondence of them with the fub-
jefts to be illuftrated ; and the appropriate method with
Vol. IV. No. 216.
I S T. 51 7
which our Lord raifed moral and religious inftruftions
from familiar objefts and common occurrences. Every
reader ihould obferve alfo the knowledge he poilefled of
men’s fecret thoughts; the conftant and inherent power
with which he was endowed, to work inftantaneous and
permanent miracles in the very fight of his enemies; and
with which he was enabled to foretel events, which have
been accompliflied in a manner extraordinary as it lias
been punftual and literal.” All thefe circumftances com¬
bined together, fubilantiated as they are by credible wit-
neiles, who iealed the truth of their hiftories with their
own blood, muit imprefs on every candid mind ftrong
conviction that Christ was infinitely fuperior to man,
and that his million was truly from God. Nor Ihould we
be inattentive to what may be ftyled the moral and reli¬
gious conduft of Christ upon earth. The manner in
which the facred writers have deferibed the actions of
Chrift, not only increafes the efficacy of his inftruftions,
but conftitutes a new, a ftriking, and peculiar fpecies of
evidence, for the truth of his dofttines. Indeed, the ex¬
emplary life and exalted charafter of Jefus Chrift, affords
to human beings the molt perfeft model of piety, humi¬
lity, and virtue, of morality and benevolence ; the true
pattern of every thing that is good or excellent on earth.
In patience and long-iuffering, he betrayed neither pufil-
lanimity nor fpleen. He was firm without obftinacy, and
humble without meannefs. In the general tenor of his
life he was mild and gentle ; the promoter of peace among
men, and the ftrifteft obferver of it in his own behaviour.
Yet when great and urgent cccafions called for a different
deportment, he difpiayed a noblenefs of mind, a con¬
tempt of danger and death, fuch as the importance of his
million required from him, and fuch as confcious recti¬
tude could alone infpire. Thefe virtues of Chrift, whe¬
ther we confider them as too fublime to excite lentiments
of prefumptuous emulation, or too rational not to jullify
our endeavours to imitate them, will, in no age and no
country, lofe either their ufefulnefs, their beauty, or then-
merit. They are certainly in various refpefts practicable
under every form of government, whether free or defpo-
tic; under every modification of manners, not abfolutely
barbarous ; and in every Hate of knowledge, whether it
be imperfeft or improved. In the loweft condition of the
world, they will tend to leflen the miferies and diforders
to which the unfearchable providence of God has f'ub-
jefted our fpecies; they will increafe the Hock of cur
happinels, and exalt our nature to the higheft perfection,
when accompanied . by every ailiftance which realon, which
philolophy, which civilization, can bellow, in forming the
moral or the religious cha rafter of man.
The firll public appearance of Chrift was in the higheft:
degree unpopular, and oppofed to all the prejudices and
all the pride of his countrymen. Inllead of alluring them
by the profpeft of temporal importance and dominion,
to which their expeftations had been direfted, he pro¬
claimed the commencement of a fpiritual and invifibie
kingdom, little calculated to fatisfy their worldly deiires,
or gratify their ambition. Inllead of erefting his victo¬
rious ftandard as the champion of Ifrael, as their mighty
deliverer from the oppreffion of every earthly foe, lie of¬
fered them a redemption, more beneficial, indeed, though
lefs attraftive to the fenfual mind; a redemption from the
dreadful tyranny of fin, and from thofe effefts of divine
difpleafure, which, after temporal death, await habitual
and unrepenting finners. Had intereft or ambition been
the guide of his aftions, he would certainly have alfumed
that charafter, to which the warmeft hopes and the molt
rooted prepofieflion of the Jews univerfally inclined. He
would not have oppofed alike the pride of princes, and the
fuperftition of the people; he would have either courted
popularity, or gralped at dominion ; he, at leaft, would
not have taken every meafufe that had a natural tendency
to alarm tlie jealouly of the magiftrate, and to provoke the
dilplealure of the multitude. As ambition had no Ihare
in his claims, as his kingdom was neither formed on the
C CL policy*
518 C H R
policy, Hor fupported by the power, of the world, he
fought not its favour, nor flirunk from its difpleafure.
Indead of labouring to increafe the number of his follow¬
ers by an infinuating flexibility in his own manners, or
by a corrupt compliance with their prejudices, he gave
ofFence by the unaffe&ed plainnefs of the one, and by an
undifguiled oppofition to the other. He difdained to con¬
ciliate the affeCtions of any clafs of men, however digni¬
fied by their ftation, or formidable for their power, by
any bafe or dilhonourable concefiions. Thus did he aCt to
thofe, whom felf-ccnceit and Ipiritual pride made blind
to their own vices: but to the meek and contrite iuch
■was his condefcenfion, that when we compare his gentle-
nefs, mildnefs, and compaflion, with the aufterity of the
teachers among whom he lived, we are ftruck with admi¬
ration at his amiable and adorable benevolence. The two
great feCts into which the Jewifn church was divided, car¬
ried away the bulk of the people ; and though the molt
implacable hatred exiited between the leaders of the two
fedts, both of them cordially united in oppofing the gof-
pel ; and each of them were reproved with equal firmnefs
and feverity, by Jefus Chrilt. His dodtrine was in direCt
oppofition to the tenets of both ; and his example involved
a conftant reprehenfion of their practices. He refilled with
equal fuccefs the haughty fcepticifm of the Sadducee, and
the abjedl luperftition of the Pharifee. Againll the one
he maintained the dodtrine of a future life ; and, in the
prefence of the other, he expatiated on the folly of pre¬
ferring ceremonial obfervances to moral and humane du¬
ties of charity and neceflity ; and of attending rather to
traditional and corrupted dodtrines, than to the written
and pure laws of God. If computed by the palfovers at
which lie attended, the minillry of Chrilt was continued
for three years; during the whole of which “ he went
about doing good.” At the expiration of that period he
was violently feized and unjultly accufed by the Jewilh
rulers, who prevailed on Pilate the Roman governor to
crucify him. In this procedure it is Angular to obferve,
how by the very means in which they gratified their own
refentment, they were adtually inftrumental in accomplilh-
ing the great $nd of his million, and in eftabliflring his
veracity as a true prophet. For, he came to die in atone¬
ment for mankind, himfelf being innocent and free from
all fin; and he had predicted the manner by which he
fhould die, and the chief circumltances which fliould at¬
tend his death. The itate of humiliation to which he
appeared reduced, occafioned in his difciples delertion
and dilbelief. Eut an event, better attefted than any re¬
corded in hiltory, very foon happened, which forced on
their minds fuch itrong convidtion of our Lord’s divinity,
that neither dangers nor torments could ever afterwards
weaken their faith, or prevail on them to deny a fadt,
which from their own fenfes and perfonal knowledge they
were infallibly allured to be true. On the third day from
his death, Christ rofe from the dead : and his relurrec-
tion was made an objeCt of evident notoriety, by his con¬
tinuing with his difciples forty days. He was then taken
upjinto heaven, in the fight of his difciples : and the
effect of his afcenfion was made vilible on the day of pen-
tecoft, i. e. about fifty days after his death. For, the
apoftles were then enabled to fpeak foreign languages,
which they never did or could have learnt; and in confe-
quence of this fupernatural power, St. Peter converted no
lefs than three thoufand perlons in one day. The liiccefs
of the gofptl, during the Ihort life-time of Chrilt, under
ib many contentions, and the violent oppofition of jarring
interefts, is truly altonilhing ; but its more rapid and ex-
tenfive propagation after his death, is a circumltance that
excites Hill higher admiration. Deftitute of all human
advantages, protedted by no earthly authority, afiilted by
no human art, behold twelve men, poor, and artlefs, and
illiterate, in the very heart of Jerulalem, triumphing over
the rulers, who had been the authors of their I, id’s
death ; and in diftant provinces of heatbenifm lurmount-
ing the fiercelt and molt determined tyranny of the ma-
C H R
giftrate, and the fubtleties of the philofopher; over the-
prejudices of the Gentile, and the bigotry of- the Jew.
They efcablilhed a religion, which held forth high and re¬
vealed truths, fuch as the pridC of man would induce him
not readily to admit, becaufe he could not perfectly com¬
prehend them ; which preached dodtrines pure and fpiri-
tual, fuch as corrupt nature was prone to oppofe, becaufe
it Ihrunk from the feverity of their difcipline ; which re¬
quired its followers to renounce almoft every opinion they
had embraced as facred, and every interell they had pur-
fued as important; which even expofed them to every
fpecies of danger and infamy; to perfecution unmerited
and unpitied ; to the gloom of a prifon, and to the pangs
of death. Hopelefs as this profpedt might appear to the
view of Ihoit-fighted man, the gofpel yet emerged from
the obfcurity in which it was likely to be overwhelmed
by the complicated diftreffes of its friends, and the unre¬
lenting cruelty of its foes. It fucceeded in a peculiar de¬
gree, and in a peculiar manner ; it derived all its fuccefs,
and all its progrefs, from the force of truth ; and ob¬
tained it under circumltances, where falfehood mult have
been detected, expofed, and crulhed. For a connected
view of the dodtrine and miracles of Chrilt, fee the article
TnF.oi.OGy. .
CHRIST’s-THORN,/. in botany. See Rhamnus Pa-
LIUR US.
CHRIST'BURG, a town of Pruflla, in the territory of
Colm : twelve miles fouth-ealt of Marienburg.
CHRIST'BURG, or Alt Christburg, a town of
Pruflla, in the territory of Oberland : four miles fouth-
welt of Preufchmark.
CHRIST'CHURCH, a borough town in Hamplhire,
fituated at the conflux of the Avon and Stour; hence it
was anciently called Thunambourn. It had its prelent
name from a collegiate church built here in the time of
the Welt-Saxons, and firlt called Trinity, but afterwards
Chriltchurch. This church, though in a itate of decay*
■ftill furnifhes the antiquarian with many remains of Saxon
architecture : and even its prefent appearance abundantly
convinces us, that originally it muft have been a very fine
building. In the afcent to the altar, there is an effedt pror
duced by an elevation of many Iteps, which gives much
grandeur. The Hailing of the old chapel is Itill entire ;
and curious for its workmanlhip and monkilh grotelque
figures. It is 101 miles from London, about three miles
from the fea, twelve from Poole, and twelve from Lyming-
ton. The market is 011 Mondays. It has two fairs, one
on Thurl’day in Trinity week, and the other on the 17111
of Odtober. The corporation conlifts of a mayor, a re¬
corder, alderman, bailiffs, and a common council. The
town is pleafantly fituated; and the contrail between the
agitation of the lea and the ftillnefs of this adjacent place,
is ltriking to the contemplative traveller. There are fome
ruins of an ancient caftle. If the Avon were cleared, the
town might have confiderable trade in articles of coals
and timber. Attached to the church, and, without doubt,
originating from the monaftic inffitution, is a free-gram-
mar-fchool, for twenty-four boys. There is in the town a
manufactory which employs a number of boys and girls
in making watch-chains. It is famous for a fine falmon-
fifnery, and is thought the firlt place in England for knit-
lilk ftockings. By the liberal fubfcription of leveral gentle¬
men here is a Sunday- fchool for 500 boys and girls.
CHRIST'CHURCH, a townfhip of the American States,
in Charleftown diftriCt, South Carolina, containing 2954.
inhabitants.
To CHRIS'TEN, <v. n. [clijiiptnian, Sax.] To baptize;
to initiate into Chriftianity by water. To name; to de¬
nominate.-^ — Where fuch evils as thefe reign, chrijien the
tiring what you will, it can be no better than a mock
millennium. Burnet. ,
CHRI3'TEND0M,yi The collective body of Chriftia¬
nity; the regions of which the inhabitants profe/s the
Ch riftian religion. — His computation is uni verfally received
over all cbrjiendom. Holder.
a CHRISTENING,
C H R
C H R
\
CHRIS'TENING,/. The cetemonyof thefirft initiation
into Chriftianity. See Baptism. — The day of the chriften-
ing being come, the honfe was filled with gofiips. Arbulh.
CHRIS' I I AN,/ f CbriJIianus, Lat.] A profeffor of the
religion of Chrift. — We CbriJUans have certainly the beft
and the holieft, the wife!! and moft reafonable, religion in
the world. Tillotfo?i . — The name of Chriftian, was firlt given
at Antioch, in the year 42, to fuch as believed in Chrift,
as we read in the Afts : till that time they were called
difciples.
CHRIS'TIAN, adj. Profefiing the religion of Chrift:
I’ll not be made a foft and dull-ey’d fool,
To (hake the head, relent, and figh, and yield
To Chriftian intercefibrs. Shakefpeare.
Moft Chriftian King, was one of the titles of the late kings
of France. The French antiquaries trace the origin of
this appellation up to Gregory the Great, who, writing a
letter to Charles Martel, occafionally gave him that title,
which his fucceifors afterwards retained.
CHR.IS'TJAN-NAME,/ The name given at the font,
diftinft from the gentilitious name, or furname.
CHRISTIA'NA, a poft-town of the American States,
in Newcafile county, Delaware, fituated on a navigable
creek of its name, twelve miles from Elkton, nine fouth-
weft of Wilmington, and thirty-feven fouth-weft of Phi¬
ladelphia. The" town ftands on a declivity, which com¬
mands a pleafant prolpeft of the country towards the De¬
laware. It carries on a brilk trade with Philadelphia in
flour. It was built by the Swedes in 1640, and thus called
after their queen Chriftina.
CHRISTIA'NA RA'DIN. See Astragalus. _
CIIRISTIA'NIA, a city and feaport of Norway', in the
government of Agerhuus, fituated in a bay or gulf, about
twenty-five miles from the fea. It is elteemed the capital
of the kingdom, becauie the lupreme court of judicature
is held here. It is divided into three parts, the city and
fuburbs, the fortrefs of Agerhuus, and the old town of
Opfio, or Anflo : the city and luburbsoontain xioohoufes,
and Opfio 400 ; the number of inhabitants is eftimated at
9000. Opfio w’as burnt in 1624, and the city, on being
rebuilt, obtained the name of Chriftiania. It is the fee of
a bifliop, who is metropolitan of Norway. It has an ex¬
cellent harbour ; the principal exports are, tar, foap, iron,
copper, planks, and deals. The environs of Chriftiania
not yielding planks fufiicient for exportation, the greateft
part of the timber is brought from the more inland parts;
The trees are hewn in the forefts, and floated down the
rivers and cata rafts. Saw-mills are ufed for the purpofe
of cutting the planks; but muft be privileged, and can
only cut a certain quantity. The proprietors are bound
to declare on oath, that they have not exceeded that
quantity; and if they do, the privilege is taken away,
and the faw-mill deltroyed. There are 136 privileged
faw-mills at Chriftiania, of which 100 belong to the fa¬
mily of the Ankers. The quantity of planks permitted
to be cut, amounts to 20,000,000 ftandard deals, twelve
feet long, and one inch and a quarter thick. Lat. 59. 55.
N. Ion. 10.50. E. Ferro.
CHRIS'TIANISM, /. \chriftianiftnv.s, Lat.] The Chrif¬
tian religion. The nations profelling Chriftianity.
CHRISTIA'NITY, /. [from chriftiaiiitas, Latin, of
Greek.] A true belief in, and fervent practice
of, the doftrines and precepts of Chrift; a diipenfation
calculated to raife the dignity of human nature, and pro¬
mote the happinefs of mankind. This happinefs is the
natural refult of Chriftianity, by the exercile of love and
gratitude towards God, and refignation to his providence,
by humanity, integrity, and good will towards men ; and
by the due government of our appetites and pafiions.
Social happinefs again proceeds from the'members of lo-
ciety entertaining a diiinterefted regard for the public
welfare; being actively induftrious each in his proper
fphere of exertion, and being ltriftly juft and faithful, and
generoufly benevolent in their mutual intercourfe. The
5*9
tenor of the gofpel inculcates thefe virtues; it feems
everywhere, through the whole of the Chriftian code, to
have been the great defign of its divine Author to infpire
mankind with mild, benevolent, and peaceful, difpofi-
tions, and to form them to courteous manners. Chrifti¬
anity again reprefents the Deity and his attributes in the
faireft light ; even fo as to render our ideas of his nature,
and the manner in which he exerts his power, confident
with the moft correft principles, of morality.
The ritual obfervances which Chriftianity enjoins, are
few in number, eafy to perform, decent, expreflive, and
edifying. This ritual inculcates no duties but what are
founded on the principles of human nature, and On the
relation in which men ftand to God, their Creator, Re¬
deemer, and Sanctifier ; and it prefcribes accurate rules
for the regulation of Jheir conduft. The afliftance of the
Spirit of God is promil'ed in this facred volume to thofe
who aflidftoufiy labour to difcharge the duties which it
enjoins ; and it exhibits a ftriking example of fpotlefs
purity, which we may fafely venture to imitate. The
gofpel teaches that worldly affliftions are incident to both
good and bad men ; a doftrine highly conducive to vir¬
tue, which confoles us in diltrefs, prevents defpair, and
encourages us to perfilt firmly in our integrity under every
difficulty and trial. Chriftianity reprelents all men as
children of the fame God, and heirs of the fame falvation,
and levels all dillinftions of countries and dates, of rich
and poor, as infignificant in the fight of Him, who, with¬
out refpeft of perfons, rewards or punifhes with impartial
juftice, according to the merits or demerits of his crea¬
tures. This doftrine is highly favourable to virtue, as it
tends to humble the proud, and to communicate dignity
of fentiment to the lowly ; to render princes and inferior
magiftrates moderate and juft, gentle and condefcending,
to their inferiqrs. The Chriftian difpenfhtion, to pre¬
vent a perleverance in immorality, oilers pardon for the
paft, provided the offender forfak.es his vicious practices,
with a firm refolution to aft; virtuoully in future. The
fanftions of the gofpel have a natural tendency to exalt
the mind above the paltry purfuits of this world, and to
render the Chriftian incorruptible by wealth, honours, or
pleafures. The true Chriftian not only abftains from
injuftice towards others, but even forgives thofe injuries
which he himfelf fuffers, knowing that he cannot other-
wife hope for forgivenefs from God. Such are the pre¬
cepts, fuch the fpirit, and fuch the general tendency, of
the gofpel. Even thofe who refufed to give credit to its
doftrines and hiftory, have yet acknowledged the excel¬
lence of its precepts ; and allowed that the gofpel of
Chrift is one continued leftbn of the ftrifteft morality, of
juftice, benevolence, truth, and univerfal charity.
The miraculous propagation and final eftabli’ihment of
Chriftianity, the triumphs it has obtained over obftacles
the moft formidable, and the efFefts it has pfoduced
among!! mankind, are viable indications of the hand of
Providence, by which, it has been fupported and fuftained.
Nor is it lefs deferving of our furprife and altoniftiment,
that the enmity of the Jews, the chofen people of the co¬
venant, fhould be fo long and fo obftinately perfifted in,
again!! the doftrines of Chrift, under pretence that they
abrogate the original law, and render null the word of
God contained in the Old Teftament. But this aflertion
is wholly unfounded, fince it is eafy to fhew, even from
the words of Chrift, a perfeft coincidence between the
Old Teftament and the New, in all the fundamental points
of the Chriftian religion. It will here be fufficient to ob-
ferve, that the gofpel in no refpeft runs counter to tire
law, fo as to render the one inconfiftent with the other.
Each was brought forward in its natural order, and each
is interwoven with the other in the moft perfect agree¬
ment. The ceremonial law, though vacated by the gof¬
pel, yet was not abolifhed till its own purpofes were fujjy
anfwered : but the moral duties of the law are enforced
by the gofpel with additional fanftions, and illuftrated
with additional evidence. Its doftrines are confirmed,
and
CHRISTIANITY.
520
and explained in their full latitude; what was obfcure
is made clear ; and what was foretold has been accom-
plilhed. Hence it is plain there is no inconfiltency be¬
tween the two difp.enfations. They coalefce with each
other, as parts of the- tame tyitem ; and, with an exact
conformity to all the defigns of Providence, in the na¬
tural and the moral world, the more obfcure and partial
are preparatory to the more perfeft and illultrious. The
purity of the gofpel is indeed additional evidence of the
word of God, and of the origin whence the holy fcrip-
tures proceeded : it is an evidence ever prefent, ever le¬
gible ; and which no diltance, whether of time or place,
can efface. That purity is fuch, as we thould naturally
expeft from the fentiments which uncorrupted nature
leads us to form of the Divine Being. If he had not al¬
ready vouchfafed to grant us a revelation of his will, with
refpeft to our duty both to him and to one another; yet,
if we had reafon to expe6l that he would grant it, the
cleared dictates of our judgment, and the nobleft fenti¬
ments of our heart, would lead us to anticipate the fame
diijday of benevolence on the part of God, and the fame
encouragements to virtue among men, which are now
■difplayed in the gofpel of Chriil. Here every declaration
of fin and duty, every promife to engage us to purfue
the one, and every ferious threat to deter us from the
other, are brought forward with a precifion and fimpli-
.city, which leave no room either for the perverfe to cavil,
or the impartial to miflake. There is no vice which it
does not detedl, even within the darkell receffes of the
mind. There is no duty, connected with the glory of
God, the welfare of our neighbour, or the true happinefs
of ourfelves, but what it unfolds and illuftrates. Its pre¬
cepts are not only clear in their mode of delivery, and
beneficial in their tendency; but they are enforced by
every motive that is calculated to affe£l the heart, and to
exalt and purify its affections. The promife of forgive-
nefs and companion through Chrift, and of help and l'uc-
cour through the divine {pint, are of the molt foothing
and comforting nature to beings encompaffed with diffi¬
culties of various kinds; and expofed to moral weakneffes
and tranlgreffions, which are degrading to our nature,
and deftruCtive of our happinefs. But to infpire us with
the full foul of virtue and religion, it carries our afpiring
minds beyond the contracted views of this mortal fcene,
to that exalted world of harmony and love, where peril
and diftrefs are neither felt nor known.
The blelfed effects of Chrillianity, in humanizing and
improving the intellectual faculties. of man, are univer-
dally acknowledged. No event which hiltory has re¬
corded, or philofophy inveftigated, has been attended
with fo extenfive and aufpicious a change in private and
public life ; in the government of nations, and in the
manners of individuals; in the fentiments of the higher
ranks, and the habits of the lower; in the cultivation of
every polite attainment which adorns the mind, and the
yet greater improvement of every profound fcience which
invigorates and enlarges it. The progreffion of know¬
ledge has been conftant in every country where the gof-
pel has been received; the fpirit of enquiry has, in every
age, communicated itfelf to furrounding nations ; and
while our proficiency is fuch as to jultify our claim of
difcoveries, to many of which former generations never
reached, and to others of which they never afpired, we
have the confolation to refleCt, that a wide and unex¬
plored field Hill lies open for the mod unwearied endea¬
vours and the brighteil talents : that our own fucceis has
indeed been fo rapid as to animate their emulation, and
yet that our progrefs is hitherto fo imperfeCI, as to faci¬
litate, not to preclude, their molt vigorous exertions. In
a word, from this eventful period, the fpirit of fcience
lias been li aliening towards perfection. In every coun¬
try where Chrillianity has flouriffied, the fuperior accom-
plilhments of human nature havC been encouraged and
acquired. And when we review mankind as inhabitants
of the fame globe, and mark the revolutions by which as
men, or as nations, they are diftinguilhed, the character
of Chriftian may be determined by the fuperior degree of
intelligence which accompanies and adorns it.
If we confult the hiftory of the heathen nations, we
{hall be aftoniffied at .the innumerable vices and abomi¬
nable practices, which Chrillianity has been the happy
means of extirpating from among them. In Parthia,
where polygamy prevailed, they are not polygamifts ; in
Perlia, they do not marry their own daughters; in BaCtria
and Gaul, they do not violate the marriage bed ; nor do
they, wherefoever they refide, yield to the influence of
corrupt laws and wicked culloms, familiar to others. By
the laws of Zoroafter, the Perfians committed incell until
they embraced the gofpel ; after which period they ab-
ftained from that crime, and obferved that temperance
and chaftity enjoined by its precepts. This people ex¬
pofed the bodies of the decealed-to be devoured by birds
or beads of prey ; but abdained from this cudom, and
decently interred them, after it was promulgated.
Eufebius has furnilhed a catalogue of abominable cuf-
toms, fome of which have been aboliffied by the gofpel ;
and proves its profeffors to be free from feveral crimes,
not even condemned in the pagan world. Chrillianity
was ufeful not only in its pofitive precepts, and the ge¬
nius which it infpired, but alfo in delivering men from
detedable practices, perfeClly repugnant to the feelings of
Chridians. This learned writer adures us, that profelytes
to Chridianity no longer married their own mothers in
Perfia ; nor in Scythia did they as ufual eat human fieih,
and facrifice their children, prompted by fuperftitibn.
The Madiigatte ufed to facrifice their relations, and eat
their flelh, when worn out with age ; the Tibareni were
wont to fling them down precipices; the Hyrcani and
Cafpians expofed them to be devoured by birds and dogs.
Thefe and fuch like cruel and inhuman culloms prevailed,
not only among barbarous nations, but even among the
Greeks, who were polilhed and refined. In Salamis a
man was facrificed to the daughter of Cecrops ; and ano¬
ther at Chios was cruelly torn to pieces and facrificed to
Bacchus ; three were daily {acrificed to Juno ; and a man
was dragged thrice round the altar in Diomede’s temple,
{truck by the priefl with a fpear, and facrificed to Dio¬
mede. The Greeks, in general, before they w-ent out to
war, facrificed a human victim ; Ariilomenes facrificed
three hundred together to Jove on that occafion ; the
Celtse and Carthaginians ufed human facrifices; and Italy
was faid to have been vilited by calamities, becaule the
tenth part of rhe men were not facrificed to the gods. In
Laodicea a virgin was (lain in honour of the Syrian Pallas;
in Lefbos they facrificed to Bacchus; in Phocis to Diana;
and the Taurofcytha; offered up, at the ffirine of the fame
goddefs, as many as were driven on their coafts by winds
or waves. It is unneceffary to multiply inltances of cru¬
elty among pagan nations, fince ancient hiltory abounds
with them. It is admitted that human victims ceafed in
fome of thofe places before Chrift’s appearance, and that
animal facrifices were fubllituted in their room; but
thefe, and other abominable cultoms, were not exploded
in many countries, until they had embraced the gofpel
of Chriil.
The Romans, though a polifhed people, were cruel and
blood-thirlly before the promulgation of the gofpel, and
its ellabiilhment in the empire. The breaking of a glafs,
or fome fuch trifling offence, was fufficient to provoke
Vidius Pollio to caff his flaves into fifh-ponds, to be de¬
voured by lampreys. The effufion of human blood was
their frequent entertainment ; fome of their fellow-crea¬
tures w’ere fet to fight with bealls, others to be devoured
by them, and fome to fight againft each other. Liplius
affures us, that no wars ever made fuch havock on man¬
kind, as thofe games of pleafure, which fometimes de¬
prived Europe of twenty thoufand lives in one month.
From the deteftable practice of killing perfons at the fu¬
nerals of great men, arofe another cuftom equally cruel
and {hocking to humanity, the fights of gladiators. The
Romans,
CHRIST
.Romans, as if affiamed of luiihah facrifices, trained up
perfons to engage in voluntary combat, and to fight uri-
til they killed each other at the tombs of the deceafed.
This was the origin of thofe bloody fliows afterwards fo
delightful to the people of Rome : thefe were the amufe-
ments with which the principal magiftrates of Rome,
and afterwards the eiripefors, entertained the citizens,
and by which they acquired popularity among the people
of that city. Julius Casfar prel'ented three hundred and
twenty pair of gladiators; even the worthy Titus exhi¬
bited a ffiow of gladiators; and Trajan, though not cruel
in other refpeCls, furnifned another difplay, where one
thoufand pair of gladiators were exhibited on a theatre,
for the entertainment of the fpe&ators. In all thofe l'pec-
tacles, every pair of combatants was matched and pitted
againft each other, and obliged to maim and murder, in
cold blood, thofe who never had offended them. The
paflion for thefe bloody encounters role to fuch a height,
that fenators and knights turned gladiators; and even
women engaged in them under Nero and Domitian.
Chriftian divines foon exercifed their pens againft thefe
practices; Conftantine the Great reltrained them by edicts,
and the emperor Honorius entirely aboliflied them.
The following inftances may evince the utility of Chrif-
tianity in banilhing idolatry and barbarous practices from
fome countries, even where it did not immediately pro¬
duce virtue, among converts to the gofpel. The Gauls
and ancient Saxons employed various abi'urd methods of
difcovering whether perfons fufpe&ed of any crime were
innocent or guilty. Sometimes the perfon accufed was
obliged to engage in Angle combat, to prove his inno¬
cence ; and both prieft and people prayed in filence, du¬
ring the combat, that the innocent might be victorious.
Sometimes he was fotced to the fhoeking alternative of
grafping red-hot iron, or of acknowledging himfelf guil¬
ty; fometimes to walk blind-folded and bare-footed over
red-hot ploughfhares, placed at certain diltances ; and
fometimes, to thrult his arm into boiling water. In all
thefe cafes, he was judged innocent-or guilty, according
to the effe&s which thefe trials produced. In fome in¬
ftances, a perfon was flung into the river with a rope
about his arms; if he ftaid at the bottom, until he was
drawn up, he was looked on as innocent ; but if he
floated, he was confidered as criminal. Thefe four forts
of ordeal, a remain of heathen i'uperliition, lafted fora
confiderable time after the introduction of Chriftianity,
but were aboliflied by a decree of pope Stephen II. as
impious and unjuft, and frequently expofing the innocent
to tnanifeft hazard. It is generally admitted, that the
Irifti were extremely fierce and barbarous before the time
of St. Patrick, and that their ferocity was aftonifliingly
abated after that primitive Chriftian preached the golpel
among them. St. Jerome tells us, that the Scots adopted
Plato’s community of wives, and had their appetites no
better regulated than thofe of beads. That the Atticotti,
a people of Britain, ate human flelh. Whether the Atticotti
were a people of Scotland or not, let antiquarians deter¬
mine; out objeCt is only to prove, that lome nations of
Britain were extremely barbarous before the Chriftian
code, that foftener of manners, was publiflied among them.
Gildas the Wife affirms, that the Britons, before they were
civilized by the gofpel, were rude, barbarous, and impure
in their manners, facrificed human victims, and that their
idols were more numerous than the idols of Egypt. Collier
is of opinion, that the inhabitants of Britain were ex¬
tremely cruel before the introduction of Chriftianity, and
he founds his opinion on the following faCts. In Gaul,
Before that period, the druids managed the facrifices, in¬
terpreted omens, and directed all matters relative to their
fuperftitions. In times of public diftrefs they offered ani¬
mal faciifices, and in cafe of ficknefs or other calamity
which befel individuals, they required human victims to
appeafe their deities. Their idol figures were hollow and
capacious, beingformed by wicker fticks fo interwoven as to
hold together, and fo fhaped as to reprefeat the monftrous
Vol. IV. No. zi6.
I A N I T Y. 521
form of a gigantic man. In them tliey placed wretched
vi&irns, and burned them to death. They generally facri¬
ficed thieves, robbers, or other criminals ; but when they
were not fupplied with a fufficient number of thefe, they
facrifieed the innocent. Casfar gives this account of the
Gallic druids, and acquaints us, that thefe borrowed their
fuperftitions from thofe of Britain; whence the ecclefiafti-
cal hiftorian fairly concludes, that the Britons were as fu-
perftitious in their worlhip, and as barbarous in their man¬
ners, as the Gauls ; and ftrengthens his conclusion by the
authority of Tacitus, who affirms, that' in the ifle of An-
glefea druids ufed to facrifice prifoners taken in war, and
put perfons of both fexes to death, for the purpofe of in-
fpeCting their entrails, and prying into futurity. This
rough people were foftened in their manners, and human
facrifices were exploded in Great Britain, Gaul, and other
places, by the promulgation of a code, whole fpirit is lo
adverfe to cruelty and bloodlhed.
As a demonftrative proof that the greateft empires of
the world were to have a connection with the advance¬
ment of tiue religion under the difpenfation of Chfift, we.'
need only appeal to the teftimony of the ancient predic¬
tions. Enlightened with the bright vifions of futurity, the
prophet Ifaiah calls by name on the conqueror of Affy-
ria, and the reftorer of Ifrael, two centuries previous to
his birth. To the eye of Daniel the fucceffive monarchies
of Perfia, of Macedon, and of Rome, were reprefented
by the moft exaCt difplay of emblematical imagery. The
different periods of the Jewiffi liiftory, when the Almighty
raifed up the nations as the inftruments of his vengeance
or his mercy, will fliew by what various modes they com¬
bined to execute, the divine decrees. Sometimes the
daughter of Babylon mocked the forrows of her captives,
whole negleCt of Jehovah had been the caufe of their
chains; fometimes, when only humbled by their cala¬
mity, their conqueror permitted them to regain the feat:
of their fathers, and to reftore the glories of the fallen
temple.
From the ruins of preceding ftates, arofe the ftupen-
dous and auguft fabric of the Roman empire. Though
long agitated by the ftorm of contending factions, it
furvived every ffiock of domeftic tumult, and gradually
extended its "dominion over the inoft populous arid war¬
like regions of the world. The nations of Europe, of
Afia, and of Africa, which at prefent compole formida¬
ble kingdoms, were enrolled in the regiftcr of her tribu¬
tary provinces, and Rome became the metropolis of a
vaft empire. On the advancement of Auguftus to the
imperial throne, the violence of inteftine diforders was ex-
tinguilhed, and the various parts of the empire enjoyed a
degree of repofe unknown to former ages. The love of
conqueft, which had for feven fucceffive centuries prompted
the Romans to carry their arms into every country which
acknowledged not their power, fubfided into fudden and
lading peace; and the difpofition of the fir ft emperor to
mark out the boundaries of dominion, and to filence the
clamour of arms, produced a ftrong and aftonilhing con¬
trail to the fierce and ambitious temper of their ariceftors.
In the tendency of ail thefe circumftances to fome mag¬
nificent event, we may clearly difcern the directing hand
of the Creator of the univerle. To his difpofal alone, can
properly be attributed that long and complex concate¬
nation of affairs which led the Romans by regular fteps
to the fummit of dominion. The conflict of their paf-
fions, the various refolutions of their government, the
ingenuity of the wife, and the ambition of the valiant,
co-operated for one tranfcendent purpofe. It was ulti¬
mately for this end, that the legifiators remedied the po¬
litical evils which threatened the deftruCtion of the Roman
(late, and laid the firm foundations of general order. Fcr
this her heroes fought with unparalleled advantage, and
victory was ever ready to lead her armies to triumph.
For this Scipio gloried in the fall of Carthage, Pompey
returned with the fpoils of Mithridates, and Casfar bore
his triumphant eagle from the plains of Egypt to thc-
6 R fliorts
S22 CHRIST
Shores of Britain. All their great atchievements, and all
their fplendid events, the boldnefs of their enterprifes,
and the frequency of their I'uccel's, uniformly pointed to
tire fulnefs of time when the Son of God was to be made
manifeft, and were fo wifely regulated as to prepare the
way for the more eafy progreis, and more ready reception,
of the Chriftian religion.
A late writer, however, Mr. Gibbon, whofe elegance of
ftyle Seems to have conferred a very alarming popularity
on the lieentioufnefs of his opinions, has affigned the re¬
ception of Chriftianity to five accidental caules ; each of
which he has reprefented, as in reality unconnected with
any divine interpolition. Firit, “ the inflexible and in¬
tolerant zeal of the firit Chriltians, derived from the Jews,
but purified from that unfocinl fpirit, which had deterred
the Gentiles from embracing the law of Moles.” Now
zeal, which is at once intolerant, and purified from any
unfocial fpirit, is a quality which we leave to the ad¬
mirers of this writer to conceive and explain. But we
deny the raft, that any kind or any degree of intolerance
exilted among the primitive Chriltians; and as to their
zeal, we maintain that it did not bear the flighted: fimili-
tude to the fiercenefs and bigotry of the Jews. It was
derived from very different caufes, and aimed at far no¬
bler ends. It was not the narrow and temporal interefts
of one nation, but the general reformation, and the Spi-
ritual happinefs of the whole world, which the teachers
of Chriftianity were anxious to promote. That firmnefs,
which may be mifconitrued into intolerance, and that
activity, which we are content to call by the name of
zeal, had, in the ufual courfe of human affairs, a ten¬
dency to retard, rather than to facilitate, the propagation
of the gofpel. The Chriftian, inftead of falling into the
fafliionable and popular intercommunity of worlhip, dis¬
dained, amidlt the terrors of impending death, to throw
incenfe on the altar of Jupiter ; he boldly pronounced the
whole fyftem of pagan mythology impofture, and charged
the whole ritual of its external devotions with groveling
fuperftition and profane idolatry.
A fecond caul'e he finds “ in the doctrine of a future
life.” Such a doctrine, doubtlefs, is congenial to the na¬
ture of man, as an accountable and moral agent; it is
repeatedly infilled upon in the-goSpel, and mult ultimate¬
ly, and in a favourable ftate of things, have increafed its
efficacy.. But the future life taught by the apoftles, had
few recommendations in the fight of the heathen world.
It was oft'enfive to the Epicureans by the punifhments it
threatened; it was not attractive to the vulgar by the
very rewards which it propofed. The pride of the phi-
lofbpher was fhocked by the doftrine of a reSurreftion,
the mode of which he was unable to comprehend; the
imaginations of other men were feebly imprefled by the
reprefentation of a future ftate, which did not hold out
the Serene Iky, the verdant garden, and the luxurious en¬
joyments, of an elyfium.
A third caufe he finds in “the miraculous powers
afcribed to the primitive church ;” and then proceeds, in
a ltyle of the molt bitter derilion, to inlinuate that thefe
powers were never pofl’efl'ed. Now, the hardieft adverSa-
ries of the gofpel, a Porphyry, a Celfus, and a Julian, do
not deny the exiftence of thofe miracles; and Chriftianity
has little to fear from the improbable caufes to which thele
writers impute them. It is, however, worthy of remark,
that when Chriftianity was publiihed, a general prejudice
in the people, and a very Severe fpirit of SuSpicion in the
government, prevailed againlt the belief of miracles.
They were ftigmatized by the opprobrious appellation cf
magic; and Augultus, it is well known, had publifhed
very rigorous edifts againft the whole race of prasftigia-
tors. The peculiar difficulties which obltrufted the re¬
ception of Chriftian miracles, have been explained, with
great acutenefs of reafoning, and equal depth of erudi¬
tion, by a modern writer, Mr. Wefton, whofe remarks
defeat, indeed, the fallacies, but feem to have efcaped the
notice, of Mr. Gibbon. The Sum of his arguments are,
I A N I T Y,
in his own' words, as follows : “ The multitude of popular
gods admitted amongft the heathens, did, by neceflary
confequence, occafion Such a multitude of pretended mi¬
racles, that they infenfibly loft their force, and funk in
their efteem. Though the philofophers in general, and
men of reading and contemplation, could not but dis¬
cover the groflhefs and abfurdity of the civil religion ;
yet this could have little effeft on the vulgar, or them-
fielves ; not on the vulgar, becaule it was the bulinefs of
the wiieft and molt politic heads zealoufly to fupport and
encourage them in their practices ; not on themfelves,
becaufe, if they delpifed their gods, they muft defpife their
miracles too.” Now, under thefe circumftances, miracles
afcribed to the firft propagators of Chriftianity, muft have
created an immediate and ftubborn prejudice againft their
caufe; and nothing could have Subdued that prejudice,
but miracles really and vilibly performed.
A fourth caufe is, “ the virtues of the firft Chriltians,”
which are themfelves reduced to a mean and timid re¬
pentance for former fins, and to an impetuous zeal in
Supporting the reputation of the Seft newly embraced.
But, furely, in the eyes of the haughty and jealous Ro¬
mans, fuch repentance and fuch zeal muft have equally
excited oppofition to Chriftianity. The firft would have
provoked contempt among perfons of their lingular lelf-
fufficiency ; and the other would haveawakened the jea-
lou fy of the magiftrate. True it is, that the Chriltians
had virtues of a nobler kind. It is alfo true, that thole
virtues did ultimately triumph over the fcorn and malice
of their foes ; and it is true, that a religion producing
fuch eft’efts on its followers, and deriving SucceSs from
fuch means, carries with it a prefumptive proof, of which
impofture never could boaft.
The laft Secondary caufe mentioned by this writer, is,
“ the union and difcipline of the Chriftian church.” We
acknowledge the force of union in fecuring the order, and
enlarging the interefts, of every fociety ; and we heartily
wilh that fuch union could be found among the propaga¬
tors of the gofpel. But the diftraftions and internal di-
vilions of the different Chriftian lefts, prelent a very con¬
trary profpeft. And if the gofpel Succeeded, not only
amidlt the furious aflaults of its enemies, but the no lets
violent contentions of its friends, we muft look for its fiic¬
cefs in fome more efficient caufe, than in fuch as this his¬
torian has aftigned. In the mean time, it may be well to
guard the young and unwary Chriftian againft the danger¬
ous influence of fuch difingenuous and infidious endea¬
vours to undermine the belt evidence of revealed religion,
and the truths of the gofpel ; not by cogent or irrefiitible
arguments, indeed, founded on faft and experience, but
merely by the infmuating arts of f'ophiftry, and the cap¬
tivating graces of fine language.
Now, whatever allowances a philanthropic mind may
make for the ignorance and fuperftition of the vulgar, the
fame indulgence can Scarcely be infilled upon in behalf
of educated and enlightened men, who, enamoured of
the fubtleties of human wifdom, and bewildered in the
mazes of an abfurd and unintelligible philofophy, are un¬
willing to believe that the plainnel's and limplicity of the
gofpel, could ever be worthy an omnifcient God. Yet
how many fuch men happily and timely, in the hour
of death, have contradifted all their wild and extravagant
ideas, recalled their bold and unavailing charges againft
the doftrines of Chriftianity, and have died, firm in the
faith, and comforted in the belief, of a happy immor¬
tality l
Realon informs us, that the prefent is a probationary
ftate of difcipline ; and, in conformity to fuch a ftate, re¬
ligion adapts all her doftrines to faith, all her encourage¬
ments to hope, and all her regulations to praftice. Chris¬
tianity, holding up to us the profpeft of our future exiifo
ence, bids 11s now prepare for it by virtuous habits of
thought and aftion ; and true philofophy will inform us,
that thofe habits, in a great fcheme of moral government,
are neither recommended by the Creator, nor acquired
C H R
by the creature, in vain. We are therefore to believe,
that a real, an intimate, and moil important, connexion,
fubliits- between the prefent life and that which is to fol¬
low it ; though it iurpaffes our abilities to explain, and
perhaps to comprehend, the particular powers witn which
we {hall be inverted, and the particular agency in which
we are to be employed. Chrillianity may then be excufed
for not gratifying our curiofity on fubjefls, to which our
apprehenfions are now utterly inadequate ; and even were
they more adequate, it would deierve our praile for in¬
forming us of what is true, that we are deftined for im¬
mortality 3, and for inftrufting us in what is moft impor¬
tant, the duties by which we are to gain it. Such is the
effeft of Chrillianity with regard to its dofitrine of a judg¬
ment to come. And as to the happinefs which is to fuc-
ceed that judgment, as a fure reward for good and vir¬
tuous aftions upon earth, it Hill holds out the fame plain
and unequivocal language. When, therefore, the actions
of every day, and every hour, have this ultimate connec¬
tion with our eternal doom, is it not to be expected that
religion fhould have a forcible and conftant influence
over our lives i That influence, it mult be confeffed, is
often counteracted by our infirmities, our prepoffeffions,
and our headilrong appetites. Yet Chrillianity far fur-
pafles every other religion in its viiible tendency to make
us better men, and in its real effeCts upon the fentiments
and the manners of mankind. Every initance of improve¬
ment refulting from Chrillianity, in government, in laws,
and in erudition, may be confidered as a prefumptive ar¬
gument of its efficacy in matters purely of a religious na¬
ture : the fame commands and the fame fanCtions, which
have quickened the efforts of men in (ecuring their Spiri¬
tual well-being, have been indireCtly the inltruments of
increafing their temporal. The lame expectation of a
righteous judgment which makes us good men, tends at
the fame time to make us ufeful and ornamental members
of l'ociety. The lame elevation of mind which actuated
the bofom of a being, who reveres himlelf as the heir of
immortal life, infpires every noble fentiment, and ani¬
mates to every virtuous and exemplary undertaking,
which can adorn and dignify human nature in this pro¬
bationary (late of mortality. For a full and connected
view of Chriftian revelation, and the various doCtrines
and religious tenets that are and have been propagated
through the world, fee the article Theology.
To CHRISTIANIZE, <v.a To make Chriftians ; to
convert into Chriltianity. — The principles of Platonic
philofophy, as it is now cbriJUanized. Dryden.
CHRIS'TIANLY, adv. Like a Chriftian; as becomes
one who profefies the holy religion of Chrift.
CHRIS'TIANSAND, a feaport town of Norway, in
the government of Agerhuus, oppofite the illand of Flec-
keren. Lat. 58. 10. N. Ion. 8. 14. E. Greenwich.
CHRIS'TIANSBURG, a fortrefs of Africa, on the Gold
Coaft, belonging to Denmark. It was taken b/the negroes
in 1693, who pillaged it, and kept it for fome time.
CHRIS'TIANSBURG, a town ofjthe American States,
in Montgomery county, Virginia. It has a court-houfe
and jail, lituated near a branch of Little River, a water of
the Kanhaway.
CHRIS' TIANSOE, a fortrefs of Denmark, built on a
rock, on the ealt coaft of the illand of Bornholm.
CHRIS'TIANSTAD, a town of the illand of Santa
Cruz, in the Weft Indies, defended by a fortrefs, on the
north-coaft. Lat, 17.46. N. Ion. 63, 23. W. Greenwich^
CHRIS'TIANSTADT, a town of Sweden, in the coun¬
try of Blekingen : built by Chriftian IV. king of Den¬
mark, when the country was in the power of that crown,
to guard againft the eruption of the Swedes ; but, in 1658,
it was reltored to Sweden by the treaty of Rofchild ; the
town is final!, but well built, and llrongly fortified; the
houles are all of brick, and moltly Ituccoed white. It
Hands in a fnarlhy plain, dole to the l iver Helge-a, which
flows into the Baltic at Ahus, about the diilance of twenty
miles, and is navigable only for fmall craft of feven tons
1
C H R '523
burden. Englilh veffels annually refort to this port 'for
alum, pitch, and tar. The inhabitants have manufac¬
tures of cloth and filken (luffs. Fift-y-feven miles welt of
Carlfcrona. Lat. 55. 58. N. Ion. 14. 6. E. Greenwich.
CHRISTIANS FADT, a town of Silelia, on the weft
fide of the Bober : thirty-two miles welt of Glogau, and
fifty-four north-ealt of Drelden.
CHRIS'TIGNETH, a river of Wales, which runs int®
the Dee, in Denbighlhire.
CHRISTI'NA, an illuftrious queen of Sweden. See
Sweden.
CHRIS'TINESTADT, a feaport town of Sweden, in
the province of Ealt Bothnia, built in the year 1649,
CHRISTIS'CA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate, of
Braclaw : forty-four miles fouth-fouth-weft of Bra claw.
CHRIST'MAS-BOX,/ A box in which it has for many
ages been a cultom to colled little prefents at Chriftmas :
When time comes round, a Chriji mas-box they bear.
And one day makes them rich lor all the year. Gay.
CHRIST'MAS-DAY, f. A feftival of the Chriftian
church; obferved on the 25th of December, in memory
of the nativity or birth of Jefus Chrift. As to the anti¬
quity of this feftival, the firlt footfteps we find of it are in
the lecond century, about the time of the emperor Corn-
modus. The decretal epiftles, indeed, carry it up a little
higher; and fay that Telefphorus, who lived in the reign
of Antonius Pius, ordered divine fervice to be celebrated,,
and an angelical hymn to be lung, the night before the
nativity of our Saviour. However, that it was kept be¬
fore the times of Conllantine, we have a melancholy
proof 5 for, whilft the perlecution raged under Diocle-
fian, who then kept his court at Nicomedia, that prince,
among other adts of cruelty, finding multitudes ol Chrif¬
tians affembled together to celebrate Chrift’s nativity,
commanded the church-doors where they were met to be
Unit, and fire to be put to it, which, in a Ihort time, re¬
duced them and the church to allies.
CHRIST'M AS-FLOWER, /. Hellebore.
CHRIST'M AS -HARBOUR, a good and fafe bay, on
the north-eaft coaft of Kerguelen’s Land. Lat. 48. 41. S.
Ion. 69. 4. E. Greenwich.
CHRIST 'MAS-ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, lies en¬
tirely folitary, nearly equally diftant from the Sandwich
iflands on the north, and the Marquefas on the fouth. It
was fo named by captain Cook, on account of his firlt
landing there on Cliriftmas-day. Not a drop of freih
water was found by digging. A Ihip touching at this
defolate ille mult expert nothing but turtle, fifli, and a few
birds. It is about fifteen or twenty leagues in circum¬
ference, and bounded by a reef of coral rocks, on the well
fide of which there is a bank of fine land, extending a mils
into the fea, and affording good anchorage, Lat. s. 39. M.
Ion. 202. 30. E. Greenwich.
CHRIST'MAS-ROSE, or Flower. See HelleboruSo
CHRIST'MAS-SOUND, a bay on the fouth. coaft of
Terra del Fuego. Lat. 55. 22. S. Ion. 73. W. Greenwich.
CHRIS'TOFHER, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Sandomire : fixteen miles fouth-fouth- of Sandomirz.
CHRISTOPHER, [Xfiropo^c^ol X«iro?,Chrilt, and
to bear; Chrilt’s carrier.] A proper name of men.
CHRISTOPHORIA'NA, or Herb Christopher, f.
in botany. See Actzea, Adonis, and Aralia.
CHRIS'TORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflau : fix miles fouth-fouth-eaft of Krottau.
CHRO'BERG, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Sandomirz: fifty two miles welt of Sandomirz.
CHRO'MA, a river of Siberia, which runs into the
Frozen Sea. Lat 73. N. Ion. 17. E. Ferro.
CHROMATIC, adj. colour.] Relating to co¬
lour. — I am now come to the third part of painting, which
is called the chromatic, or colouring. Dryden. — Relating
to a certain lpecies of ancient mulic. — It was obferved,
he never touched his lyre in fucli a truly chromatic and
enharmonic manner. Arbutbnat. — See the article Music.
CHROMATICS,
CHROMATICS.
SH
CHROMA'TICS, or Chromatography, f. [from
colour, and ygpttyu, to defcribe.] The fcience
which in vefti gates the natural colour of bodies ; and,
when applied to light, cohftitutes a principal branch of
optics. Before the time of lir Ifaac Newton, philofophers
were formerly of opinion, that the folar light was Ample and
uniform, without any difference or variety in its parts,
and that the different colours of objects were made by re-
fiadtion, reflection, orfliadows. But Newton taught them
the errors of their former opinions; he fhewed them to
difleCt a Angle ray of light with the minutelt precifion,
and demonltrated that every ray was itfelf a compofition
of leveral rays all of different colours, each of which when
feparate held to its own nature, Ample and unchanged by
every experiment that could be tried upon it. Or to be
more particular, light is not all fimilar and homogeneal,
but compounded of heterogeneal and diflimilar rays, fome
of which in like instances being more refrangible, and
others lefs refrangible, and thole which are molt refran¬
gible are alfo molt inflexible ; and according as they
differ in refrangibility and reflexibility, they are endowed
with the power of producing or of exciting in us fenfa-
tions of different colours.
Sir lAiac Newton's theory of light and colours is link¬
ing and beautiful in itfelf, and deduced from clear and
deciflve experiments, and may be almolt faid to demon-
ftrafe clearly, i. That lights Which differ in colour, differ
alfo in degrees of refrangibility. That the light of the
fun, notwithffanding its uniform appearance, conflits of
rays differently refrangible. 3. That thofe rays which are
more refrangible than others, are alfo more reflexible.
4. That as the rays of light differ in degrees of refrangi-
bilitity and reflexibility, fo they alfo differ in their difpo-
iition to exhibit this or that particular colour; and that
colours are not qualiflcations of light derived from re¬
fractions or reflections of natural bodies, as was generally
believed, but original and connate properties, which are
different in different rays, fome rays being difpofed to
exhibit a red colour and no other, and fome a green and
no other, and fo of the reft of the prifmatic colours. 5.
That the light of the fun coniifts of violet-making, indi¬
go-making blue-making, green-making, yellow-making,
orage-making, and red-making, rays; and all of thele
are different in their degrees of refrangibility and reflexi¬
bility ; for the rays which produce red colours are the
leaft refrangible, and thofe that make the violet the moll;
and the reft are more or lefs refrangible as they approach
either of thele extremes, in the order already mentioned ;
that is, orange is leaft refrangible next to red, yellow next
to orange, and fo on ; fo that, to the lame degree of re¬
frangibility, there ever belongs the fame colour, and to
the fame colour the fame degree of refrangibility. 6.
Every homogeneal ray, confldered apart, is refraCted ac¬
cording to one and the fame ruie, fo that its Ane of inci¬
dence is to its Ane of refraCiion in a given ratio; that is,
every different coloured ray has a different ratio belong¬
ing to it. 7. The fpecies of colour, and degree of refran¬
gibility and reflexibility, proper to any particular fort of
rays, is not mutable by reflection or refraction from natu¬
ral bodies, nor by any other caufe that has been yet ob~
ierved. When any one kind of ray has been feparated
from thofe of other kinds, it has obltinately retained its
colours, notwithftanding all endeavours to bring about
a change. 8. Yet teeming tranfmutation of colours may
be made, where there is any mixture of divers forts of
rays; for, in luch mixtures, the component colours ap¬
pear not, but, by their mutually alloying each other, con-
ftitute an intermediate colour. 9. There are, therefore,
two iorts of colour, the one original and Ample, the other
compounded of thefe ; and all the colours in the univerfe
are either the colours of homogeneal, Ample light, or
compounded of thele mixed together in certain propor¬
tions. The colours of Ample light are, as we obferved
before, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red, together with an indefinite variety of intermediate
gradations. The colours of compounded light are dif¬
ferently compounded of thefe Ample rays, mixed in vari-
rious proportions : thus a mixture of yellow-making and
blue- making rays exhibits a green colour, and a mixture
of red and yellow makes an orange; and in any colour
the fame in fpscie with the primary ones may be pro¬
duced by tire compofition of the two colours next ad¬
jacent in the feries of colours generated by the prilm,
whereof the one is next molt refrangible, and the other
next leaft refrangible. But this is not the cafe with thole
which are Atuated at too great a diftance ; orange and
indigo do not produce the intermediate green, nor lcarlet
and green the intermediate yellow. 10. The molt fur-
p riling and wonderful compofition of light, is that of
whitenefs ; there is no one fort of rays which can alope
exhibit that colour: it is ever compounded, and to its
compofition all the aforefaid primary colours are requi-
Ate. 11. As whitenefs is produced by a copious refledfion
of rays of all forts of colours, when there is a due pro¬
portion in the mixture ; fo, on the contrary, blackneis is
produced by a fuffocation and abforption of the incident
light, which being ftopped and fupprefled in the black
body, is not refledted outward, but refledted and refradted
within the body till it be ftifted and loft.
The foundation of a rational theory being thus laid, it
next became natural to enquire by what peculiar me-
chanifm in the ftrudture of each particular body, it was
fitted to refledt one kind of rays more than another. This
fir Ifaac Newton attributes to the denfity of thele bodies.
This lubjedt, however, is not fo clear as the preceding;
for the prelent theory fuggefts many doubts to every in-
quifitive mind, and is allowed by all to be attended with
difficulties. There are no optical experiments, however,
in which fir Ifaac Newton leems to have taken more pains,
than thofe relating to the rings of colours which appear
in thin plates, and which we now propofe to explain. In
all his obfervations and inveftigations concerning them,
he dilcovers the greateft fagacity, both as a philofopher
and a mathematician. ,
The bubbles which children blow with a mixture of
loap and water, were oblerved by Dr. Hooke to exhibit
various colours according to their thinnefs, and that when
they have a conliderable degree of tliicknefs they appear
colourlefs ; from this the prefent theory has taken its rife.
It is thus that things overlooked by the reft of mankind,
are often the moll fertile in fuggelting hints to thofe who
are habituated to refledtion.
Sir Ifaac Newton blew up a large bubble from a ftrong
mixture of foap and water, and let himfelf attentively to
confider the different changes of colour it underwent, from
its enlargement to its diffolution. He in general per¬
ceived that the thinner the plate of water which com-
pofed the fides of the bubble, the more it reflected the
violet-colour ray ; and that in proportion as the fides of
the bubble were more thick and denfe, the more they re¬
fledted the red ; he, therefore, was induced to believe, that
the colours of all bodies proceeded from the tbicknels and
denfity of the little tranfparent plates of which they are
compoled. To bring this opinion nearer to certainty, it
was neceffary to mealure the tliicknefs of the plate of water
which compofed the bubble ; but this was a matter of
great difficulty, as the bubble was of itfelf of too tran-
lient a nature to undergo the neceffary experiments.
Our philofopher, ever fertile in expedients, recolledled
having oblerved, that as two prifms were comprefl'ed hard
together, in order to make their fides (which happened to
be a little convex) touch one another, they were both as
perfedtly tranfparent in the place of Contadf as if they had
been but one piece of glafs ; but that round the point of
contadl, where the gtafles were a little feparated from each
other, rings of different colours appeared.
To obferve more accurately the order of the colours
produced in this manner, he placed a glafs lens, whofe
convexity was very fm'all, upon a plain glafs. New it is
evident, that thole would only touch at one particular
point ; and, therefore, at all other places between the ad¬
jacent furfaces, a thin plate of air was interpofed, whole
thicknels
CHROMATICS.
thicknefs increased in a certain ratio, according to the dis¬
tance from the point of contaCl.
He preifed thefe glaffes (lowly together, by which means
the colours very loon emerged, and appeared diftmCt to a
conliderable diilance; next to the pellucid central fpot
made by the contact of the glades, Succeeded blue, yel¬
low, white, yellow, and red. The blue was very little in
quantity, nor could he difcern any violet in it; but the
yellow and red were very copious, extending about as
far as the white, and four or live times as far as the blue.
The next circuit immediately lurrounding thefe confided
of violet, blue, greerj, yellow, and- red ; all thefe were
very copious, except the green, which was very little in
quantity, and feemed more faint and dilute than the other
Colours. The third circle of colours was purple, blue,
gieen, yellow, and red; in this the purple was more red-
dilh than the violet in the former circuit, and the green
was more confpicuous, being as bright and copious as any
of the other colours, except the yellow; the red was alio
fomewhat faded. The fourth circle confided of green and
red ; the green was copious and lively, inclining on one
fide to blue, on the other to yellow, but there was neither
violet, blue, nor yellow ; and the red was very imperfeCf.
Rach outer circuit, or ring, was more obfcure than thole
within, like the circular waves upon a didurbed (heet of
water, till they at lad ended in perfeft whitenefs.
As the colours were thus found to vary according to the
diderent diitances of the glafs-plates from each other, fir
Il'aac judged that they proceeded from the different thick¬
nefs of the plate of air, intercepted between the glades ;
and that this plate was, by the mere circumdance of thin-
nefs or thicknefs, difpofed to refleCl or tranfmit this or that
particular colour 5 from whence he concluded, as before
obferved, that the colours of all natural bodies depended
on their component particles. He alfo conliruCled a ta¬
ble, wherein the thicknefs of a plate, neceffary to refieft
any particular colour, was expreffed in parts of an inch,
divided into i,oeo,ooo parts.
It has been already obferved, that the thin plates, made
ufe of in the different experiments, reflected fome kinds
of rays in particular parts, and tranlmitted others in the
fame parts. Hence the coloured rings appeared varioufly
difpofed, according as they were viewed by reflected or
traufmitted light ; that is, according as the plates were
or were not held up between the eye and the window.
That we may underltand this better, the following table
has been formed. On one fide are mentioned the colours
appearing on the plates by reflected light, and on the
other thofe which are perceptible when the glades are
held betweeen the eye and the window. The centre,
when the -glaffes are in full contaCt, is perfectly tranlpa-
rent; this ipot, therefore, when viewed by reflected light,
appears black, becaufe it tranfmits all the rays ; and for
the lame reai'on it appears white, when viewed by tranl¬
mitted light.
Colours by Reflect’d Light*
Colours by Tranfmitted Light
Black
White .
Blue
Yellowiflr-red
White
Black
Yellow
Violet
RVd
Blue
Violet
White
Blue
Yellow
Green
Red
Yellow
Violet
Red
Blue
Purple
Green
Blue
Yellow
Green ~i
Yellow >
Red
Red 3
Blueilh- gre^i
Green
Red
Red
Blueilh-green
Greenifli-blue
Red
VOL. IV. No, 216.
Red
525
In comparing the rings produced by tranlmitted with
thofe produced by reflected light, the white is found op-
pofed to the black, the red to the blue, the yellow to the
violet, and the green to a colour compofed of red and
violet; in other words, the parts of the glal's, which when
looked at are white, appear black on looking through the
glafs ; and, on the contrary, thofe which appear black in
the firlt inftance, appear white in the lecond ; and fo of
the other colours. Newton has (hewn, that the rays of any
particular colour are difpofed to be refle&ed, when the
thicknefies of the plate of air are as the numbers 1,3, 5,
7, 9, 11, &c. and that the fame rays are difpofed to be
tranlmitted at the intermediate thicknefies, which are as
the numbers o, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, & c.
The places of reflection or tranfmiflion of the feveral
colours in a l'eries, are fo near each other, that the colours
dilute each other by mixture ; whence the number of ie«
ries, in the open day-light, feldom exceeds feven or eight.
But if the fyflem be viewed through a prifm, by which
means the rings of various colours are i'eparated, accord¬
ing to their refrangibility, they may be feen on that fide
towards which the refraftion is made, fo numerous that
it is impoflible to count them. Or, if in a dark chamber
the fun’s light be feparated into its original rays, by 3
prifm, and a ray of one uncompounded colour be received
upon the two glaffes, the number of circles will become
very numerous, and both the refleCled and tranfmit ted
light will remain of the fame colour as the original inci¬
dent ray. This experiment fifiews, that in any feri.es, the
circles formed by the lefs refrangible rays exceed, in mag¬
nitude, thofe which are formed by the more refrangible j
and, confequently, that, in any feries, the more refran¬
gible rays are reflected at lefs thicknefies than thofe which
are lefs refrangible.
If we apply water to the edges of the glafs, it will be
attracted between them ; and, filling all the intercedent
lpace, it will become a thin plate of the fame dnnenfions
as that which before was conllituted of air ; in this cafe,
the circular rings grow lefs, and the colours fainter, but
not varied in lpecies. They become contracted in dia¬
meter, nearly in proportion of 7 to 8, and confequently,
the intervals of the glaffes, at fimilar circles, as caufed by
thefe two mediums, are as about 3 to 4; that is, as the
iines of refraction out of water into air.
We have already fpoken of the variety of colours pro¬
duced by bubbles blown in foap-water; but, as thefe co¬
lours are commonly too much agitated by the external
air to admit of any certain obfervation, it is neceflary to
cover the bubble with a clear glafs, in which fituation
the following appearances take place: the colours emerge
from the top of the bubble, and as it grows thinner, by
the fubfidence of the water, they dilate into rings parallel
to the horizon, which defcend (lowly, and vanilh luccel-
fively, at the bottom. This emergence continues till the
water at the upper end of the bubble becomes too thin
to refleCt the light, at which time a circle of an intenfe
biacknefs appears at the top, which (lowly dilates, fome-
times to three quarters of an inch in breadth, before the
bubble breaks. Reckoning front the black central (pot,
the reflected colours are the fame, in fucceflion and qua¬
lity, as thofe produced by the afore-mentioned plate of
air 3 and the appearance of the bubble, it viewed by. trans¬
mitted light, is fimilar to that of the plate of air, in like
circumftances.
If we take very thin plates of talc, or Mufcovy glafs,
that exhibit tlieie colours ; then, by wetting the. plates*
the colours remain as before, bur become more faint and
languid, efpecially when wetted on the under fide. So
that the thicknefs of any plate, requilite to produce any
colour, feems to depend only on the denfity of the plate,
and not on the denfity of the inclofing medium. But ths
colours are more vivid, as their denfities are different.
If two pieces of plate-glafs, or even common glafs, be
previoully wiped, and then rubbed together, they will
loon adhere, with a confiderable degree of force, and ex¬
hibit various ranges of colours, much broader than thole
6 § obtained
C HR O M ATI C S.
526
obtained by lenfes. One of tlie mod remarkable circum-
Itances attending this method of making the experiment.
Is the facility with which the colours may be removed, or
even made to difappear, by heats too low to feparate the
glaffes. A touch of the finger immediately caufes the ir¬
regular rings of colours to contract towards their center,
in the part touched.
Thefe experiments render it evident, that the colours
of bodies depend, in fome degree, upon the thicknefs and
denfity of the particles that compofe them. Hence, if the
denlity, or fize of the/particles, in the furface of a body,
be changed, the colour is likewife changed. When the
thickneis of the particles of a body is fuch, that one fort
of light, or one fort of colour, is refledfed ; another light,
or other colours, will be tranfmitted; and therefore the
body will appear of the firlt colour.
' There is a certain determinate thicknefs which fecms
to be neceflary in a plate of water, for example, in order
to refledl a particular colour, \and a different thicknefs to
make it reflect any other colour; and in general, that
a lefs thicknefs is neceflary, to reflect the moil refrangi¬
ble rays, as violet and indigo, than thofe which are lead
refrangible, as the red and orange-coloured rays. The
particles of bodies reflect rays of one colour, and tra-nf-
mit thofe of another ; and this is the ground of all their
colours.
Sir Ifaac Newton, in order to account for the intervals
of the coloured rings in thefe thin plates, and alfo all
other cafes of the refledtion or tranfmiflion of light, ad¬
vances an hypothecs; but, like a wife and cautipus phi-
lofopher, he profeffes not to lay much ftrefs upon it,
though he feems not to entertain any fufpicion of its
being fallacious. Indeed, it feems to be a kind of fair
inference from the experiments we have been defcribing.
The hypothecs is this : that every ray of light is, at its
fir ft emiffion from the luminous body, put into a tranfient
ftate or conftitution, which, in its progrefs, returns at
* equal intervals, difpofmg it, at every return, to be eafity
tranfmitted into any refradting furface it may meet with ;
whereas in the intervals between thefe returns, it is dif-
pofed to be eafily reflected ; fo that, upon the arrival of a
number of rays of light at the furface of every medium,
thofe of them in which they were difpofed to be tranf-
mitted eaiily, would pafs the -interval between the two
mediums ; and thofe which were in a contrary ftate, would
be refledfed; on which account, fome light is generally
reflected, and fome tranfmitted, at every different furface
on which it falls. Thofe ftates, into which the rays of
light are put, he calls fits of eafy refledtion and tranf-
miftion. This hypothefis, however, is not without diffi¬
culties, and mult, therefore, be received with caution, as
it was propofed, till it (hall be either confirmed or con¬
futed by experiment, and a new theory fubftituted in its
Head. When we are brought, as it were, to the cbnfines
of material nature, -we mult expedt to meet with fome
confuliou and darknefs in our explanations. There are
barriers to our knowledge, which cannot be paffed by any
force of human faculties. Sir Ifaac Newton, the legifla-
tor of philofophers, exprefled, under the form of conjec¬
tures or queftions, thofe things which he was unable fa-
tisf'adtorily to refolve; avoiding rafh affertions, which are
fo fondly taken up by thofe who wifli to gain a momen¬
tary reputation.
Newton conjedtured, that thefe fits of eafy refledtion
and tninfmiffion may be occafioned by the vibrations of
a fubtil fluid, in which the ray paiTes ; any ray being dif¬
pofed to be tranfmitted when the vibration coincides with
it, and to be refledted when it is thereby counteradted.
He alfo thought that thefe vibrations might be excited
by the mutual adtion and re-adfion of the light in bodies,
and of this medium, at the inftant of refradtion and re-
fiedlion. He therefore fuppofed two caufes of this difpo-
fition to be refledted or tranfmitted, when rays of light
arrive at any new furface. One of them is the regular
vibration of the etherial medium, affediing them through
the whole of their progrefs from the luminous body ; and
the other the tremulous motion, or irregular vibration of
the fame medium, at the furfaces of bodies, occafioned
by the adlion and re-adfion between thofe bodies and
light. Thus, as ftones, by falling into water, put the
water into an undulating motion ; and all bodies, by per-
cufllon, excite vibrations in the air; fo the rayjsof light,
by impinging on any refradling or refledting furface, ex¬
cite vibrations in the refradling or reflecting medium, and,
by exciting thefe, agitate the lblid parts of the refradting-
or refledfing body ; and that the vibrations tivus excited
in this fubtil refracting or refledfing medium are propa¬
gated much after the manner that .vibrations are propa¬
gated in the air, caufing found, and moving falter than
the rays, 1b as to overtake them ; and that when any ray
is in that part of the vibration which confpires with its
motion, it eafily breaks through a refradling furface ; but
when it is in the contrary part of the vibration which
impedes its motion, it is eafily reflected. ; and, by confe-
quence, that every ray is fucceffively difpofed to be eafily
refledted, or eafily tranfmitted by every vibration by which
it is overtaken.
It has already been ftated, that the colours of natural
bodies confift in a difpofition to refledt one fort of rays
more copioufly than another; and that other bodies are
of a different colour, becaufe they refledl rays of a differ¬
ent kind. So that if light confided only of one kind of
rays, there could be only one colour in the world; nor
would it be pofiible, by refradfions and refledtions, to
produce a new one. Thus, in fome bodies, all the rays
are extinguilhed but the red-making; and when they are
refledfed to our eyes, they excite in us the idea of red ;
and thence we fay, that fuch a piece of cloth, &c. is red 5
attributing that only to the cloth or wood, which more
particularly arifes from the light which dreffes them in
their various beaut}'-. Thus the ruby abforbs the green,
the blue, and the violet; but reflects the red-making rays
to our eye, with all their prifmatic luftre. The amethyft
imbibes the ftronger rays, and gives back the violet with
milder brightnefs. The j'onquil gives us only yellow,
and the hyacinth its vivid blue. Every coloured objedt
may be thus regarded as a partial divider of the rays, fe-
parating one or more colours, and confounding ail the
others. Thofe furfaces of tranfparent bodies, which have
the greateft refradling power, refledl the greateft quantity
of light. In other words, bodies, by which the light is
more refracted, do likewife more ltrongly refledl it. Dia¬
monds, which refradt the light very ftrongly, give it, in
proportion, a ftronger refledtion: and hence proceed the
vivacity of their colours, and their lparkling etfedl.
We fhail perceive the analogy between refradtion and
refledtion; by confide-ring that the moll refradtive medium
totally refiedts the fays of light, at certain degrees of in¬
cidence. But the truth of the propofition further appears,
by obferving the tranfparent bodies, fuch as air, water,
oil, glafs. Ifland cryftal, white tranfparent arfenic, and
diamond, have a ltronger or weaker refledtion, according
to the greater or lefs refradtive powers of the mediums
that are contiguous to them. Thus at the confine of air
and fal gem, it is ftronger than at the confine of air and
water; and ltill ftronger between common air and glafs ;
Hill more fo between air and a diamond. If any of thefe
be immerfed in water, its refledtion becomes weaker than
before ; and it is weaker (till, if it be immerfed in liquors
of a greater refradtive power. If water be divided into
two parts, by any imaginary furface, there is no reflection
at the confine of thole two parts ; and for the fame reafor,
there can be no fenlible refledtion in the confine of the
two glalfes of equal denlity. The reafon, therefore, why
all pellucid mediums have no fenlible refledtion but at
their external furfaces, where they are contiguous to me¬
diums of different denfities, is, that their contiguous parts
have precifely the lame degree of denfity.
The leaft parts of all bodies, though feemingly void .off
tranfparency, when viewed in tli£ grols, will be found, if
taken
CHROMATICS, 527
-fakes fepar&tely, to tie, In fome tfleafure, tranfparent : and
the opacity arilcs from the multitude of reflections caufed
in their internal parts. This obfervation will be ealily
granted by thofe who have been converlant with micro-
fcopes ; for there they are found to be, for the moll part,
tranfparent. Nothing feems more opake, and free from
tranfparency, than the clothes we wear. Yet let us only
examine one of the woollen hairs that enter into its com-
pofition, with a microfcope, and we (hall find it to be
nearly tranfparent. Gold in the mafs lets no light pals
through it l but if beaten out extremely thin, we (hall
then fee that its parts are tranfparent, like other bodies.
If held over a hole, in a darkened window, it will appear
of a greenifli hue. If gold be compofed of tranfparent
parts, we may furely conclude the fame of other bodies ;
and, indeed, very few are to be found, in which, if re¬
duced to fufficient thinuefs, and applied to a hole through
which the fun’s rays pafs, a degree of tranfparency is not
inanifelt.
It now becomes Receffary, fmce light finds a free paf-
fage through the leafl particles, to inquire what tenders
them Opake ; and this, by fir Ifaac Newton, is attributed
to the multitude of reflection's and refractions which take
place in its interior parts; there being, between the parts
of opake or coloured bodies, a number of fpaces, filled
with mediums of a different denfity from that of the body,
as water between the tinging corpufcles with which any
liquor is impregnated ; air between the aqueous globules
that conftitute clouds and milts, &c. Thele fpaces cannot
be traverfed by light, without refraCling or reflecting it
in various ways, by which it is prevented from palling on
in a ftraight line, which it would do if the parts were
continuous, without any fuch interllices between them ;
for we have already learned, that reflections are only made
at the fuperficies of mediums-of different denfities. The
opacity of a body ariles, therefore, from the difeontinuity
of its particles, and the different denfity of the interve¬
ning mediums and the particles which compofe them.
This idea of opacity is greatly confirmed, by confidering
that opake bodies become tranfparent by filling \»p the
pores with any fubltance of nearly the fame denfity with
their parts. Thus when paper is wet with oil or water,
or when linen cloth is dipped in water, oiled, or var-
nilhed, or the oculus mundi lleeped in wafer, &c. they
become more tranfparent than they were before; as filling
the pores of an opake body makes it tranfparent, fo, on
the other hand, evacuating the pores of a tranfparent bo¬
dy, or feparating its parts, renders it opake; as falts, or
wet paper, by being dried ; horn, by being lcraped; glafs,
by being reduced to powder, or otherwife flawed ; tur¬
pentine, by being ftirred about with water, till they mix
imperfectly; and water, by being formed into many fmall
bubbles, either in the form of froth, or, by (baking it
together with oil of turpentine, or fome other convenient
liquor, with which it will not combi.ne. It is plain, there¬
fore, that it is in homogeneity we are to feek for the catife
of tranfparency. If there be many pores in a bodyq and
thefe be filled with a matter differing much in denfity from
the body itfelf, the light will meet with a thoufand refrac¬
tions and reflections in the internal parts, and will thus
be utterly extinguiftred. But the parts of bodies, and their
interltices, mult not be lefs than fome definite fize, to be¬
come opake and coloured. For the moll opake bodies, if
their parts be fufficiently divided, as metals, by being dif-
folved in acid menllrua, become perfectly tranfparent.
The black fpot, near the point of contaCl of the two plates
of glafs, it has been obferved, tranfmitted the whole light
w here the glades did not abfolutely touch ; and the re¬
flection at the thinned part of the l'oap-bubble was fo in-
ienfible as to make that part appear intenfely black, by
the want of reflected light. It is oh thefe grounds, that
water, fait, glafs, (tones, &c. are tranfparent; for, -from
many confiderations, they feem to be as full of pores as
other bodies are, yet their particles- and pores are too
imall to cauie reflection in their common furfaces.
The tranfparent parts of bodies, according to their fg-
veral fizes, muff refleCt rays of one colour, and tranfmit
thofe of others, on the fame principles that thin plates or
bubbles do refleCt or tranfmit thefe rays; and this feems
to be the ground of all their colours. That they do fo
is plain from various obfervations ; and it is on thele prin«
ciples that we explain the variety of colours feen in fome
fiiks, on pigeons’ necks, peacocks’ tails, and the feathers
of other finely- coloured birds. If the eye be fixed on a
pigeon’s neck, and both be kept at reft, only one colour
is ohfervable ; but if either moves, el'peciaily the latter,
a different colour may be feen. Shady fiiks are woven
with threads of different colours; one arranged longitu¬
dinally, the other tranfverfely ; and as the greater or lefs
proportion of either of thefe appears, fo one or the other
of the colours will prevail. Wet thefe double-coloured
objects, dip the variegated feather in water, orthe change¬
able fiik in oil, their reflections will be lefs vivid, and they
will return but one uniform fnade of colouring. The (kin
of the cameiion is tranfparent, its ground being between a
paje red and yellow, coloured with a number of fmall finootbr
protuberances of a cold blueifti colour. It is endowed
with a faculty of blowing up or contracting its (kin at
will. This caufes the different colours, in appearance, to
vary ; it therefore fometimes appears reddifli, at others
blue: the j'ellow rays of the (kin, occafionalty mixing
with the blue of the protuberances, produce the idea of
green ; and w'hen placed on a red or yellow lubftance, its
natural colours are unavoidably heightened.
From various phenomena it is evident, that a great pro¬
portion of the fainter coloured rays are (topped in the«r
paflage through the atmofphere, and are thence reflected
upon other bodies; while the red and orange rays are
tranfmjtted to greater diftances. This circumftance ex¬
plains the blue (hadows of bodies, the blue colour of the
(ky, and the red colour of the clouds, when the fun is
near the horizon. At particular times, when the (ky is
plear and ferene, in the morning and the evening, the
(hadows caft from opake bodies have been obferved to be
tinged with blue and green. This circumftance naturally
refults from the minute particles of the . atmofphere re¬
flecting the deiicate and moft refrangible rays, the blue
and violet, for inliance, which occaiions a predominance
of thefe hues.
The bluenefs of the (ky is accounted .for on the fame
principles; namely, the copious reflection of the blue rays
by the atmofphere, which produces the effeCl of an arch
of that colour all around us. This is occafionally diverfir
fled by the greater denfity of the vapours, which refleCt
the (tronger rays. The coloured clouds, in particular,
which appear towards the morning and evening, when the
fun is in or near the horizon, are to be attributed to the
fame caufe. Th4 rays of light traverfing a vail extent of
atmofphere ; the fainter and more deiicate rays, as the
blue and violet, are detached by repeated reflections of
the atmofpheric particles; and the (tronger rays, as the
red, the orange, &c. are permitted to proceed, and reach
the clouds, from whence they are reflected. Agreeable-
to this theory, we may obferve, that the fun’s horizontal
light is fometimes fo deeply tinClured with the red, that
objects illuminated, by it frequently appear of a bright
orange, and even red. It is obfervable, that the clouds
do not, in common, affume their brighter dyes till the
fun is fome minutes let, and that they pafs from yellow
to a flaming gold colour; and thence, by degrees, to red,
which becomes deeper and deeper, till at length the d if—
appearance of the fun leaves them of a leaden hue, by the
reflection of the blue light from the air. A (imilar change
of colour is obferved on the (howy tops of the Alps ; and
the fame may be feen, though lefs ftrongly, on the eaftem
and weftern fronts of white buildings.. St. Paul’s church,
in London, is a good object of this kind, and is often, at
fun-fet, tinged with a confiderable degree of redneis.
What makes the fame colours more rich and copious in
the clouds, is their femi - 1 ranfparep cv , joined with the
, ‘ ' obliquity-
CHROMATICS.
528
obliquity of their poiition. It is highly probable that it
is the fame coloured light, which being thrown, by the
refraction of the atmofphere, into the fhadow of the earth,
fometimes gives the moon, in a total eclipfe, the obfcure
reddilh colour of brick. For the fame reafon, the colour
of the moon will vary in eclipfes, according to the extent
of atmofphere through which the rays have to traverfe.
The doftrine of colours has been lately much improved
by Mr. Delaval, as fated in a paper -communicated by
him to the Literary and Philol'ophical Society of Man-
chefter, and publifhed in their fecond volume of memoirs.
He was led to this fubjeri, from a perfuafion of its utility
to thofe interefting and elegant arts, whole object is the
preparation and life of colouring fubftances r'juftly ob-
ierving, that our views of experimental philofophy ihould
not be confiiied to theory alone, but direfled alfo to its
practical application. For, in proportion as the princi¬
ples of any fcience are unknown or mifconceived, the
advancement of the arts, and manufactures which depend
on them, mult, of Courfe, be impeded ; for, without thofe
guides, neither much addition, nor any improvement, is
to be expected. But when fcientilic principles are dif-
clofed to the artift, he is enabled to draw from thofe ori¬
ginal fources an ample fore of ufeful inventions, by
which his art is enriched ; and thus, the fpeculative
fciences, by their extenfion to practical purpoles, become
objeCts of great public importance.
The arts of colour-making and dying were, in remote
ages, carried to the height of perfection, in the countries
of Phoenicia, Egypt, Paleltine, India, &c. The inhabi¬
tants of thofe countries excelled alfo in the art of imi¬
tating gems, and tinging glals and enamel of various co¬
lours. The colours ufed in very ancient paintings, were
as various as thofe now in ufe, and greatly l'uperior both
in beauty and durability. The paints ufed by Apelles
were lb bright, that he was obliged to glaze his pictures
with a dark-coloured varnilh, left the eye Ihould be of¬
fended by their brightnefs ; and even thofe were inferior
to what had been uled among the ancient Egyptians.
Notwitbftanding this perfection in dying and colouring,
we find the Grecians and Romans continually degrading
the ufeful arts. We may confider this as one of the molt
fh'iking characters that diltinguilh the philofophy of the
ancients from that of the moderns. The ancients being
chiefly engaged in fpeculations that might procure them
refpeCt, and attraCt applaufe, thought the ufeful arts un¬
worthy their attention ; whereas the moderns have culti¬
vated and promoted the ufeful arts ; and hence the Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris attempted to fhed the light of
Icience upon the arts, by publilhing a defeription of them,
grounded on the elevated idea, that the indultry of a na¬
tion cannot fail to be enlightened and increafed by a free
communication of all the proceffes it ufes ; and that the
facrifices it makes by this publicity, will ever be amply
compenfated by the advantages it procures.
The changes of colour in permanently coloured bodies,
are produced by the fame laws which take place in tranf¬
parent colourlefs fubftances ; and the experiments by
which they can be inveftigated, confift of various methods
of uniting the colouring particles into larger, or dividing
them into linaller, maffes. The great Newton, as we have
feen, made his experiments chiefly on tranfparent fub¬
ftances ; but, where he treats of others, he acknowledges
his deficiency of experiments. He makes the following re¬
mark on thofe bodies which refleft one kind of light, and
tranfmit another; viz. “that if thefe glafles or liquors
were fo thick and maffy, that no light could get through
them, he queftions whether they would not, like other
opake bodies, appear of one and the fame colour, in all
politions of the eye, though lie could not yet affirm it
from experience.” It was an opinion of this great philo-
fopher, that all coloured matter reflects the rays of light ;
fome reflefting copioufly the more, others the lefs, refran¬
gible rays. He was likewife of opinion, that opake bo¬
dies reflect the light from their anterior furface, by lome
.s
power of the body, evenly diffufed over, and external
it. With refpedt to tranfparent coloured liquors, he fays,
that a tranfparent body, which looks of any colour by
tranfmitted light, may alio look of the fame colour by
reflected light, the light of that colour being refledted by
the farther furface of that body, or by the air beyond it";
and then the refledted colour will be diminilhed, and per¬
haps ceale, by making the body very thick, and pitching
it on the back fide, to diminifh the refledtions of its far¬
ther furface, fo that the light reflected from the tinging
particles may predominate. In fucli cafe the reflected light
will be apt to vary from that which was tranfmitted.
In order to inveftigate the truth of thefe opinions, Mr.
Delaval entered upon a courfe of experiments with tranf¬
parent coloured liquors and glafles, as well as with opake
•and femi-tranfparent fubftances. From thefe he found,
that in tranfparent coloured fubftances, the colouring-
matter does not refled any light, and when, by intercept¬
ing the light which vvas tranlinitted, it is hindered from
pafling through fuch fubftances, they do not vary from
their former colour to any other, but become entirely
black. This incapacity of the colouring particles of tranf¬
parent bodies to refledl light, being deduced from very
numerous experiments, it may be confidered as a general
law. It appears the more extenfive, if we confider that,
for the moll part, the tinging particles of tranfparent fub¬
ftances are extra-died from opake bodies ; that the opake
bodies owe their colour to thefe particles, as well as the
tranfparent; and that by the lols of them they are de¬
prived of their colours.
For his experiments Mr. Delaval ufed fmall phials ct
flint-glais, calculated for the purpofe ; the form, that of
a parallelepiped ; the height, exclufive of the neck, about
two inches; the bale about an inch fquare, the neck two
inches long. The bottom and three lides of each of thefe
phials was covered with a black varnilh ; the cylindrical
neck, and the anterior tide, except at the edges, being
left uncovered. He was careful to avoid any crevices in
the varnilh, that no light might be admitted, except
through the neck or anterior fide of the phials. The phials
Ihould be perfedlly clean, and thole liquors that depolit a
fediment Ihould not be put into them, but at the time
when the experiments are to be made. The uncovered
fide likewife Ihould not be placed oppofite to the window
where the light is admitted, becaule in that fituation the
light would be refleded from the farthelt fide of the phial;
lmooth black fubftances, refleding light powerfully, are
bell fituated when the uncovered fide forms a right angle
with the window. Having taken thefe precautions, he
viewed a great number of lolutions, both of coloured me¬
tallic fait, and of the tinging matter of vegetables, ob-
ferving that the colour by refledion was black, whatever
it might be when viewed by tranfmitted light. If thefe
colours are, however, fpread thin upon a white ground,
they appear of the fame colour as when viewed by tranf¬
mitted light ; but on a black ground they afford no co¬
lour, unlefs the black body be poiiflied, in which cafe
the refledion of light through it produces the fame effed
as tranlmilfion.
The experiments made with coloured glafles were, in
many refpeds, analogous to thofe with tranfparent co¬
loured liquors. For thefe he made feveral parcels of co¬
lourlels glals, compofed of borax and white fand. The
glals was reduced to powder, and afterwards ground to¬
gether with the ingredients, by which the colour was to
be imparted ; a method he found preferable to the ul’ual
mode of tinging glafles, as they became little inferior in
lullre to real gems. The refulr of all his experiments was,
that when matter is of fuch thinnefs, and the tinge fo di¬
lute, that light can be tranfmitted through it, the glafles
then appear vividly coloured ; but when they are in large
maffes, and the tinging matter is more denfely diffufed
through them, they appear black ; for thefe, as well as
the tranfparent liquors, Ihew their colour only by tranfi-
jnilfion. Having in tins manner formed pieces of Inch
glafs.
CHROMATICS.
529
glafs, two Inches thick,, he inclofed them in black cloth
on all tides, except their anterior and farther furfaces. In
this fituation each of them {hewed a vivid colour when
light was tranfmitted through them ; but when the pof-
terior furface was likewife covered with the cloth to pre¬
vent the tranfmiflion, no other colour but black was ex¬
hibited. From tbefe phenomena he drew the following
inferences : 1. That the colouring particles do not refleft
any light. 2. Thar a medium, fuch as is defcribed by fir
Ifttac Newton, is diffufed over both the anterior and pof-
terior furfaces of the plates, whereby objects are equally
and regularly refle&ed, as by a mirror.
Mr.Delaval next confiders the colouring particles them-
felves, pure and unmixed with other media. To procure
malfes made up of fuch particles, feveral tranfparent co¬
loured liquors were reduced to a folid confidence by eva¬
poration ; by employing a gentle heat the colouring mat¬
ter will not be injured, and may have its particles again
feparated by water or other fluids, and tinging them as
before. In this ftate alfo the colouring particles reflect no
light, and therefore appear uniformly black, whatever be
the fubllance from which they may have been extradited.
He endeavours to prove by experiments on the colouring
particles of opake bodies, that thefe colours are produced
on the above-mentioned principles ; that they leem black
■when very denfe, but {hew their proper tinge when fpread
thin upon a white ground. The green of grafs and leaves
of plants being obtained by digefting them in re&ified
fpirits of wine, and placed in one of the above-mentioned
phials, the part in the neck tranfmitted the vivid green,
but that contiguous to the uncovered fide of the phial
was black. After the colour had been totally extradited,
the leaves remained apparently unaltered as to figure or
texture, but were entirely white, or of a white tinged with
brown. Red, blue, and purple, flowers were alfo digefted
with fpirits of wine, all of which yielded their colouring
matter to the fpirit, and became white when deprived of it.
From mod of theie flowers the fpirit, however, either ac¬
quired no tinge at all, or only a very faint one; but when
acidulated it became red, and by the addition of an alkali
became blue, purple, or green, according to the quantity
of the. alkali, and the nature of the infufion. In theie
Rates all of them, when viewed by tranfmitted light, or
poured upon a white paper, (hewed their colours, but uni-
verfally appeared black by reflection. Other experiments
were tried with other flowers, but the final refult was the
fame, no colour by reflection. Linen, cotton, white pa¬
per, See. may be tinged of any of thefe colours, by dipping
them in the infufions ; and the confideration of the man¬
ner in which the colours are imparted to linen, affords
much infight into the manner in which natural colours
are produced. See the article Chemistry, p.343, &c.
of this volume.
It has been already obferved, that when the colouring
matter of plants is extracted from them, the folid fibrous
parts, thus diverted of their covering, difplay their natu¬
ral whitenefs. White linen, paper, &c. are formed of fuch
fibrous vegetable matter, which is bleached by dilfolving
and detaching the heterogeneous colouring particles ;
when thefe therefore are dyed or painted with vegetable
colours, it is evident that they do not differ in their man¬
ner of aCting on the rays of light from natural vegetable
bodies; both yield their colours by tranfmitting through
the tranfparent coloured matter the light which is reflec¬
ted from the white ground. This white matter everexiits
without any confiderable mixture in plants while they are
in a ftate of vegetation, as cotton, white flowers, the pith,
wood, feeds, roots, and other parts of feveral kinds of ve¬
getables. When decayed leaves of trees have been long
expofed to the atmofphere, their coloured juices are fome-
times fo perfectly extracted, that their fibres appear white.
Mr. Delaval has even rendered allies intenfely white, by
carefully calcining them, and afterwards grinding with a
fmall proportion of nitre, and expofing them to fuch a de¬
cree of heat as would caufe the nitre to deflagrate. The
Vol. IV. No. 217.
allies were then digefted with the marine acid, in order to
diffolve the ferruginous matter diffufed through them, and
the remainder repeatedly walked in water. Hence it would
appear, that the earth which forms the fubftance of plants
is white, and leparable from that fubftance which gives to
each its peculiar colour ; that whenever it is pure and un-
mixed, or diffufed through colourlefs media, it (hews its
native whitenefs, and is the only vegetable matter en¬
dowed with a native whitenefs. This white matter may
be dil'covered by other means befides combuftion : thus
rofes may be whitened by expofing them to burning ful-
phur, and the colour may be again rertored by the addi¬
tion of an acid either mineral or vegetable.
Dyed fubftances have their colour deftroyed by the rays
of the fun. — Thus dyed filk, and other fubftances of that
kind, when expofed to the fun’s light, are deprived of
their colour in every part on which the rays are allowed
toaCt; whilft thofe preferve their colours which are de¬
fended from the light. The colours, thus impaired, may
be reftored, if acids are employed while the injury is re¬
cent. All Mr. Delaval’s experiments lhew, that the co-.
louring matter of plants does not exhibit any colour by
reflection, but by tranfmiflion only ; that their folid earthy
fubftance is a white matter, and that it is this part that
has the property of reflection ; that the colours of vege¬
tables are produced by the light reflected from this white,
and tranfmitted from thence through the coloured coat
or covering which is formed on its furface by the colour¬
ing particles ; that whenever the colouring matter is ei¬
ther difeharged pr divided by folution into particles too
minute to exhibit any colour, the folid fubftance itfelf
difplays that whitenefs which is its diftinguifhing charac-
teriftic. Having fettled this point, he proceeded to exa¬
mine the coloured parts of animal fubftances, and found
them exaCtly fimilar with regard to the manner in which
the colour is produced, to the vegetable fubftances al¬
ready treated of. The tinCtures and infufions of cochineal
andkermes yield their colours when light is tranfmitted
through them, but (hew none by reflection. On diluting
frefli ox-gall with water, and examining it in the above-
mentioned phials, the part of it viewed by tranfmitted
light was yellow ; but the anterior furface in the lower
part of the phial was black, and reflected no colour.
Flelh derives its colour entirely from the blood, and when?
deprived of it the fibres and vefl'els are perfectly white;
as are likewife the membranes, tendons, and bones, when
freed from their aqueous and volatile parts. The florid
red colour of the flelh arifes from the light which is reflec¬
ted from the white fibrous fubftance, and tranfmitted back
through the red tranfparent covering formed by the blood
on every part of the lurface of the body.
In like manner the red colour of the (hells of Iobfters
after boiling, is no more than a mere fuperficial covering
fpread over the white calcareous earth of which the (hells
are compofed, and may be removed from the furface by
feraping or filing. Before the application of heat this fu¬
perficial colouring is much denier, infoniuch that in fome
parts of the Ihell it appears quite black, being too thick
to admit the paffage of the light to the (hell and back
again ; but where this tranfparent blue colour of the un¬
boiled lobfter is thinner, it conftantly appears like a blue
film. In like manner the colours of the eggs of certain
birds are entirely fuperficial, and may be feraped off,
leaving the white calcareous earth expofed. It is the fame
with feathers, which owe their colours entirely to a very
thin layer of fome tranfparent matter upon a white
ground ; this was afeertained by feraping off the fuper¬
ficial colours from certain feathers, which were Itrong
enough to bear the operation, and which feparated the
coloured layers from the white ground ori which they had
been naturally fpread. The lateral fibres cannot have
their colours feparated in this manner; but their texture,
when viewed by a microfcope, feems to indicate that their
colours are produced on them by no other means than
thofe already related. In a word, he found that in all the
6 T animal
53o C H R O M
aiiimal fubjects lie examined, the colours were produced
by the traiifmifliori of light from a white ground through
a tranfparent coloured medium.
The mineral kingdom abounds with coloured fub¬
ftances, belonging principally to two dalles, earths and
nletais. The former, when pure, are all white, and their
colour arifes flom metallic mixtures. Calcareous earths,
when indurated, cohftitute marble, and may be tinged
with various colours by means of metallic folutions, all of
which are fimilar in their nature to the dyes put upon iilk,
cotton, or linen, and invariably proceed from the fame
catife, the tranfmiftion of light through a very thin trarif-
par'ent medium. Flints are formed from filiceous earths, :
and owe their colour to the ftate of fire within them ;
when fufficiently heated, they are rendered white by the
lofs of the inflammable matter which produced their co¬
lour; when impregnated With metals, they form agates,
cornelians; jafper, and coloured cryftals. The coloured
genis alfO receive their different hues from metals, and
may be imitated by glafles tinged with fuch inflammable
or metallic matter as entered into the original fubftances,
all exhibiting their various tints in the fame mariner; by
the tranfiriifiion of light from a reflected white grorind.
Mr. Delaval obferves, that even the colours of metals
a're prod'uced in the fame manner. Gold exhibits a white
light tiriged with yellow; this is grounded oft ail experi¬
ment of fir Ifaac Newtori, who lays, that gold in a 'Advice
light appeaVs of the Fame colour as in the day-light, but
that on intercepting a due quantity of the yellOw-riiaking
rays, it Will appear white like filver, which (hews that its
yell'oWri'efs arifes from an excels of the intercepted rays,
tinging that whitenefs, with their colo'rir when they are
let pafs through. A fblution of filver is pellucid and co-
joufleifs ; a folu'tion of gold tranlinits yellow, bu't reflects
no colour. This metal, when united to glafs, yields no
colour by reflection, but only by tranfmiftion. All thefe
circumitaiices feem to indicate, that the yellow colour of
gold arifes from a jmllow tranfparent matter, which is a
-conflituerit part of that metal, and that is equally mixed
with the white particles of the gold, and tranlinits the
light refloated by them; in like manner as when filver is
gilt, or foils are made by covering white metals with
tranfparent colours. But thefe factitious coverings are
only fnpei ficikl, whereas the yellow matter of gold is dif-
fufed throughout the whole i'ubftance of the metal, and
appears to envelop and cover each of the white particles ;
the yellow matter bears to the white about the fame pro¬
portion that the yellow-making rays, which were inter¬
cepted, bear to all the other rays coiuprifed in the white
light of the fun.
it has been (hewn by fir Ifaac Newton, that when the
fpaces or interftices of bodies are replenifhed with media
of different denfities, the bodies are opake ; that thole fu-
perficies of tranfparent bodies r theft the gee at eft quantity
of light, which intercede media that differ molt in their
refractive denfities; and that the reflections of thin 'tranf-
parerit fubftances are confiderably ftronger than thofe
made by the fame fubftances of a greater thicknefs. Herice
the minute portion of air, or of the rarer medium, which
occupies the pores or interftices of denfe bodies, is a mi-
inite White fubftance. This is mini fell in the Adiitenefs
of froth, and of all pellucid colourlefs fubftances, fuch as
glafs, cryftal, or lalts reduced to powder, or otherwife
flawed ; for in all thefe inftances a white light is reflected
from the air or rarer medium, which intercede the parti¬
cles of the denfer fubftance, whofe interltices they poflefs.
Hence alio we fee why white opake fubftances are rendered
pellucid by being reduced to uniform mafles, whofe com¬
ponent parts are every where nearly of the fame denfity ;
for as all pellucid fubftances are rendered opake and white
by the admixture of pellucid colourlefs media, of confi¬
derably different denfities, they are again deprived of
their'opacity, by extracting thefe media, which keep their
particles at a diftance from each other: thus froth and
:fno\V, When relolved into water, lofe their whitenels, and
a
A T I C S.
and affume their former pellucid appearance. In like
manner the opake white earths are by proper fluxes re¬
duced to pellucid colourlefs glafs ; becaufe all reflections
are made at the furfaces of bodies differing in denfity
from the ambient medium, and in the confines of equally
denfe media there is no reflection.
As the calces of metals are capable of reflecting their
colours by the intervention of air, fo, when mixed with
oil in making paints, the)' always affume a darker colour,
becaufe the excefs of the denfity of oil over air forms a
fenfible difference, when comparatively confidered with
refpeCt to the fpecinc gravity of the rarer metals. From
this caufe perceptibly lei’s light is reflected from the moie-
culte of oil than thofe of air, and confequently the mafs
appears darker. The cafe is however different with fuch
paints as are formed of the denfer metals, as vermilion,
minium, &c. for though oil differs very confiderably from
ah- in its fpecific denfity, yet it alfo differs very much in
this refpect from the denfer metallic powders ; and the
moleculse of oil, which divide their particles, aCt upon the
light fo ftrongly, that the reflection of light occafioned
by them cannot be diftinguifhed from thofe which are
Caufed by rarer media. Hence, when we mix vermilion
Or minium with oil, the colour is not fenfibly changed.
All thofe earths, which in their natural ftate are of a
pure White, coriftittite tranfparent colourlefs media when
vitrified with proper fluxes, or when diffolved in colour¬
lefs menftrua ; and the Valine mafles, obtainable from
the i^' folutions, are tranfparent and colourlefs, while they
retain the water which is hecefiary to their crystalliza¬
tion, and are not flawed or reduced to powder; but after
their pores and interftices are opened in fuch a manner as
to admit the air, they become white and opake by the
admittance of that rare medium. The earthy. particles,
which form the folid parts of bodies, generally exceed
each other in denfity ; confequently thefe particles, when
contiguous to the rare media already mentioned, mu ft re¬
flect the rays of light with a force proportionate to their
denfity. The refleClive power of bodies does not depend
merely upon their excefs of denfity, but upon their dif¬
ference of denfity with refpeft to the furrounding media.
Tranfparent colourlefs particles, whofe denfity is greatjy
inferior to that of the media they come between, alfo
powerfully reflect all forts of rays, and thereby become
white ; of this kind are the air, or other rare fluids, which
occupy the interftices of liquors, and in general of all
denier media, where fuch rare particles find accefs. Hence
we may conclude, that white opake bodies are conftitu-
ted by the union or contiguity of two or more traniba-
rent colOuilels media, differing confiderably from each
other in'their refleClive powers. Of thele fubftances we
have examples in frothy eirtulfions, or other imperfect
combinations of pellucid liquors, as milk, fnow, calcined
or pulverized fal'ts, glafs or cryftal reduced to powder,
white earths, paper, linen, and even thofe metals which
are called White by mineralogifts ; for thofe metals do not
appear white unlefs their furfaces be rough; as in that
cafe only there are interftices on their furface iufficient to
admit the air, and thus make a reflection of a white and
vivid light. The poiilhed furfaces of metallic mirrors re¬
flect the incident rays equally and regularly according to
their leverai angles of incidence, fo that the reflected rays
do not interfere with each other, but remain feparateand
unmixed, and therefore diltihftly exhibit their feveral co¬
lours. Hence it is Evident, that A'hite furfaces cannot
aft upon the light as mirrors, becaufe' all the rays which
are reflected from them are blended in a difoVderly and
promifeuous manner.
The foregoing phenomena give us fome infight into the
nature and caule of opacity, as they clearly fhew, that
even the rareft tranfparent colourlefs fubftances, when
their furfaces are adjacent to media differing greatly from
them in refraftive power, maytherelyy acquire a perfect
opacity, and may aifume a hue and rdplendence fimilar
to that of white metals ; that the rarer pellucid fubftances
cannot
C H R
cannot by the fight be diftinguifhed from the denfe opake
metals; and this fimilarity to the furface of metals not
only occurs, when from the roughnefs of their furfaces
they refemble polifhed metals in whitenefs, but alfo when
from their fmoothnefs they refemble the polithed furface
of metals.
It thould feem, that metals confift entirely of tranfpa-
rent matter, and derive their apparent opacity and luftre
iolely from the copious reflection of light from their fur-
faces. The analogy between metals and tranfparent me¬
dia, as far as concerns, their optical properties, will appear
plain from the following confiderations : i. All metals
dillblved in their proper menftrua are tranfparent. 2. By
the union of two or more tranfparent media, fubftances
are conltiruted which are fimiiar to metals in their opa¬
city and luitre, as plumbago and marcafites. 3. The tranf¬
parent fubftances of metals, as well as thofe of minerals,
by their union with inflammable matter, acquire the ftrong
refieCtive powers from which their luftre and opacity arife.
4. The furfaces of pellucid media, fuch as glafs or water,
aflfume a metallic appearance, when by their fmoothnefs,
difference of denfity with refpeCt to the contiguous me¬
dia, or any other, they are difpofed copioufly to reflect
the light.
It is plain from the foregoing confiderations, that opake
fubftances are conftituted by the union or contiguity of
tranfparent colourlefs media, differing from one another
in their refleCtive powers ; and that when the common
furface, which comes between fuch media, is plane, equal,
and fmooth, it reflects the incident rays equally and re¬
gularly as a mirror; but when their furface is rough and
unequal, or divided into minute particles, it reflects the
incident rays irregularly and promifcuoufly in different
directions, and eonfequently appears white. When the
interftitial vacuities of bodies are fo.difpofed that the light
can preferve its rectilinear courfe through them, fuch bo¬
dies appear luminous throughout, and are vifible in their
internal fubftance ; but when their conftitution is fuch as
will not allow a free paffage to the light, they are then vi-
ftble only by thofe rays which are reflected from their fur¬
face, and their internal furface is cold and dark.
Sir Il'aac Newton found, on comparing the refraCtive
power of different bodies, that inflammable fubftances
poffefs it in a much greater degree than fuch as are not
inflammable. From his obfervations on this fubjeCt, he
drew the wonderful conclulion, that the diamond con¬
tained a large quantity of inflammable matter; that water
was an intermediate fubftance between inflammable and
unimflammable bodies, and that it fupplied vegetables
■with the inflammable principle ; which truths have been
leen and demonftrated only in our own time. Subftances
that are not tranfparent in their ordinary ftate, may be
rendered fo either by relaxing their parts with heat, fo that
the light may pafs through them more eafily, or by giving
fome new direClicn, together with an additional force, to
the matter of light. Mr. Hawklbee was very much fur-
prifed to find, that the fealing-wax, and the pitch, within
fide a glafs globe, became fo transparent when the glafs
was whirled about and rubbed with the hand, that the
fingers might be plainly feen on' the other fide through the
coating. Oil is condenfed, when cold, into a fort of
globules impervious to the light ; but when thefe globules
are dilfolved, and opened by the aCtion of caloric, the oil
not only becomes tranfparent, but appears as bright and
fhining as if the light were a natural part of its compofi-
tion. We know, that many heterogeneous fluids grow
dark and muddy with cold, but that they may be foon
clarified again by the application of a moderate heat : red
poit wine is fometimes as foul as if brick-dull was mixed
with it, but will become bright and clear by the applica¬
tion of warmth.
Transparency is a quality given, by a wife ordination
of Providence, to the fluid fubftance of water, which is fo
neceflary to the life of all animals. Tranfparency renders
glafs molt valuable 5 the value of gold is arbitrary, but
C H R 531
the worth of glafs is intrinfic; its cleanlinefs and tranf'
parency recommend it to our ufe in the common arts
life; and, render vifible the raoft curious and fubtil pro-
cefles of chemiftry and philofophy : in optics, it afllits the
aged, and gives to man an infight into the wonders of.the
creation. — For the lateft mathematical inveftigation of the
doftrine of light and colours ; the method of producing
the artificial rainbow ; and many other entertaining and
curious experiments, lee the article Optics.
CHRO'MATISM, f. Gr.] The natural
colour or tinfture of any fubftance. With ph\ficians,
it is the morbid difcolouration of the blood and animal
juices.
CHRONHYO'METER, f. The time-rain gauge, in¬
vented by Landrianus.
CHRO'NIC, or Chro'nical, adj. [from time.]
A term implying-duration or continuance. In medicine,
chronic dillempers are oppofed to acute. — Of difeafes fome
are chronical, and of long duration; as dropfies, quartan
agues, fcurvy, wherein we defer the cure unto more ad¬
vantageous leafons. Broswn. — See the article Medicine.
CHRO'NICLE,/. [ chronique , Fr. from xqovoc, Gr. time.]
A regilter or account of events in theorder of time :
No more of this ;
For ’tis a chronicle of day by day. Shakefpeare.
A hiftory. — I give up to hiftorians the generals and he^
roes which crowd their annals, together with thofe which
you are to produce for the Britilh chronicle. Dryden,
To CHRO'NICLE, no. a. To record in chronicle, or
hiftory. — This to rehearfe, fiiould rather be to chronicle
times, than to fearch into reformation of abules in Ire¬
land. Spenfer. — To regilter ; to record .-
Love is your mailer, for he mailers you ;
And he that is fo yoked by a fool,
Methinks fhould not be chronicled for wife. Shakefpeare.
CHRO'NICLER,/ A writer of chronicles ; a recorder
of events in order of time :
Here gathering chroniclers, and by them Hand
Giddy fantaftic poets of each land. Donne.
An hiltorian ; one that keeps up the memory of things
pall. — This cultom was held by the druids and bards of
our ancient Britons, and of latter times by the Irifli
chroniclers, called rimers. Raleigh.
CHRO'NOGRAM,/ [p^ovoc, time,and yeutpa, to write.]
An infeription bearing the date of any abtion. Of this
kind the following is an example :
Gloria laufque Deo fteCLorTM in faecFla funto.
A chronogrammatical verfe, which includes not only this
year, but numerical letters enough to reach above a thou-
land vears further. Ho-zvell.
CHRONOGRAMMATICAL, adj. Belonging to a
chronogram.
CHRONOGRAM'MATIST, y. A writer of chrono¬
grams. — There are foreign univerfities, where, as you
praife a man in England for being an excellent philofo-
pher or poet, it is an ordinary chara&er to be a great
chronogrammatijl . Addifon.
CHBONO'LOGER, /. time, and A 070$, doc¬
trine.] He that ltudies or explains the fcience of com¬
puting pall time, or of ranging pail events according to
their proper years. — Chronologers differ among themfeives
about moil great epochas. Holder.
CHRONOLO'GICAL, adj. Relating to the doftrine of
time. — Thus much touching the chronological account of
fome times and things pall, without confining myfelf to
the exailnefs of years. Hale.
CHRONOLO'GICALLY, qdv. In a chronological
manner; according to the laws or rules of chronology;
according to the exact feries of time.
CHRONO'LOGIST, J'. One that ltudies or explains
time ; one that ranges pail events according to the order
of
532 CHRON
of time ; a chronologer.— -According to thefe chronologies,
the prophecy of the Rabin, that the world fliould laft but
fix thouland years, has been long difproved. Bronvn.
CHRONO'LOGY, f \chromlogie, Fr. chronologia, Lat.
from ^pov!^, time, and doftrine, or difcourfe.] A
fcientihc method of afcertaining or computing time, from
the commencement of fome given event, to the comple¬
tion or fulfilment of another; with the doftrine of dates,
eras, epochs, See. coincident therewith. Like history,
it opens through a great avenue to an expanded view of
all human affairs, and connefts and illumines the raoft
dark and diflant revolutions of the world. Yet it is to
be lamented, that many and infuperable difficulties arife,
in afcertaining the dates and periods of antiquity; con¬
cerning which much controverfy and irifterence of opi¬
nion has arifen. <! All nations,” fays fir Ifaac Newton,
“ before they began to keep exaft records of time, feem to
have been led away by the falfe pride of heightening their
antiquity, and of aferibing their origin to fome divinity,
or renowned prince, often known only in fable, and
handed down by legendary tradition.” On this account,
fir Ifaac found hiinfelf conftrained to deviate widely from
the beaten path of former writers, in fixing the dates of
fafts preceding the war between the Greeks and Perfians :
“ yet fo affixing them,” fays he, “ as to make chronology
fuit with the courfe of nature, with aftronomy, with sa¬
cred hiftory, and with itfelf.”
Where, and about what time, chronology firft afiTumed
the form of a regular fcience, may be eafily pointed out.
Polybius is of opinion, that Ephorus of Cumae, the hifto-
rian, was the firft who attempted it, under the form of an
univerfal hiftory; and he flouriflied in the days of Philip
of Macedon, about 350 years before Chriil; but nothing
fatisfaftory upon this fubieft feems to have appeared till
after the days of his fon Alexander; and fo late, indeed,
as towards the clofe of the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
about the middle of the third century before Chrift: and
the true reafon of it feems to be, that before the conquefts
of Alexander, the Greeks had very fcanty materials for
fuch a work; as their knowledge was confined to the
tranfaftions of a narrow traft of country, and to the an¬
nals of a fhort period of time. For their travellers could
not eafily import the hiltorical memoirs of the countries
through which they palled ; becauie luch an undertaking
would have required many advantages of which they were
feldom mailers : fuch as, a thorough knowledge of the
language of the country, a free accefs to all their princi¬
pal records, and a perfeverance in fuch application for a
long feries of years. Even cruel and relentlefs wars,
among their fatal calamities, have to fuch a work as this
produced fome accidental good confequences, by the op¬
portunities they afford of obferving the fituation, nature,
and improvements, of other nations; by which the pro-
jjrefs of learning, and of many ufeful arts, has been the
more eafily propagated into different countries.
Strabo tells us, “ that the Greeks received great ad¬
vantages in their knowledge of geography, from the con-
quells of Alexander ; for by his means they became more
perfeftly acquainted with the larger trails of Afia, and
all the northern parts of Europe, to the river Iller;” and
he might have mentioned too the whole extent of Egypt ;
fo that, at one and the fame time, they came to the full
poffefiion of Babylon and Egypt, the two great fountains
of ancient learning. “ The Romans,” fays he, “ in like
manner, opened the fame light over the weftern parts of
Europe, up to the river Elbe, which divided Germany
into two parts; and tiiey went beyond the liter even to
the Tyra ; and as for the countries round the lake Moeo-
tis, and the fea-coaft to Colchis, they were undifeovered,
till the days of Mithridates, lurnamed Eupator, king of
Pontus ; and the Parthian empire made Hyrcania, Bac-
tria, and the Scythians that lived beyond them, to be bet¬
ter known,” We may therefore take for granted, that no
general hiffory could be properly compofed, till the geo¬
graphy ot thefe countries was lufficientiy known, in order
O L O G Y.
to deferibe the ftrength of each particular kingdom, the
number of its inhabitants, the progrefs of its armies, or
the provinces that might be loft or acquired, in its quar¬
rels with other kingdoms. But whenever the accefs to
All thele countries was laid open by the conquefts of A-
lexander; when fo many new kingdoms were eftablifhed
under the Macedonian government, into which the citi¬
zens of all the Greek ftates were freely admitted; when
it extended the Greek tongue, as an univerfal language,
over Afia and Egypt ; it gave the moft favourable oppor¬
tunity to feveral eminent men to write the liiltories of
different nations. Berofus compiled the hiltory of Chal¬
dea, from the records of Babylon ; and Manetho that of
Egypt, from the records of Memphis and of Thebes ; and
the Arundelian Marbles gave a complete feries of the
annals of Greece, from their earlielt times; all of which
were compofed in that age, by cotemporary writers. And
when we add to this, that the great library of Alexan¬
dria was firft formed under Ptolemy Philadelphus, into
which the writings of all nations were collefted, we may
fafely conclude from fo many united particulars, that it
was then, and not before, that univerfal chronology be¬
came a fcience.
The more attentively we confider the fituation of the
world at this time, the more we fhall be convinced of the
truth of this Affertion. For till there was a colleftion of
proper materials brought together, fuch as the maou-
feripts of all nations muff contain, it was impoffible to
feparate the truth of hiftory from the rubbifh of fable ;
becaufe fafts are only to be canvaffed from a multitude
of circumftances, which combine together to give light
to each other, while the cotemporary hiftory of one coun¬
try correfponds to the cotemporary ftate of another. And
as a library was neceflary to furnifh the materials for this
purpofe, fo we find, that the firft great father of chrono¬
logy was Eratofthenes, the librarian of Alexandria, who
had the command of all that treafury of learning. For
the polfeffion of fuch a multitude of hiftorical memoirs
both prompted and enabled him to determine the dates
of many diftant fafts. And we are informed by Diony-
fius of Halicarnaftus, that, in the execution of this work,
he had laid down to himfejf certain chronological canons,
which that great critic declares, he found to be accurate
and uncorrupted, having examined them, in a treatife
written purpofely upon that fubjeft, though, to the great
misfortune of the learned world, it is now loft.
The moft ancient data for the meafurement of time,
appear to have been the returns of the feafons, and the
generations of families. The fucceffion of Juno’s prieft-
effes at Argos ferved Hellanicus for the regulation of his
narrative ; while Ephorus reckoned time by generations.
In Herodotus and Thucydides, there are no j-egular dates
for the events recorded ; but Eratofthenes and Apollodo-
rus digefted the events related by them, according to the
fucceffion of the Olympiads, and of the Spartan kings.
The chronology of the Latins is more uncertain : -the re¬
cords of the Romans were deftroyed by the Gauls ; and
Fabins Piftor, the moft ancient of their hiftorians, was
obliged to borrow the chief part of his information from
the Greeks. In other European nations the chronology
is Hill more imperfeft, though of a later date : and even
in modern times a confiderable degree of confufion and
inaccuracy has arifen, from the want of attention among
hiftorians to afeertain the dates and epochs with precifion.
Hence is feen how neceflary a proper fyftem of chrono¬
logy mull be for the right underftanding of hiftory, and
alio how difficult it is to eftablilh fuch a iyftem. For this
purpofe, however, feveral learned men have fpent much
time, particularly Julius Africanus, Eufebius of Caelarea,
George Cyncelle, John of Antioch, Dennis, Petau, Cla-
vius, Calvifius, Scaliger, Vieta, Newton, Uffier, Simfon,
Brown, Mariham, Helvicus, Voffius, Strauchius, Blair,
Playfair, and Walker. Their relearches for the accom-
plilhment of fo valuable a fyftem, have been founded,
ill. On agronomical obl’ervations, especially of the eclipfes
C H R O N
of the fun and moon, combined with calculatidns of the
years and eras of different nations. 2d. The teftimonies
of credible, authentic, and unimpeached, authors. 3d.
Such epochs in hiltory as are fo well attefted and deter¬
mined, that they have never been controverted. 4th. An¬
cient medals, coins, monuments, and inlcriptions ; which
ferve in general as fo many land-marks to regulate fur¬
ther enquiries.
The moll obvious divifion of time, in all ages and
countries, is to be referred to the apparent or real revo¬
lutions of the fun and moon. Thus, the apparent revo¬
lution of the fun, or the real rotation of the earth on her
axis caufing the fun to appear to rife and let, conftitutes
the vicilfitudes of day and night, which mult be evident
to the moll barbarous and ignorant nations. The moon,
by her revolution about the earth, and her changes, as
naturally and obvioully forms months; while the great
annual courfe of the fun through the feveral conllellations
ot the zodiac, points out the larger divilion of the year.
Of the COMMON DIVISIONS of TIME.
Time itfelf is only a fuccelfion of phenomena in the
univerfe; or a mode of duration marked by certain pe¬
riods. “ Our idea of time in general,” fays Mr. Locke,
“ is formed by confidering any part of infinite duration,
as fet out by periodical meafures : the idea of any parti¬
cular time, or length of duration, we acquire firft by ob-
ferving certain appearances at regular and feemingly equi-
dillant periods. Thus, by being able to repeat thefe lengths
or meafures of time as often as we will, we can imagine
duration, where nothing really endures or exifts ; and
hence we imagine to-morrow, or next year,” &c. Some
philofophers define time to be, the duration of a thing
whofe exiftence is neither without beginning nor end ;
and .by this,, time is diftinguifhed from eternity. The moll
familiar portions or meafures of time, are its fubdivifions
into hours, days, weeks, months, and years ; but as thefe
have varied confiderably in different ages and countries,
it becomes the bufinefs of chronology to invelligate and
explain them.
An hour, is the aliquot part of a natural day, ufually
the twenty-fourth, but fometimes a twelfth part. With
us, it is the twenty-fourth part of the earth’s diurnal ro¬
tation, or the time from noon to noon, and therefore it
anfwers to fifteen degrees of the whole circle of longitude,
or of 360 degrees. The hour is divided by fixtieths, viz.
firft into lixty minutes, then each minute into fixty feconds,
&c. The divifion of time into hours is very ancient; as
is Ihewn by Kircher, CEdip. ./Egypt, tom. 2. part. 2. The
moll ancient hour is that of the twelfth part of the day.
Herodotus obferves, that the Greeks learnt from the
Egyptians, among other things, the method of dividing
the day into twelve parts ; and the aftronomers of Ca-
thaya ftill retain this method. The divifion of the day
into twenty- four hours, was not known to the Romans
before the Punic war. Till that time they only regulated
their days by the rifing and fetting of the fun. They di¬
vided the twelve hours of their day into four ; viz. prime,
which commenced at fix o’clock; third at nine; fixth at
twelve, and none at three. They alfo divided the night
into four watches, each containing three hours.
Sometimes hours are divided into equal and unequal.
Equal hours, are the twenty-fourth parts of a day and night
precifely ; that is, the time in which the fifteen degrees of
the equator pafs the meridian. Thefe are alfo called equi¬
noctial hours, becaufe mealured on the equinoctial; and
aftronomical, becaufe ufed by aftronomers. — Agronomical
hours, are equal hours, reckoned from noon to noon, in a
continued ieries of twenty-four. — Babylonifh hours, are
equal hours, reckoned from fun-rife in a continued feries
of twenty- four. — European hours, ufed in civil computa¬
tion, are equal hours, reckoned from midnight ; twelve
from thence till noon, and twelve more from noon till mid¬
night.— Je'wiJb, or planetary, or ancient hours, are twelfth
parts of the artificial day and night, They are called an-
Vol. IV. No. 217.
O L O G Y. 533
cient or Jewilh hours, becaufe ufed by the ancients, and
ftill among the Jew's. They are called planetary hours,
becaufe the altrologers pretend, that a new planet comes
to predominate every hour ; and that the day takes its
denomination from that which predominates the firft hour
of it ; as Monday from the moon, &c. — Italian hours, are
equal hours, reckoned from fun-fet, in a continued feries
of twenty-four. — Unequal or temporary hours , are twelfth
parts of the artificial day and night. The obliquity of
the fphere renders thefe more or lefs unequal at different
times ; fo that they only agree w'ith the equal hours at
the times of the equinoxes.
The next meafure of time above or fuperior to the
hour, is that of the day, which is either natural, or arti¬
ficial. The artificial day is that which is primarily meant
by the word day, and is the time of its being light, or the
time while the fun is above the horizon. Though fome¬
times the twilight is included in the term day-light; in
oppofition to night or darknefs, being the time from the
end of twilight to the beginning of day-light. The na¬
tural day is the portion of time in which the earth makes
a rotation on its axis. And this is either aftronomical,
or civil. Afironomical day begins at noon, or when the
fun’s center is on the meridian, and is counted twenty-
four hours to the following noon. Civil day is the time
allotted for day in civil purpofes, and begins differently
in different nations, but ftill including one whole rota¬
tion of the earth on its axis ; beginning either at fun-rife,
fun-fet, noon, or midnight, ift. At fun-riling, among the
ancient Babylonians, Perfians, Syrians, and moll other
eaftern nations, with the prefent inhabitants of the Balea¬
ric iflands, the Greeks, See. 2dly. At fun-fetting, among
the ancient Athenians and Jews, with the Aultrians, Bo¬
hemians, Marcomanni, Silefians', and modern Italians.
3dly. At noon, with aftronomers, and the ancient Umbri
and Arabians. And, xthly, at midnight, among the Egyp¬
tians, Chinefe, and Romans, with the modern Englilh,
French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, and Portuguefe.
The different length of the natural day in different cli¬
mates, has been matter of controverfy, viz. whether the
natural days be all equally long throughout the year; and
if not, w'hat their difference is ? A profeffor of mathema¬
tics at Seville, in the Philof. Tranf. vol. x. p. 425/afferts,
from a continued feries of obfervations for three years,
that they are all equal. But Mr. Flamfteed, in the fame
Tranf. p.429. refutes the opinion; and fhews that one
day, when the fun is in the equinoctial, is ihorter than
when he is in the tropics, by forty feconds ; and that
fourteen tropical days are longer than fo many equinoftial
ones, by ten minutes. This inequality of the days flows
from two diftinft principles: the one, the eccentricity of
the earth’s orbit ; the other, the obliquity of the ecliptic
with regard to the equator, which is the true meafure of
time : but as thefe two caufes happen to be differently
combined, the length of the day is varied.
The next divifion of time beyond the day, is that of
weeks, which comprifes feven days. The origin of this
divifion, or of computing time by fevenths, is much con¬
troverted. It has often been thought to have taken its
rife from the four quarters or intervals of the moon, be¬
tween her changes of phafes, which, being about feven
days diftant, gave occafion to the divifion : but others
more probably, from the feven planets. Be this as it may,
the divifion is certainly very ancient. The Syrians,
Egyptians, and moll of the oriental nations, appear to
have ufed it from the earliefl ages : though it did not get
footing in the weft till brought in by Chriftianity. The
Romans reckoned their days not by fevenths, but by
ninths ; and the ancient Greeks by decads, or tenths ; in
imitation of which the new French calendar feems to have
been framed. The Jews divided their time by weeks, of
feven days each, as preferibed by the law of Moles; in
which they were appointed to work fix days, and to rell
the feventh, in commemoration of the creation. This
method was in ufe in the days of Hefiod 5 but it was not
6 U until
CHRONOLOGY.
554
until feveral ages had elapfed, that the ufe of weeks was
received into Greece. We are told by fir George Staun¬
ton, that the Chinefe are ftill unacquainted with the week
of feven days, but divide the year into fix parts, of fixty
days each. The week was like wife unknown to the an¬
cient Perfians and to the Mexicans ; the former having a
different name for every day of the month, and the latter
snaking ufe of a cycle of thirteen days. It is remarkable,
that one day in the week has been accounted facred by
almoft every nation. Thus Saturday was confecrated to
pious purpofes among the Jews, Friday by the Turks,
Tuefday by the Africans of Guinea, and Sunday by the
Chriftians. Hence alfo the origin of ferta , or holidays,
frequently made ufe of in fyftems of chronology. The
Chinefe, however, being unacquainted with the week of
fe-ven days, have no idea of a labbath, or day of relt.
The next divifion of time fuperior to weeks, is that of
months. This appears to_ have been, if not coeval with
the creation, at leak in ufe before the flood. As this di¬
vifion is naturally pointed out by the revolution of the
moon, the months of all nations were originally lunar ;
until after fome coniiderable advances had been made in
fcience, the revolutions of that luminary were compared
with the lun, and thus the limits of the month fixed with
greater accuracy. The divilion of the year into twelve
months, as being founded on the number of full revolu¬
tions of the moon in that time, has alfo been very ge¬
neral; though fir John Chardin informs us, that the Per¬
fians divided the year into twenty-four months ; and the
Mexicans into eighteen months of twenty days each.
The months generally contained thirty days, or twenty-
nine and thirty days alternately; though this rule was far
from being without exception. The months of the Latins
conlifted of iixteen, eighteen, twenty-two, or thirty-fix,
days ; and Romulus gave his people a year of ten months
and 304 days. The Kamtl'chatkadales divide the year
into ten months ; reckoning the time proper for labour to
be nine months, and the winter feafon, when they are
obliged to remain inadiive, only as one month.
The lunar month is either illuminative, periodical, or
fynodical. Illuminative month, is the interval between the
firft appearance of one new moon and that of the next
following. As the moon appears fometimes fooner after
one change than after another, the quantity of the illu¬
minative month. is not always the fame. The Turks and
Arabs reckon by this month. Lunar periodical month, is
the time in which the moon runs through the zodiac, or
returns to the fame point again; the quantity of which
is 27 d. 7h-43m. Sf. Lunar fynodical month, called alfo
a lunation , is the time between two conjunctions of the
moon with the fun, or between two new' moons; the
quantity of which is 29 d. i2h. 44m. 3 k 11 thirds. The
ancient Romans ufed lunar months, and made them al¬
ternately of twenty-nine and thirty days : they marked the
days of each month by three -terms, viz. Calends, Nones,
and Ides ; which fee under their refpeCtive names. Solar
month, is the time in which the fun runs through one en¬
tire fign of the ecliptic, the mean quantity of which is 30 d.
joh. 29m. 5k being the twelfth part of 365c!. 5 h . 49m.
our mean folar year. Aftronomical or natural month, is
that meafured by fome exaft interval correfponding to
the motion of the fun or moon. Such are the lunar and
lolar months above-mentioned. Civil or common month, is
an interval of a certain number of whole days, approach¬
ing nearly to the quantity of fome aftronomical month.
Thefe may be either lunar or folar. The civil lunar month,
conlifts alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days. Thus
will two civil months be equal to two aftronomical ones,
abating for the odd minutes; and fo the new moon wall
be kept to the firft day of luch civil months fora long
time together. This was the month in civil or common
ule among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, till the time
of Julius Caefar. The civil folar month, confuted alter¬
nately of thirty and thirty-one days, excepting one month
of the twelve, which confifted only of twenty-nine days}
but every fourth year of thirty days. And this form of
civil months was introduced by Julius Caefar. Under the
emperor Auguftus, the fixth month, till then from its
place called Sextilis, received the name Auguftus, now
Auguft, in honour of that prince ; and, to make the com¬
pliment ftill the greater, a day was added to it, which
made it confift of thirty-one days, though till then it had
only contained thirty days 5 to compenfate for which, a
day was taken from February, making it confift of twen¬
ty-eight days, and twenty-nine every fourth year : and
fuch are the civil or calendar months now' uled through¬
out Europe.
The'higheft or ultimate familiar divifion of time, is into
years ; and of thefe there are divers rnea'furements or de¬
nominations. The folar year, properly, and by way of
eminence, fo called, is the fpace of time in which the lun
moves through the twelve figns of the ecliptic. This, by
the obfervations of the belt modern aftronomers, con¬
tains 363 d. 5I1. 48 m. 48 ft the quantity affumed by the
authors of the Gregorian calendar is 363d. 5h. 49m.
But, in the civil or popular account, this year only con¬
tains 363 days ; except every fourth year, which contains
366. The viciflitude of feafons feems to have given oc-
cafion to the firft notice or inftitution of the folar year.
Man, naturally curious to know the caufe of trftat diver-
fity, foon found it was the proximity and diftance of the
fun ; and therefore gave the name year to the fpace of
time in which that luminary performed his whole courfe,
by returning to the fame point of his orbit. According
to the accuracy in their obfervations, the year of fome
nations was more perfect than that of others, but none
of them quite exadl, nor whofe parts did not Ihift with
regard to the parts of the fun’s courfe. According to
Herodotus, it was the Egyptians who firft formed the
year, making it to contain 360 days, which they fubdi-
vided into twelve months, of thirty days each. Mercury
Trifmegiftus added five days more to the account. And
on this footing it is faid that Thales inftituted the year
among the Greeks ; though that form of the year did not
hold throughout all Greece. Alfo the Jewifh, Syrian,
Roman, Perfian, Ethiopic, Arabic, &c. years, were all'
different. In fa£l, coniidering the imperfedft ftate of aftro-
nomy in thole ages, it is no wonder that different peopie
lhould difagree in the calculation of the fun’s courfe.
The folar year is either agronomical or civil. The agro¬
nomical folar year, is that which is determined precifely
by aftronomical oblervations ; and is of two kinds, tro¬
pical, and Jidereal or afral. ‘Tropical or natural year, is
the time the fun takes in paffing through the zodiac ;
which, as before obferved, is 363d. 5 h. 48 m. 48 ft or
363 d. 5 h. 49 m. This is the only true or natural year,
becaufe it always keeps the fame feafons to the fame
months. Sidereal or ajlral year, is the Ipace of time the
fun takes in paffing from any fixed ftar, till his return to
it again : this conlifcs of 365 d. 5 h. 9 m. 17ft being 20 m.
29 1. longer than the true folar year.
The lunar year is the fpace of twelve . lunar months.
Hence, from the two kinds of fynodical lunar months,
there arife two kinds of lunar years ; the one agronomical,
the other civil. Lunar aftronomical year conlilis of twelve
lunar lynodical months; and therefore contains 354 d.
8 h. 48 m. 38ft and is therefore tod. 21 h. 'om. sof.
fiiorter than the lolar year; a difference which is the
foundation of the epa£t. Lunar civil year, is either com¬
mon or embolifmic. The common lunar year conlifts of
twelve lunar civil months, and therefore contains 354
days; and the embolifmic, or intercalary lunar year, con-
lifts of thirteen lunar civil months, and therefore con¬
tains 384 days. Thus far we have conlidered years and
months, with regard to aftronomical principles, upon
which the divifion is founded. By this the various forms
of civil years that have formerly obtained, or that do ftill
obtain, in divers nations, are to be examined.
The civil year, is that form of year which every nation
has contrived or adopted, for computing their time by.
Or
C H R O N
Gr the civil Is the tropical year, confidered as only con¬
futing? of a certain number of whole days ; the odd hours
and minutes being fet afide, to render the computation
of time, in the common occafions of life, more eafy. As
the tropical year is 36 5d. 5I1. 49 m. or almolt 363d. 6h.
■which is 365 days and a quarter; therefore if the civil
year be made 363 days, every fourth year it muft be 366
days, to keep nearly to the courfe of the lun. And hence
the civil year is either common, or biffextile. The coftvnon
Avil year, is that confiding of 363 days ; having feven
months of thirty-one days each, four of thirty days, and
one of twenty-eight days. Biffextile, or leap year, con-
fdis of 366 days; having one day extraordinary, called
the intercalary or biffextile day, and takes place every
fourth year. This additional day to every fourth year;
was firft introduced by Julius Crefar, who, to make the
civil years keep pace with the tropical ones, contrived
that the fix hours which the latter exceeded the former,
ihould make one day in four years, and be added between
the 24th and 23d of February ,N which was their fixth of
the calends of March; and as they then counted this day
twice over, or had bis fexto calendas, hence the year itfelf
came to be called bis fextus, and biffextile. However,
among us, the intercalary day is not introduced by count¬
ing the 23d of February twice over, but by adding a day
at the end of that month, which therefore in that year
contains 'twenty-nine days.
The civil or legal year, in England, formerly com¬
menced on the day of the Annunciation, or 23th of
March; though the historical year began on the day of
the Circumcilion, or ill of January, on which day the
German and Italian year alfo begins. The part of the
year between tbefe two terms was then ufually expreffed
both ways : as 1745-6, or 174-f. But by the act for al¬
tering the llile, the civil year now commences with the
lit “of January.
The ancient Roman year, was the lunar year, which, as
frit fettled by Romulus, contained only ten months, of
unequal numbers of days, in the following order, viz.
March thirty-one, April thirty, May thirty-one, June
thirty, Quintilis thirty-one, Sextilis thirty, September
■thirty, Odtober thirty-one, November thirty, December
thirty, in all 304 days; which came fhort of the true lu¬
nar year by fifty days, and of the folar by fixty-one days.
Hence, the beginning of Romulus’s year was vague, and
unfixed to any precife feafon ; to remove which inconve¬
nience, that prince ordered fo many days to be added
yearly as would make the date of the heavens correfpond
to the firft month, without calling them by the name of
any month. Nitma Pompilius correftcd this irregular
conftitution of the year, by compofing two new months,
January and February, of the days that were ufed to be
added to the former year. Thus Numa’s year confifted
of twelve months, of different days, as follow, viz. Ja¬
nuary twenty-nine, February twenty-eight, March thir¬
ty-one, April twenty-nine, May thirty-one, June twen-
ty-nine, Quintilis thirty-one, Sextilis twenty-nine, Sep¬
tember twenty-nine, October thirty-one, Noyeinber twen¬
ty-nine, December twenty-nine, in all 355 days; there¬
fore exceeding the quantity of a lunar civil year by one
day; that of a lunar alfronomical year by 15I1. nm. 22 f.
but falling fhort of the true folar year by ten days; fo
that its beginning was ftill vague and unfixed. Numa,
however, defiring to have it begin at the winter folftice,
ordered twenty-two days to be intercalated in February
every fecond year, twenty-three every fourth, twenty -two
every fixth, and twenty-three every eighth, year. But
this rule failing to keep time even, recourfe was had to
a new way of intercalating; and inftead of twenty-three
days every eighth year, only fifteen were to be added.
The care of the whole was committed to the pontifex
maximus ; who however, negledling the truft, let things
run to great confufion. And. thus the Roman year ftood
till Julius Ctefar reformed it ; which fee under Calen¬
dar. And for the manner of reckoning the days of the
o l o g y. 535
Roman months, fee Calends, Nones, and Ides.—
The Julian year is in effect a folar year, commonly con¬
taining 365 days ; though every fourth year, called biffex-
tile, contains 366, The months of the Julian year, with
the number of their days, ftood thus : January thirty-one,
February twenty-eight, March thirty-one, April thirty.
May thirty-one, June thirty, July thirty-one, Auguft thir¬
ty-one, September thirty, Odfober thirty-one, November
thirty, December thirty-one. But every biffextile year had
a day added in February, making it then to contain twenty-
nine days. The mean quantity therefore of the Julian
year is 365A days, or 363 d. 6h. exceeding the true folar
year by fomewhat more than eleven minutes ; an excefs
which amounts to a whole day in almoft 131 years. Hence
the times of the equinoxes go backward, and fall earlier
by one day in about 130 or 131 years. And thus the
Roman year ftood, till it was farther corrected by pope
Gregory. For fettling this year, Julius Csefar brought
over from Egypt Sofigenes, a celebrated mathematician;
who, to fupply the defe£l of fixty-leven days, which had
been loft through the neglefit of the priefts, and to bring
the beginning of the year to the winter folftice, made one
year to confift of fifteen months, or 445 days ; on which
account that year was ufed to be called annus confufwnis ,
the year of confufion.
The Gregorian year is the Julian year corrected by this
rule, viz. that inftead of every fecular or hundredth year
being a biffextile, as it would be in the former way,
in the new way three of them are common years, and
only the fourth is biffextile. The error of eleven minutes
in the Julian year, by continual repetition, had accumu¬
lated to an error of thirteen clays from the time when
Caef'ar made his correction ; by which means the equi¬
noxes were greatly difturbed. In the year 1382, the equi¬
noxes were fallen. back ten days, and the full moons four
days, more backward than they were in the time of the
Nicene council, which was in the yean 325; viz. the
former from the 20th of March to the 1.0th, and the lat¬
ter from the 5th to the iff of April. To remedy, this in-
creafing irregularity, pope Gregory XIII. in the year
1582, called together the chief aftronomers of his time,
and concerted this correftion, throwing out the ten days
above-mentioned. He exchanged the lunar cycle for
that of the epafts, and made the 4th of October of that
year to be the 15th ; by that means reftoring the vernal
equinox to the 21ft of March. It was alfo provided, by
the omiffion of three intercalary days in/400 years, to
make the civil year keep pace nearly with the folar year,
for the time to come. See Calendar.
In the year 1700, the error of ten days was grown to
eleven; upon which, the proteftant ftates of Germany, fo
prevent farther confufion, adopted the Gregorian correc¬
tion. And the fame was accepted alfo in England in the
year 1752, when eleven days were thrown out alter the
2d of September that yea!, by accounting the 3d to be
the 14th day of the month ; calling this the ne<vj file, and
the former the old ftile. And the Gregorian, or new ftile,
is now in like manner ufed in moft countries of Europe.
Yet this laft correftion is ftill not quite perfeft ; for as it
has been fiiewn that in four centuries the Julian year
gains 3 d. 2 h. 40 m. and as it is only the three days that
are kept out of the Gregorian year, there is ftill an excels
of 2h. 40 m. in four centuries, which amounts to a whole
day in thirty-fix centuries, or in 3600 years. The year
1800, which in its order would have been leap-year, was
made a common year.
The Egyptian year, called alfo the year of Nabonaffar,
on account of the era of Nabonaffar, is the folar year of
365 days, divided into twelve months, of thirty days
each, befide five interctilary days, added at the end. The
order and names of thefe months are as follow : 1 . Thoth ;
2. Paophi ; 3. Athyr; 4. Chojac ; 5. Tybi ; 6. Mecheir;
7. Phamenoth; 8. Pharmuthi ; 9. Pachon ; 10. Pauni ;
11. Epiphi; 12. Mefori. As the Egyptian year, by ne-
gle&ing the fix hours, in every four years lofes a whole
1 day
CHRONOLOGY.
53°
day of the Julian year, its beginning runs through every
part of the Julian year in the fpace of 1460 years; after
which, they meet again ; for which reafon it is called the
erratic year. And becaufe this return to the fame day of
the Julian year is performed in the fpace of 1460 Julian
years, this cycle is called the Sothic period. This year
was applied by the Egyptians to civil ufes, till Anthony
aijid Cleopatra were defeated; but the mathematicians
and aftronomers ufed it till the time of Ptolomv, who
made ufe of it in his Almageft 5 fo that the knowledge
of it is of great ufe in aftronomy, for Comparing the an¬
cient obfervations with the modern. The ancient Egyp¬
tians, we are told by Diodorus Siculus, (Plutarch, lib. 1.
in the life of Nurna ; and Pliny, lib. 7. cap. 48.) meafured
their years by'the cpurfe of the moon. At firft they were
only one month, then three, then four, like that of the
Arcadians ; and then fix, like that of the people of Acar-
xiania. Thofe authors add, that ft is on this account that
they reckon fueli a vaft number of years from the begin¬
ning of the world ; and that in the hiftory of their kings,
we meet with fome who lived 1000 years, or 1200 years.
The fame thing is maintained by Kircher, (CEdip. Egypt,
tom. 2. p.252.) And a late author obferves, that Varro
has affirmed the fame of all nations, that has been quoted
of the Egyptians. By this means many account for the
great ages of the ancient patriarchs ; expounding the
gradual decreafe in their ages, by the fucceffive increafe
of the number of months in their years. Upon the Egyp¬
tians being fubdued by the Romans, they received the
Julian year, though with fome alteration; for they ftill
retained their ancient months, with the five additional
days, and every fourth year they intercalated another
day, for the fix hours, at the end of the year, or between
the 28th and 29th of Auguft. Alfo, the beginning of
their year, or the firft day of the month Tho'ch, anfwered
to the 29th of Auguft of the Julian year, or to the 30th
if it happened to be leap-year.
The ancient Greek year was a lunar year, confiding of
twelve months, which at firft had each thirty days, then
alternately twenty-nine and thirty days, computed from
the firft .appearance of the new moon ; with the addition
of an embolifmic month of thirty days, every third, fifth,
eighth, eleventh, fourteenth, fixteenth, and nineteenth,
year of a cycle of nineteen years ; in order to keep the
new and full moons to the fame terms or feafons of the
year. Their year commenced with that new moon which
was neareft to the fummer folftice. And the order of the
months, with the number of their days, were as follow :
1. HLy.ot.TOy.Qci.iav, of twenty-nine days; 2. ’MYiraysiTviav,
thirty; 3. Bon^pofiiwn, twenty-nine ; 4. Mociy.ccy.npuo*, thir¬
ty; 5. TIvocvz-^mv, twenty-nine; 6. Hob-sihav, thirty; 7.
TajxijAiwv, twenty-nine ; 8. Avfhs-ypnov, thirty ; 9. EAaip'/?-
€qMuv, twenty-nine; 10. Mnvvp^nct, thirty ; 1 1 .
twenty-nine; 12. SHtpo(popiw», thirty. But many of the
Greek nations had other names for their months.
The ancient JeyuiJh year is a lunar year, ufually con¬
fifting of eleven months, containing alternately thirty and
twenty-nine days ; and it was made to agree with the
Polar year, by adding eleven, and fometimes twelve, days,
at the end of the year, or by an embolifmic month.
The order and quantities of the months were as follow :
1. Nifan, or Abib, thirty days; 2. Jiar, or Zius, twenty-
nine; 3. Siban, or Sievan, thirty; 4. Thamuz, or Ta-
muz, twenty-nine j 5. Ab, thirty; 6. Elul, twenty-nine;
7. Tifri, or Ethamm, thirty; 8. Marchefvam, or Bui,
twenty-nine; 9. Cifleu, thirty ; 10. Tebeth, twenty-nine ;
ir. Sabat, or Schebeth, thirty; 12. Adar, thirty in the
embolifmic year, but twenty-nine in the common year.
In the defective year, Cifleu was only twenty-nine days ;
and in the redundant year, Marchefvam was thirty. The
modern Je-wiJb year isdikewile lunar, confifting of twelve
months in common years, but of thirteen in embolifmic
years ; which, in a cycle of nineteen years, are the third,
iixth, eighth, eleventh, fourteenth, feventeenth, and nine¬
teenth. Its beginning is fixed to the new moon next af¬
ter the autumnal equinox. The names and order of the
months, with the number of the days, are as follows.
1. Tifri, thirty days,; 2. Marchefvan, twenty-nine; 3.
Cifleu, thirty; 4. Tebeth, twenty-nine; 5. Schebeth, thir¬
ty; 6. Adar, twenty-nine; 7. Veadar, in the embolifmic
year, thirty ; 8. Nifan, thirty; 9. Uar, twenty-nine ; 10.
Sivan, thirty ; 1 1. Thamuz, twenty-nine ; 12. Ab, thirty;
13. Elul, twenty-nine.
The Syrian year is a Polar one, having its beginning
fixed to the beginning of October in the Julian year;
from which it only differs in the names of the months,
the quantities being the fame, as follow : 1. Tiftuin, an-
fwenng to our October, and containing thirty-one days ;
2. Latter Tifhrin, containing, like November, thirty days;
3. Canun, thirty-one; 4. Latter Canun, thirty-one; 5.
Shabat, twenty-eight, or twenty-r.ine in a leap-year ; 6.
Adar, thirty-one; 7. Nifan, thirty; 8. Aiyar, thirty-one;
9. Haziram, thirty; 10. Thamuz, thirty-one; 11. Ab,
thirty-one; 12. Elul, thirty. The Perfian year is alfo a
folarone of 365 days, confifting of twelve months of thirty
days each, with five intercalary days added at the end.
The months are as follow: 1. Afrudia meh 2. Ardri
hafchtmeh; 3. Cardi meh; 4. Thir meh ; 5. Merded
meh ; 6. Schabarir meh ; 7. Mehar meh ; 8. Aben meh ;
9. Adar meh; 10. Di meh; ii. Behen meh; 12. Affirer
meh. This year is the fame as the Egyptian Nabonafla-
rean, and is called the yezdegerdic year, to diftinguiffi it
from the fixed lolar year, called the Gelalean year, which
the Perfians began to ufe in the year 1079, and which
was formed by an intercalation, made fix or Peven times
in four years, and then once in every fifth year.
The Arabic, Mahometan , and Turkijh, year , called alfo
the year of the Hegira, is a lunar year, equal to 354 d. Sh.
48 m. and confifts of twelve months, containing alter¬
nately thirty and twenty-nine days; though fometimes it
contains thirteen months, the names, &c. being as follow ;
r. Muharram, of thirty days; 2. Saphar, twenty-nine;
3. Rabia, thirty; 4. Latter Rabia, twenty-nine; 5. Jo¬
rnada, thirty ; 6. Latter Jornada, twenty-nine ; 7. Rajab,
thirty; S. Shaaban, twenty-nine;. 9. Ramadan, thirty;
10. Shawal, twenty-nine; 1 1. Dulkaadah, thirty ; 12. Dul-
lveggia, twenty-nine, but in the 'embolifmic year thirty.
An intercalary day is added every fecond, fifth, feventb,
tenth, thirteenth, fifteenth, eighteenth, twenty-firth,
twenty-fourth, twenty-fsxth, twenty-ninth, in a cycle of
twenty-nine years. The months commence with the firft
appearance of the new moons after the conjunftions.
The Ethiopic year is a folar year perfectly agreeing with
the Afliac, except in the names of the months, which
are, 1. Mafcaratn ; 2. Tykympt; 3. Hydar; 4. Tyflias ;
5. Tyr; 6. Jacatil;. 7. Magabit; 8. Mijazia ; 9. Ginbat
10. Syne; 11. Hamel; 12. Hahafe. Intercalary days, five.
It commences with the Egyptian year, on the 29th of
Auguft of the Julian year.
The epadl is the excefs of the Polar month above tha
lunar Pynodical month ; or of the folar year above the
lunar year of twelve fynodical months 3 or of feveral fo¬
lar months above as many fynodical months ; or of feve¬
ral Polar years above as many dozen of lynodical months.
The epaPts then are either annual or menftrual. Men-
Jirual epafls, are the excefles of the civil calendar month
above the lunar month. Suppofe, for example, it were
new moon on the firft day of January; then, fince the
month of January contains thirty-one days, and the lu¬
nar month 29d. 12 h. 44m. 3ft the menftrual epact is
1 d. nh. 15 m. 57 f. Annual epafts, are the excefles ofi
the folar year above the lunar. Hence, as the Julian fo¬
lar year is 365 d. 6 h. o m, of. and the Julian lunar year
354 d. 8 h. 48 m. 38 P. the annual epa£t will be iocl. 2i h.
n m. 22 P. that is, almoft 11 days. Confequently the
epaft of two years is 22 days ; of three years, 33 days ;
or rather 3, fince 30 days make an embolifmic or inter¬
calary month. Then, adding ftill n, the epaft of four
years is 14 days ; and fo of the reft, as in the- following
table, where they do not become 30, or 0 again, till tha
nineteenth
C H R O N
nineteenth year; fo that at the twentieth year the epadt
ji again; and hence the cycle of epadts expires with
the golden number, or lunar cycle of nineteen years, and
begins with the fame again.
TABLE OF JULIAN
epacts.
Golden
Numb.
Epafts.
Golden
Numb.
Epafts.
CJolden
Numb,
Epafts.
I
I I
VIII
28
XV
IS
II
22
IX
9
XVI
26
III
3
X
20
XVII
8
IV
14
XI
I
XVIII
19
V
25
xri
12
XIX
3°
VI
6
XIII
23
or 0
VII
17
XIV
4
Again, as the new moons are the fame, or fall on the
fame day, every nineteen years, fo the difference between
the folarand lunar years is the fame every nineteen years.
And becaufe the faid difference is always to be added to
the lunar year, to adjuft or make it equal to the folar
year ; hence the faid difference refpedtively belonging to
each year of the moon’s cycle, is called the epadt of the
faid year, that is, the number to be added to the faid
year, to make it equal to the folar year. Upon this mu¬
tual refpedt between the cycle of the moon and the cycle
of the epadts, is founded the following Rule for fi?iding
the Julian epadt, belonging to any year of the moon's cycle : —
Multiply the golden number, or the given year of the
moon’s cycle, by n, and the produdl will be the epadt if
it be lefs than 30 ; but if it exceed 30, then throw out
as many 30’s as the product contains, and the remainder
will be the epadt.
Rule to find the Gregorian epadt. — rft, The difference be¬
tween the Julian and Gregorian years being equal to the
difference between -the folarand lunar year, or 11 days,
therefore the Gregorian epadt for any year is the fame
with the Julian epadt for the preceding year; and hence
the Gregorian epadt will be found, by fubtradting 1 from
the golden number, multiplying the remainder by u,
and rejedling the 30’s. This rule will ferve till the" year
1900; but after that year, the Gregorian epadt will be
found by this rule : Divide the centuries of the given
year by 4; multiply the remainder by 17; then to this
produdl add 43 times the quotient, and alfo the number
86, and divide the whole fum by 25, referving the quo¬
tient : next multiply the golden number by 11, and from
the produdt fubtradt the referred quotient, fo fhall the
remainder, after rejedling all the 30’s contained in it, be
the epadt fought: The following table contains the
golden numbers, with their correfponding epadts, till the
year 1900.
TABLE
OF GREGORIAN EPACTS
Golden
Numb.
Epafts.
Golden
Nurnb.
Epafts.
Golden
Numb.
Epafts.
I
O
VIII
17
XV
4
II
I I
IX
28
XVI
15
III
22
X
9
XVII
26
IV
3
XI
20
XVIII
7
V
14
XII
I
XIX
18
VI
*5
XIII
12
I
0
VII
6
XIV
23
On the fubjedt of Epadts, fee Wolfius’s Elementa Chro-
nologise, apud Opera, tom. iv. p. 133 ; alfo Philof. Tranf.
vol. xlvi. p.417.
Of the DIVISION of TIME by CYCLES,
EPOCHS, &c.
■Betides the common divifions of time, arifrng imme¬
diately from the above delcribed revolutions of the hea¬
venly Dodies, there are others, which are formed from
iome of the lefs obvious confequences of thofe revolu-
Vol, IV. No. 217,
O L O G Y. 537
tions, and are called cycles, or circles, becaufe they con-
lilt of a certain feries of movements or meafures of time,
. proceeding invariably from firft to laft, then returning
again into the firlt, and thus circulating in a perpetual
round.
Cycles have chiefly arifen from the incommenfurabi-
lity of the revolutions of the earth and ccleftial bodies
to one another. The apparent revolution of the fun
about the earth, having been divided into twenty-four
hours, is the bafis or foundation of all our menfurations
of time, whether by days, years, &c. But neither the
annual motion of the fun, nor that of the other hea¬
venly bodies, can be meafured exadfly, and without any
remainder, by hours, or their multiples. That of the
fun, for example, is 363d. 5I1. 49 m. nearly, that of the
moon, 29 d. 12 h. 44m. nearly .
Hence, to fwallow up thefe fradtions in whole num¬
bers, and yet in numbers which only exprels days and
years, cycles have been invented ; which, comprehend¬
ing feveral revolutions of the fame body, replace it, after
a certain number of years, exadtly in the lame point of
the heavens from whence it firft departed ; or, which is
the fame thing, in the fame place of the civil calendar.
Thefe cycles are various ; as, the cycle of indidtion, the
cycle of the moon, the cycle of the fun, &c.
The cycle of mdidlion, commonly called the Roman in-
didtion, is a feries of fifteen years, returning conftantly
round like the other cycles ; and commenced from the
third year before Chrift; whence it happens that if 3 be
added to any given year of Chrift, and the fum be di¬
vided by fifteen, what remains is the year of the indic¬
tion. The popes have dated their adts by the year of the
Indidtion, which was fixed to the ift of January anno
Domini 313, ever fince Charlemagne made them fove-
reign ; before that time, they dated them by the years
of the Emperors. At the time of reforming tlie calendar,
the year 1582 was reckoned the tenth year of the Indic¬
tion ; fo that beginning to reckon from hence, and di¬
viding the number of years elapfed between that time
and this, by 15, the remainder, with the addition of io,
rejedling 1 5 if the fum be more, will be the year of the
Indidtion. But the Indidtion will be eafier found as
above hinted, thus : Add 3 to the given year of Chrift ;
divide the fum by 15, and the remainder after the divi-
fion, will be the year of the indidtion : if there be no re¬
mainder, the indidtion is 15. In either of thefe ways, the
indidtion for the year t8oi is 4.
The cycle of the- moon, or the lunar cycle, is a period of
nineteen years : in which time the new and full moons
return to the fame day of the Julian year. This cycle is
alfo called the Metonic period or cycle, from its inventor
Meton, the Athenian j and alfo the Golden Number, from
its excellent ufe in the calendar : though, properly fpeak-
ing, the golden number is rather the particular number
which fliews the year of the lunar cycle, which any given
year is in. This cycle of the moon only holds true for
3IO/o years : for, though the new moons do return to
the fame day after nineteen years; yet not to the fame
^inte of the day, but near an hour and a half fooner; an
error which in 310-^ years amounts to an entire day.
Yet thofe employed in reforming the calendar went on
a fuppofition that the lunations return precilely from
nineteen years to nineteen years, for ever. The ufe of
this cycle, in the ancient calendar, is to fhew the new
moon of each year, and the time of Eafter. See Easter.
In the new one, it only ferves to find the epadts ; which
fhew, in either calendar, that the new moons falls eleven
days too late. As the Orientals began the ufe of this
cycle at the time of the council of Nice in 325, they af-
fumed, that the firft year of the cycle the pafcal new moon
fell on the 13th of March : on which account the lunar
cycle 3 fell on the firft of January in the third year. The
Occidentals, on the contrary, placed the number 1 to the
ill of January, which occafioned a confiderable difference
in the time of Eafter, Hence, Dionyfius Exiguus, ort
6 X framing
533
CHRONOLOGY.
framing a new calendar, perfuaded the Chriftians of the
weft to come into the practice of the church of Alex-
dria. To determine the year of the lunar cycle, is the fame
as to find the golden number.
1801
29)1802(94.
171
92
76
Gol.No. ifi
To find the golden number ; add 1 to
the given year, and divide the fum by
i9, and what remains will be the gold¬
en number; unlefs o remains, for then
19 is the number
Thus, the golden number for the
year 1801 is 16 ; as by the operation in
the margin. _
The cycle of the fun, or folate cycle, is a period or revolu¬
tion of twenty-eight years; beginning with 1, and end¬
ing with 28 ; which elapfed, the dominical or funday-
letters, and thofe that exprefs the other feafts, &c. return
again into their former place, and proceed in the fame
order as before. The days of the month likewife return
again to the fame days of the week ; the fun’s place to
the fame figns and degrees of the ecliptic on the fame
months and days, fo as not to differ one degree in a
hundred years ; and the leap years begin the fame courfe
with refpedt to the days of the week on which the days
of the month fall. This is called the cycle of the fun, or
the folar cycle, not from any regard to the fun’s courfe,
which has no concern in it ; but from Sunday, anciently
called dies foils, the fun s day ; as the dominical or funday
letter is chiefly fought for from this revolution. The re¬
formation of the calendar under pope Gregory XIII. oc-
cafioned a confiderable alteration of this cycle: in the
Gregorian calendar, the folar cycle is not conftant and
perpetual ; becaufe every 4th fecular year is common ;
whereas, in the Julian, it is biflextile. The epoch, or
beginning of the folar cycle, both Julian and Gregorian,
is the gth year before Chrift. And therefore, to find the
cycle of the fun for any g'vven year : add 9 to the number
given, and divide the fum by 28 ; the remainder will be
the number of the cycle, and the quotient the number of
revolutions fince Chrift. If there be no remainder, it will
be the 28th or laft year of the cycle.
The Chinefe cycle is a lunar cycle of fixty years, calcu¬
lated to bring, in that period, a perfect coincidence of
the relative politions of the fun and moon. This has
been lately exhibited by Sir George Staunton, in whole
opinion it tends to Ihew, by an analytical review of its
feries, that the Chinefe empire exifted at leaft 2277 years
before the Chriftian era. — See this explained under the
article China, p. 438 of this volume.
But the principal regulator of chronological events is
the Julian period, fo called as being adapted to the Julian
year, and is a feries of 7980 Julian years ; ariling from
the multiplications of the cycles of the fun, moon, and
indifition, together, or the numbers 28, 19, 15; com¬
mencing on the ill day of January in the 764th Julian
year before the creation, and therefore is not yet com¬
pleted. This comprehends all other cycles, periods, and
epochs, with the times of all memorable actions and hif-
tories ; and therefore it is not only the moft general, but
the moft ufeful, of all periods, in chronology. As every
year of the Julian period has its particular folar, lunar,
and indiftion, cycles, and no two years in it can have all
tilde three cycles the fame, every year of this period be¬
comes accurately diftinguilhed from another. This pe¬
riod was invented by Jofeph Scaliger, as containing all
the other epochs, to facilitate the reduction of the years
of one given epoch to thofe of another. It. agrees with
the Conftantinopolitan period, ufed by the Greeks, ex¬
cept in this, that the cycles of the fun, moon, and indic¬
tion, are reckoned differently; and alfo in that the firft
year of the Conftantinopolitan period differs from that of
the Julian period.
The Confi antinopolitan period, is that ufed by the Greeks,
and is the fame as the Julian period above deferibed.
The Callippic period is a feries of feventy-fix years, at
every repetition of which, it was fuppofed, by its inventor
Calippus, an Athenian aftronomer, that the mean new
And full moons would always return to the fame day and
hour. About a century before, the golden number, or
cycle of 19 years, had been invented by Meton, which
Callippus finding to contain 19 of Nabonaffar’s years, 4
days and to avoid fraftions he quadrupled it, and
thus produced his period of 76 years, or 4 times 19 ; after
which he fuppofed all the lunations, &c. would regularly
return to the fame hour. But neither is thjs exa6h, as
it brings them too late by a whole day in 225 years.
Hipparchus's period, is a feries or cycle of 304 folar
years, returning in a conftant round, and reftoring the
new and full moons to the fame day of the lolar year ;
as Hipparchus thought. This period arifes by multiply¬
ing the Calippic period by 4. Hipparchus affumed the
quantity of the folar year to be 363d. 5h. 55m. 12ft and
hence he concluded, that in 304 years Calippus’s period
would err a whole day. He therefore multiplied the pe¬
riod by 4, and from the product call away an entire day.
But even this does not re (tore the new and full moons to
the feme day throughout the whole period : but they
are fometimes anticipated id. 8I1. 23m. 29 f. 20 thirds.
The Fiflorian period, is an interval of 532 Julian years;
at the end of which, the new and full moons return again
on the fame day of the Julian year, according to the
opinion of the inventor, Viclorinus, or Viftorius, who
lived in the time of pope Hilary. Some aferibe this pe¬
riod to Dionyfius Exiguus, and hence they call it the
Dionyfian period : others again call it the great pafchal
cycle, becaufe it was invented for computing the time of
Eafter. The Viflorian period is produced by multiply¬
ing the folar cycle 28 by the lunar cycle 19, the product
being 532. But neither does this reftore the new and
full moons to the lame day throughout its whole dura¬
tion, by id. 16I1. 58m. 59ft 4-othirds.
Of the DATES or ERAS of TIME.
Independent of the preceding cycles or periods for the
meafurement of time, chronologers have certain points
or data from which they begin to reckon, which points
or roots of time are called eras. The moft remarkable
of them are, thofe of the creation, the Greek Olympiads,
the building of Rome, the era of Nabonnaflar, the death
of Alexander, the birth of Chrift, the Arabian Hegira, or
flight of Mahomet, the Perfian Jefdegird, and the Spanilh
era, all which,. with a few others of iefs note, have their
beginnings fixed by chronologers to the years of the Ju¬
lian period, to the age of the world, and to the years be¬
fore and after Chrift.
The Olympiad is a revolution or period of four years,
by which the Greeks reckoned their time : lo called from
the Olympic games, which were celebrated every fourth
year, during five days, near the iummer folftice, upon
the banks of the river Alpheus, near Olympia, a town of
Elis. As each Olympiad confilled of four years, thefe
were called the firft, lecond, third, and fourth, year of
each Olympiad ; the firft year commencing with the near-
ell new moon to the trimmer folftice. The firft Olympiad
began the 3938 year of the Julian period, the 3208 of the
creation, 776 years before the birth of Chrift, and 24 years
before the foundation of Rome. And the computation
by thefe, ended with the 404th Olympiad.
The era of Nabonaffar is a Jewilli era, which began on
Wednefday February 26th, in the 3267th year of the Ju¬
lian period, or 747 years before Chrift : in this reckon¬
ing the years are Egyptian ones, of 365 days each. This
is a remarkable era in chronology, becaufe Ptolomy af-
fures us there were aftronomical obfervations made by
the Chaldeans, from the reign of Nabonaffar to his time 3
alfo Ptolomy, and other aftronomers, account their years
from that epoch.
The era of Chrifi, is the common era throughout Eu¬
rope, commencing at the fuppofed time of cur Saviour’s
nativity, December 25 ; or rather, according to the ufuai
account, from his circumcifion, or the 1 It of January,
The author of this epoch was an abbot of Rome, one
Dionyfius
CHRON
Dionyfius Exignus, a Scythian,- about the year 507 or 527.
Dionyfius’began his account from the conception or in¬
carnation, ufually called the Annunciation or Lady Day ;
which method obtained in the dominions of Great Bri¬
tain till the year 1752, before which time the Dionyfian
was the fame as the Engliffi epoch : but in that year the
Gregorian calendar having been admitted by aft of par¬
liament, they began to reckon from the firft of January,
as in the other parts of Europe, except in the court of
Rome, where the epoch of the incarnation hill obtains
for the date of their bulls.
The Hegira is an account of time, ufed by the Maho¬
metans, who begin their computation from the day that
Mahomet was forced to make his efcape from the city of
Mecca, which happened on Friday the 16th of July 622.
The years of the Hegira are lunar ones, confiding only of
354. days. Hence, to reduce thefe years to the Julian ca¬
lendar, that is, to find what Julian year a given year of
the Hegira anfwers to : reduce the year of the hegira into
days, by multiplying by 354., divide the produft by 365^,
and to the quotient add 622, the year the hegira com¬
menced. The Per/ian Jefdegird, or yezdegerdic year, is
deferibed above.
The Spanijh era , otherwife called the year of Caefar,
was introduced after the fecond divifion of the Roman
provinces, between Augudus, Antony, and Lepidus,
in the 716th year of Rome, the 4676th of the Julian period,
and the 38th before Chrid. In the 447th year of this
era, the Alani, the Vandals, Suevi, &c. entered Spain.
It is frequently mentioned in the Spanifh affairs ; their
councils, and other public afts, being all dated accord¬
ing to it. Some fay it was abolilhed under Peter IV,
king of Arragon, in the year of Chrid 1358, and the
Chridian era introduced indead of it. But Mariana ob-
l’erves that it ceafed in the year of Chrid 1383, under
John I. king of Cadile. The like was afterwards done
in Portugal.
The year of Chrid’s birth was never fettled till the
year 527, by Dionyfius Exiguus above-mentioned, w 
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